text:
Nuclear fuel

Nuclear fuel is material used in nuclear power stations to produce heat to power turbines. Heat is created when nuclear fuel undergoes nuclear fission. Nuclear fuel has the highest energy density of all practical fuel sources. The processes involved in mining, refining, purifying, using, and disposing of nuclear fuel are collectively known as the nuclear fuel cycle.

Most nuclear fuels contain heavy fissile actinide elements that are capable of undergoing and sustaining nuclear fission. The three most relevant fissile isotopes are uranium-233, uranium-235 and plutonium-239. When the unstable nuclei of these atoms are hit by a slow-moving neutron, they frequently split, creating two daughter nuclei and two or three more neutrons. In that case, the neutrons released go on to split more nuclei. This creates a self-sustaining chain reaction that is controlled in a nuclear reactor, or uncontrolled in a nuclear weapon. Alternatively, if the nucleus absorbs the neutron without splitting, it creates a heavier nucleus with one additional neutron. Not all types of nuclear fuels create power from nuclear fission; plutonium-238 and some other isotopes are used to produce small amounts of nuclear power by radioactive decay in radioisotope thermoelectric generators and other types of atomic batteries.

Oxide fuel
For fission reactors, the fuel (typically based on uranium) is usually based on the metal oxide; the oxides are used rather than the metals themselves because the oxide melting point is much higher than that of the metal and because it cannot burn, being already in the oxidized state.

Uranium dioxide
Uranium dioxide is a black semiconducting solid. It can be made by heating uranyl nitrate to form.

 * UO2(NO3)2 * 6 H2O -> UO2 + 2 NO2 + ½ O2 + 6 H2O (g)

This is then converted by heating with hydrogen to form UO2. It can be made from enriched uranium hexafluoride by reacting with ammonia to form a solid called ammonium diuranate, (NH4)2U2O7. This is then heated (calcined) to form and U3O8 which is then converted by heating with hydrogen or ammonia to form UO2. The UO2 is mixed with an organic binder and pressed into pellets. The pellets are then fired at a much higher temperature (in hydrogen or argon) to sinter the solid. The aim is to form a dense solid which has few pores.

The thermal conductivity of uranium dioxide is very low compared with that of zirconium metal, and it goes down as the temperature goes up. Corrosion of uranium dioxide in water is controlled by similar electrochemical processes to the galvanic corrosion of a metal surface.

While exposed to the neutron flux during normal operation in the core environment, a small percentage of the ^{238}U in the fuel absorbs excess neutrons and is transmuted into ^{239}U. ^{239}U rapidly decays into ^{239}Np which in turn rapidly decays into ^{239}Pu. The small percentage of ^{239}Pu has a higher neutron cross section than ^{235}U. As the ^{239}Pu accumulates the chain reaction shifts from pure ^{235}U at initiation of the fuel use to a ratio of about 70% ^{235}U and 30% ^{239}Pu at the end of the 18 to 24 month fuel exposure period.

MOX
Mixed oxide, or MOX fuel, is a blend of plutonium and natural or depleted uranium which behaves similarly (though not identically) to the enriched uranium feed for which most nuclear reactors were designed. MOX fuel is an alternative to low enriched uranium (LEU) fuel used in the light water reactors which predominate nuclear power generation.

Some concern has been expressed that used MOX cores will introduce new disposal challenges, though MOX is a means to dispose of surplus plutonium by transmutation. Reprocessing of commercial nuclear fuel to make MOX was done in the Sellafield MOX Plant (England). As of 2015, MOX fuel is made in France at the Marcoule Nuclear Site, and to a lesser extent in Russia at the Mining and Chemical Combine, India and Japan. China plans to develop fast breeder reactors and reprocessing.

The Global Nuclear Energy Partnership was a U.S. proposal in the George W. Bush administration to form an international partnership to see spent nuclear fuel reprocessed in a way that renders the plutonium in it usable for nuclear fuel but not for nuclear weapons. Reprocessing of spent commercial-reactor nuclear fuel has not been permitted in the United States due to nonproliferation considerations. All other reprocessing nations have long had nuclear weapons from military-focused research reactor fuels except for Japan. Normally, with the fuel being changed every three years or so, about half of the ^{239}Pu is 'burned' in the reactor, providing about one third of the total energy. It behaves like ^{235}U and its fission releases a similar amount of energy. The higher the burnup, the more plutonium is present in the spent fuel, but the available fissile plutonium is lower. Typically about one percent of the used fuel discharged from a reactor is plutonium, and some two thirds of this is fissile (c. 50% ^{239}Pu, 15% ^{241}Pu).

Metal fuel
Metal fuels have the advantage of a much higher heat conductivity than oxide fuels but cannot survive equally high temperatures. Metal fuels have a long history of use, stretching from the Clementine reactor in 1946 to many test and research reactors. Metal fuels have the potential for the highest fissile atom density. Metal fuels are normally alloyed, but some metal fuels have been made with pure uranium metal. Uranium alloys that have been used include uranium aluminum, uranium zirconium, uranium silicon, uranium molybdenum, uranium zirconium hydride (UZrH), and uranium zirconium carbonitride. Any of the aforementioned fuels can be made with plutonium and other actinides as part of a closed nuclear fuel cycle. Metal fuels have been used in light-water reactors and liquid metal fast breeder reactors, such as Experimental Breeder Reactor II.

TRIGA fuel
TRIGA fuel is used in TRIGA (Training, Research, Isotopes, General Atomics) reactors. The TRIGA reactor uses UZrH fuel, which has a prompt negative fuel temperature coefficient of reactivity, meaning that as the temperature of the core increases, the reactivity decreases—so it is highly unlikely for a meltdown to occur. Most cores that use this fuel are "high leakage" cores where the excess leaked neutrons can be utilized for research. That is, they can be used as a neutron source. TRIGA fuel was originally designed to use highly enriched uranium, however in 1978 the U.S. Department of Energy launched its Reduced Enrichment for Research Test Reactors program, which promoted reactor conversion to low-enriched uranium fuel. There are 35 TRIGA reactors in the US and an additional 35 in other countries.

Actinide fuel
In a fast-neutron reactor, the minor actinides produced by neutron capture of uranium and plutonium can be used as fuel. Metal actinide fuel is typically an alloy of zirconium, uranium, plutonium, and minor actinides. It can be made inherently safe as thermal expansion of the metal alloy will increase neutron leakage.

Molten plutonium
Molten plutonium, alloyed with other metals to lower its melting point and encapsulated in tantalum, was tested in two experimental reactors, LAMPRE I and LAMPRE II, at Los Alamos National Laboratory in the 1960s. LAMPRE experienced three separate fuel failures during operation.

Non-oxide ceramic fuels
Ceramic fuels other than oxides have the advantage of high heat conductivities and melting points, but they are more prone to swelling than oxide fuels and are not understood as well.

Uranium nitride
Uranium nitride is often the fuel of choice for reactor designs that NASA produces. One advantage is that uranium nitride has a better thermal conductivity than UO2. Uranium nitride has a very high melting point. This fuel has the disadvantage that unless 15N was used (in place of the more common 14N), a large amount of 14C would be generated from the nitrogen by the (n,p) reaction.

