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Low (complexity)

In computational complexity theory, a language B (or a complexity class B) is said to be low for a complexity class A (with some reasonable relativized version of A) if AB = A; that is, A with an oracle for B is equal to A. Such a statement implies that an abstract machine which solves problems in A achieves no additional power if it is given the ability to solve problems in B at unit cost. In particular, this means that if B is low for A then B is contained in A. Informally, lowness means that problems in B are not only solvable by machines which can solve problems in A, but are “easy to solve”. An A machine can simulate many oracle queries to B without exceeding its resource bounds.

Results and relationships that establish one class as low for another are often called lowness results. The set of languages low for a complexity class A is denoted Low(A).

Classes that are low for themselves
Several natural complexity classes are known to be low for themselves. Such a class is sometimes called self-low. Scott Aaronson calls such a class a physical complexity class. Note that being self-low is a stronger condition than being closed under complement. Informally, a class being low for itself means a problem can use other problems in the class as unit-cost subroutines without exceeding the power of the complexity class.

The following classes are known to be self-low:

 * P is self-low (that is, PP = P) because polynomial-time algorithms are closed under composition: a polynomial-time algorithm can make polynomially many queries to other polynomial-time algorithms, while retaining a polynomial running time.
 * PSPACE (with restricted oracle access mechanism) is also self-low, and this can be established by exactly the same argument.
 * L is self-low because it can simulate log space oracle queries in log space, reusing the same space for each query.
 * NC is also self-low for the same reason.
 * ZPP is also low for itself and the same arguments almost work for BPP, but one has to account for errors, making it slightly harder to show that BPP is low for itself.
 * Similarly, the argument for BPP almost goes through for BQP, but we have to additionally show that quantum queries can be performed in coherent superposition.
 * Both Parity P ($${\oplus}\hbox{P}$$) and BPP are low for themselves. These were important in showing Toda's theorem.
 * NP ∩ coNP is low for itself.

Every class which is low for itself is closed under complement, provided that it is powerful enough to negate the boolean result. This implies that NP isn't low for itself unless NP = co-NP, which is considered unlikely because it implies that the polynomial hierarchy collapses to the first level, whereas it is widely believed that the hierarchy is infinite. The converse to this statement is not true. If a class is closed under complement, it does not mean that the class is low for itself. An example of such a class is EXP, which is closed under complement, but is not low for itself.

Classes that are low for other complexity classes
Some of the more complex and famous results regarding lowness of classes include:
 * BQP is low for PP In other words, a program based around taking the majority decision of an unbounded number of iterations of a poly-time randomized algorithm can easily solve all the problems that a quantum computer can solve efficiently.
 * The graph isomorphism problem is low for Parity P ($${\oplus}\hbox{P}$$). This means that if we can determine whether an NP machine has an even or odd number of accepting paths, we can easily solve graph isomorphism. In fact, it was later shown that graph isomorphism is low for ZPPNP.
 * Amplified PP is low for PP.
 * NP ∩ coNP is equal to the set of languages low for NP, i.e., Low(NP) = NP ∩ coNP.
 * AM ∩ coAM is low for ZPPNP.

Applications
Lowness is particularly valuable in relativization arguments, where it can be used to establish that the power of a class does not change in the "relativized universe" where a particular oracle machine is available for free. This allows us to reason about it in the same manner we normally would. For example, in the relativized universe of BQP, PP is still closed under union and intersection. It's also useful when seeking to expand the power of a machine with oracles, because lowness results determine when the machine's power remains the same.

title: Low (complexity)


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Rescue Engineering

Rescue Engineering (RE) is an interdisciplinary bachelor's- and master's degree at the Technical University of Cologne since 2002 and at the Hamburg University of Applied Sciences (bachelor only) since 2006, this academic degree prepares for working at fire brigades, emergency medical servicees or other aid organisations.

University
Rescue Engineering has existed since 2002, the preconditions being the allgemeinen Fachhochschulreife a work experience of four month. Rescue Engineering is a full-time study with lectures and interns. Support and many assistant professors come from the Institut für Notfallmedizin and the professional fire brigades.

Curriculum
The curriculum is similar to industrial engineering, fielded in parts of engineering, economics and social science.

The basics cover the subjects of chemistry, physics, mathematics, mechanics, materials science, electrical and measurement engineering.

The economics part consists of business and administration, accounting, taxes, logistics, quality management and project management

In the field of the socioscientifics subjects like law and mediation but also public health, psychology, sociology and epidemiology should create comprehension for special task in the work of rescue.

Career
The alumnus can be employed at professional fire brigades, GO or in the management of emergency medical services. Tasks in fire prevention in industry or commerce can also be a career destination.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Rescue Engineering


text:
Conga (disambiguation)

The conga is a Cuban drum.

Conga may also refer to:

Places

 * Co’nga, a village in Tibet

Arts and entertainment

 * Conga (music), a Cuban music genre and ensemble
 * Conga line, a novelty dance derived from the music genre
 * "Conga" (song), a 1985 single by Miami Sound Machine sung by Gloria Estefan
 * Chinchón (card game), called "La Conga" or "Conga" in Uruguay

Other uses

 * Conga (skipper), a genus of butterfly
 * Apttus Corporation, a business-to-business software provider now trading as Conga

title: Conga (disambiguation)


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David Lee (physicist)

David Morris Lee (born January 20, 1931) is an American physicist who shared the 1996 Nobel Prize in Physics with Robert C. Richardson and Douglas Osheroff "for their discovery of superfluidity in helium-3." Lee is professor emeritus of physics at Cornell University and distinguished professor of physics at Texas A&M University.

Personal life
Lee was born and raised in Rye, New York. His parents, Annette (Franks), a teacher, and Marvin Lee, an electrical engineer, were children of Jewish immigrants from England and Lithuania. He graduated from Harvard University in 1952 and then joined the U.S. Army for 22 months. After being discharged from the army, he obtained a master's degree from the University of Connecticut. In 1955 Lee entered the Ph.D. program at Yale University where he worked under Henry A. Fairbank in the low-temperature physics group, doing experimental research on liquid 3He.

After graduating from Yale in 1959, Lee took a job at Cornell University, where he was responsible for setting up the new Laboratory of Atomic and Solid State Physics. Shortly after arriving at Cornell he met his future wife, Dana, then a PhD student in another department; the couple went on to have two sons.

Lee moved his laboratory from Cornell to Texas A&M University on November 16, 2009.

Work
The work that led to Lee's Nobel Prize was performed in the early 1970s. Lee, together with Robert C. Richardson and graduate student, Doug Osheroff used a Pomeranchuk cell to investigate the behaviour of 3He at temperatures within a few thousandths of a degree of absolute zero. They discovered unexpected effects in their measurements, which they eventually explained as phase transitions to a superfluid phase of 3He. Lee, Richardson and Osheroff were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1996 for this discovery.

Lee's research also covered a number of other topics in low-temperature physics, particularly relating to liquid, solid and superfluid helium (4He, 3He and mixtures of the two). Particular discoveries include the antiferromagnetic ordering in solid helium-3, nuclear spin waves in spin polarized atomic hydrogen gas with Jack H. Freed, and the tri-critical point on the phase separation curve of liquid 4He-3He, in collaboration with his Cornell colleague John Reppy. His former research group at Cornell currently studies impurity-helium solids.

As well as the Nobel Prize, other prizes won by Lee include the 1976 Sir Francis Simon Memorial Prize of the British Institute of Physics and the 1981 Oliver Buckley Prize of the American Physical Society along with Doug Osheroff and Robert Richardson for their superfluid 3He work. In 1997, Lee received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.

Lee is a member of the National Academy of Sciences and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Lee is currently teaching physics at Texas A&M University and continuing his (formerly Cornell-based) research program there as well.

Lee is one of the 20 American recipients of the Nobel Prize in Physics to sign a letter addressed to President George W. Bush in May of 2008, urging him to "reverse the damage done to basic science research in the Fiscal Year 2008 Omnibus Appropriations Bill" by requesting additional emergency funding for the Department of Energy’s Office of Science, the National Science Foundation, and the National Institute of Standards and Technology.

title: David Lee (physicist)


text:
Kurt Thomas

Kurt Thomas may refer to:
 * Kurt Thomas (general) (1896–1943), German general during World War II
 * Kurt Thomas (composer) (1904–1973), German composer, conductor, and music educator
 * Kurt Thomas (gymnast) (1956–2020), American gymnast
 * Kurt Thomas (basketball) (born 1972), American basketball player

title: Kurt Thomas


text:
Samuel Dalembert

Samuel Davis Dalembert (born May 10, 1981) is a Haitian-Canadian former professional basketball player who played 13 seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for Seton Hall University. During his active NBA career, Dalembert was known for his rebounding as well as his shot blocking ability.

High school and college career
Dalembert was born in Port-au-Prince, Haiti and lived there for fourteen years before moving to Montreal, where he attended Lucien-Pagé (High School). He also attended St. Patrick High School in Elizabeth, New Jersey. He then went on to play college basketball at Seton Hall from 1999 to 2001.

Professional career
Dalembert was selected with the 26th overall pick by the Philadelphia 76ers in the 2001 NBA draft. After playing 8 seasons with the 76ers, he was traded to the Sacramento Kings for Andrés Nocioni and Spencer Hawes on June 17, 2010.

On December 26, 2011, he signed a multi-year deal with the Houston Rockets.

On June 27, 2012, Dalembert was traded to the Milwaukee Bucks, along with John Henson, the 14th pick in the 2012 NBA draft, for Jon Brockman, Jon Leuer, Shaun Livingston, and Jeremy Lamb, the 12th pick in the 2012 NBA draft.

On July 19, 2013, Dalembert signed with the Dallas Mavericks.

On June 25, 2014, Dalembert, along with Shane Larkin, Wayne Ellington, José Calderón and two 2014 second-round picks, was traded to the New York Knicks in exchange for Tyson Chandler and Raymond Felton. On January 5, 2015, he was waived by the Knicks.

Dalembert's final NBA game was played on December 27, 2014, in a 129–135 loss to the Sacramento Kings. In his final game, Dalembert recorded 11 points, 4 rebounds and 4 blocks.

On August 6, 2015, Dalembert signed with the Dallas Mavericks, returning to the franchise for a second stint. However, he was later waived by the Mavericks on October 24 prior to the start of the regular season. He appeared in four preseason games for the team, but a left leg injury forced him to miss the final three games of the preseason schedule. On December 17, 2015, he signed with Shanxi Zhongyu of the Chinese Basketball Association. He returned to Shanxi for the 2016–17 season.

