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Deinocheirus

Deinocheirus is a genus of large ornithomimosaur that lived during the Late Cretaceous around 70 million years ago. In 1965, a pair of large arms, shoulder girdles, and a few other bones of a new dinosaur were first discovered in the Nemegt Formation of Mongolia. In 1970, this specimen became the holotype of the only species within the genus, Deinocheirus mirificus; the genus name is Greek for "horrible hand". No further remains were discovered for almost fifty years, and its nature remained a mystery. Two more complete specimens were described in 2014, which shed light on many aspects of the animal. Parts of these new specimens had been looted from Mongolia some years before, but were repatriated in 2014.

Deinocheirus was an unusual ornithomimosaur, the largest of the clade at 11 m long, and weighing 6.5 t. Though it was a bulky animal, it had many hollow bones which saved weight. The arms were among the largest of any bipedal dinosaur at 2.4 m long, with large, blunt claws on its three-fingered hands. The legs were relatively short, and bore blunt claws. Its vertebrae had tall neural spines that formed a "sail" along its back. Most of the vertebrae and some other bones were highly pneumatised by invading air sacs. The tail ended in pygostyle-like vertebrae, which indicate the presence of a fan of feathers. The skull was 1.024 m long, with a wide bill and a deep lower jaw, similar to those of hadrosaurs.

The classification of Deinocheirus was long uncertain, and it was initially placed in the theropod group Carnosauria, but similarities with ornithomimosaurians were soon noted. After more complete remains were found, Deinocheirus was shown to be a primitive ornithomimosaurian, most closely related to the smaller genera Garudimimus and Beishanlong, together forming the family Deinocheiridae. Members of this group were not adapted for speed, unlike other ornithomimosaurs. Deinocheirus is thought to have been omnivorous; its skull shape indicates a diet of plants, fish scales were found in association with one specimen and gastroliths were also present in the stomach region of the specimen. The large claws may have been used for digging and gathering plants. Bite marks on Deinocheirus bones have been attributed to the tyrannosaurid Tarbosaurus.

Discovery
The first known fossil remains of Deinocheirus were discovered by Polish palaeontologist Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska on July 9, 1965, at the Altan Ula III site (coordinates: 43.56645°N, 100.48265°W) in the Nemegt Basin of the Gobi Desert. She was part of a Polish group accompanied by Mongolian palaeontologist Rinchen Barsbold during the 1963–1965 Polish-Mongolian palaeontological expeditions, which were organised by the Polish Academy of Sciences and the Mongolian Academy of Sciences. The crew spent July 9–11 excavating the specimen and loading it onto a vehicle. A 1968 report by Kielan-Jaworowska and Naydin Dovchin, which summarised the accomplishments of the expeditions, announced that the remains represented a new family of theropod dinosaur.

The specimen was discovered on a small hill in sandstone, and consists of a partial, disarticulated skeleton, most parts of which had probably eroded away at the time of discovery. The specimen consisted of both forelimbs, excluding the claws of the right hand, the complete shoulder girdle, centra of three dorsal vertebrae, five ribs, gastralia (belly ribs), and two ceratobranchialia. The specimen was made the holotype of Deinocheirus mirificus, named by Halszka Osmólska and Ewa Roniewicz in 1970. The generic name is derived from Greek deinos (δεινός), meaning "horrible", and cheir (χείρ), meaning "hand", due to the size and strong claws of the forelimbs. The specific name comes from Latin and means "unusual" or "peculiar", chosen for the unusual structure of the forelimbs. The Polish-Mongolian expeditions were notable for being led by women, among the first to name new dinosaurs. The original specimen number of the holotype was ZPal MgD-I/6, but it has since been re-catalogued as MPC-D 100/18.

The paucity of known Deinocheirus remains inhibited a thorough understanding of the animal for almost half a century onwards, and the scientific literature often described it as among the most "enigmatic", "mysterious", and "bizarre" of dinosaurs. The holotype arms became part of a traveling exhibit of Mongolian dinosaur fossils, touring various countries. In 2012, Phil R. Bell, Philip J. Currie, and Yuong-Nam Lee announced the discovery of additional elements of the holotype specimen, including fragments of gastralia, found by a Korean-Mongolian team which re-located the original quarry in 2008. Bite marks on two gastralia were identified as belonging to Tarbosaurus, and it was proposed that this accounted for the scattered, disassociated state of the holotype specimen.

Additional specimens
In 2013, the discovery of two new Deinocheirus specimens were announced before the annual Society of Vertebrate Paleontology (SVP) conference by Lee, Barsbold, Currie, and colleagues. Housed at the Mongolian Academy of Sciences, these two headless individuals were given the specimen numbers MPC-D 100/127 and MPC-D 100/128. MPC-D 100/128, a subadult specimen, was found by scientists in the Altan Ula IV locality (coordinates: 43.60152°N, 100.4511°W) of the Nemegt Formation during the Korea-Mongolia International Dinosaur Expedition in 2006, but had already been damaged by fossil poachers. The second specimen, MPC-D 100/127, was found by scientists in the Bugiin Tsav locality (coordinates: 43.90042°N, 99.97265°W) in 2009. It is slightly larger than the holotype, and it could be clearly identified as Deinocheirus by its left forelimb, and therefore helped identify the earlier collected specimen as Deinocheirus. The specimen had also been excavated by poachers, who had removed the skull, hands and feet, but left behind a single toe bone. It had probably been looted after 2002, based on money left in the quarry. Skulls, claw bones and teeth are often selectively targeted by poachers on the expense of the rest of the skeletons (which are often vandalized), due to their saleability. Currie stated in an interview that it was a policy of their team to investigate quarries after they had been looted and recover anything of significance, and that finding any new Deinocheirus fossils was cause for celebration, even without the poached parts. A virtual model of Deinocheirus revealed at the SVP presentation brought applause from the crowd of attending palaeontologists, and the American palaeontologist Stephen L. Brusatte stated he had never been as surprised by a SVP talk, though new fossils are routinely presented at the conference.

After the new specimens were announced, it was rumoured that a looted skull had found its way to a European museum through the black market. The poached elements were spotted in a private European collection by the French fossil trader François Escuillé, who notified Belgian palaeontologist Pascal Godefroit about them in 2011. They suspected the remains belonged to Deinocheirus, and contacted the Korean-Mongolian team. Escuillé subsequently acquired the fossils and donated them to the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences. The recovered material consisted of a skull, a left hand, and feet, which had been collected in Mongolia, sold to a Japanese buyer, and resold to a German party (the fossils also passed through China and France). The team concluded that these elements belonged to specimen MPC-D 100/127, as the single leftover toe bone fit perfectly into the unprepared matrix of a poached foot, the bone and matrix matched in colour, and because the elements belonged to an individual of the same size, with no overlap in skeletal elements. On May 1, 2014, the fossils were repatriated to Mongolia by a delegation from the Belgian Museum, during a ceremony held at the Mongolian Academy of Sciences. The reunited skeleton was deposited at the Central Museum of Mongolian Dinosaurs in Ulaanbaatar, along with a Tarbosaurus skeleton which had also been brought back after being stolen. American palaeontologist Thomas R. Holtz stated in an interview that the new Deinocheirus remains looked like the "product of a secret love affair between a hadrosaur and Gallimimus".