As the nitrogen needed for such a fuel would be so expensive it is likely that the fuel would require pyroprocessing to enable recovery of the 15N. It is likely that if the fuel was processed and dissolved in nitric acid that the nitrogen enriched with 15N would be diluted with the common 14N. Fluoride volatility is a method of reprocessing that does not rely on nitric acid, but it has only been demonstrated in relatively small scale installations whereas the established PUREX process is used commercially for about a third of all spent nuclear fuel (the rest being largely subject to a "once through fuel cycle").

All nitrogen-fluoride compounds are volatile or gaseous at room temperature and could be fractionally distilled from the other gaseous products (including recovered uranium hexafluoride) to recover the initially used nitrogen. If the fuel could be processed in such a way as to ensure low contamination with non-radioactive carbon (not a common fission product and absent in nuclear reactors that don't use it as a moderator) then fluoride volatility could be used to separate the produced by producing carbon tetrafluoride. is proposed for use in particularly long lived low power nuclear batteries called diamond batteries.

Uranium carbide
Much of what is known about uranium carbide is in the form of pin-type fuel elements for liquid metal fast reactors during their intense study in the 1960s and 1970s. Recently there has been a revived interest in uranium carbide in the form of plate fuel and most notably, micro fuel particles (such as tristructural-isotropic particles).

The high thermal conductivity and high melting point makes uranium carbide an attractive fuel. In addition, because of the absence of oxygen in this fuel (during the course of irradiation, excess gas pressure can build from the formation of O2 or other gases) as well as the ability to complement a ceramic coating (a ceramic-ceramic interface has structural and chemical advantages), uranium carbide could be the ideal fuel candidate for certain Generation IV reactors such as the gas-cooled fast reactor. While the neutron cross section of carbon is low, during years of burnup, the predominantly will undergo neutron capture to produce stable  as well as radioactive. Unlike the produced by using uranium nitrate, the  will make up only a small isotopic impurity in the overall carbon content and thus make the entirety of the carbon content unsuitable for non-nuclear uses but the  concentration will be too low for use in nuclear batteries without enrichment. Nuclear graphite discharged from reactors where it was used as a moderator presents the same issue.

Liquid fuels
Liquid fuels contain dissolved nuclear fuel and have been shown to offer numerous operational advantages compared to traditional solid fuel approaches. Liquid-fuel reactors offer significant safety advantages due to their inherently stable "self-adjusting" reactor dynamics. This provides two major benefits: virtually eliminating the possibility of a runaway reactor meltdown, and providing an automatic load-following capability which is well suited to electricity generation and high-temperature industrial heat applications.

In some liquid core designs, the fuel can be drained rapidly into a passively safe dump-tank. This advantage was conclusively demonstrated repeatedly as part of a weekly shutdown procedure during the highly successful Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment from 1965 to 1969.

A liquid core is able to release xenon gas, which normally acts as a neutron absorber ( is the strongest known neutron poison and is produced both directly and as a decay product of as a fission product) and causes structural occlusions in solid fuel elements (leading to the early replacement of solid fuel rods with over 98% of the nuclear fuel unburned, including many long-lived actinides). In contrast, molten-salt reactors are capable of retaining the fuel mixture for significantly extended periods, which increases fuel efficiency dramatically and incinerates the vast majority of its own waste as part of the normal operational characteristics. A downside to letting the escape instead of allowing it to capture neutrons converting it to the basically stable and chemically inert, is that it will quickly decay to the highly chemically reactive, long lived radioactive , which behaves similar to other alkali metals and can be taken up by organisms in their metabolism.

Molten salts
Molten salt fuels are mixtures of actinide salts (e.g. thorium/uranium fluoride/chloride) with other salts, used in liquid form above their typical melting points of several hundred degrees C. In some molten salt-fueled reactor designs, such as the liquid fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR), this fuel salt is also the coolant; in other designs, such as the stable salt reactor, the fuel salt is contained in fuel pins and the coolant is a separate, non-radioactive salt. There is a further category of molten salt-cooled reactors in which the fuel is not in molten salt form, but a molten salt is used for cooling.

Molten salt fuels were used in the LFTR known as the Molten Salt Reactor Experiment, as well as other liquid core reactor experiments. The liquid fuel for the molten salt reactor was a mixture of lithium, beryllium, thorium and uranium fluorides: LiF-BeF2-ThF4-UF4 (72-16-12-0.4 mol%). It had a peak operating temperature of 705 °C in the experiment, but could have operated at much higher temperatures since the boiling point of the molten salt was in excess of 1400 °C.

Aqueous solutions of uranyl salts
The aqueous homogeneous reactors (AHRs) use a solution of uranyl sulfate or other uranium salt in water. Historically, AHRs have all been small research reactors, not large power reactors.

Liquid metals or alloys
The dual fluid reactor (DFR) has a variant DFR/m which works with eutectic liquid metal alloys, e.g. U-Cr or U-Fe.

Common physical forms
Uranium dioxide (UO2) powder is compacted to cylindrical pellets and sintered at high temperatures to produce ceramic nuclear fuel pellets with a high density and well defined physical properties and chemical composition. A grinding process is used to achieve a uniform cylindrical geometry with narrow tolerances. Such fuel pellets are then stacked and filled into the metallic tubes. The metal used for the tubes depends on the design of the reactor. Stainless steel was used in the past, but most reactors now use a zirconium alloy which, in addition to being highly corrosion-resistant, has low neutron absorption. The tubes containing the fuel pellets are sealed: these tubes are called fuel rods. The finished fuel rods are grouped into fuel assemblies that are used to build up the core of a power reactor.

Cladding is the outer layer of the fuel rods, standing between the coolant and the nuclear fuel. It is made of a corrosion-resistant material with low absorption cross section for thermal neutrons, usually Zircaloy or steel in modern constructions, or magnesium with small amount of aluminium and other metals for the now-obsolete Magnox reactors. Cladding prevents radioactive fission fragments from escaping the fuel into the coolant and contaminating it. Besides the prevention of radioactive leaks this also serves to keep the coolant as non-corrosive as feasible and to prevent reactions between chemically aggressive fission products and the coolant. For example, the highly reactive alkali metal caesium which reacts strongly with water, producing hydrogen, and which is among the more common fission products.

Pressurized water reactor fuel
Pressurized water reactor (PWR) fuel consists of cylindrical rods put into bundles. A uranium oxide ceramic is formed into pellets and inserted into Zircaloy tubes that are bundled together. The Zircaloy tubes are about 1 cm in diameter, and the fuel cladding gap is filled with helium gas to improve heat conduction from the fuel to the cladding. There are about 179–264 fuel rods per fuel bundle and about 121 to 193 fuel bundles are loaded into a reactor core. Generally, the fuel bundles consist of fuel rods bundled 14×14 to 17×17. PWR fuel bundles are about 4 m long. In PWR fuel bundles, control rods are inserted through the top directly into the fuel bundle. The fuel bundles usually are enriched several percent in 235U. The uranium oxide is dried before inserting into the tubes to try to eliminate moisture in the ceramic fuel that can lead to corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement. The Zircaloy tubes are pressurized with helium to try to minimize pellet-cladding interaction which can lead to fuel rod failure over long periods.