National team career
After much anticipation, Dalembert became a Canadian citizen on August 7, 2007, and joined the Canadian national team in hopes of qualifying for the Olympics. He made his national team debut during the 2007 FIBA Americas Championship, leading the tournament with 2.4 blocks per game. He also participated in Canada's pre-Olympic qualifying training camp, taking part in games in both Toronto and Hamilton during the 2008 Jack Donohue International Classic, with wins over both Lebanon and New Zealand. However, Dalembert was later dismissed from the team during the World Olympic Qualifying Tournament due to a rift between him and coach Leo Rautins.

Haiti earthquake
Dalembert decided to travel to Haiti to help with relief efforts following the 2010 Haiti earthquake. He also pledged $100,000 to UNICEF.

He won the 2009–10 J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award for his contributions to Haitian people after the earthquake. Since the disaster, Dalembert has continued to be involved in the Haitian recovery.

title: Samuel Dalembert


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Dutch Open (golf)

The Dutch Open is an annual golf tournament played in the Netherlands, and has been part of the European Tour's schedule since the Tour was inaugurated in 1972.

History and sponsorship
Founded in 1912, the tournament began as the Dutch Open, before a variety of sponsors resulted in numerous name changes over the years. KLM was the longest title sponsor; lasting from 1981 to 1990, and from 2004 to 2020. The tournament has been moved around the golfing calendar, but since 2010 it has been held in early September.

The event was cancelled in 2020 for the first time since 1945 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

The event returned in 2021, with a new venue: Bernardus Golf in Cromvoirt. However the tournament name had been reverted back to the Dutch Open as KLM had decided to drop its title sponsorship duties.

Winners
Sources:

title: Dutch Open (golf)


text:
Talk:JP-7

Reason for Development
A minor error, but yet an error. Given that the article is correct in that the fuel was developed in 1955, and THAT YEAR there was a shortage of bug spray because the non-volatile components were used for JP-7 (it is) then the fulel could not have been developed for the A-12. The timeline of the A-12 article is very confusing, mixing the A-12 and the SR-71, but a close examination shows that the A-12 was not even conceived in 1955, much less built. The A-12 entry states, "With the failure of the CIA's Project Rainbow to reduce the radar cross-section of the U-2, preliminary work began inside Lockheed in late 1957 to develop a follow-on aircraft to overfly the Soviet Union

It is obvious that in 1955 the A-12 was not even conceived, let alone built, and could not be the cause of any type of shortage.

The answer is simple. The referenced documents are also wrong. As are the Wikipedia articles about the A-12 and SR-71 (but interestingly, not the U-2). JP-7 was in fact developed for the U-2, not the A-12.

This causes a sort of a quagmire. The "referenced" information, and the sources are clearly wrong, but there is no reference for the true facts,. Do we leave in the obviously wrong data because it is properly referenced? Do we change it to the true facts, even though there is no reference? or do we delete it entirely because no one knows exactly how to handle this situation? To make things worse, what do we do with the unreferenced information in the U-2 article? Maybe, kick the whole problem down the road by using the unreferenced U-2 article as the reference for this one? This is a prime example of the fact that the most aggressive reference attempt can't compete with someone with no references, but has "been there, done that."

Any suggestions will be appreciated. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Tbonge (talk • contribs) 22:27, 11 February 2015 (UTC)

JP-7 was not used by U2
Whilst the History U-2 reference links to a valid citation "1992). The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance: The U-2 and OXCART Programs, 1954-1974" that apparently authoritative article is unfortunately inaccurate. The Lockheed U2 (CIA AQUATONE) first flight 1955 with P&W J57-P-31A engine used specially developed JPTS (Jet Propellant Thermally Stable) Fuel Grade MIL-F-25524 probably developed by Esso (hence the Flit reference). *** THIS IS NOT JP-7 MIL-T 38219 *** Source: 1959 Lockheed U2 Flight Manual PDF PDF Page 33 (Manual 1-3) J57-P-31A engine PDF Page 47 (Manual 1-17) Fuel Grade MIL-F-25524

Pratt & Whitney with Shell developed PF-1 fuel (needing triethylborane TEB for ignition) for the P&W J58 JT11D-20 which powered the Lockheed A-12 (CIA OXCART). Note PF-1 is a Pratt & Whitney designation and *not* the MILSPEC PF-1 priming fluid specification MIL-P-87173. Later Shell, Ashland Oil Company, and Monsanto Chemical company developed a low vapour pressure, less caustic replacement fuel for PF-1 known as JP-7 (MIL-T 38219) for the USAF SR-71 Sources: SR-71 Blackbird By Paul F. Crickmore A (pp FUEL SYSTEM) Lockheed Blackbird: Beyond the Secret Missions (Revised Edition) By Paul F Crickmore (pp77) US Military jet fuels 1944 – 1987

Suggested HISTORY edit: Shell Oil developed PF-1 (internal name not MILSPEC) with Pratt & Whitney for the P&W J58 JT11D-20 to power the Lockheed A-12 (CIA OXCART). During the follow on development of the SR-71 for the USAF, Shell, Ashland Oil Company and Monsanto Chemical company developed a low vapour pressure, less caustic replacement fuel for PF-1 known as JP-7 (MIL-T 38219) Source: US Military jet fuels 1944 – 1987 pp6

Hbaumhardt (talk) 20:42, 19 March 2017 (UTC)

FYI I've reviewed the "Military Jet Fuels, 1944-1987" and concur that appears to be an authoritative source and the article should be fixed. The reference to jp-7 in the u2 article should be fixed as well. Gjxj (talk) 12:32, 16 January 2019 (UTC)

Flashpoint
If the flashpoint is only 60 degrees Celsius then there's no way a lit match will be extinguished in JP-7 (see the claim in the SR-71 Blackbird article. Which is wrong? Lisiate 22:52, 7 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * In the book "Skunk_works", Ben Rich makes the claim that a lit match dropped on the Blackbird's fuel will simply go out. I'm fairly certain he specifically called it JP-7, but I don't remember if he mentioned its flashpoint.  I'll check on that tonight...
 * OK:
 * "[...] five noninsulated fuselage and wing tanks that would heat up during supersonic flight to about 350 degrees; we turned to Shell to develop a special, safe, high-flash-point fuel that would not vaporize or blow up under tremendous heat and pressure. A lighted match dropped on a spill would not set it ablaze.  The fuel remained stable at enormous temperature ranges: the minus 90 degrees experienced when a KC-135 tanker pumped fuel into the Blackbird at 35,000 feet, and the 350 degrees by the time the fuel fed the engines." (Skunk Works, p. 205)
 * "The fuel, JP-7, has a kerosene base and such an extremely high flash point that the only way to ignite it was by using a chemical additive called tetraethyl borane, injected during the start prodecure." (Skunk Works, p. 218)
 * If it's "stable" at 350 degrees, I'm guessing it didn't have a flashpoint of 60F. :-)  What's the source on that number, I wonder?
 * On second thought, I take it back. I reread Flashpoint, and realized I didn't (don't?) really understand that -- perhaps it's possible to have a 60C flashpoint but not be ignited by a match.  Chemists feel free to help me out here.  :-)

 * Cheers for your response. Looking at the Flash point article, apparently there is a distinction between the Flash Point, where the fuel will ignite when exposed to a spark, and 'Fire Point' where the fuel will continue to burn Perhaps this is the answer here? That would seem to fit with the stability at 350 F (around 150 C?) in the absence of a spark anyway. Lisiate 21:52, 9 Jun 2005 (UTC)

I'm not a chemist, but I do work with aviation fuels, and I might be able to offer some insight here. Flashpoint refers to the temperature at which a fuel will give off enough vapours to generate a flammable fuel/air mixture. Above the flashpoint, any spark, no matter how small, can ignite the fuel. A common source of confusion is the idea that liquids can burn (they cannot, only the vapours can). Below the flashpoint a fuel stays liquid and is much more difficult to ignite. To ignite a fuel in this state, either the temperature must be raised 'til it vapourizes, or the fuel must be aerosolized into the air. A match will not provide sufficient heat to generate the vapours that it could ignite, therefore the bucket won't blow up. On another note, the fire point is related to the flashpoint because at the fire point, the flames from the fuel can generate enough heat to sustain the generation of flammable vapours from a fuel even if the ambient temperature is lower than the flashpoint. Reading back on this, it seems heavy and confusing. Leave a note if you'd like me to try and explain something better. -Lommer | talk 20:50, 18 August 2005 (UTC)

As pointed out in Flash point, "The flash point is an empirical measurement rather than a fundamental physical parameter". Whether or not a lit match will ignite a flammable liquid it is dropped into depends on a multitude of factors; it is not a reliable test of flammability, but is a dramatic illustration. I've heard stories, which I do not care to test for myself, of lighted matches being dropped into petrol which are extinquished by the dense petrol fumes near the surface, without igniting the petrol/air mix higher above the surface. — Preceding unsigned comment added by WestNab (talk • contribs) 20:54, 16 December 2016 (UTC)

Single malt scotch
I seem to remember an anecdote that said that JP-7 was more expensive per volume than the finest single-malt scotch whiskey. Does this have a place in the article? Rusty 00:58, 20 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Sounds like an urban legend to me. In Col. Graham's book (and he worked both on the SR-71 and in the Pentagon funding department for the program) I recall that the upper cost of a mission was around $100,000.  That works out to about a dollar per pound of fuel ($6.60/gallon), and that would be the upper limit as the figure also accounts for maintenance, crew, etc. -Rolypolyman (talk) 23:10, 8 November 2009 (UTC)

The reference to single malt scotch is a quote from Ben Rich's "Skunk Works" book. It refers not to the JP-7 fuel, but to the expense of the engine oil that was used in the SR-71. Brprivate (talk) 19:46, 20 July 2015 (UTC)

Contradiction: fuel composition
This article states that JP-7 contained "alkylbenzenes, indanes/tetralins, and naphthalenes." Each of these are aromatic hydrocarbons, however, the article subsequently states that the quantity of such compounds was deliberately minimized. It is unlikely that these would be deliberately blended into such a mixture, as that would raise the aromatic content. --209.189.245.112 06:57, 2 May 2007 (UTC)

Some of this article seems to be taken from http://www.bp.com/sectiongenericarticle.do?categoryId=4503664&contentId=57733. Given that website is maintained by a jet fuel supplier I would tend to beleive wikipedia is plagorizing and not BP. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Special:Contributions/ (talk)

Reference Tag
Added ref tag. There's only one referene listed. Seems like there's lots of info on this page that should be easily verifiable should someone take the time to do so. Mrmcdonnell (talk) 18:10, 28 November 2008 (UTC)

Obtuse Word Group
"It must operate across a wide range of temperatures, from near freezing at high altitude, to high temperature of airframe and engine parts being cooled." Can the author please clarify? (EnochBethany (talk) 23:25, 13 May 2013 (UTC))

the match will be extinguished?
In the top of the article: ..."the match will be extinguished (although this is common in any low-volatility fuel including gasoline and diesel)."