Combined with the poached elements, both new specimens represent almost the entire skeleton of Deinocheirus, as MPC-D 100/127 includes all material apart from the middle dorsal vertebrae, most caudal vertebrae, and the right forelimb; MPC-D 100/128 fills in most gaps of the other skeleton, with nearly all dorsal and caudal vertebrae, the ilium, a partial ischium, and most of the left hindlimb. In 2014, the specimens were described by Lee, Barsbold, Currie, Yoshitsugu Kobayashi, Hang-Jae Lee Lee, Godefroit, Escuillié, and Tsogtbaatar Chinzorig. A similar series of events was reported earlier in 2014 with Spinosaurus, another sail-backed theropod which had only been known from few remains since 1912. Poached remains were reunited with specimens obtained by scientists, and Spinosaurus was shown to have been quite different from other spinosaurids. The two cases showed that the lifestyle and appearance of incompletely known extinct animals cannot always be safely inferred from close relatives. By 2017, the Mongolian government had increased its effort to seize poached fossils from collectors and repatriate them, but proving their provenance had become a scientific and political concern. Therefore, a study tested the possibility of identifying poached fossils by geochemical methods, using Deinocheirus and other Nemegt dinosaurs as examples. In 2018, numerous large, tridactyl (three-toed) tracks were reported from the Nemegt locality (discovered in 2007 alongside sauropod tracks). Though the tracks were similar to those of hadrosaurs, no tracks of hadrosaur hands were identified, and since the feet of Deinocheirus are now known to have been similar to those of hadrosaurs, it cannot be ruled out that the tracks were made by this genus.

Description
Deinocheirus is the largest ornithomimosaurian (ostrich dinosaur) discovered; according to the 2014 description, the largest known specimen measured about 11 m long, with an estimated weight of 6.36 t. The two other known specimens are smaller, the holotype being 94% as big while the smallest, a subadult, is only 74% as big. In 2016, Gregory S. Paul presented a higher length estimate of 11.5 m but a lower mass estimate of 5 t. Also in 2016, Asier Larramendi and Molina-Pérez presented a higher length estimate of 12 m and a higher mass estimate of 7 t, and an estimated hip height of 4.4 m. In 2020, Campione and Evans gave a body mass estimate of approximately 6.5 t. When only the incomplete holotype arms were known, various sizes were extrapolated from them by different methods. A 2010 study estimated the hip height of Deinocheirus to be 3.3 - 3.6 m. The weight had previously been estimated between 2 t and 12 t. Enormous sizes were also suggested by comparing the arms with those of tyrannosaurs, even though members of that group did not have large arms in proportion to their body size.

The only known skull, belonging to the largest specimen, measures 1.024 m from the premaxilla at the front to the back of the occipital condyle. The widest part of the skull behind the eyes is only 23 cm wide in comparison. The skull was similar to those of other ornithomimosaurs in being low and narrow, but differed in that the snout was more elongated. The skull bone walls were rather thin, about 6 mm. It had a rounded, flattened beak, which would have been covered by keratin in life. The nostrils were turned upwards, and the nasal bone was a narrow strap that extended up above the eye sockets. The outer diameter of the sclerotic rings in the eyes was small, 8.4 cm, compared to the size of the skull. The lower temporal fenestrae, openings behind the eyes, were partially closed off by the jugal bones, similar to Gallimimus. The jaws were toothless and down-turned, and the lower jaw was very massive and deep compared to the slender and low upper jaw. The relative size of the lower jaw was closer to that of tyrannosaurids than to other ornithomimosaurs. The snout was spatulate (flared outwards to the sides) and 25 cm wide, which is wider than the skull roof. This shape was similar to the snout of duck-billed hadrosaurids.

Postcranial skeleton
Deinocheirus and Therizinosaurus possessed the longest forelimbs known for any bipedal dinosaurs. The holotype forelimbs measure 2.4 m long—the humerus (upper arm bone) is 93.8 cm, the ulna 68.8 cm, and the hand is 77 cm—including the 19.6 cm recurved claws. Each scapulocoracoid of the shoulder girdle has a length of 1.53 m. Each half of the paired ceratobranchialia measure 42 cm. The shoulder-blade was long and narrow, and the deltopectoralis crest was pronounced and triangular. The upper arm (humerus) was relatively slender, and only slightly longer than the hand. The ulna and radius (lower arm bones) were elongate and not firmly connected to each other in a syndesmosis. The metacarpus was long compared to the fingers. The three fingers were about equal in length, the first being the stoutest and the second the longest. Various rough areas and impressions on the forelimbs indicate the presence of powerful muscles. Most articular surfaces of the arm bones were deeply furrowed, indicating that the animal had thick pads of cartilage between the joints. Though the arms of Deinocheirus were large, the ratio between them and the shoulder girdle was less than that of the smaller ornithomimosaur Ornithomimus. The arm bones of Deinocheirus were similar in proportions to those of the small theropod Compsognathus.

Though Deinocheirus was a bulky animal, its dorsal ribs were tall and relatively straight, indicating that the body was narrow. The ten neck vertebrae were low and long, and progressively shorter backwards from the skull. This resulted in a more S-curved neck than seen in other ornithomimosaurs, due to the larger skull. The neural spines of the twelve back vertebrae became increasingly longer from front to back, the last one being 8.5 times the height of the centrum part. This is almost the same as the highest ratio in the neural spines of the theropod Spinosaurus. The neural spines had a system of interconnecting ligaments, which stiffened the vertebral column allowing it to support the abdomen while transmitting the stress to the hips and hindlimbs. Together, the neural spines formed a tall "sail" along the lower back, hips, and base of the tail, somewhat similar to that of Spinosaurus.