Boiling water reactor fuel
In boiling water reactors (BWR), the fuel is similar to PWR fuel except that the bundles are "canned". That is, there is a thin tube surrounding each bundle. This is primarily done to prevent local density variations from affecting neutronics and thermal hydraulics of the reactor core. In modern BWR fuel bundles, there are either 91, 92, or 96 fuel rods per assembly depending on the manufacturer. A range between 368 assemblies for the smallest and 800 assemblies for the largest BWR in the U.S. form the reactor core. Each BWR fuel rod is backfilled with helium to a pressure of about 3 atm.

Canada deuterium uranium fuel
Canada deuterium uranium fuel (CANDU) fuel bundles are about 0.5 m long and 10 cm in diameter. They consist of sintered (UO2) pellets in zirconium alloy tubes, welded to zirconium alloy end plates. Each bundle weighs roughly 20 kg, and a typical core loading is on the order of 4500–6500 bundles, depending on the design. Modern types typically have 37 identical fuel pins radially arranged about the long axis of the bundle, but in the past several different configurations and numbers of pins have been used. The CANFLEX bundle has 43 fuel elements, with two element sizes. It is also about 10 cm (4 inches) in diameter, 0.5 m (20 in) long and weighs about 20 kg (44 lb) and replaces the 37-pin standard bundle. It has been designed specifically to increase fuel performance by utilizing two different pin diameters. Current CANDU designs do not need enriched uranium to achieve criticality (due to the lower neutron absorption in their heavy water moderator compared to light water), however, some newer concepts call for low enrichment to help reduce the size of the reactors. The Atucha nuclear power plant in Argentina, a similar design to the CANDU but built by German KWU was originally designed for non-enriched fuel but since switched to slightly enriched fuel with a content about 0.1 percentage points higher than in natural uranium.

Less-common fuel forms
Various other nuclear fuel forms find use in specific applications, but lack the widespread use of those found in BWRs, PWRs, and CANDU power plants. Many of these fuel forms are only found in research reactors, or have military applications.

Magnox fuel
Magnox (magnesium non-oxidising) reactors are pressurised, carbon dioxide–cooled, graphite-moderated reactors using natural uranium (i.e. unenriched) as fuel and Magnox alloy as fuel cladding. Working pressure varies from 6.9 to 19.35 bar for the steel pressure vessels, and the two reinforced concrete designs operated at 24.8 and 27 bar. Magnox alloy consists mainly of magnesium with small amounts of aluminium and other metals—used in cladding unenriched uranium metal fuel with a non-oxidising covering to contain fission products. This material has the advantage of a low neutron capture cross-section, but has two major disadvantages:

 * It limits the maximum temperature, and hence the thermal efficiency, of the plant.
 * It reacts with water, preventing long-term storage of spent fuel under water - such as in a spent fuel pool.

Magnox fuel incorporated cooling fins to provide maximum heat transfer despite low operating temperatures, making it expensive to produce. While the use of uranium metal rather than oxide made nuclear reprocessing more straightforward and therefore cheaper, the need to reprocess fuel a short time after removal from the reactor meant that the fission product hazard was severe. Expensive remote handling facilities were required to address this issue.

Tristructural-isotropic fuel

Tristructural-isotropic (TRISO) fuel is a type of micro-particle fuel. A particle consists of a kernel of UOX fuel (sometimes UC or UCO), which has been coated with four layers of three isotropic materials deposited through fluidized chemical vapor deposition (FCVD). The four layers are a porous buffer layer made of carbon that absorbs fission product recoils, followed by a dense inner layer of protective pyrolytic carbon (PyC), followed by a ceramic layer of SiC to retain fission products at elevated temperatures and to give the TRISO particle more structural integrity, followed by a dense outer layer of PyC. TRISO particles are then encapsulated into cylindrical or spherical graphite pellets. TRISO fuel particles are designed not to crack due to the stresses from processes (such as differential thermal expansion or fission gas pressure) at temperatures up to 1600 °C, and therefore can contain the fuel in the worst of accident scenarios in a properly designed reactor. Two such reactor designs are the prismatic-block gas-cooled reactor (such as the GT-MHR) and the pebble-bed reactor (PBR). Both of these reactor designs are high temperature gas reactors (HTGRs). These are also the basic reactor designs of very-high-temperature reactors (VHTRs), one of the six classes of reactor designs in the Generation IV initiative that is attempting to reach even higher HTGR outlet temperatures.

TRISO fuel particles were originally developed in the United Kingdom as part of the Dragon reactor project. The inclusion of the SiC as diffusion barrier was first suggested by D. T. Livey. The first nuclear reactor to use TRISO fuels was the Dragon reactor and the first powerplant was the THTR-300. Currently, TRISO fuel compacts are being used in some experimental reactors, such as the HTR-10 in China and the high-temperature engineering test reactor in Japan. In the United States, spherical fuel elements utilizing a TRISO particle with a UO2 and UC solid solution kernel are being used in the Xe-100, and Kairos Power is developing a 140 MWE nuclear reactor that uses TRISO.

QUADRISO fuel

In QUADRISO particles a burnable neutron poison (europium oxide or erbium oxide or carbide) layer surrounds the fuel kernel of ordinary TRISO particles to better manage the excess of reactivity. If the core is equipped both with TRISO and QUADRISO fuels, at beginning of life neutrons do not reach the fuel of the QUADRISO particles because they are stopped by the burnable poison. During reactor operation, neutron irradiation of the poison causes it to "burn up" or progressively transmute to non-poison isotopes, depleting this poison effect and leaving progressively more neutrons available for sustaining the chain-reaction. This mechanism compensates for the accumulation of undesirable neutron poisons which are an unavoidable part of the fission products, as well as normal fissile fuel "burn up" or depletion. In the generalized QUADRISO fuel concept the poison can eventually be mixed with the fuel kernel or the outer pyrocarbon. The QUADRISO concept was conceived at Argonne National Laboratory.

RBMK fuel
RBMK reactor fuel was used in Soviet-designed and built RBMK-type reactors. This is a low-enriched uranium oxide fuel. The fuel elements in an RBMK are 3 m long each, and two of these sit back-to-back on each fuel channel, pressure tube. Reprocessed uranium from Russian VVER reactor spent fuel is used to fabricate RBMK fuel. Following the Chernobyl accident, the enrichment of fuel was changed from 2.0% to 2.4%, to compensate for control rod modifications and the introduction of additional absorbers.

CerMet fuel
CerMet fuel consists of ceramic fuel particles (usually uranium oxide) embedded in a metal matrix. It is hypothesized that this type of fuel is what is used in United States Navy reactors. This fuel has high heat transport characteristics and can withstand a large amount of expansion.