Seems partially incorrect, and it would be great to see a citation on that. I have been fire breathing with kerosene for many years, so I can vouch for such substances as diesel extinguishing a lit match, but not gasoline. You can find lots of videos on YouTube where people pour gasoline on piles of wood, and when they merely strike the match, the vapors all round them light off immediately without even throwing the match into the gasoline. Fire breathers also get hurt trying to use white gas and gasoline instead of other less-volatile materials.

So I think that the gasoline part of the statement needs to be verified or removed. Diesel part is probably correct.

71.139.165.172 (talk) 07:01, 5 December 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:JP-7


text: User talk:202.37.230.29

title: User talk:202.37.230.29


title: User:PowerGamer6


text:
Bogdanov

Bogdanov (Богданов) or Bogdanova (Богданова; feminine) is a common Russian and Bulgarian surname, that derives from the given name Bogdan and literally means Bogdan's. Translated: Bogu dan = God gave. Bogdanovs in Latvia. Notable people with the surname include:

Bogdanov

 * Abraham Bogdanove (1888–1946) Russian muralist, artist and educator
 * Alexei Alexeivich Bogdanov (1907–1971), Soviet geologist
 * Andrei Ivanovich Bogdanov (1692–1766), Russian bibliographer and ethnographer
 * Igor and Grichka Bogdanoff (1949–2021/2022), French TV hosts and twin brothers, notable for the Bogdanov affair and numerous internet memes
 * Ivan Bogdanov (1897–1942), Soviet military officer
 * Ivan Bogdanov (painter) (1855–1932), Russian painter
 * Malachi Bogdanov, British theatre director
 * Michael Bogdanov (1938–2017), British theatre director
 * Mikhail Aleksandrovich Bogdanov (1914–1995), Soviet production designer
 * Nikolay Bogdanov-Belsky (1868–1945), Russian painter
 * Semen Ilyich Bogdanov (1894–1960), Soviet military officer, Hero of the Soviet Union
 * Vladimir Leonidovich Bogdanov (born 1951), Russian oil tycoon
 * Jon Bogdanove (Born 1958), American artist

Science

 * Alexander Bogdanov (1873–1928), Belarusian-Russian physician, philosopher, economist, writer and revolutionary
 * Anatoli Petrovich Bogdanov (1834–1896), Russian zoologist and anthropologist
 * Bogdan Bogdanov (1940–2016), Bulgarian classical philologist, culturologist and translator
 * Konstantin Bogdanov (born 1963), Russian anthropologist and philologist
 * Modest Bogdanov (1841–1888), Russian zoologist
 * Rifkat Bogdanov (1950–2013), Tatar-Russian mathematician

Politics

 * Andrei Vladimirovich Bogdanov, (born 1970), Russian politician
 * Boris Bogdanov (1884–1960), Menshevik revolutionary
 * Pyotr Bogdanov (1882–1939), Bolshevik statesman, engineer and economist

Sport

 * Anatoli Bogdanov (born 1981), Russian footballer
 * Anatoli Ivanovich Bogdanov (1931–2001), Soviet sport shooter
 * Andrei Bogdanov (1958–1999), Russian swimmer
 * Eduard Bogdanov (born 1968), Russian football player and coach
 * Lyubomir Bogdanov (born 1982), Bulgarian football player
 * Maksims Bogdanovs (born 1989), Latvian motorcycle speedway rider
 * Petar Bogdanov (born 1948), Bulgarian high jumper
 * Sergei Dmitriyevich Bogdanov (born 1977), Russian footballer
 * Valeri Bogdanov (footballer, born 1952), Russian football player and coach
 * Valeri Bogdanov (footballer, born 1966), Russian football player

Bogdanova

 * Anna Bogdanova (born 1984), Russian heptathlete
 * Krasimira Bogdanova (1949–1992), Bulgarian basketball player
 * Ludmila Bogdanova, penname of Belarusian writer Rakitina Nika (born 1963)
 * Lyudmila Bogdanova (born 1983), Russian judoka
 * Margarita Louis-Dreyfus (born 1962), née Bogdanova
 * (1836–1897), Russian dancer with an international career, prima ballerina of Paris Opera and Bolshoi Theatre.
 * Olga Bogdanova (born 1951), actress
 * Olga Bogdanova (born 1994), Estonian rhythmic gymnast
 * Svetlana Bogdanova (handballer) (born 1964), Russian handball player
 * Svetlana Bogdanova (water polo) (born 1976), Russian water polo player
 * Yuliya Bogdanova (born 1964), Soviet swimmer
 * Viktoria Bogdanova (born 1994), Estonian rhythmic gymnast
 * Glikeriya Bogdanova-Chesnokova (1904–1983), Soviet theatre and film actress

Bogdanovs

 * Maksims Bogdanovs

title: Bogdanov


text: Category:Television programming

title: Category:Television programming


text:
Chris Wilcox

Chris Ray Wilcox (born September 3, 1982) is an American former professional basketball player. He has also played in the NBA with the Los Angeles Clippers, Seattle SuperSonics/Oklahoma City Thunder, New York Knicks and Detroit Pistons.

High School and College career
While at Whiteville High School in Whiteville, North Carolina, he led the basketball team to the 2A State Championship in 1999, before transferring to William G. Enloe High School in Raleigh, NC for his senior year. He then attended the University of Maryland, where he helped the Terrapins win their first NCAA championship in 2002.

Los Angeles Clippers (2002–2006)
Wilcox was drafted by the Los Angeles Clippers in 2002.

Seattle SuperSonics / Oklahoma City Thunder (2006–2009)
Wilcox was traded on February 14, 2006, to the Seattle SuperSonics in exchange for Vladimir Radmanović.

While playing for the Sonics in 2005–2006, Wilcox averaged 14.1 points per game and 8.2 rebounds per game. He was on the starting lineup for 23 of his 29 games with the Sonics that season.

On April 4, 2006, Wilcox recorded a career-high 24 rebounds in a win over the Houston Rockets. Wilcox's rebound total was the most by a Sonic player since Jack Sikma grabbed 25 at Utah on February 10, 1983.

New York Knicks (2009)
On February 19, 2009, Wilcox was traded to the New York Knicks for Malik Rose.

Detroit Pistons (2009–2011)
On July 22, 2009, Wilcox signed a multi-year contract with the Detroit Pistons.

Boston Celtics (2011–2013)
On December 9, 2011, Wilcox agreed to a contract with the Boston Celtics for the midlevel exception ($3 million). After being diagnosed with a heart irregularity, he was waived by the Celtics on March 23, 2012. However, Wilcox was later cleared to play, and he re-signed with the Celtics on July 14, 2012.

Wilcox's final NBA game was Game 4 of the 2013 Eastern Conference First Round against the New York Knicks on April 28, 2013. Boston would win Game 4 97–90, but go on to lose the series in 6 games. In his final game, Wilcox only played for 43 seconds (substituting at the end of the 3rd quarter for Kevin Garnett) and recorded no stats.

title: Chris Wilcox


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Travis chenoweth

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. — Trilobite (Talk) 14:26, 15 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Travis chenoweth
Vanity. Zzyzx11 (Talk) 22:57, 7 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete CDC   (talk)  00:25, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete nn vanity. --Etacar11 03:50, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete vanity. JamesBurns 06:08, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete nn --Xcali 21:28, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * delete 4 pounds does not make a whopping baby, so not even notable for that. --Kurando 10:52, 15 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Akira Kojima

Akira Kojima (小島 あきら) is a manga artist from Ibaraki prefecture who works for Square Enix. He is best known for Mahoraba, which was published in Gangan WING and adapted as an anime television show broadcast on TV Tokyo. He often represented himself in Mahoraba as a monolith with eyes and limbs.

Works

 * Mahoraba
 * Manabiya
 * Seiken Shōjo Maniacs
 * Wa!
 * Yonakano Reijini Haremu Wo!
 * Mahou moto Shoujo Meruhen Kururu

title: Akira Kojima


text:
List of chief ministers of Gujarat

The Chief Minister of Gujarat is the chief executive of the government of the Indian state of Gujarat. The governor appoints the chief minister, whose council of ministers are collectively responsible to the assembly. The chief minister's term is for five years and is subject to no term limits, given that he has the confidence of the assembly.

The state of Gujarat was created on 1 May 1960, composed of the Gujarati-speaking districts of Bombay State following the Mahagujarat Movement. Jivraj Narayan Mehta of the INC was the inaugural chief minister. Narendra Modi of the BJP is the longest serving chief minister for twelve and a half years from 2001 to 2014. He resigned in 2014 to become the 14th prime minister of India. He was succeeded by Anandiben Patel who became the state's first woman chief minister. The current chief minister is Bhupendrabhai Patel of the BJP. He was elected for the post following the resignation of then incumbent Vijay Rupani, who was in the office since 7 August 2016.

Statistics

 * List of chief ministers by length of term

 * List by party

 * Timeline

title: List of chief ministers of Gujarat


text:
Neural crest

Neural crest cells are a temporary group of cells that arise from the embryonic ectoderm germ layer, and in turn give rise to a diverse cell lineage—including melanocytes, craniofacial cartilage and bone, smooth muscle, peripheral and enteric neurons and glia.

After gastrulation, neural crest cells are specified at the border of the neural plate and the non-neural ectoderm. During neurulation, the borders of the neural plate, also known as the neural folds, converge at the dorsal midline to form the neural tube. Subsequently, neural crest cells from the roof plate of the neural tube undergo an epithelial to mesenchymal transition, delaminating from the neuroepithelium and migrating through the periphery where they differentiate into varied cell types. The emergence of neural crest was important in vertebrate evolution because many of its structural derivatives are defining features of the vertebrate clade. Underlying the development of neural crest is a gene regulatory network, described as a set of interacting signals, transcription factors, and downstream effector genes that confer cell characteristics such as multipotency and migratory capabilities. Understanding the molecular mechanisms of neural crest formation is important for our knowledge of human disease because of its contributions to multiple cell lineages. Abnormalities in neural crest development cause neurocristopathies, which include conditions such as frontonasal dysplasia, Waardenburg–Shah syndrome, and DiGeorge syndrome.

Therefore, defining the mechanisms of neural crest development may reveal key insights into vertebrate evolution and neurocristopathies.