All the vertebrae were highly pneumatised by invading air sacs, except for the atlas bone and the hindmost tail vertebrae, and were thereby connected to the respiratory system. The back vertebrae were as pneumatised as those of sauropod dinosaurs, and had an extensive system of depressions. These adaptations may be correlated with gigantism, as they reduce weight. The six vertebrae of the sacrum were also tall and pneumatised, and all but the first one were fused together at the top, their neural spines forming a neural plate. The ilium, the top hip bone, was also partially pneumatised close to the sacral vertebrae. Part of the pelvis was hypertrophied (enlarged) compared to other ornithomimosaurs, to support the weight of the animal with strong muscle attachments. The front hip bones tilted upwards in life. The tail of Deinocheirus ended in at least two fused vertebrae, which were described as similar to the pygostyle of oviraptorosaurian and therizinosauroid theropods. Ornithomimosaurs are known to have had pennaceous feathers, so this feature suggests that they might have had a fan of feathers at the tail end.

The wishbone (furcula), an element not known from any other ornithomimosaurs, was U-shaped. The hindlimbs were relatively short, and the thigh bone (femur) was longer than the shin bone (tibia), as is common for large animals. The metatarsus was short and not arctometatarsalian, as in most other theropods. The claw bones of the feet were blunt and broad-tipped instead of tapered, unlike other theropods, but resembled the unguals of large ornithischian dinosaurs. The proportions of the toe bones resembled those of tyrannosaurs, due to the large weight they had to bear.

Classification
When Deinocheirus was only known from the original forelimbs, its taxonomic relationship was difficult to determine, and several hypotheses were proposed. Osmólska and Roniewicz initially concluded that Deinocheirus did not belong in any already named theropod family, so they created a new, monotypic family Deinocheiridae, placed in the infraorder Carnosauria. This was due to the large size and thick-walled limb bones, but they also found some similarities with Ornithomimus, and, to a lesser extent, Allosaurus. In 1971, John Ostrom first proposed that Deinocheirus belonged with the Ornithomimosauria, while noting that it contained both ornithomimosaurian and non-ornithomimosaurian characters. In 1976, Rhinchen Barsbold named the order Deinocheirosauria, which was to include the supposedly related genera Deinocheirus and Therizinosaurus. A relationship between Deinocheirus and the long-armed therizinosaurs was supported by some later writers, but they are not considered to be closely related today.

In 2004, Peter Makovicky, Kobayashi and Currie pointed out that Deinocheirus was likely a primitive ornithomimosaurian, since it lacked some of the features typical of the Ornithomimidae family. Primitive traits include its recurved claws, the low humerus-to-scapula ratio, and the lack of a syndesmosis. A 2006 study by Kobayashi and Barsbold found Deinocheirus to be possibly the most primitive ornithomimosaur, but was unable to further resolve its affinities, due to the lack of skull and hindlimb elements. A cladistic analysis accompanying the 2014 description of the two much more complete specimens found that Deinocheirus formed a clade with Garudimimus and Beishanlong, which were therefore included in the Deinocheiridae. The resulting cladogram follows below:

The 2014 study defined Deinocheiridae as a clade including all taxa with a more recent common ancestor with Deinocheirus mirificus than with Ornithomimus velox. The three members share various anatomical features in the limbs. The 2014 cladogram suggested that ornithomimosaurians diverged into two major lineages in the Early Cretaceous: Deinocheiridae and Ornithomimidae. Unlike other ornithomimosaurians, deinocheirids were not built for running. The anatomical peculiarities of Deinocheirus when compared to other, much smaller ornithomimosaurs, can largely be explained by its much larger size and weight. Deinocheirids and the smaller ornithomimids did not have teeth, unlike more primitive ornithomimosaurs. In 2020, the deinocheirid Paraxenisaurus from Mexico was named, making it the first member of the group known from North America. Its describers suggested deinocheirids originated in Laurasia (the northern supercontinent of the time) or that they dispersed across polar regions in the Northern Hemisphere, and a similar interchange is also known to have occurred in other dinosaur groups with Asian affinities during the Campanian–Maastrichtian ages. This study also found Harpymimus to be a basal deinocheirid, while placing Beishanlong just outside the group, as a basal ornithomimosaur.

Palaeobiology
The blunt and short hand-claws of Deinocheirus were similar to those of the therizinosaur Alxasaurus, which indicates the long arms and claws were used for digging and gathering plants. The blunt claws of the feet could have helped the animal from sinking into substrate when wading. The robust hind limbs and hip region indicates the animal moved slowly. The large size of the animal may have protected it against predators such as Tarbosaurus, but in turn it lost the running ability of other ornithomimosaurs. The long neural spines and possible tail fan may have been used for display behaviour. Deinocheirus was likely diurnal (active during the day), since the sclerotic rings of the eyes were relatively small in comparison with its skull length. The hand had good mobility relative to the lower arm, but was capable of only a limited flexing motion, unable to close in grasping.

The brain of Deinocheirus was reconstructed through CT scans and presented at the 2014 Society of Vertebrate Paleontology conference. The brain was globular and similar in shape to that of birds and troodontid theropods, the cerebrum was expanded in a way similar to most theropods, and the olfactory tracts were relatively large. The brain was proportionally small and compact, and its reptile encephalization quotient (brain-body ratio) was estimated at 0.69, which is low for theropods, and similar to sauropods. Other ornithomimosaurs have proportionally large brains, and the small brain of Deinocheirus may reflect its social behaviour or diet. Its coordination and balance would not have been as important as for carnivorous theropods.

In 2015, Akinobu Watanabe and colleagues found that together with Archaeornithomimus and Gallimimus, Deinocheirus had the most pneumatised skeleton among ornithomimosaurs. Pneumatisation is thought to be advantageous for flight in modern birds, but its function in non-avian dinosaurs is not known with certainty. It has been proposed that pneumatisation was used to reduce the mass of large bones (associated with gigantic size in the case of Deinocheirus), that it was related to high metabolism, balance during locomotion, or used for thermoregulation.

A bone microstructure study presented at the European Association of Vertebrate Palaeontologists in 2015 showed that Deinocheirus probably had a high metabolic rate, and grew rapidly before reaching sexual maturity. A histological study of a gastralia fragment from the holotype presented at a 2018 conference showed that its internal structure was similar to that of ossified tendons of other theropods. The osteons contained possible canaliculi, which would be the first-known occurrence of such structures in a basal ornithomimosaur. The structure of the periosteum and lack of growth arrest lines suggests that the holotype was a fully grown adult.

Diet
The distinct shape of the skull shows that Deinocheirus had a more specialised diet than other ornithomimosaurs. The beak was similar to that of ducks, which indicates it may have likewise foraged in water, or browsed near the ground like some sauropods and hadrosaurs. The attachment sites for the muscles that open and close the jaws were very small in comparison to the size of the skull, which indicates Deinocheirus had a weak bite force. The skull was likely adapted for cropping soft understorey or water vegetation. The depth of the lower jaw indicates the presence of a large tongue, which could have assisted the animal in sucking in food material obtained with the broad beak when foraging on the bottom of freshwater bodies. More than 1,400 gastroliths (stomach stones, 8 to 87 mm in size) were found among the ribs and gastralia of specimen MPC-D100/127. The ratio of gastrolith mass to total weight, 0.0022, supports the theory that these gastroliths helped the toothless animals in grinding their food. Features such as the presence of a beak and a U-shaped, downturned jaw, are indicators of facultative (optional) herbivory among coelurosaurian theropods. In spite of these features, fish vertebrae and scales were also found among the gastroliths, which suggests that it was an omnivore. Ornithomimosaurs in general are thought to have fed on both plants and small animals.