Plate-type fuel

Plate-type fuel has fallen out of favor over the years. Plate-type fuel is commonly composed of enriched uranium sandwiched between metal cladding. Plate-type fuel is used in several research reactors where a high neutron flux is desired, for uses such as material irradiation studies or isotope production, without the high temperatures seen in ceramic, cylindrical fuel. It is currently used in the Advanced Test Reactor (ATR) at Idaho National Laboratory, and the nuclear research reactor at the University of Massachusetts Lowell Radiation Laboratory.

Sodium-bonded fuel
Sodium-bonded fuel consists of fuel that has liquid sodium in the gap between the fuel slug (or pellet) and the cladding. This fuel type is often used for sodium-cooled liquid metal fast reactors. It has been used in EBR-I, EBR-II, and the FFTF. The fuel slug may be metallic or ceramic. The sodium bonding is used to reduce the temperature of the fuel.

Accident tolerant fuels
Accident tolerant fuels (ATF) are a series of new nuclear fuel concepts, researched in order to improve fuel performance under accident conditions, such as loss-of-coolant accident (LOCA) or reaction-initiated accidents (RIA). These concerns became more prominent after the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in Japan, in particular regarding light-water reactor (LWR) fuels performance under accident conditions.

Neutronics analyses were performed for the application of the new fuel-cladding material systems for various types of ATF materials.

The aim of the research is to develop nuclear fuels that can tolerate loss of active cooling for a considerably longer period than the existing fuel designs and prevent or delay the release of radionuclides during an accident. This research is focused on reconsidering the design of fuel pellets and cladding, as well as the interactions between the two.

Spent nuclear fuel
Used nuclear fuel is a complex mixture of the fission products, uranium, plutonium, and the transplutonium metals. In fuel which has been used at high temperature in power reactors it is common for the fuel to be heterogeneous; often the fuel will contain nanoparticles of platinum group metals such as palladium. Also the fuel may well have cracked, swollen, and been heated close to its melting point. Despite the fact that the used fuel can be cracked, it is very insoluble in water, and is able to retain the vast majority of the actinides and fission products within the uranium dioxide crystal lattice. The radiation hazard from spent nuclear fuel declines as its radioactive components decay, but remains high for many years. For example 10 years after removal from a reactor, the surface dose rate for a typical spent fuel assembly still exceeds 10,000 rem/hour, resulting in a fatal dose in just minutes.

Oxide fuel under accident conditions
Two main modes of release exist, the fission products can be vaporised or small particles of the fuel can be dispersed.

Fuel behavior and post-irradiation examination
Post-Irradiation Examination (PIE) is the study of used nuclear materials such as nuclear fuel. It has several purposes. It is known that by examination of used fuel that the failure modes which occur during normal use (and the manner in which the fuel will behave during an accident) can be studied. In addition information is gained which enables the users of fuel to assure themselves of its quality and it also assists in the development of new fuels. After major accidents the core (or what is left of it) is normally subject to PIE to find out what happened. One site where PIE is done is the ITU which is the EU centre for the study of highly radioactive materials.

Materials in a high-radiation environment (such as a reactor) can undergo unique behaviors such as swelling and non-thermal creep. If there are nuclear reactions within the material (such as what happens in the fuel), the stoichiometry will also change slowly over time. These behaviors can lead to new material properties, cracking, and fission gas release.

The thermal conductivity of uranium dioxide is low; it is affected by porosity and burn-up. The burn-up results in fission products being dissolved in the lattice (such as lanthanides), the precipitation of fission products such as palladium, the formation of fission gas bubbles due to fission products such as xenon and krypton and radiation damage of the lattice. The low thermal conductivity can lead to overheating of the center part of the pellets during use. The porosity results in a decrease in both the thermal conductivity of the fuel and the swelling which occurs during use.

According to the International Nuclear Safety Center the thermal conductivity of uranium dioxide can be predicted under different conditions by a series of equations.

The bulk density of the fuel can be related to the thermal conductivity.

Where ρ is the bulk density of the fuel and ρtd is the theoretical density of the uranium dioxide.

Then the thermal conductivity of the porous phase (Kf) is related to the conductivity of the perfect phase (Ko, no porosity) by the following equation. Note that s is a term for the shape factor of the holes.

 * Kf = Ko(1 − p/1 + (s − 1)p)

Rather than measuring the thermal conductivity using the traditional methods such as Lees' disk, the Forbes' method, or Searle's bar, it is common to use Laser Flash Analysis where a small disc of fuel is placed in a furnace. After being heated to the required temperature one side of the disc is illuminated with a laser pulse, the time required for the heat wave to flow through the disc, the density of the disc, and the thickness of the disk can then be used to calculate and determine the thermal conductivity.

 * λ = ρCpα

 * λ thermal conductivity
 * ρ density
 * Cp heat capacity
 * α thermal diffusivity

If t1/2 is defined as the time required for the non illuminated surface to experience half its final temperature rise then.

 * α = 0.1388 L2/t1/2

 * L is the thickness of the disc

For details see K. Shinzato and T. Baba (2001).

Radioisotope battery
An atomic battery (also called a nuclear battery or radioisotope battery) is a device which uses the radioactive decay to generate electricity. These systems use radioisotopes that produce low energy beta particles or sometimes alpha particles of varying energies. Low energy beta particles are needed to prevent the production of high energy penetrating bremsstrahlung radiation that would require heavy shielding. Radioisotopes such as plutonium-238, curium-242, curium-244 and strontium-90 have been used. Tritium, nickel-63, promethium-147, and technetium-99 have been tested.

There are two main categories of atomic batteries: thermal and non-thermal. The non-thermal atomic batteries, which have many different designs, exploit charged alpha and beta particles. These designs include the direct charging generators, betavoltaics, the optoelectric nuclear battery, and the radioisotope piezoelectric generator. The thermal atomic batteries on the other hand, convert the heat from the radioactive decay to electricity. These designs include thermionic converter, thermophotovoltaic cells, alkali-metal thermal to electric converter, and the most common design, the radioisotope thermoelectric generator.

Radioisotope thermoelectric generator

A radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) is a simple electrical generator which converts heat into electricity from a radioisotope using an array of thermocouples.

238Plutonium has become the most widely used fuel for RTGs, in the form of plutonium dioxide. It has a half-life of 87.7 years, reasonable energy density, and exceptionally low gamma and neutron radiation levels. Some Russian terrestrial RTGs have used 90Strontium; this isotope has a shorter half-life and a much lower energy density, but is cheaper. Early RTGs, first built in 1958 by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, have used 210polonium. This fuel provides phenomenally huge energy density, (a single gram of polonium-210 generates 140 watts thermal) but has limited use because of its very short half-life and gamma production, and has been phased out of use for this application.

Radioisotope heater unit (RHU)
A radioisotope heater unit (RHU) typically provides about 1 watt of heat each, derived from the decay of a few grams of plutonium-238. This heat is given off continuously for several decades.