History
Neural crest was first described in the chick embryo by Wilhelm His Sr. in 1868 as "the cord in between" (Zwischenstrang) because of its origin between the neural plate and non-neural ectoderm. He named the tissue ganglionic crest since its final destination was each lateral side of the neural tube where it differentiated into spinal ganglia. During the first half of the 20th century, the majority of research on neural crest was done using amphibian embryos which was reviewed by Hörstadius (1950) in a well known monograph. Cell labeling techniques advanced the field of neural crest because they allowed researchers to visualize the migration of the tissue throughout the developing embryos. In the 1960s, Weston and Chibon utilized radioisotopic labeling of the nucleus with tritiated thymidine in chick and amphibian embryo respectively. However, this method suffers from drawbacks of stability, since every time the labeled cell divides the signal is diluted. Modern cell labeling techniques such as rhodamine-lysinated dextran and the vital dye diI have also been developed to transiently mark neural crest lineages.

The quail-chick marking system, devised by Nicole Le Douarin in 1969, was another instrumental technique used to track neural crest cells. Chimeras, generated through transplantation, enabled researchers to distinguish neural crest cells of one species from the surrounding tissue of another species. With this technique, generations of scientists were able to reliably mark and study the ontogeny of neural crest cells.

Induction
A molecular cascade of events is involved in establishing the migratory and multipotent characteristics of neural crest cells. This gene regulatory network can be subdivided into the following four sub-networks described below.

Inductive signals
First, extracellular signaling molecules, secreted from the adjacent epidermis and underlying mesoderm such as Wnts, BMPs and Fgfs separate the non-neural ectoderm (epidermis) from the neural plate during neural induction.

Wnt signaling has been demonstrated in neural crest induction in several species through gain-of-function and loss-of-function experiments. In coherence with this observation, the promoter region of slug (a neural crest specific gene) contains a binding site for transcription factors involved in the activation of Wnt-dependent target genes, suggestive of a direct role of Wnt signaling in neural crest specification.

The current role of BMP in neural crest formation is associated with the induction of the neural plate. BMP antagonists diffusing from the ectoderm generates a gradient of BMP activity. In this manner, the neural crest lineage forms from intermediate levels of BMP signaling required for the development of the neural plate (low BMP) and epidermis (high BMP).

Fgf from the paraxial mesoderm has been suggested as a source of neural crest inductive signal. Researchers have demonstrated that the expression of dominate-negative Fgf receptor in ectoderm explants blocks neural crest induction when recombined with paraxial mesoderm. The understanding of the role of BMP, Wnt, and Fgf pathways on neural crest specifier expression remains incomplete.

Neural plate border specifiers
Signaling events that establish the neural plate border lead to the expression of a set of transcription factors delineated here as neural plate border specifiers. These molecules include Zic factors, Pax3/7, Dlx5, Msx1/2 which may mediate the influence of Wnts, BMPs, and Fgfs. These genes are expressed broadly at the neural plate border region and precede the expression of bona fide neural crest markers.

Experimental evidence places these transcription factors upstream of neural crest specifiers. For example, in Xenopus Msx1 is necessary and sufficient for the expression of Slug, Snail, and FoxD3. Furthermore, Pax3 is essential for FoxD3 expression in mouse embryos.

Neural crest specifiers
Following the expression of neural plate border specifiers is a collection of genes including Slug/Snail, FoxD3, Sox10, Sox9, AP-2 and c-Myc. This suite of genes, designated here as neural crest specifiers, are activated in emergent neural crest cells. At least in Xenopus, every neural crest specifier is necessary and/or sufficient for the expression of all other specifiers, demonstrating the existence of extensive cross-regulation. Moreover, this model organism was instrumental in the elucidation of the role of the Hedgehog signaling pathway in the specification of the neural crest, with the transcription factor Gli2 playing a key role.

Outside of the tightly regulated network of neural crest specifiers are two other transcription factors Twist and Id. Twist, a bHLH transcription factor, is required for mesenchyme differentiation of the pharyngeal arch structures. Id is a direct target of c-Myc and is known to be important for the maintenance of neural crest stem cells.

Neural crest effector genes
Finally, neural crest specifiers turn on the expression of effector genes, which confer certain properties such as migration and multipotency. Two neural crest effectors, Rho GTPases and cadherins, function in delamination by regulating cell morphology and adhesive properties. Sox9 and Sox10 regulate neural crest differentiation by activating many cell-type-specific effectors including Mitf, P0, Cx32, Trp and cKit.

Migration
The migration of neural crest cells involves a highly coordinated cascade of events that begins with closure of the dorsal neural tube.

Delamination
After fusion of the neural fold to create the neural tube, cells originally located in the neural plate border become neural crest cells. For migration to begin, neural crest cells must undergo a process called delamination that involves a full or partial epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Delamination is defined as the separation of tissue into different populations, in this case neural crest cells separating from the surrounding tissue. Conversely, EMT is a series of events coordinating a change from an epithelial to mesenchymal phenotype. For example, delamination in chick embryos is triggered by a BMP/Wnt cascade that induces the expression of EMT promoting transcription factors such as SNAI2 and FoxD3. Although all neural crest cells undergo EMT, the timing of delamination occurs at different stages in different organisms: in Xenopus laevis embryos there is a massive delamination that occurs when the neural plate is not entirely fused, whereas delamination in the chick embryo occurs during fusion of the neural fold.

Prior to delamination, presumptive neural crest cells are initially anchored to neighboring cells by tight junction proteins such as occludin and cell adhesion molecules such as NCAM and N-Cadherin. Dorsally expressed BMPs initiate delamination by inducing the expression of the zinc finger protein transcription factors snail, slug, and twist. These factors play a direct role in inducing the epithelial-mesenchymal transition by reducing expression of occludin and N-Cadherin in addition to promoting modification of NCAMs with polysialic acid residues to decrease adhesiveness. Neural crest cells also begin expressing proteases capable of degrading cadherins such as ADAM10 and secreting matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) that degrade the overlying basal lamina of the neural tube to allow neural crest cells to escape. Additionally, neural crest cells begin expressing integrins that associate with extracellular matrix proteins, including collagen, fibronectin, and laminin, during migration. Once the basal lamina becomes permeable the neural crest cells can begin migrating throughout the embryo.

Migration
Neural crest cell migration occurs in a rostral to caudal direction without the need of a neuronal scaffold such as along a radial glial cell. For this reason the crest cell migration process is termed "free migration". Instead of scaffolding on progenitor cells, neural crest migration is the result of repulsive guidance via EphB/EphrinB and semaphorin/neuropilin signaling, interactions with the extracellular matrix, and contact inhibition with one another. While Ephrin and Eph proteins have the capacity to undergo bi-directional signaling, neural crest cell repulsion employs predominantly forward signaling to initiate a response within the receptor bearing neural crest cell. Burgeoning neural crest cells express EphB, a receptor tyrosine kinase, which binds the EphrinB transmembrane ligand expressed in the caudal half of each somite. When these two domains interact it causes receptor tyrosine phosphorylation, activation of rhoGTPases, and eventual cytoskeletal rearrangements within the crest cells inducing them to repel. This phenomenon allows neural crest cells to funnel through the rostral portion of each somite.

Semaphorin-neuropilin repulsive signaling works synergistically with EphB signaling to guide neural crest cells down the rostral half of somites in mice. In chick embryos, semaphorin acts in the cephalic region to guide neural crest cells through the pharyngeal arches. On top of repulsive repulsive signaling, neural crest cells express β1and α4 integrins which allows for binding and guided interaction with collagen, laminin, and fibronectin of the extracellular matrix as they travel. Additionally, crest cells have intrinsic contact inhibition with one another while freely invading tissues of different origin such as mesoderm. Neural crest cells that migrate through the rostral half of somites differentiate into sensory and sympathetic neurons of the peripheral nervous system. The other main route neural crest cells take is dorsolaterally between the epidermis and the dermamyotome. Cells migrating through this path differentiate into pigment cells of the dermis. Further neural crest cell differentiation and specification into their final cell type is biased by their spatiotemporal subjection to morphogenic cues such as BMP, Wnt, FGF, Hox, and Notch.

Clinical significance
Neurocristopathies result from the abnormal specification, migration, differentiation or death of neural crest cells throughout embryonic development. This group of diseases comprises a wide spectrum of congenital malformations affecting many newborns. Additionally, they arise because of genetic defects affecting the formation of neural crest and because of the action of Teratogens

Waardenburg's syndrome
Waardenburg's syndrome is a neurocristopathy that results from defective neural crest cell migration. The condition's main characteristics include piebaldism and congenital deafness. In the case of piebaldism, the colorless skin areas are caused by a total absence of neural crest-derived pigment-producing melanocytes. There are four different types of Waardenburg's syndrome, each with distinct genetic and physiological features. Types I and II are distinguished based on whether or not family members of the affected individual have dystopia canthorum. Type III gives rise to upper limb abnormalities. Lastly, type IV is also known as Waardenburg-Shah syndrome, and afflicted individuals display both Waardenburg's syndrome and Hirschsprung's disease. Types I and III are inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion, while II and IV exhibit an autosomal recessive pattern of inheritance. Overall, Waardenburg's syndrome is rare, with an incidence of ~ 2/100,000 people in the United States. All races and sexes are equally affected. There is no current cure or treatment for Waardenburg's syndrome.

Hirschsprung's Disease
Also implicated in defects related to neural crest cell development and migration is Hirschsprung's disease (HD or HSCR), characterized by a lack of innervation in regions of the intestine. This lack of innervation can lead to further physiological abnormalities like an enlarged colon (megacolon), obstruction of the bowels, or even slowed growth. In healthy development, neural crest cells migrate into the gut and form the enteric ganglia. Genes playing a role in the healthy migration of these neural crest cells to the gut include RET, GDNF, GFRα, EDN3, and EDNRB. RET, a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK), forms a complex with GDNF and GFRα. EDN3 and EDNRB are then implicated in the same signaling network. When this signaling is disrupted in mice, aganglionosis, or the lack of these enteric ganglia occurs.

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder
Prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) is among the most common causes of developmental defects. Depending on the extent of the exposure and the severity of the resulting abnormalities, patients are diagnosed within a continuum of disorders broadly labeled Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD). Severe FASD can impair neural crest migration, as evidenced by characteristic craniofacial abnormalities including short palpebral fissures, an elongated upper lip, and a smoothened philtrum. However, due to the promiscuous nature of ethanol binding, the mechanisms by which these abnormalities arise is still unclear. Cell culture explants of neural crest cells as well as in vivo developing zebrafish embryos exposed to ethanol show a decreased number of migratory cells and decreased distances travelled by migrating neural crest cells. The mechanisms behind these changes are not well understood, but evidence suggests PAE can increase apoptosis due to increased cytosolic calcium levels caused by IP3-mediated release of calcium from intracellular stores. It has also been proposed that the decreased viability of ethanol-exposed neural crest cells is caused by increased oxidative stress. Despite these, and other advances much remains to be discovered about how ethanol affects neural crest development. For example, it appears that ethanol differentially affects certain neural crest cells over others; that is, while craniofacial abnormalities are common in PAE, neural crest-derived pigment cells appear to be minimally affected.