David J. Button and Zanno found in 2019 herbivorous dinosaurs mainly followed two distinct modes of feeding, either processing food in the gut—characterized by gracile skulls and low bite forces—or the mouth, characterized by features associated with extensive processing. Deinocheirus, along with ornithomimid ornithomimosaurs, diplodocoid and titanosaur sauropods, Segnosaurus, and caenagnathids, was found to be in the former category. These researchers suggested that deinocheirids and ornithomimid ornithomimosaurians such as Gallimimus had invaded these niches separately, convergently achieving relatively large sizes. Advantages from large body mass in herbivores include increased intake rate of food and fasting resistance, and these trends may therefore indicate that deinocheirids and ornithomimids were more herbivorous than other ornithomimosaurians. They cautioned that the correlations between body mass and body mass were not simple, and that there was no directional trend towards increased mass seen in the clade. Furthermore, the diet of most ornithomimosaurians is poorly known, and Deinocheirus appears to have been at least opportunistically omnivorous.

A 2022 article by Waisum Ma and colleagues examined how feeding mechanics varied between different non-bird coelurosaurian groups through finite element analysis, revealing that they all underwent reduction of feeding-related stress in their jaws. They found that Deinocheirus showed different patterns of stress and strain distribution than other ornithomimisaurs, indicating it was a specialized feeder. They suspected Deinocheirus may have reverted to omnivory/carnivory.

Various feeding behaviours were proposed before more complete remains of Deinocheirus were known, and it was early on envisioned as a predatory, allosaur-like animal with giant arms. In their original description, Osmólska and Roniewicz found that the hands of Deinocheirus were unsuited for grasping, but could instead have been used to tear prey apart. In 1970, the Russian paleontologist Anatoly Konstantinovich Rozhdestvensky compared the forelimbs of Deinocheirus to sloths, leading him to hypothesise that Deinocheirus was a specialised climbing dinosaur, that fed on plants and animals found in trees. In 1988, Paul instead suggested that the claws were too blunt for predatory purposes, but would have been good defensive weapons. While attempting to determine the ecological niches for Deinocheirus and Therizinosaurus in 2010, Phil Senter and James H. Robins suggested that Deinocheirus had the largest vertical feeding range due to its hip height, and specialised in eating high foliage. In 2017, it was suggested that the claws of Deinocheirus were adapted for pulling large quantities of herbaceous plants out of water, and to decrease the resistance of water.

Palaeopathology
Osmólska and Roniewicz reported palaeopathologies in the holotype specimen such as abnormal pits, grooves and tubercles on the first and second phalanx of the left second finger that may have been the result of injuries to the joint between the two bones. The damage may have caused changes to the arrangement of ligaments of muscles. The two coracoids are also differently developed. A rib of specimen MPC-D 100/127 shows a healed trauma which has remodelled the bone. In 2012, bite marks on two gastralia of the holotype specimen were reported. The size and shape of the bite marks match the teeth of Tarbosaurus, the largest known predator from the Nemegt Formation. Various types of feeding traces were identified; punctures, gouges, striae, fragmentary teeth, and combinations of the above marks. The bite marks probably represent feeding behaviour instead of aggression between the species, and the fact that bite marks were not found elsewhere on the body indicates the predator focused on internal organs. Tarbosaurus bite marks have also been identified on hadrosaur and sauropod fossils, but theropod bite marks on bones of other theropods are very rare in the fossil record.

Palaeoenvironment
The three known Deinocheirus specimens were recovered from the Nemegt Formation in the Gobi Desert of southern Mongolia. This geologic formation has never been dated radiometrically, but the fauna present in the fossil record indicate it was probably deposited during the early Maastrichtian age, at the end of the Late Cretaceous about 70 million years ago. The rock facies of the Nemegt Formation suggest the presence of stream and river channels, mudflats, and shallow lakes. Such large river channels and soil deposits are evidence of a far more humid climate than those found in the older Barun Goyot and Djadochta formations. However, caliche deposits indicate at least periodic droughts occurred. Sediment was deposited in the channels and floodplains of large rivers.

Deinocheirus is thought to have been widely distributed within the Nemegt Formation, as the only three specimens found have been 50 km apart. The river systems of the Nemegt Formation provided a suitable niche for Deinocheirus with its omnivorous habits. The environment was similar to the Okavango Delta of present-day Botswana. Within this ecosystem, Deinocheirus would have eaten plants and small animals, including fish. It may have competed for trees with other large herbivorous dinosaurs such as the long-necked theropod Therizinosaurus, various titanosaurian sauropods, and the smaller hadrosaurid Saurolophus. Deinocheirus may have competed with those herbivores for higher foliage such as trees, but was also able to feed on material that they could not. Along with Deinocheirus, the discoveries of Therizinosaurus and Gigantoraptor show that three groups of herbivorous theropods (ornithomimosaurs, therizinosaurs and oviraptorosaurs), independently reached their maximum sizes in the late Cretaceous of Asia.

The habitats in and around the Nemegt rivers where Deinocheirus lived provided a home for a wide array of organisms. Occasional mollusc fossils are found, as well as a variety of other aquatic animals like fish and turtles, and the crocodylomorph Paralligator. Mammal fossils are rare in the Nemegt Formation, but many birds have been found, including the enantiornithine Gurilynia, the hesperornithiform Judinornis, as well as Teviornis, a possible Anseriform. Herbivorous dinosaurs of the Nemegt Formation include ankylosaurids such as Tarchia, the pachycephalosaurian Prenocephale, large hadrosaurids such as Saurolophus and Barsboldia, and sauropods such as Nemegtosaurus, and Opisthocoelicaudia. Predatory theropods that lived alongside Deinocheirus include tyrannosauroids such as Tarbosaurus, Alioramus, and Bagaraatan, and troodontids such as Borogovia, Tochisaurus, and Zanabazar. Theropod groups with both omnivorous and herbivorous members include therizinosaurs, such as Therizinosaurus, oviraptorosaurians, such as Elmisaurus, Nemegtomaia, and Rinchenia, and other ornithomimosaurians, such as Anserimimus and Gallimimus.

title: Deinocheirus


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Fluxgate compass

The basic fluxgate compass is a simple electromagnetic device that employs two or more small coils of wire around a core of highly permeable magnetic material, to directly sense the direction of the horizontal component of the Earth's magnetic field. The advantages of this mechanism over a magnetic compass are that the reading is in electronic form and can be digitised and transmitted easily, displayed remotely, and used by an electronic autopilot for course correction.