Their function is to provide highly localised heating of sensitive equipment (such as electronics in outer space). The Cassini–Huygens orbiter to Saturn contains 82 of these units (in addition to its 3 main RTGs for power generation). The Huygens probe to Titan contains 35 devices.

Fusion fuels
Fusion fuels are fuels to use in hypothetical Fusion power reactors. They include deuterium (2H) and tritium (3H) as well as helium-3 (3He). Many other elements can be fused together, but the larger electrical charge of their nuclei means that much higher temperatures are required. Only the fusion of the lightest elements is seriously considered as a future energy source. Fusion of the lightest atom, 1H hydrogen, as is done in the Sun and other stars, has also not been considered practical on Earth. Although the energy density of fusion fuel is even higher than fission fuel, and fusion reactions sustained for a few minutes have been achieved, utilizing fusion fuel as a net energy source remains only a theoretical possibility.

First-generation fusion fuel
Deuterium and tritium are both considered first-generation fusion fuels; they are the easiest to fuse, because the electrical charge on their nuclei is the lowest of all elements. The three most commonly cited nuclear reactions that could be used to generate energy are:

 * 2H + 3H → n (14.07 MeV) + 4He (3.52 MeV)

 * 2H + 2H → n (2.45 MeV) + 3He (0.82 MeV)

 * 2H + 2H → p (3.02 MeV) + 3H (1.01 MeV)

Second-generation fusion fuel
Second-generation fuels require either higher confinement temperatures or longer confinement time than those required of first-generation fusion fuels, but generate fewer neutrons. Neutrons are an unwanted byproduct of fusion reactions in an energy generation context, because they are absorbed by the walls of a fusion chamber, making them radioactive. They cannot be confined by magnetic fields, because they are not electrically charged. This group consists of deuterium and helium-3. The products are all charged particles, but there may be significant side reactions leading to the production of neutrons.
 * 2H + 3He → p (14.68 MeV) + 4He (3.67 MeV)

Third-generation fusion fuel
Third-generation fusion fuels produce only charged particles in the primary reactions, and side reactions are relatively unimportant. Since a very small amount of neutrons is produced, there would be little induced radioactivity in the walls of the fusion chamber. This is often seen as the end goal of fusion research. 3He has the highest Maxwellian reactivity of any 3rd generation fusion fuel. However, there are no significant natural sources of this substance on Earth.
 * 3He + 3He → 2 p + 4He (12.86 MeV)

Another potential aneutronic fusion reaction is the proton-boron reaction:
 * p + 11B → 3 4He (8.7 MeV)

Under reasonable assumptions, side reactions will result in about 0.1% of the fusion power being carried by neutrons. With 123 keV, the optimum temperature for this reaction is nearly ten times higher than that for the pure hydrogen reactions, the energy confinement must be 500 times better than that required for the D-T reaction, and the power density will be 2500 times lower than for D-T.

PWR fuel

 * Picture showing handling of a PWR bundle
 * Picture showing handling of a PWR bundle
 * Picture showing handling of a PWR bundle

BWR fuel

 * Physical description of LWR fuel
 * Links to BWR photos from the nuclear tourist webpage
 * Links to BWR photos from the nuclear tourist webpage

CANDU fuel

 * CANDU Fuel pictures and FAQ
 * Basics on CANDU design
 * The Evolution of CANDU Fuel Cycles and their Potential Contribution to World Peace
 * CANDU Fuel and Reactor Specifics (Nuclear Tourist)
 * Candu Fuel Rods and Bundles
 * Candu Fuel Rods and Bundles

TRISO fuel

 * TRISO fuel descripción
 * Non-Destructive Examination of SiC Nuclear Fuel Shell using X-Ray Fluorescence Microtomography Technique
 * GT-MHR fuel compact process
 * Description of TRISO fuel for "pebbles"
 * LANL webpage showing various stages of TRISO fuel production
 * Method to calculate the temperature profile in TRISO fuel
 * LANL webpage showing various stages of TRISO fuel production
 * Method to calculate the temperature profile in TRISO fuel

QUADRISO fuel

 * Conceptual Design of QUADRISO Fuel

CERMET fuel

 * Thoria-based Cermet Nuclear Fuel: Sintered Microsphere Fabrication by Spray Drying
 * Thoria-based Cermet Nuclear Fuel: Sintered Microsphere Fabrication by Spray Drying

Plate type fuel

 * https://pubs.aip.org/aip/adv/article/9/7/075112/22584/Reactor-Monte-Carlo-RMC-model-validation-and
 * List of reactors at INL and picture of ATR core
 * ATR plate fuel

Fusion fuel

 * Advanced fusion fuels presentation

title: Nuclear fuel


text:
The Enormous Crocodile

The Enormous Crocodile (first published on 1st November 1978) is a British children's story, written by British author Roald Dahl and illustrated by Quentin Blake. A picture book written for younger readers than Dahl's other works, the story tells of a hungry crocodile who aims to eat human children via using various, not-quite-impenetrable disguises.

The accompanying audiobook of The Enormous Crocodile is narrated alternately on the audio cassette and compact disc by Roger Blake and Stephen Fry. The story was adapted into a 1990 TV special by Abbey Home Entertainment and Tempo Video and distributed by Abbey Broadcast Communications.

Synopsis
The story begins in Africa in a large, deep, muddy river, where the big crocodile (the title character) is telling a slightly smaller crocodile, called the "not-so-big one", that he wants to leave his muddy home behind and eat some real human children for his lunch. The small crocodile objects, because real children taste "tough and chewy and nasty and bitter" in his opinion compared to fish, and because of what happened the very last time the large crocodile ever tried to eat human children. The bigger crocodile leaves the big, deep, muddy river anyway, and he announces his intention to first Humpy-Rumpy the hippopotamus on the river bank, then Trunky the elephant in the jungle, then Muggle Wump the monkey in his nut tree, and finally Roly-Poly Bird in his orange tree. Humpy-Rumpy suspects that the large crocodile is "going to do something horrid." Grinning, the big crocodile responds: "I'm going to fill my hungry empty tummy with something yummy yummy yummy yummy!". The four jungle animals are all feeling horrified and disgusted with the big crocodile, thereby insulting him on the spot, hoping that he will fail his task miserably and will himself be killed permanently, after which the reptile himself briefly and unsuccessfully attacks first Muggle-Wump the Monkey in his nut tree and Roly Poly Bird himself in his (newly-built) nest in the orange tree.

First of all, the big crocodile walks over to a coconut tree forest, not far away from an African town, where he cleverly disguises himself as a small coconut tree using several fallen tree branches as well as several fallen coconuts, hoping to eat Toto and Mary, a brother and a sister who both happen to live in the town itself, but he is annoyingly caught by Humpy-Rumpy the Hippopotamus from the muddy river bank, who catches the big crocodile with his giant head, and sends him "tumbling and skidding over the ground".