DiGeorge syndrome
DiGeorge syndrome is associated with deletions or translocations of a small segment in the human chromosome 22. This deletion may disrupt rostral neural crest cell migration or development. Some defects observed are linked to the pharyngeal pouch system, which receives contribution from rostral migratory crest cells. The symptoms of DiGeorge syndrome include congenital heart defects, facial defects, and some neurological and learning disabilities. Patients with 22q11 deletions have also been reported to have higher incidence of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.

Treacher Collins Syndrome
Treacher Collins Syndrome (TCS) results from the compromised development of the first and second pharyngeal arches during the early embryonic stage, which ultimately leads to mid and lower face abnormalities. TCS is caused by the missense mutation of the TCOF1 gene, which causes neural crest cells to undergo apoptosis during embryogenesis. Although mutations of the TCOF1 gene are among the best characterized in their role in TCS, mutations in POLR1C and POLR1D genes have also been linked to the pathogenesis of TCS.

Cell lineages
Neural crest cells originating from different positions along the anterior-posterior axis develop into various tissues. These regions of neural crest can be divided into four main functional domains, which include the cranial neural crest, trunk neural crest, vagal and sacral neural crest, and cardiac neural crest.

Cranial neural crest
Cranial neural crest migrates dorsolaterally to form the craniofacial mesenchyme that differentiates into various cranial ganglia and craniofacial cartilages and bones. These cells enter the pharyngeal pouches and arches where they contribute to the thymus, bones of the middle ear and jaw and the odontoblasts of the tooth primordia.

Trunk neural crest
Trunk neural crest gives rise two populations of cells. One group of cells fated to become melanocytes migrates dorsolaterally into the ectoderm towards the ventral midline. A second group of cells migrates ventrolaterally through the anterior portion of each sclerotome. The cells that stay in the sclerotome form the dorsal root ganglia, whereas those that continue more ventrally form the sympathetic ganglia, adrenal medulla, and the nerves surrounding the aorta.

Vagal and sacral neural crest
The vagal and sacral neural crest cells develop into the ganglia of the enteric nervous system and the parasympathetic ganglia.

Cardiac neural crest
Cardiac neural crest develops into melanocytes, cartilage, connective tissue and neurons of some pharyngeal arches. Also, this domain gives rise to regions of the heart such as the musculo-connective tissue of the large arteries, and part of the septum, which divides the pulmonary circulation from the aorta. The semilunar valves of the heart are associated with neural crest cells according to new research.

Evolution
Several structures that distinguish the vertebrates from other chordates are formed from the derivatives of neural crest cells. In their "New head" theory, Gans and Northcut argue that the presence of neural crest was the basis for vertebrate specific features, such as sensory ganglia and cranial skeleton. Furthermore, the appearance of these features was pivotal in vertebrate evolution because it enabled a predatory lifestyle.

However, considering the neural crest a vertebrate innovation does not mean that it arose de novo. Instead, new structures often arise through modification of existing developmental regulatory programs. For example, regulatory programs may be changed by the co-option of new upstream regulators or by the employment of new downstream gene targets, thus placing existing networks in a novel context. This idea is supported by in situ hybridization data that shows the conservation of the neural plate border specifiers in protochordates, which suggest that part of the neural crest precursor network was present in a common ancestor to the chordates. In some non-vertebrate chordates such as tunicates a lineage of cells (melanocytes) has been identified, which are similar to neural crest cells in vertebrates. This implies that a rudimentary neural crest existed in a common ancestor of vertebrates and tunicates.

Neural crest derivatives
Ectomesenchyme (also known as mesectoderm): odontoblasts, dental papillae, the chondrocranium (nasal capsule, Meckel's cartilage, scleral ossicles, quadrate, articular, hyoid and columella), tracheal and laryngeal cartilage, the dermatocranium (membranous bones), dorsal fins and the turtle plastron (lower vertebrates), pericytes and smooth muscle of branchial arteries and veins, tendons of ocular and masticatory muscles, connective tissue of head and neck glands (pituitary, salivary, lachrymal, thymus, thyroid) dermis and adipose tissue of calvaria, ventral neck and face

Endocrine cells: chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla, glomus cells type I/II.

Peripheral nervous system: Sensory neurons and glia of the dorsal root ganglia, cephalic ganglia (VII and in part, V, IX, and X), Rohon-Beard cells, some Merkel cells in the whisker, Satellite glial cells of all autonomic and sensory ganglia, Schwann cells of all peripheral nerves.

Enteric cells: Enterochromaffin cells.

Melanocytes, iris muscle and pigment cells, and even associated with some tumors (such as melanotic neuroectodermal tumor of infancy).

title: Neural crest


text:
Gul Mohammed

Gul Mohammed (February 15, 1957 – October 1, 1997) of New Delhi, India, according to Guinness World Records, was the shortest adult human being of his time whose existence and height have been independently verified.

On July 19, 1990, he was examined by Ram Manohar Lohia Hospital, New Delhi, India, and he stood 1 foot 10.5 inches (57 cm) tall and weighed 37.5 lbs (17 kg). He died on October 1, 1997, from respiratory complications and after a long struggle with asthma and bronchitis. His record was broken by Chandra Bahadur Dangi of Nepal whose height was just 21.5 inches (54.6 cm).

title: Gul Mohammed


text:
Merkurios of Makuria

Merkurios (reigned 697 - c. 722) was ruler of the Nubian kingdom of Makuria. Authorities believe that during his reign Makuria absorbed the Nubian kingdom of Nobatia.

Reign
According to P.L. Shinnie, the first year of Merkurios' reign can be dated by an inscription on the foundation stone in Faras, which was dated to AD 707, and also to Merkurios' eleventh regnal year. In 710, Merkurios erected an inscription at Taifa, which indicates that his kingdom had united with Nobatia by that date.

John the Deacon, an Egyptian Christian writing around 768, described Merkurios as the "New Constantine", which Shinnie interprets as evidence that Merkurios played some important role in the Nubian church.

title: Merkurios of Makuria


text:
Talk:Joachim Gottschalk

old comments
What is "gas poisoning"? Is it carbon monoxide? RickK 06:21, Jun 14, 2005 (UTC)

Probably natural gas.

...had a half-jewish son......... what is that?????? And the article states that Meta Wolf was jewish! Had a son, who according to the raciallaws (Rassengesetze) of the nazis was classified as a half jew...... —Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.164.125.176 (talk) 01:50, 7 March 2008 (UTC)

This article is a mess. Firstly it says they were all shipped out to a concentration camp, then says they all died at home. 2A00:23C4:B63A:1800:A9B2:DEA5:E0BC:2652 (talk) 17:05, 14 January 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Joachim Gottschalk


text: Talk:Super Mario Bros. 2

title: Talk:Super Mario Bros. 2


text:
2006 Georgia gubernatorial election

The 2006 Georgia gubernatorial election was held on November 7, 2006. Georgia incumbent Republican Governor Sonny Perdue ran for re-election to a second and final term as governor. Governor Perdue was renominated by the Republican Party, defeating a minor opponent in the process, while Lieutenant Governor Mark Taylor narrowly emerged victorious from a competitive Democratic primary. In the general election, though Taylor ran a spirited campaign, Perdue was aided by the increasing tendency of the state to vote for Republicans and by his popularity with the public; polling showed his approval ratings above sixty percent. In the end, Perdue was overwhelmingly re-elected as governor, defeating Taylor in a landslide, becoming the first Republican Governor of Georgia to ever be reelected. As of, this is the last time that Muscogee, Warren, Rockdale, Chatham, and Bibb counties voted for the Republican candidate for governor and the last time that Marion, Telfair, and Wheeler counties voted for the Democratic candidate.

Exit polls showed that Perdue won white voters (68% to 27%) while Taylor won black voters (81% to 17%). As of, Perdue's 17% of the African-American vote was the highest showing of any Republican seeking statewide office in Georgia.

Candidates

 * Bill Bolton
 * Cathy Cox, Secretary of State of Georgia
 * Mac McCarley
 * Mark Taylor, Lieutenant Governor of Georgia

Candidates

 * Ray McBerry, businessman
 * Sonny Perdue, incumbent Governor of Georgia

Fundraising
Perdue had more financial resources on hand than Taylor. As of the March 31 filing, Perdue reported that he had over $8 million on hand, while Taylor had $4.1 million in reserve. Perdue had the added advantage of facing a weak opponent in Ray McBerry in the primary election, while Cox and Taylor engaged in a bitter struggle for the Democratic nomination. Hayes, the Libertarian candidate, reported less than $1,000 on hand, though the September 11 Zogby poll showed him attracting a surprising 8.1 percent of polled voters.

Advertisements
A minor controversy developed during the primary campaign over an ad created by Georgians for Truth, a group founded by several prominent Democratic fundraisers. The ad criticized Perdue for allegedly failing to pay his taxes for several years before becoming governor, allegations that had been made in the 2002 campaign as well. Cox and Taylor, for reasons that are not clear, requested that the group not run the ad, prompting the Georgia Democratic Party chairman, Bobby Kahn, to strongly rebuke the group's members.

Education

 * The HOPE Scholarship program and its stability and continued solvency are recurring issues in Georgia politics. Citing budget constraints, Perdue signed Republican-sponsored legislation that significantly cut the benefits conferred by the program.  Cox and Taylor both severely criticized the governor for these actions, and both pointed to the fact that Perdue voted against the legislation creating the program as a state senator in 1993.  Perdue backed an amendment to the state constitution that would have shifted the allocation of the lottery funds that support the program, but the legislation was defeated.

 * On April 19, 2006, Cox charged that Taylor had not sponsored the HOPE scholarship legislation in 1993, as he claimed. Taylor apparently sponsored a companion bill that did not pass, although he supported the bill that did pass.  The incident portended a strongly negative campaign for the Democratic nomination.

 * College tuition may also be an issue. During Perdue's first term, Georgia's universities substantially increased tuition fees.
 * School funding: Perdue successfully backed legislation that requires Georgia schools to spend at least 65% of their budgets "in the classroom". Democrats charged that some school programs, such as music classes, do not fit the definition of "in the classroom."

Health care

 * Peachcare, a state program providing medical care for needy children and families, emerged as a point of contention between Perdue and his challengers. Perdue approved a cut in the program during his administration.  Taylor, a strong supporter of the program, was particularly vocal in attacking Perdue and advocating significant expansion of the program.
 * Medicaid: Perdue made Medicaid reform a priority during his first term. Democrats were critical of the reform proposal that Perdue presented to federal officials.