To avoid inaccuracies created by the vertical component of the field, the fluxgate array must be kept as flat as possible by mounting it on gimbals or using a fluid suspension system. All the same, inertial errors are inevitable when the vessel is turning sharply or being tossed about by rough seas. To ensure directional readings that are adequately stable, marine fluxgate compasses always incorporate either fluid or electronic damping. An alternative is to use a 3-axis fluxgate magnetometer to provide a 3D flux vector, with the magnetic heading derived from the flux on a plane perpendicular to gravity, thus providing immunity from pitching and rolling.

Fluxgate compasses and gyrocompasses complement one another nicely. The fluxgate provides a directional reference that is stable over the long term, apart from changing magnetic disturbances, and the gyrocompass is accurate over the short term, even against acceleration and heeling effects. At high latitudes, where the Earth's magnetic field dips downward toward the magnetic poles, the gyro data can be used to correct for roll-induced heading errors in the fluxgate output. It can also be used to correct for the roll- and heel-induced errors that often plague fluxgate compasses installed on steel vessels.

The fluxgate magnetometer was invented by german physicist Friedrich Förster in 1937, the fluxgate compass was invented by the Eclipse-Pioneer Division of Bendix in 1943.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Fluxgate compass


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Talk:Buick Regal

Splitting the Grand National into it's own page
The Buick Grand National is an incredibly famous and noteworthy car, and the stuff in this article about it can easily be turned into a separate article. I think it is fair to split the Grand National and the GNX into their own seperate article called Buick Grand National. BigSneeze444 (talk) 16:23, 14 October 2022 (UTC)
 * agreed, go for it. - w o lf  21:45, 11 September 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Buick Regal


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List of mayors of Rochester, Minnesota

People who have served as mayor of Rochester, Minnesota.

title: List of mayors of Rochester, Minnesota


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List of songs about Detroit

This list of songs about Detroit contains any songs about or involving the U.S. city of Detroit.

0-9

 * "40 Hour Week" - Alabama
 * "8 Mile" - Eminem
 * "8 Mile Boogie" - Pat Flowers
 * "8 Miles" - Obie Trice
 * "8 Miles And Runnin'" – Jay-Z and Freeway
 * "25th Floor" - Patti Smith
 * "313" - Alley Life

A

 * "A Long Time" - Mayer Hawthorne
 * "Alive in 5D" - Gardens
 * "All American Man" - KISS
 * "All My Life" - Blade Icewood
 * "All Over the World" - ELO
 * "American Bad Ass" - Kid Rock
 * "Amityville" - Eminem, from The Marshall Mathers LP (2000)
 * "Anaconda" - Nicki Minaj
 * "Ancestors" - Oblisk
 * "April in the D" - The Victorious Secrets
 * "RGF Island" - Fetty Wap

B

 * "Baby Come Home" - Kid Rock
 * "Back to Detroit" - Nikki Corvette & the Stingrays
 * "Back to Detroit" - Wayne Kramer
 * "Back to Detroit (Motor City Remix)" - Beatdrum
 * "Backyard War" - Achromatik
 * "Beautiful" - Eminem 2009 rap rock
 * "Belle Isle Players" - Starski & Clutch
 * "Be My Lover" - Alice Cooper (often mistaken as "Detroit City")
 * "The Big Three Killed My Baby" - The White Stripes from The White Stripes (album) 1999
 * "Bitch Please II" - Eminem
 * "Black Day in July" - Gordon Lightfoot (from Canada)
 * "Bless You Boys" - Curtis Gladson and Loren Woods
 * "Blessed St. Anthony" - Ty Stone
 * "Blowing Up Detroit" - John Palumbo
 * "Born in Detroit," The Rockets
 * "Broke in Detroit (Again)" - The Dirtbombs
 * "Broken Man" - The Von Bondies
 * "Buried in Detroit" - Mike Posner

C

 * "Cadillac Assembly Line" - Albert King
 * "Can't Tame The Lion" - Journey
 * "Christmas Eve on Woodward Avenue" - Karen Newman
 * "C-I-T-Y" - John Cafferty & The Beaver Brown Band
 * "City of Boom" - Detroit Most Wanted
 * "Country Grammar" – Nelly
 * "Crank Dat Icewood" - Johnny King