Next, the big crocodile walks to a children's playground located outside an old school. Using only an abandoned tree branch, (referred to as "a large piece of wood"), the cheeky crocodile disguises himself as a "see-saw", hoping to eat an entire class of children who want to ride on what they think is the "new see-saw" itself, but, despite the school children's teacher telling the children themselves that it is "a rather knobbly sort of a see-saw", he is just disturbed on the spot by Muggle-Wump the Monkey, who tells the whole class of children to "run, run, run" and that the big crocodile is not really a real see-saw and that he just wants to eat them up.

Later on, the big crocodile creeps over to a busy funfair where he eventually sees a "big roundabout", operated only by a human man who he does not at all know. When nobody is nearby, the now hungry crocodile himself cheekily sandwiches himself between a brown lion and a yellow dragon (with a red tongue sticking out of its mouth) hoping to eat a young girl called Jill who wants to ride on him, but he is confronted by Roly-Poly Bird from the jungle, who tells Jill and the children that the big crocodile himself is real and not wooden, hence why he came "from the river" and that he wants to eat them up.

Refusing to give up on his seemingly impossible task, the big crocodile finally goes to "the picnic place" located in a tropical woodland just outside the town which has trees and bushes all around it. When nobody is looking, however, the crocodile picks up a bunch of beautiful coloured flowers with his front legs, and then he arranges it on top of one of the tables in the area. From exactly the same table, the (now very hungry) crocodile sneakily takes away one of the place's long benches and hides the long bench itself in one of the many clumps of bushes in the area before disguising himself as a wooden four-legged bench using all four of his stiff legs, hoping to eat four children, ("two boys and two girls") who are all going out "on a picnic together", but he is annoyingly discovered by Trunky the Elephant from the jungle.

With a chance to save the day, Trunky the Elephant marches through the jungle into the Picnic Place. Once Trunky is standing beside the table with the bunch of coloured flowers on top of it, he angrily picks the big crocodile himself up by his tail with his trunk before telling him that he, the Roly-Poly Bird, Humpy-Rumpy the Hippopotamus and most of all Muggle-Wump the Monkey have "all had quite enough of (his) clever tricks". Then, Trunky starts swinging the big crocodile "round and round in the air" by his tail, slowly at first, then a bit "faster", then a lot faster, and finally very fast, before eventually throwing him up into the sky with his trunk. The dizzy enormous crocodile is sent flying at speed through the air, through Earth's stratosphere, and through the Universe. The crocodile zooms past the Moon, he whizzes past all the other planets, and he goes past the many twinkling stars, before finally, ("with the most tremendous bang",) crashing headfirst into the "hot hot Sun" in the middle of the Solar System, where he becomes "sizzled up like a sausage", killing him once and for all.

2023 Revisions
In February 2023, Puffin Books, a division of Penguin Books, announced they would be re-writing portions of many of Roald Dahl's children's novels, changing the language to, in the publisher's words, "ensure that it can continue to be enjoyed by young readers of all ages today". At least five changes were made in The Enormous Crocodile (1978), including permanently removing the word fat, changing the word ugly to horrid and changing boys and girls to children.

Style and publication date
The Enormous Crocodile is in the style of a picture book in contrast to Roald Dahl's other story books, illustrated by Quentin Blake. It was published on 1 November 1978.

Connections to other Roald Dahl Stories

 * Muggle-Wump the monkey also appears in The Twits in which he is accompanied by a whole family of Muggle-Wumps. A monkey which looks like Blake's illustration of exactly the same character also appears in The Giraffe and the Pelly and Me.
 * The Roly-Poly Bird makes a surprising appearance in The Twits and he can also be seen in Dirty Beasts.
 * A recipe outlining how to make your own edible Enormous Crocodile appears in Roald Dahl's Revolting Recipes.

Adaptations
A musical adaptation of The Enormous Crocodile was staged at Leeds Playhouse from December 2023 to January 2024, as well as in Regent's Park Open Air Theatre, London between mid-May and early June 2024.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: The Enormous Crocodile


text:
Wikipedia talk:Articles for deletion/Ana Lita

 * You Deletionists and Fundamentalist Christians, should stop holding deletion votes, because you think that a page created by me, was created by the organization or person represented. So you Deletionists and Fundamentalists spot a new article, either about Secular Humanism abroad or in Canada as well as an article on the Creation-Evolution debate, understand, that I began the article. You really think a AutoBiography would be a stub? No! Of course not. Lita would known more about herself than just several sentences! Maybe, this article should be merged with the List of Atheists article, but not, I repeat, not be deleted. I known it is hard to consider merging an article if you are a Deletionist, however, it is important to note a UN lobbyist. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 206.45.179.230 (talk • contribs)


text:
User talk:Gabrielarana

Welcome
Hello , and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~~~. Four tildes (~~~~) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. Again, welcome! You (Talk) 20:58, Jun 14, 2005 (UTC)
 * The Five Pillars of Wikipedia
 * How to edit a page
 * Editing tutorial
 * Picture tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

title: User talk:Gabrielarana


text:
Iota Horologii

Iota Horologii, Latinized from ι Horologii, is a yellow-hued star approximately 56.5 light-years away in the Horologium constellation. The star is classified as a G0Vp yellow dwarf (it has previously been classified as G3 and a subgiant [IV]). It has a mass and radius larger than the Sun, and is about 50% more luminous.

In 1999, a planet of the star was discovered. Because the planet orbits in a near Earth orbit, Iota Horologii was ranked 69th in the list of candidates for NASA's planned Terrestrial Planet Finder mission. In 2000, a dust disc was announced around the star, but this was later determined to be an instrumental artifact.

Distance and visibility
Since Iota Horologii is in the minor constellation of Horologium and is quite dim in the sky, it has not been given a traditional name. It lies roughly between the stars Eta Horologii and R Horologii (though it is not close to them in real space).

In its current position, Iota Horologii is closest to the star Chi Eridani (a yellow subgiant), approximately 7 light-years away. The closest planetary systems to Iota Horologii are HD 10647 (a yellow dwarf), approximately 57 light-years away, and Epsilon Reticuli (an orange subgiant), approximately 59 light-years away. Other star systems close to Iota Horologii include Nu Phoenicis and Zeta Reticuli.

Properties
Spectrographic analysis indicates the star must have formed together with the stars of the Hyades cluster (~625 million years ago) but must have slowly drifted away, being presently more than 130 light-years away from its original birthplace. The metallicity of the star matches the abundances found in the Hyades, indicating that the metals (elements heavier than helium) in the atmosphere were not acquired because it engulfed planetary material.

Measurements of magnetic activity with the 1.5 m telescope at Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory show that the star has a 1.6 year magnetic activity cycle which, as of 2010, is the shortest cycle measured so far for a solar like star. The sun by comparison has an 11-year magnetic activity cycle. There may be a second, longer cycle which modulates the 1.6 year cycle.

Planetary system
Iota Horologii b is believed to be Jupiter-sized. The planet's discovery was the result of a survey of forty stars that began in November 1992.

Stability analysis reveals that the orbits of Earth-sized planets located in the planet's trojan points would be stable for long periods of time.

Based on residuals in the radial velocity curve, a planet in an eccentric orbit with a period of approximately 600 days was proposed, but this was not confirmed and it seems likely that the effect was due to activity on Iota Horologii itself.