Immigration
The problem presented by illegal immigrants emerged during Georgia's 2006 legislative session as an issue likely to have a large impact on the gubernatorial campaign. Perdue signed legislation restricting the ability of illegal immigrants to access state resources, including health care and public education.

Voting

 * Voter identification legislation signed by Perdue requiring photo identification for voting while expanding absentee voting opportunities had a substantial impact on the campaign. Democrats strongly denounced the legislation as discriminatory against the poor and elderly, while Republicans attempted to alleviate such concerns by providing access to photo identification for those not possessing it.
 * Paper ballots were a major concern of Taylor supporters, who felt that Cox made a mistake when she brought electronic voting to Georgia as secretary of state.

Counties that flipped from Democratic to Republican

 * Early (largest city: Blakely)
 * McIntosh (largest municipality: Darien)
 * Lowndes (largest city: Valdosta)
 * Burke (largest municipality: Waynesboro)
 * Chatham (largest city: Savannah)
 * Washington (largest municipality: Sandersville)
 * Sumter (largest city: Americus)
 * Jefferson (largest city: Louisville)
 * Muscogee (largest city: Columbus)
 * Meriwether (largest municipality: Manchester)
 * Telfair (largest municipality: McRae-Helena)
 * Bibb (largest city: Macon)
 * Wheeler (largest city: Alamo)
 * Wilkes (largest city: Washington)
 * Grady (largest city: Cairo)
 * Thomas (largest town: Thomasville)

Counties that flipped from Republican to Democratic

 * Dooly (largest city: Vienna) (previously tied)

title: 2006 Georgia gubernatorial election


text:
Talk:Yolande of Aragon

Name of her father
Juan as the name of her father is not a good version, because he is known as John I of Aragon in English literature. Juan Carlos I is an exception, not an example in naming. Sjostrom 23:01, 7 Jun 2005 (UTC)

French nationalist party?
Yolande chose to support the French nationalists (for example, the Armagnac party) against the English and against the Burgundians;

This seems pretty clearly anachronistic in at least two ways: 1) referring to "French nationalism" in the 15th century; and 2) pretending that the Armagnacs were the "patriotic" party and the Burgundians the "unpatriotic party." Until the assassination of John the Fearless, at least, there is no particular reason to see the Burgundians as any less patriotic than the Armagnacs - the Armagnacs had actually called in the English first, in 1410, and John the Fearless's two brothers were killed at Agincourt. It seems clear that at the end of his life John was aiming to make peace with the Dauphin in order to concentrate on fighting the English - the party passions of the Dauphin and his Armagnac supporters in deciding upon his murder is what created the Anglo-Burgundian alliance. By the 1420s, the term "Armagnac" is probably obsolete - of the party's original proponents, the Duke of Orleans and his brother were still in English prison, and the old Count of Armagnac was dead. At that point it's really the party of the Dauphin (later Charles VII) against the English and the Burgundians. john k 13:43, 13 August 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Yolande of Aragon


text:
Bee Hive, Alabama

Bee Hive, also spelled Beehive, is an unincorporated community in Lee County, Alabama, United States. It is part of the Columbus, Georgia-Alabama Metropolitan Area. Originally named for an apiary located along Wire Road near the Macon County line, the Bee Hive community today lies near the southwest periphery of the city limits of Auburn.It is the birthplace of James D. Edmondson. A post office operated under the name Beehive from 1896 to 1902.

title: Bee Hive, Alabama


text:
User:Akira121

Is sexy as hell. :D

title: User:Akira121


text:
Wikipedia:Featured article candidates/Joachim Gottschalk/archive1

Joachim Gottschalk
A once-famous but now obscure German actor who defied the Nazis for love and family. - Wellreadone 23:33, Jun 7, 2005 (UTC)

 * Object No references. Not comprehensive: the article is almost exclusively about the circumstances leading to his death, with almost nothing on his acting career, not even a list of the movies he was in. Phrases like "his devoted fans" sound fannish. There is no copyright information on the photo; from what I understand about Nazi-era copyrights, this is a big can of worms.--Bcrowell 00:49, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Response: Reference and filmography added 6-7-05.

(1) Photographs and products manufactured in a similar way to photographs shall be protected, mutatis mutandis, by the provisions of Part I applicable to photographic works.
 * '''German Copyright Law -- Article 72

(2) The right afforded by paragraph (1) shall belong to the photographer.

(3) The right afforded by paragraph (1) shall expire 50 years after publication of the photograph, or if its first permitted public communication took place earlier, after the latter, but 50 years after its manufacture where the photograph has not been published or legally communicated in public within such period. The period shall be calculated in accordance with Article 69.

The photograph of Gottschalk was an "autogramme" postcard, signed by Gottschalk and given to a fan. Therefore, it was published more than 50 years ago.'''
 * Can anyone refer us to more info on Nazi-era copyrights? There used to be some at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:Image_copyright_tags#WWII_Nazi_pictures, but it looks like it's gone, now. From what I recall, it was very complicated, with, e.g., two different laws applying to two different types of photographs, and complications because it was an empire rather than a single nation. This seems to be a FAQ, since I remember it coming up more than once before this (e.g. for blitzkrieg). --Bcrowell 03:08, 9 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * On German copyright, and the distinction between a "Lichtbild" (50y) and a "Lichtbildwerk" (life of author +70 or 80), see Template_talk:PD-Germany, that template's deletion discussion, and Templates_for_deletion. Lupo 10:17, 10 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * This is far, far short of being comprehensive. Look at some featured articles to see the kind of standard that's expected. Everyking 04:07, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Refer to peer review --nixie 04:42, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Object. Interesting and sad story, but it does not meet the FA criteria. Giano | talk 15:01, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)


text:
List of New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad precursors

These railroads were bought, leased, or in other ways had their track come under ownership or lease by the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. The NYNH&H was formed in 1872 as a merge of the New York and New Haven Railroad and Hartford and New Haven Railroad.

Old Colony Railroad 1893

 * Boston and Providence Railroad 1888
 * Stoughton Branch Railroad 1872
 * Boston, Clinton, Fitchburg and New Bedford Railroad 1879
 * Boston, Clinton and Fitchburg Railroad 1876
 * Agricultural Branch Railroad 1869
 * Fitchburg and Worcester Railroad 1869
 * Framingham and Lowell Railroad 1871
 * Mansfield and Framingham Railroad 1870
 * New Bedford Railroad 1875
 * New Bedford and Taunton Railroad 1874
 * Fairhaven Branch Railroad 1868
 * Taunton Branch Railroad 1873
 * Cape Cod Railroad 1872
 * Cape Cod Branch Railroad 1868
 * Cape Cod Central Railroad 1868
 * Duxbury and Cohasset Railroad 1878
 * Fall River, Warren and Providence Railroad 1892
 * Granite Railroad 1870
 * Hanover Branch of Massachusetts Railroad 1887
 * Middleborough and Taunton Railroad 1874
 * Nantasket Beach Railroad 1888
 * Old Colony and Newport Railroad 1872
 * Dighton and Somerset Railroad 1864
 * Easton Branch Railroad 1866
 * Newport and Fall River Railroad 1863
 * Old Colony and Fall River Railroad 1864
 * Fall River Railroad 1854
 * Middleborough Railroad 1895
 * Old Colony Railway 1854
 * Dorchester and Milton Railroad 1847
 * Randolph and Bridgewater Railroad 1845
 * Plymouth and Middleborough Railroad 1892
 * Providence, Warren and Bristol Railroad 1891
 * South Shore Railroad 1876

New England Railroad 1898

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 * Meriden, Waterbury and Connecticut River Railroad 1892
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 * Hopkinton Railroad 1883
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 * Providence and Springfield Railroad 1890
 * Rhode Island and Massachusetts Railroad 1877
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Housatonic Railroad 1892

 * Berkshire Railroad 1843
 * Danbury and Norwalk Railroad 1886
 * Danbury Terminal Railroad 1997
 * New Haven and Derby Railroad 1889
 * New York, Housatonic and Northern Railroad 1876
 * Shepaug, Litchfield and Northern Railroad 1891
 * Shepaug Railroad 1887
 * Shepaug Valley Railroad 1873
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 * West Stockbridge Railroad 1843

Boston and New York Air-Line Railroad 1883

 * New Haven, Middletown and Willimantic Railroad 1875

Central New England Railway 1927

 * Newburgh, Dutchess and Connecticut Railroad 1905
 * Clove Branch Railroad 1896
 * Dutchess and Columbia Railway 1877
 * New York, Boston and Montreal Railway 1874
 * Harlem Extension Railroad 1873
 * Lebanon Springs Railroad 1870
 * New York, Boston and Northern Railway 1873
 * Dutchess and Columbia Railroad 1872
 * Philadelphia, Reading and New England Railroad 1899
 * Central New England and Western Railroad 1892
 * Hartford and Connecticut Western Railroad 1890
 * Connecticut Western Railroad 1881
 * Rhinebeck and Connecticut Railroad 1882
 * Dutchess County Railroad 1892
 * Poughkeepsie and Eastern Railroad 1907
 * New York and Massachusetts Railroad 1893
 * Poughkeepsie, Hartford and Boston Railroad 1887
 * Poughkeepsie and Eastern Railway 1875

Hartford and Connecticut Valley Railroad 1887

 * Connecticut Valley Railroad 1880

New York and New Haven Railroad 1872

 * New Haven and Northampton Railroad 1849
 * Hampshire and Hampden Railroad 1862
 * Holyoke and Westfield Railroad 1870
 * Shore Line Railway 1870
 * New Haven, New London and Stonington Railroad 1868
 * New Haven and New London Railroad 1857
 * New London and Stonington Railroad 1857
 * New York and New London Railroad 1857

Hartford and New Haven Railroad 1872

 * Hartford and Springfield Railroad 1847
 * Middletown Railroad 1850
 * New Britain and Middletown Railroad 1868

Naugatuck Railroad 1887

 * Watertown and Waterbury Railroad 1870

Stamford and New Canaan Railroad 1884

 * New Canaan Railroad 1883

New York, Providence and Boston Railroad 1893

 * Pawtuxet Valley Railroad 1883
 * Pontiac Branch Railroad 1880
 * Providence and Worcester Railroad 1888
 * Warwick Railroad 1879
 * Westerly Granite Railroad 1881


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Talk:Naval Ordnance Research Calculator

Article moved from the full name

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Prince Nicholas Romanov

Nicholas Romanovich Romanov (Николай Романович Романов; 26 September 1922 – 15 September 2014) was a claimant to the headship of the House of Romanov  and president of the Romanov Family Association. Although undoubtedly a descendant of Emperor Nicholas I of Russia, his claimed titles and official membership in the former Imperial House were disputed by those who maintained that his parents' marriage violated the laws of the Russian Empire.