D

 * "Da East" - Niko
 * "The D in Detroit" - The Anniversary
 * "Dancing in the Street" - Martha and the Vandellas (1964) (#2 Billboard Hot 100)
 * "Detroit (Born + Raised)" - André DeJuan, from his upcoming third studio album, I'm Not Me
 * "Detroit" - (from the Disney film, The Happiest Millionaire, introduced by John Davidson)
 * "Detroit" - David Reo
 * "Detroit" - Eddie "Guitar" Burns
 * "Detroit" - Esham (featuring TNT)
 * "Detroit" - Fireworks
 * "Detroit" - Laurent Garnier
 * "Detroit" - Green Concorde
 * "Detroit" - Ian Hunter
 * "Detroit"- Injecting Strangers
 * "Detroit (That's My Home Town)" - Kim Weston
 * "Detroit" - Mogue Doyle
 * "Detroit" - Morgan Geist
 * "Detroit" - Pato Margetic
 * "Detroit" - Primal Scream
 * "Detroit" - Rancid
 * "Detroit" - Red Hot Chili Peppers
 * "Detroit" - Royce Da 5'9"(featuring Travis Barker)
 * "Detroit" - Tyler Childers
 * "Detroit" - Va-Voom
 * "Detroit" - Spring King
 * "Detroit 4 Life" - A.W.O.L.
 * "Detroit 101" - City Squad
 * "Detroit 101" - Esham
 * "Detroit 442" - Blondie
 * "Detroit '67" - Sam Roberts Band
 * "Detroit Blues" - Diana Krall; Vince Benedetti
 * "Detroit Blues" - Tampa Red
 * "Detroit Breakdown" - The Bellrays
 * "Detroit Breakdown" - The J. Geils Band
 * "Detroit Breakdown" - The Gories
 * "Detroit City" - Alice Cooper
 * "Detroit City" - LetricKramer
 * "Detroit City (I Wanna Go Home)" - Bobby Bare (composed by Danny Dill)
 * "Detroit City" - Sonny B
 * "Detroit City" - Texas
 * "Detroit City Blues" - Fats Domino
 * "Detroit, Detroit" - Bugz
 * "Detroit, Detroit" - Erik Koskinen
 * "Detroit Diesel" - Alvin Lee
 * "Detroit Drive" - Eliza Neals
 * "Detroit Girl" - Raphael Saadiq
 * "Detroit Girls" - Starz
 * "Detroit Has a Skyline" - HiFi Handgrenades
 * "Detroit Has a Skyline" - Superchunk
 * "Detroit Iron" - The Darts
 * "Detroit Jump" - Big Maceo Merriweather
 * "Detroit Lady" - Motor City Josh
 * "Detroit, Lift Up Your Weary Head! (Rebuild! Restore! Reconsider!)" - Sufjan Stevens from Michigan (album) 2003
 * "Detroit Michigan" - Ronnie Love
 * "Detroit, Michigan"- Kid Rock from Rebel Soul 2012
 * "Detroit, Michigan" - The Peps
 * "Detroit Moan"- Victoria Spivey
 * "Detroit Murderous" - Big Hoodoo (from the album 'Crystal Skull')
 * "Detroit Niggaz" - Street Lord'z
 * "The Detroit River Dirty Blues" - Michael Katon
 * "Detroit Rock City" - KISS 1976
 * "Detroit Rock City Homage" - Forced Anger
 * "Detroit Special" - Big Bill Broonzy
 * "Detroit Sound" - Soul Designer
 * "Detroit Stand Up" - Ray O'Shea (featuring Big Herk, BO$$, Phohessuain, Esham, Malik (Eddie Kain), Al Nuke & Proof)
 * "Detroit State of Mind - Elzhi
 * "Detroit Style" - A1 People
 * "Detroit Summer" - Obie Trice
 * "Detroit Sunrise"- Dwele neo-soul, 2010
 * "Detroit Swing 66" - Gomez
 * "Detroit Swing City" - Alien Fashion Show
 * "Detroit Thang" - Kid Rock
 * "Detroit Tickets" - Apoptygma Berzerk
 * "Detroit Tin" - The Kursaal Flyers
 * "Detroit Vs. Everybody" - Eminem and others from Shady XV 2014
 * "Detroit was Built on Secrets"- Search the City
 * "Detroit Waves" - Matt Nathanson
 * "Detroit Women" - Stacia Petrie
 * "Detroit Winter - Platinum Pied Pipers (featuring MC Invincible)
 * "Detroit Zoo" - Disco D
 * "Detroiter, Part 2" - Bantam Rooster
 * "Devil's Night" - D12 2001, horrorcore
 * "Devil's Night" - Sonny B
 * "Devil Without A Cause" - Kid Rock
 * "Diet Coke" - Pusha T
 * "Don't Stop Believin'" - Journey ("born and raised in south Detroit")
 * "Don't Shut Em Down" - Flogging Molly
 * "Dog Eat Dog" - Ted Nugent
 * "Dope Job Homeless" - Obie Trice
 * "Detroit Slums" -Back In Spades
 * "Detroit Rock & Roll" - Frijid Pink
 * "Doctor Detroit" - Devo

E

 * "Eastern Market" - Yusef Lateef
 * "Elizabeth Parker" - Dave Caruso

F

 * "forty hour week" - Alabama
 * "Fire Editorial" - The Mountain Goats
 * "For The D" - Guilty Simpson
 * "Foul Mouff" - Paradime (featuring Kid Rock)
 * "Fuck Off" -Kid Rock (featuring Eminem)
 * "From The D" -Eminem, Trick Trick, and Kid Rock
 * "Feel Older Now" - Flo & Eddie

G

 * "Geography" - Lali Puna
 * "Ghetto Zone" - Inner City Posse
 * "Gangster Funk" Prince Vince and the Hip Hop Force
 * "God Bless the USA" – Lee Greenwood
 * "Going Back to Motown" - John Palumbo
 * "Got No Place to Go" - Migrant Kids
 * "Guap" - Big Sean From Hall of Fame 2012
 * "Gone Long Gone" - Frijid Pink
 * "Great Time in Detroit" - Harmonie Park
 * "Gimme Gimme Good Lovin" - Adrenalin

H

 * "Halloween On Military Street" - Insane Clown Posse
 * "Hand Springs" - The White Stripes
 * "Hands Up For Detroit" - Matthew Dear (co-produced by Ghettotech pioneer Disco D)
 * "Happy Dagger - Millions Of Brazilians
 * "Hard Scratch Pride" - Whitey Morgan and the 78's
 * "Heaven" - Uncle Kracker (featuring Kid Rock and Paradime)
 * "Hello, Detroit" - Daniel Boaventura
 * "Hello, Detroit" - Sammy Davis, Jr.
 * "Hello, Detroit" - Sonny Turner
 * "Here At Home (In Detroit City)" - Stony Creek
 * "Hillbilly Highway" - Steve Earle
 * "Hockeytown" - Joe Lynn Turner
 * "Hokus Pocus"- Insane Clown Posse
 * "Horkenbach Blues (Why is Everyone Discriminatin' 'gainst Me?)" - The Dennis Horkenbach Trio
 * "Horribly Horrifying" -Violent J
 * "Hey Now (Motor City) - The Vandalias
 * "Horizontal Bop" - Bob Seger from Against the Wind 1980
 * "Hotel Yorba" - The White Stripes 2001
 * "Home Town" - Big Sean
 * "Hometown" - Mitch Ryder from Naked But Not Dead
 * "Hypnotize (The Notorious B.I.G. song)" - Notorious B.I.G

I

 * "I Am" - Kid Rock
 * "I Am Detroit" - Electric Six
 * "I Care About Detroit" - Smokey Robinson & The Miracles
 * "I Love Detroit" - Amboy Rambler
 * "I Wanna Go Back" - Kid Rock
 * "In Detroit" - Delta Twins ( https://deltatwins.bandcamp.com/track/in-detroit-2 )
 * "In Detroit" ( Featuring TNT ) - Esham
 * "In The City" - Marquise Porter
 * "In Thee" - Blue Öyster Cult
 * "Inmates" - The Good Life
 * "Inner City Blues" - Rodriquez, aka Sixto Diaz Rodriguez
 * "Inner City Blues (Make Me Wanna Holler)" - Marvin Gaye from What's Going On 1971
 * "Intro" - Kid Rock
 * "It's Been A Long Time" - Mayer Hawthorne
 * "It's Still East Detroit to Me" - Kid Rock
 * "It's So Cold in the D" - T-Baby

K

 * "Kill Ya Self" - Trick Trick ( DJ Drama: Welcome To Detroit Gangsta Grillz Edition )
 * "Krack Rocks" ( Featuring Uncle Kracker ) - Kid Rock 1996