An astrometric measurement of the planet's inclination and true mass was published in 2022 as part of Gaia DR3.

title: Iota Horologii


text:
User talk:TheVamp

Welcome
Hello , and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~~~. Four tildes (~~~~) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. Again, welcome! You (Talk) 20:59, Jun 14, 2005 (UTC)
 * The Five Pillars of Wikipedia
 * How to edit a page
 * Editing tutorial
 * Picture tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

title: User talk:TheVamp


text:
Frank Hankinson

Frank Edward Hankinson (April 29, 1856 – April 5, 1911) was an American third baseman in the early years of Major League Baseball. He played for the Chicago White Stockings (1878–1879), Cleveland Blues (1880), Troy Trojans (1881), New York Gothams (1883–1884), New York Metropolitans (1885–1887), and Kansas City Cowboys (1888). The Metropolitans and the Cowboys were members of the American Association, while his previous teams were all members of the still-existing National League.

Born in New York City, Hankinson was, for the most part, a third baseman, but over the course of his career he played at every position except catcher; he pitched in 32 games, starting 28 of them. Almost all of his pitching came in 1879 with the White Stockings, when he was 15–10 in 25 starts. He was 16–12 with a solid 2.50 ERA in 266$2⁄3$ innings pitched in his career. Hankinson completed all 28 of his starts, 2 of them shutouts.

In a 10-season career, Hankinson batted .228 with 13 home runs and 344 RBIs. He had 122 doubles and a total of 747 hits in 3272 at bats.

Twenty-four days before his 55th birthday, he died in Palisades Park, New Jersey.

title: Frank Hankinson


text:
User talk:Grant Fletcher

Welcome
Hello , and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~~~. Four tildes (~~~~) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. Again, welcome! You (Talk) 21:01, Jun 14, 2005 (UTC)
 * The Five Pillars of Wikipedia
 * How to edit a page
 * Editing tutorial
 * Picture tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

Cease & Desist
Grant; If you really want to be a good contributor to Wikipedia, excellent! However, I must say, your edit history thus far has been rather troublesome. You must remember to remain NPOV (Non-Point-of-View, or Neutral-Point-of-View) in your edits and VfD referrals. Specifically: things which are important to you (such as "Genetic Wuz") may not be notable in a larger sense, and things which you don't very much care for (such as "List of Ancient Jedi") may actually turn out to be very useful to some, and worthy of encyclopaedic inclusion. If you have any questions, feel free to drop me a line at User_Talk:Jasonglchu. Basically, please examine your actions more carefully, so that you don't put your time into articles that will simply be deleted, or for making motions that will never pass consensus. Cheers, jglc | t | c 16:43, 16 Jun 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Grant Fletcher


text:
NBC Studios (New York City)

NBC Studios are located in the historic 30 Rockefeller Plaza (on Sixth Avenue between 49th and 50th streets) in Manhattan, New York City. The building houses the NBC television network headquarters, its parent NBCUniversal, and NBC's flagship station WNBC (Channel 4), as well as cable news channel MSNBC.

The first NBC Radio City Studios began operating in the early 1930s. Tours of the studios began in 1933, suspended in 2014 and resumed on October 26, 2015. Because of the preponderance of radio studios, that section of the Rockefeller Center complex became known as Radio City (and gave its name to Radio City Music Hall).

Shows produced at NBC Studios New York
Among the shows originating at 30 Rockefeller Plaza (shows taping as of the 2023–2024 season in bold):

Other locations
Some other New York originated programs are/were produced elsewhere in the area, including:
 * Ambassador Theatre, 215 West 49th Street. The theater returned to Broadway use in 1956.
 * Brooklyn Studios, 1268 East 14th Street in Midwood, Brooklyn. Included two studios, used as the filming location of many 1950s color "Spectaculars" such as The Esther Williams Aqua Special, Peter Pan; it is also where The Perry Como Show (1955), Mitch Miller Show (1960s), The Sammy Davis Jr. Show (1960s), Hullabaloo (1965–1966), Kraft Music Hall, Tic Tac Dough (nighttime), The Cosby Show, and Another World were produced. It was the home of CBS's soap opera As the World Turns until the series ceased production in 2010. The studio was equipped for color production when it opened in 1954. In 2000, the facility was sold to JC Studios, which closed in 2014. In June 2015, the building was sold and converted to office and self storage spaces.
 * Center Theatre, 1236 Sixth Avenue. Productions included Texaco Star Theater with Milton Berle, Your Show of Shows (1950–1954), Voice of Firestone). The theater was demolished in 1954 for an addition to 1230 Avenue of the Americas.
 * Century Theater,  932 Seventh Avenue at West 58th Street. Productions included Caesar's Hour with Sid Caesar (1954–1957), Mister Peepers, Treasure Hunt). Leased to Videotape Productions of New York 1958–1961. Demolished in 1962 for construction of an apartment building.
 * Colonial Theater, 1887 Broadway at West 62nd Street. It was the taping location of the original version of The Price Is Right hosted by Bill Cullen, 1953–1963, and  Colgate Comedy Hour. The studio was the first equipped for color production and originated the first color telecast on November 3, 1953. Demolished in 1977.
 * Florida Showcase, second street-front location for The Today Show, 1962-1965.
 * Grumman Studios, Bethpage, New York. Located in the former Grumman Aircraft plant on Long Island. Since 2012, used by NBC for live musicals each December, including The Sound of Music Live, Peter Pan Live, and The Wiz Live.
 * Hudson Theatre, 141 West 44th Street. The original home of Tonight hosted by Steve Allen (1954–1957)). The theater still stands as part of the Millennium Times Square New York hotel and returned to Broadway use in 2017.
 * International Theater, 5 Columbus Circle. The site of shows such as Admiral Broadway Review (1949), it was demolished in 1954 for the New York Coliseum. The Time Warner Center is now on the site.
 * New Amsterdam Roof Garden Theater, 214 West 42nd Street, converted in 1930. The rooftop theater is abandoned, but the main auditorium is used as a Broadway theater.
 * RCA Exhibition Hall. Original home of The Today Show, 1952-1958.
 * Ziegfeld Theatre,  1341 Sixth Avenue at West 54th Street. Shows included The Perry Como Show (from 1956), Concentration (primetime 1961)). It was demolished in 1966 for a 49-story office tower.
 * 67th Street Studios, 101 West 67th Street. The Knickerbocker Beer Show aka The Steve Allen Show on WNBT-TV (1953-1954), the direct predecessor to Tonight Starring Steve Allen, originated from here. Also the site of The Home Show with Arlene Francis (1954-1957) and the primetime version of Concentration (1958). Built in 1949 as "9 Television Square" for WOR-TV, it was leased to NBC from 1953 to 1963. Between 1961 and 1968, it became the Videotape Center, owned by independent production company Videotape Productions of New York. The Reeves Lincoln Square Studios took over the space from 1968 to 1970. In 1970, it became ABC's Studios 18 and 19, the production facility for soap opera All My Children, and One Life to Live, until 1990. The building was demolished in 1995, and the site is now the 50-story Millennium Tower apartment building.
 * Uptown Studios (now Metropolis Studios), 105 East 106th Street at Park Avenue. The first episode of Howdy Doody in 1947 originated here.
 * NBC Universal Network Organization Center, 900 Sylvan Avenue (Route 9W), Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, home of CNBC and CNBC World.
 * WNJU facility in Fort Lee, New Jersey; home of both Telemundo flagship WNJU and WNBC's New Jersey bureau, and former home of CNBC.
 * WNBC-TV's New York Live formerly (LX: NY) was produced in Studio 51 at nearby 75 Rockefeller Plaza, then moved to Studio 3K.