Family and childhood
Prince Nicholas was born in Cap d'Antibes near Antibes, France, the eldest son of Prince Roman Petrovich and his wife Princess Praskovia Dmitrievna (née Countess Sheremeteva). Prince Nicholas had a younger brother, Prince Dimitri Romanovich. Their father Prince Roman Petrovich was the only son of Grand Duke Peter Nicolaievich and Grand Duchess Militsa Nikolaievna (née Princess of Montenegro). His grandfather was the younger son of Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich and Grand Duchess Alexandra Petrovna (née Duchess of Oldenburg). His great grandfather Nicholas Nikolaevich was a younger son of Emperor Nicholas I of Russia and Empress Alexandra Fyodorovna (née Princess Charlotte of Prussia) and founded the Nikolaevichi branch of the Russian Imperial Family.

Prince Nicholas was brought up in Cap d'Antibes with his family still using the Julian calendar and he spoke both fluent Russian and French from his childhood on. He was brought up in a Russian environment with his local church having a Russian priest and his family employing Russian staff and a Russian nanny.

Education and naval aspirations
Prince Nicholas received a private education in France with his studies following the old Russian school curriculum. In 1936 his family moved to Italy due to the standard of schooling supposedly being better there. He aspired to be a naval officer and had convinced his parents by the age of 12 that this was his dream. However, as he was a Romanov and there was a Soviet Navy and not an Imperial Russian Navy, he decided to work towards a career in the Italian Navy. Using his family's close relationship to the Italian Royal Family (both his grandmother Militza and Queen Helena of Italy, wife of King Victor Emmanuel III, were daughters of King Nicholas I of Montenegro) he began to study in Italy under the tutelage of a retired Italian Naval officer with the aim of attending the Naval Academy of Livorno. However, Nicholas's hopes of a Naval career evaporated when he showed signs of near-sightedness.

He completed his education in Italy graduating from a Liceo classico in 1942.

World War II and post war
During World War II, Prince Nicholas and his family lived at the residence of Victor Emmanuel III of Italy. When the King left Rome, Nicholas and his family went into hiding for nine months. During the occupation of Rome by Germany, Nicholas's grandmother, who was at great risk of deportation as a sister of the Queen, had to take shelter in the Holy See. In 1942, the ruling Fascists in Italy approached Prince Nicholas to offer him the throne of Montenegro. He declined.

Prince Nicholas wanted to study engineering at the University of Rome but the war prevented this, so following its conclusion, he found employment by working as a civilian for the Allies in the Psychological Warfare Division and the United States Information Service. On the advice of King Umberto II Prince Nicholas and his family left Italy for Egypt in 1946. While living in Egypt he was involved in the purchasing and sale of Turkish tobacco as well as finding work in an insurance company.

Returning to Europe in 1950 Prince Nicholas worked in Rome for the Austin Motor Company until 1954. Following the death of his brother-in-law he took over the management of his wife's property and business in Tuscany. The business was a large farm which he managed for 25 years from 1955 to 1980 where he bred Chianina cattle and produced wine. He sold the farm in 1982 and moved to Rougemont, Switzerland. A refugee from birth, Prince Nicholas was a stateless person and used to travel abroad on a letter issued by the King of Greece. He finally became a citizen of Italy in 1988. Prince Nicholas visited Russia for the first time in June 1992 when he acted as a second tour guide for a group of businessmen. He often appeared in the media to talk about the Romanovs, giving over 100 television interviews, and appearing in television documentaries such as the 2003 Danish documentary "En Kongelig familie" and the 2007 France 3 produced documentary called "Un nom en héritage, les Romanov". In 1999, a documentary on his life was produced by the Russian television channel NTV.

Romanov Family Association
His father Roman Petrovich came up with the idea of a family association of the Romanovs in the mid-1970s. After looking through the papers of his father, who died in 1978, Nicholas found that everything was in place for its creation. He then wrote to all the members of the Romanov family who had been in communication with his father and it was agreed that a family association should be created. A year later, in 1979, the Romanov Family Association was officially formed with Prince Dmitri Alexandrovich as president and Nicholas as vice-president. When Vasili Alexandrovich became president in 1980, Nicholas remained vice-president.

In 1989, after the death of Vasili Alexandrovich, Prince Nicholas was elected the new president of the Romanov Family Association. The Association currently has as members the majority of the male-line descendants of Emperor Nicholas I of Russia, although Grand Duchess Maria Vladimirovna has never joined, nor did her late father Grand Duke Vladimir Kirillovich.

Succession claims
The official position of the Romanov Family Association is that the rights of the family to the Russian Throne were suspended when Emperor Nicholas II abdicated for himself and for his son Tsarevich Alexei in favour of his brother Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich who then deferred ascending the Throne until a Constituent Assembly ratified his rule. Emperor Michael II, as he was legally pronounced by Nicholas II, did not abdicate but empowered the Provisional Government to rule. Michael's "reign" was ended with his execution in 1918.

Prince Nicholas considered that following the death of Grand Duke Vladimir Cyrillovich in 1992 that he was head of the House of Romanov and his rightful successor. On the basis that Vladimir Cyrillovich was the last male dynast and all other Romanovs are excluded due to their parents' "unequal" marriages, Vladimir's daughter Grand Duchess Maria Vladimirovna also put forward a claim to the headship of the imperial house on her father's death. With the exception of Grand Duchess Maria, Prince Nicholas was recognized by the rest of the family as head of the Romanov family. However, the final edition of the Almanach de Gotha published by Justus Perthes, in 1944, stated that the marriage of Nicholas's parents was "not in conformity with the laws of the house" although one wartime edition had listed him as a dynastic member of the Imperial House. Prince Nicholas said regarding "unequal" marriages in the Imperial Family:

"Our parents married commoners. So what? We have married commoners. Again, so what? There was nobody to ask us to renounce our rights, so we married without renouncing them, and we and our children still have rights to the throne of Russia."

Prince Nicholas led the Romanov family at the funeral in St. Petersburg of the last Russian Emperor Nicholas II and his family in July 1998. As head of the family he was also present at the reburial of the remains of the Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna in Russia in September 2006. Prince Nicholas and his brother Prince Dmitri had been responsible for lobbying the Danish royal family and the Russian President Vladimir Putin to allow the transfer of the Dowager Empress's remains to Russia so they could be buried alongside her husband Emperor Alexander III.

Marriage and children
In 1950, Prince Nicholas and the Countess Sveva della Gherardesca (b. 15 July 1930), daughter of Count Walfred della Gherardesca and Nicoletta de Piccolellis, met at a party in Rome. Sveva is a member of the Italian della Gherardesca noble family from Tuscany and a direct descendant of Count Ugolino della Gherardesca. They were married in Florence in a civil ceremony on 31 December 1951 followed by a religious ceremony on 21 January 1952 in the Russian Cathedral at Cannes.

Prince Nicholas and his wife had three daughters:
 * Princess Natalia Nikolaevna Romanova (b. 4 December 1952), married to Giuseppe Consolo (born 1948). Her daughter is the Italian actress Nicoletta Romanoff.
 * Princess Elisaveta Nikolaevna Romanova (b. 7 August 1956), married to Mauro Bonacini (born 1950);
 * Princess Tatiana Nikolaevna Romanova (b. 12 April 1961), married firstly to Giambattista Alessandri (born 1958), then Giancarlo Tirotti (born 1947).

Prince Nicholas and his wife lived in Rougemont, Switzerland, for seven months every year, usually in the winter. During the rest of the year they stayed in Italy with their daughters. The prince still used the Julian calendar and was fluent in French, Russian, Italian and English. He was also able to read Spanish.

Prince Nicholas's death in Tuscany aged 91 was reported on 15 September 2014. He was survived by his wife, their three children, five grandchildren and three great-grandchildren.

Title and style

 * His Highness Prince Nicholas Romanovich of Russia

Since the Russian Revolution, members of the Romanov family have tended to drop the territorial designation "of Russia" and use a princely title with the surname Romanov. However this title, and even his right to the surname Romanov are disputed.

He is also known as Prince Nicholas Romanov,     Prince Nicholas of Russia,    Prince Nicholas Romanoff,      and Prince Nikolai Romanov.

Honours

 * Knight of the Order of Petrovic Njegos
 * Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I
 * Knight of the Order of Saint Peter of Cetinje

title: Prince Nicholas Romanov


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User talk:Revertix

Blocked permanently. Mel Etitis ( Μελ Ετητης ) 23:04, 7 Jun 2005 (UTC)

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Conga (music)

The term conga refers to the music groups within Cuban comparsas and the music they play. Comparsas are large ensembles of musicians, singers and dancers with a specific costume and choreography which perform in the street carnivals of Santiago de Cuba, Camaguey, and Havana.

The instrumentation differs between congas santiagueras and congas habaneras. Congas santiagueras include the corneta china (Chinese cornet), which is an adaptation of the Cantonese suona introduced in Oriente in 1915, and its percussion section comprises bocúes (similar to African ashiko drums), the quinto (highest pitched conga drum), galletas and the pilón, as well as brakes which are struck with metal sticks. Congas habaneras lack the corneta china but include trumpets, trombones and saxophones, and they have a different set of percussion instruments: redoblantes (side drums), bombos (bass drums), quinto, tumbadora (the lowest pitched conga drum), and metallic idiophones such as cowbells, spoons, frying pans and rims.

Congas and comparsas have a long history which dates back to the 19th century, with musical traditions being passed down from one generation to the next. The older comparsas are derived from cabildos de nación or other social groups, whereas the later ones, called paseos, are derived from barrios (neighbourhoods). The music of the congas has become a genre itself, being introduced into Cuban popular music in the early 20th century by artists such as Eliseo Grenet and Armando Oréfiche and his Havana Cuban Boys. They have been present for decades in the repertoire of many conjuntos, Cuban big bands and descarga ensembles, also having an influence on modern genres such as salsa and songo. The conga drum, also known in Cuba as tumbadora, took its name from the congas de comparsa.

Origins
The history of the conga (also known as comparsa conga or conga de comparsa) is obscure and its origins remain largely unknown. In the early 19th century, although the word "conga" is not found in written sources, there are references to "tumbas", and, according to Brea and Millet (1993:204), "tumba" refers to the percussion ensemble of the conga. "Tumba" is mentioned in connection with mamarrachos (summer festivals in Santiago de Cuba) as early as 1847 (Pérez I 1988:54). A word that may be synonymous with "tumba" is the word "tango", mentioned as early as 1856 (Pérez I 1988:79). Unfortunately, most 19th-century writers were extremely negative towards Afro-Cuban culture and little information about the tumbas or tangos was recorded.