L

 * "LafaLetItRock. Bob Segerette Blues" - The White Stripes ( Features names of Detroit streets )
 * "Landing In Detroit" - The Detroit Grand Pubahs
 * "Last Time I Saw Richard, The" - Joni Mitchell
 * "Leaving Detroit" - Roses Are Red
 * "Leaving Detroit" - Eliza Neals
 * "Let It Fly" - Trick Trick ft.Ice Cube
 * "Lighters Up" - Lil' Kim
 * "Lightning Over Detroit" - Richard Madow
 * "Life In The D" - Brendan Benson
 * "Lipstick" - Kip Moore
 * "Live" ( Featuring Esham ) - Kid Rock
 * "The Load-Out" - Jackson Browne
 * "Lose Yourself" - Eminem from 8 Mile, 2002, video shows the Ambassador Bridge
 * "Love For My City" - Blade Icewood ft. Juan & Jesse James
 * "Line #7" - Dierks Bentley

M

 * "Made in Hockeytown" - Red Wings - Paul Shonk http://www.paulshonk.com/
 * "Man From Detroit" - Hard Place
 * "Moths And Lizards In Detroit" - Andy Roberts
 * "Michigan & Trumbull" - The Original Brothers and Sisters of Love
 * "Motor City" - The Satintones
 * "Motor City" - Randy Weeks
 * "Motor City Baby" - The Dirtbombs
 * "Motor City Boogie" - York Brothers
 * "Motor City Girl" - The Badways
 * "Motor City Is Burning" - MC5; John Lee Hooker
 * "Motor City Madhouse" - Ted Nugent 1975
 * "Motor City Serenade" - Stewart Francke
 * "Motortown" - Kane Gang
 * "M.O.T.O.W.N. ( Murderous Outcold Town Of Wild Niggaz )" - Big Herk
 * "Motown Country" - CURTICE/MARKLEY & Motown Station
 * "Motown Music" - Rod Stewart 1991 (#10 on Billboard Hot 100)
 * "Motown Junk" - Manic Street Preachers (Welsh band)
 * "Motown Never Sounded So Good" - Less Than Jake
 * ”Movin’ Along (A Song For Detroit)” - Alma Smith
 * "Move To Detroit" - Eddie "Flashin" Fowlkes
 * "Murder City Nights" - Radio Birdman

N

 * "Need Somebody" - Subdudes
 * "New Detroit" - Neon Blonde
 * "Nobody in Detroit" - Howling Diablos
 * "New Nathans Detroit"- Braid (band)
 * "Northern Soul"- Above and Beyond (band)

O

 * "Ode To Detroit" - Wally Pleasant
 * "The Old Stuff" - Garth Brooks
 * "One Piece At A Time" - Johnny Cash
 * ”One Woman Army - Porcelain Black
 * "One Way Out" - thenewno2
 * "Out" - Insane Clown Posse

P

 * "Paid" - Kid Rock
 * "Panic In Detroit" - David Bowie
 * "Papa Hobo" - Paul Simon
 * "Party on 4th Street" - Black Nasty (available on the "Funky Funky Detroit" compilation)
 * "Passport to Detroit" - Joe Strummer
 * "Put Your Hands Up 4 Detroit" - Fedde Le Grand (#1 UK Singles Chart)
 * "Planet of Visions" - Kraftwerk
 * "Please II" - Eminem
 * "Posse On Verner* - Insane Clown Posse
 * "the Power's Out" -Flogging Molly
 * "Peacemaker" - Green Day (The song is part of a rock opera album which takes place in Detroit. The lyric "I am a killjoy, from Detroit"). 21st Century Breakdown
 * "Pride of the Wolverines" - John Philip Sousa

Q

 * "Queen of Detroit" - +/- (band)

R

 * 'Rainin in Detroit" - Eliza Neals
 * "Renaissance State of Mind" - Ro Spit & Monica Blaire
 * "Represent" - Stretch Money
 * "Reputation" - Apollo Brown & Guilty Simpson
 * "Ride" - Royce Da 5'9" ft. Big Herk & Juan
 * "Rise Again" - Hush
 * "Rock City" - Royce da 5'9" featuring Eminem
 * "Rock & Roll (The Velvet Underground song)" - Detroit (band)
 * "Rock N Roll Jesus" - Kid Rock
 * "Roll On (Kid Rock song)" - Kid Rock 2008
 * "Rollin' On The Island" ( Featuring Wes Chill And Prince Vince ) - Kid Rock
 * "Rose Darling" - Steely Dan

S

 * "So Detroit"- Slight Return feat. The A.I. Fam wsg Tony "T Money" Green
 * "Say Nice Things About Detroit" - They Might Be Giants
 * "Son Of Detroit" - Kid Rock
 * "South Telegraph Rd" - Amboy Rambler
 * "Second Home" - Big A
 * "Seized Up" - The Suicide Machines
 * "Shake That" - Eminem feat. Nate Dogg
 * "Shake Your Detroit Right" - Slight Return feat. George Clinton
 * "Shuttin' Detroit Down" - John Rich
 * "Sister" - Sufjan Stevens
 * "Six Mile Stretch"- Sam Donahue and Ken Meisel
 * "Sleepin Tonight In Detroit"- The Disregarded
 * "So Far..." - Eminem
 * "Son Of Detroit" - Kid Rock
 * "Southwest Song" - Insane Clown Posse
 * "Spaghetti a Detroit" - Fred Bongusto
 * "Straight From The D" - Mr Knox
 * "Stay True To Ya City" - Natas
 * "She Was Hot" - The Rolling Stones

T

 * The D - Slight Return
 * "Take His Life" - Royce da 5'9" & Tre Little
 * "Take Money To Make Money" - Stretch Money
 * "Taking It To Detroit" - The Good Rats -
 * "Telegraph Road" - Dire Straits (from UK)
 * "That's Detroit To Me" - King Gordy
 * "The Arms Forest" - The Hard Lessons
 * "The D In Detroit" - Anniversary
 * "The Fire Inside - Bob Seger
 * "The Girl from Detroit City - Suzi Quatro
 * "The Heart of Rock & Roll" - Huey Lewis & the News
 * "The Smog" - Insane Clown Posse
 * "These Hands (song for Detroit)" - Jason Roseboom
 * "There They Go" - Obie Trice (Featuring Eminem And Big Herk)
 * "This One Or That One" - Tyvek
 * "Tooling For Anus" - The Meatmen (Chorus mentions Detroit and suburban clubs such as, 'Bookies', 'Nunzio's' and 'Menjo's')
 * "Tommy Pays the Rent" - Manolete (Mentions growing up in Michigan and Detroit)
 * "Turn It Up" - Texas Hippie Coalition ("Darling Nikki was from Detroit")

U

 * "U Can Get Fucked Up" - Trick Trick (featuring Goon Sqwad)
 * "Up on Twelfth Street" Sir Mack Rice

W

 * Welcome To The D- Slight Return
 * "W.T.P. (White Trash Party)" - Eminem
 * "We Almost Lost Detroit" - Dale Earnhardt Jr. Jr.
 * "We Almost Lost Detroit" - Gil Scott-Heron
 * "We Almost Lost Detroit" - Natas
 * "We Almost Lost Detroit" - Marquise Porter
 * "Welcome 2 Detroit" - Trick Trick (featuring Eminem)
 * "Welcome 2 The Party" - Kid Rock
 * "Welcome Back To Detroit - Mariner
 * "Welcome To Detroit" - Jay-Dee
 * "Welcome To Detroit" - Eminem
 * "Welcome To Detroit City" - Obie Trice
 * "What I Learned Out On The Road" - Kid Rock
 * "Where My Nigz At ?" - Esham
 * "Where the Money Is Made" Detroit Most Wanted
 * "Wreck Of The Edmund Fitzgerald, The" - Gordon Lightfoot
 * "Worse Than Detroit" - Robert Plant
 * "Who's Afraid of Detroit" - Claude VonStroke

Y

 * "Yellow Brick Road" - Eminem
 * "You Can Make It" - Achromatik feat. Royce da 5'9"
 * "You Never Met A Mother Fucker Quite Like Me" - Kid Rock 2002
 * "You Don't Want None of This" - A.W.O.L

title: List of songs about Detroit


text:
Gene Gotti

Eugene Gotti (born 1946) is an American mobster and the former captain of the Gambino crime family of New York City. He was sentenced to 50 years in prison in 1989 for racketeering and drug trafficking charges; he was released in 2018.

Early life
Gotti was born in the Bronx, New York, in 1946. He was one of 13 children (two had died at birth) of John Joseph Gotti Sr. and Philomena "Fannie" DeCarlo. Gotti's brothers included John Gotti, Peter Gotti, Richard V. Gotti, and Vincent Gotti. All the brothers grew up in East New York, Brooklyn, and became involved with organized crime. John Cummings and Ernest Volkman in Goombata wrote, "He was noted for his inability to comprehend even the simplest statement addressed to him, and people dealing with him learned to speak slowly and repeatedly." He attended Franklin K. Lane High School with the other Gotti brothers. Gotti and his wife Rosalie have three children and eight grandchildren; his family home is in Valley Stream, New York.

Around 1966, Gotti became an associate with the Gambino family. In 1969, Gotti was convicted of theft from an interstate shipment and was sent to federal prison for three months. In 1973, Gotti was convicted in state court of illegal possession of a firearm and was sentenced to 18 months in state prison.

Criminal life
Gene became a made man in 1976, working with his brother, John, in his South Ozone Park crew.

Gotti carried out truck hijackings at Idlewild Airport (subsequently renamed John F. Kennedy International Airport) together with his brother John and friend Angelo Ruggiero. In August 1983, Ruggiero and Gotti were arrested for dealing heroin, based primarily on recordings from a bug in Ruggiero's house. Boss Paul Castellano, who had banned made men from his family from dealing drugs under threat of death, demanded transcripts of the tapes, and, when Ruggiero refused, threatened to demote his brother John.

In late 1986 Gotti took over the crew, when Ruggiero was demoted.

On March 13, 1987, Gene Gotti, his brother John and others, were acquitted on federal charges of loansharking, illegal gambling, murder, and armed hijackings.

Prison and release
Later in 1987, Gotti and John Carneglia went to trial on the 1983 federal charges of narcotics trafficking, obstruction of justice, racketeering, and operating a continuing criminal narcotics enterprise. In January 1988, the judge declared a mistrial on this second case due to government charges of jury tampering. On July 27, 1988, in a retrial, the judge again declared a mistrial because jurors failed to reach a verdict. On May 23, 1989, in his third trial on the 1983 charges, Gotti and Carneglia were convicted of running a heroin distribution ring. On July 7, 1989, Gotti was sentenced to 50 years in prison and fined $75,000, the same penalty given to Carneglia. After his sentencing, the Gambino family demoted Gotti from capo to soldier because he was in prison. His elder brother Peter became new leader of the crew.

Gotti was imprisoned at the Federal Correctional Institution, Pollock, in Pollock, Louisiana, from 1989 to 2018. He was released on September 14, 2018, when he was 71 years old, after serving 29 years of his sentence.

title: Gene Gotti


text:
Stolberg-Stolberg

Stolberg-Stolberg was a county of the Holy Roman Empire located in the southern Harz region. Its capital was the town of Stolberg, now in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. It was ruled by a branch of the House of Stolberg.

In 1429, the County of Wernigerode passed to the Counts of Stolberg, who ruled Wernigerode through a personal union. In 1548, the line was split between a Harz line (Stolberg-Stolberg) and a Rhenish line which had possessions in Rochefort (Stolberg-Rochefort) and Königstein im Taunus (Stolberg-Königstein).

With the death of Count Wolf Georg zu Stolberg in 1631, Stolberg-Stolberg was inherited by members of the Rhenish line. On 31 May 1645, Stolberg-Stolberg was divided between a senior Stolberg-Wernigerode line and a junior Stolberg-Stolberg line. In 1706, Stolberg-Stolberg divided again, with Stolberg-Rossla being created.

Stolberg-Stolberg was forced to recognize the suzerainty of the Electorate of Saxony in 1738. It was awarded to the Kingdom of Prussia in the 1815 Congress of Vienna.

The children of Fürsten and Erbprinzen zu Stolberg-Wernigerode bore the title of Prince[ss] (Prinz[essin]) zu Stolberg-Wernigerode and were styled Serene Highness. Other members of this line bore the title of Count[ess] (Graf/Gräfin) zu Stolberg-Wernigerode, with the style of Illustrious Highness.

Counts of Stolberg-Stolberg

 * Christoph Friedrich (1704-1738)
 * Christoph Ludwig II (1738-1761), son
 * Karl Ludwig (1761-1815), son, mediatised in 1803
 * Joseph (1815-1839), son
 * Alfred (1839-1903), Fürst from 1893 on

Princes of Stolberg-Stolberg

 * Alfred, 1st Prince 1893-1903 (1820-1903)
 * Wolffgang, 2nd Prince 1903 (1849-1903)
 * Wolff-Heinrich, 3rd Prince 1903-1972 (1903-1972)
 * Jost-Christian, 4th Prince 1972-present (b.1940)
 * Christoph, Hereditary Prince of Stolberg-Stolberg (b.1982)
 * Prince Heinrich-Victor (b.1986)

title: Stolberg-Stolberg