Relation to Kongo ethnic group
"Congo" was the word used to designate African slaves brought to Cuba from the Congo region of Africa (currently the Republic of the Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Angola). According to the rules of Spanish grammar, "congo" became a masculine noun/adjective and its feminine counterpart was formed by changing final "o" to "a." This Spanish noun/adjective pair has been used in Cuba to designate anything pertaining to the above-mentioned African slaves and their culture. Therefore, some have assumed that "conga" was originally an adjective (as in the expression comparsa conga), and that the comparsa was dropped and conga changed to a noun (del Carmen et al. 2005). However, the word conga may also derive from either "maconga" (song) or "nkunga" (song, sound) in "the language of the Congo" (Ortiz 1924:118).

Ortiz (II 1952-5:34) also states that the drum called bokú (one of the instruments of the conga) is "...typical of the congos." Goodman mentions the “comparsa conga” in conjunction with a carnaval figure known as “el Rey del Congo” (the "King of the Congo”), which seems to confirm a kongo ethnic connection to the conga (Pérez I 1988:104). Also, the word bokú means “drum” in Kikongo (Orovio 1981:58).

Antipathy after independence
In the early years after the establishment of the Republic of Cuba in 1902, there were numerous decrees by successive mayors of Santiago de Cuba banning "African drums and tangos". (Pérez I 1988:177, etc.) Apparently, these decrees were not faithfully enforced:

“In spite of the prohibitive proclamation, the tumbas echoed loudly everywhere, including in the most central and heavily-traveled areas. And together with the raucous and uncouth sound of the African tumba, the well-known arrolladera displayed its contortions.” (Pérez I 1988:254)

According to Pérez,

"“Although the prohibition of African manifestations was reiterated, the comparsas were permitted. In reality, it was just a question of maintaining on paper that which could not really be enforced due to the express desire of the bourgeoisie, to whom these manifestations were a diversion, ‘something colorful’ and amusing.” (Pérez I 1988:179, note 13)"

Debate
Opponents to the conga in print outnumbered defenders. The conga was a thing of the illiterate Afro-Cuban working people, while the writers of editorials and angry letters to the editor were upper-class Hispano-Cubans. One prominent attacker of the conga, and perhaps the most florid in his prose, was the long-time mayor of Santiago, Desiderio Alberto Arnaz II (father of American TV star Desi Arnaz), who expressed the feelings of some upper-class Cubans in a newspaper article of 1925:

“I will have you know that the initial days of our traditional masquerades – which have just passed – have left painful impressions in my mind. Allow me to explain. In every way, the carnival has been a joyful celebration of the soul of the people, an exhibition of good artistic taste, a competition of original ideas, a contest in which thought and action have always vied in giving objective form to the perfect conception of Beauty and towards the noble intent of the dignification of society; Paris, Rome, Venice, Madrid and Havana itself offer in their carnestolendas lessons on how complaisant liberty ought to be used in those periods of fantasy in order to educate the wishes and aspirations of the citizen. But here, in our city, in one of those scientifically inexplicable regressions towards a dark past, certain elements of our commonwealth seem committed – under the pretext of carnaval – to the repugnant task of checking human progress and causing harm to Civilization with their excesses.

I refer to the ‘conga,’ that strident group of drums, frying pans and shrieks, to whose sounds epileptic, ragged, semi-nude crowds run about the streets of our metropolis, and who, between lubricous contortions and abrupt movements, show a lack of respect to society, offend morality, discredit our customs, lower us in the eyes of people from other countries and, what is worse, by their example, contaminate schoolchildren, who I have seen carried away by the heat of the lesson, panting and sweaty, engaging in frenetic competitions in corporal flexibility in those shameful tourneys of licentiousness.” (Pérez I 1988:337)

On the other hand, an opinion poll of 1936 on the conga elicited the following comments: "“…Let the hours, the minutes and the seconds pass as they will, as long as they do so as quickly as possible so that I can slap that bocú... From today, it is only 18 days until the carnaval starts. How it torments me to think that there are still so many days to go; I wish it were tomorrow;... I want you to know... that the sound of the conga nourishes me, the sound of the frying pans gives me life and the sound of the bocú drives me crazy. Several days prior to the beginning of rehearsals, I went to see a doctor; I felt overwhelmed, sad, pensive. He prescribed and gave me some injections, and I felt absolutely no different, but as soon as I heard the sound of the first bocú, I was completely cured, I felt strong and ready for anything. And I advise those who are unhappy and listless to get an invigorating injection of bocú, conga and frying pans and you’ll be OK in 24 hours.” (Pérez II 1988:22-3)"

Conga of Los Hoyos

Los Hoyos is a district in downtown Santiago de Cuba and home to the conga of Los Hoyos. The date of the founding of this conga is unknown, but it was already in existence in 1902 (del Carmen et al. 2005).

At first, the instruments of the group were a pilón, some bocúes, a cowbell and a güiro. Later, two redoblantes were added, the number of bocúes was increased and the cowbell and güiro were replaced by frying pans. Later still, the frying pans were replaced by the campanas (automobile brake drums or other pieces of metal chosen for their distinct sound qualities). Also added were the quinto and the requinto. Los Hoyos first began using a corneta china in 1916 (del Carmen et al. 2005), one year after the instrument was introduced by the conga Los Colombianos from Tívoli.

During the carnaval season, Los Hoyos performs a traditional event known as an "invasión," in which it marches around the streets of Santiago and visits the neighborhoods where the other famous congas are located. This "invasión" commemorates the invasion of the Army of Liberation at the end of the War of Independence. Los Hoyos also closes the traditional parades of the Carnaval of Santiago de Cuba (del Carmen et al. 2005).

Instrumentation

Walter Goodman (1838–1912), an Englishman who lived in Santiago de Cuba from 1864 to 1869, left what may be the earliest written description of the instruments of the conga: “… an odd orchestra composed of drums, frying pans, tin utensils, graters and güiros (Pérez I 1988:102)."

The present-day instruments fall into four categories. First are the campanas (Brea and Millet 1993:181), which are instruments of metal struck with metal beaters. Preferably, brake drums from older model American vehicles (1950s or older) are used. Originally, before brake drums were available, frying pans were used (Pérez I 1988:310, Pérez II 1988:23, etc.) and possibly plow blades as well (Pérez I 1988:106 and 134).

The second category is the bocuses (sing. bocú alt. pl. bocúes), also called fondos ("bottoms")."“The bokú is a single-headed drum, skin nailed to the shell, shell open at one end, long, shaped like a conic section and made of staves with iron hoops that circle them and hold them together. They are heated with fire and played with both hands and no sticks. The musician or bokusero carries the drum on his left side, hung over the shoulder with a strap.” (Ortíz II 1952-5:34)"  Nowadays, the skin is usually held on by a metal hardware system similar to that of the commercial conga drum. Anywhere from four to 16 bocuses are used in one conga (Brea and Millet 1993:179). The bocuses play simple interlocking parts with few variations (however, the sum of the parts results in quite a complex drum melody). A smaller bocú, called a quinto or bocusito, plays complex off-beat figures and improvisations.

According to Ortiz, the bocú was adopted by the conga when African drums were banned in the early years of the Republic."“The fact that the modern Cuban bokú originates and is found only in the cities of Oriente, permits one to suppose that the bokú, with or without exact Bantu morphological antecedents, is an unusual type of drum in Cuba; but was adopted by the Cubans when, upon the prohibition of African drums, they resorted to new types of drums which, due to their unaccustomed appearances, were not imputable to Africans.”(Ortíz II 1952-5:36)"

A third category are the bimembranophone tambores (Brea and Millet 1993:200), mentioned in documents as early as 1916 (Pérez I 1988:217) There are three tambores: one requinto and two galletas. The requinto (Brea and Millet 1993:198), first mentioned in writing as early as 1931 (Pérez II 1988:9), is shaped somewhat like a snare drum- about 50% wider than it is tall. It is hung from the left shoulder with the top of the drum slightly skewed to the left and is played with a stick on the right-hand skin while the left hand mutes or opens the left-hand skin. Its part is simple with few variations. The galletas (also called congas- Orovio 1981:186) are like bass drums, but flatter. They are both played with a stick in a manner similar to the requinto, except that they are hung from the shoulders in such a way that the skins are nearly horizontal to the ground. The higher pitched of the two is called a redoblante (Brea and Millet 1993:197). It measures approximately 2 feet in diameter and 5 inches high. In addition to its basic pattern, there are many floreos (variations) that it can play. The lower-pitched galleta is called a pilón (Brea and Millet 1993:196) or pilonera (Ortíz II 1952-5:242). It measure about 2 inches larger in each dimension than the redoblante. This drum plays a basic pattern with few variations. All three of the drums utilize a metal hardware system for attaching the skins to the drum shells.

As with the bocú, Ortiz asserts that the tambores were not originally used in the pre-Republican congas. “One is soon aware that these congas [galletas], like the drums of the comparsa carabalí, are ‘white’ imitations of drums whose African morphology has been disguised” (Ortíz II 1952-5:242).

The final category includes only one item: the trompetica china or corneta china (literally “Chinese trumpet/bugle”). This double reed instrument, called suona in Chinese, was brought to Havana in the 19th century by Chinese immigrants. It was being used to play traditional Chinese music in the Chinese theaters in Havana's Chinatown, when an Afro-Cuban comparsa named “Los Chinos Buenos” adapted it to use in place of an inspirador ("lead singer"). Although it was very difficult for anyone not standing within ten feet of the inspirador to hear him or her singing during a street performance, the trompetica china, due to its peculiar raucous and nasal sound, could usually be heard by the entire comparsa and its followers. In 1910, the trompetica china was brought to Santiago de Cuba by soldiers of the Cuban army (Ortíz II 1952-5:451). The first conga to incorporate its use was Paso Franco in 1915 (del Carmen et al. 2005). By 1924, it was a well-established feature of the conga (Pérez; I 1988:310). Today, the sound of this instrument is recognized by Cubans as the symbol of the carnavales of Oriente.

Dance
The conga is danced with small sliding steps, advancing alternately. Imagining two measures of time (the traditional time signature for the conga), if the right foot starts on the first eighth note of the first measure, then the left foot steps on the third eighth note of the first measure, the right again on the first eighth note of the second measure, the left on the third eighth note of the second measure, and so on. This basic step is called the "arrollao." The arms are bent at the elbow and swung opposite to the rhythm of the feet (Fernández 1974:91).

There are many variations on the basic step, as well as simple figures such as "kick," "single turn," "cutting sugar cane," "shining shoes," etc.

A common variation on the above variation is to eliminate the tie.

Selected discography

 * Carnaval à Santiago de Cuba; Le Chant du Monde LDX-A-4250
 * Carnaval in Cuba; Folkways Records FW04065 (1981)- this page has samples of different styles of carnaval music, including conga.
 * Santiago: Calles y Congas; Egrem C557 (1996)

title: Conga (music)