title: NBC Studios (New York City)


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Koara (disambiguation)

 This page is an archive of the proposed deletion of the article below. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page, if it exists; or after the end of this archived section. The result of the debate was keep (no consensus). Mindspillage (spill yours?) 02:31, 25 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Koara (disambiguation)
Are there any other uses for this word other than the one listed? If not this disambiguation page is redundant and should be deleted. Francs2000 | Talk 21:01, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * A quick glance at the page history shows this: (Remove fish since it is spelled "koaro"), I think this merits a delete. Ambush Commander 23:02, Jun 14, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep and re-introduce the fish as a see-also. Even the Karori Wildlife Sanctuary makes this misspelling. If it is a misspelling; "fish koara" gets many more Google hits than "fish koaro", although perhaps the aboriginal Koara are fishermen. —Wahoofive (talk) 23:12, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete pointless dab page. JamesBurns 06:15, 15 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep per Wahoofive.  Grue   17:40, 17 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete per JamesBurns. Radiant_ >|< 19:07, Jun 19, 2005 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be placed on a related article talk page, if one exists; in an undeletion request, if it does not; or below this section.


text:
USS Salinas

USS Salinas (AO-19), a United States Navy Patoka-class oiler replenishment oiler, was laid down for the United States Shipping Board (USSB) as Hudsonian (219592) on 10 April 1919 by the Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Co., Newport News, Virginia; launched on 5 May 1920; accepted by the USSB on 13 May 1920; transferred to the Navy on 29 October 1921; renamed Salinas and designated AO-19 on 3 November 1921; and commissioned at Mobile, Ala., on 16 December 1921.

Service history
Assigned to the Naval Transportation Service, Salinas was initially in commission for only a little over six months. She was decommissioned at Norfolk on 20 June 1922 and remained in reserve until recommissioned at Norfolk on 12 June 1926. The following September, she commenced carrying fuel from naval fuel depots and Caribbean and Texas oil ports to Navy bases and stations on the east and west coasts, in the Caribbean, in the Panama Canal Zone, and, in the late 1920s, to Marine Corps units in Nicaragua. Periodically interrupted for overhauls and fleet exercises; and, in 1938, for a transatlantic run to Britain, she maintained a continuous operating schedule in those areas until late in the 1930s.

Then, with tension increasing in Europe, she confined her operations to runs between Gulf coast and Caribbean oil ports and bases in Cuba and on the east coast. In September 1939, World War II broke out in Europe. Hostilities soon spread across the ocean. The United States commenced neutrality patrols and escort services in the western Atlantic, and Salinas, now armed, shifted her runs further north, and then east, to include bases in Canada and Iceland.

During August 1941, the AO served as station oiler at NS Argentia, Newfoundland. She joined a convoy for Iceland in September. She arrived at Reykjavík early in October and departed that port on 23 October, in ballast, for the mid-ocean meeting point where she rendezvoused with convoy ON 28 on 25 September. From there, the tanker moved west to return to the United States. At 0700 (GCT) on the 30th, her position was 46° 56'N, 37°46'W (about 700 mi east of Newfoundland). Visibility was about 1000 yd. Twelve minutes later, Salinas took a torpedo fired by GERMAN SUBMARINE U-106 commanded by Hermann Rasch, portside, at her number 9 tank. A second torpedo followed, hitting portside at tanks 2 and 3. Salinas settled to near her loaded waterline and remained there.

A submarine was sighted on the surface at 0730, close aboard on the starboard quarter. The U-boat fired three torpedoes, all misses — two ahead, one astern of the damaged oiler — then submerged. Salinas's stern gun opened fire on the disappearing U-boat, possibly hitting it. USS Du Pont (DD-152) then moved in and dropped a string of depth charges on the submarine's estimated position.

Salinas's crew, having suffered no serious injuries (one man was lightly wounded), began to clear the wreckage. Du Pont and USS Lea (DD-118) stood by. At 1150, the oiler's engineering department signaled "ready to proceed", and, at 1155, Salinas' continued westward with Lea as escort. USCGC Campbell rendezvoused with the damaged oiler and her escort on 31 September. USS Cherokee (ATF-66) joined them on 2 November, but her services as a tug were not needed; on the evening of 3 November Salinas reached St. John Bay.

From Newfoundland, Salinas moved south, to Brooklyn, New York, for repairs. Yard work was completed at midnight on 1 April 1942. She left the repair yard on 2 April and departed New York for Chesapeake Bay on 5 April. She arrived at Norfolk on 10 April to take on cargo fuel and miscellaneous cargo; on 17 April she sailed north again. Routed first to Halifax, she joined convoy SC 81 there on 22 April, and continued on to Reykjavík on 23 April, arriving on 8 May. For the next 19 days, she fueled Allied ships in Icelandic anchorages. She moved west on 27 May and arrived at Boston, Massachusetts on 12 June. By July, she was back in Canadian waters to serve as station oiler at Argentia. She put into Sydney, Nova Scotia on 1 August to take on more cargo; on 5 August she headed for Greenland, where she supplied fueling services to units based at Kungnat Bay, Sondrestromfjord, and Tunugdliarfikfjord. On 24 September she returned to Nova Scotia, whence she continued on to New York.

Through 1943, Salinas continued to move petroleum products to bases in the Atlantic provinces and in Greenland. On 9 January 1944, she completed her last run from St. John's to New York, and on 12 January she headed for the Caribbean. Into March, she shuttled fuel from the Netherlands West Indies to Guantanamo Bay, Cuba; then moved south to the Panama Canal. She transited the canal on 19 March, arrived at San Pedro, Los Angeles on 2 April, and sailed for Alaska two days later.

Salinas arrived at Dutch Harbor, Unalaska, Alaska on 17 April 1944. Routed on, she anchored in Massacre Bay, Attu and discharged her first cargo in the Aleutians on 21 April. On that run, she also delivered fuel to Kuluk Bay and Dutch Harbor. Then, in May, she headed for Seattle, whence she shuttled gasoline, oil, diesel fuel, and cargo to the Aleutians until after the end of World War II.

Salinas, ordered inactivated, departed Dutch Harbor for the last time in mid-October. A week later, she arrived at San Francisco where she was decommissioned on 16 January 1946. Her name was struck from the Navy list on 26 February 1946, and she was transferred to the Maritime Commission for disposal on 1 July of the same year. It appears the Salinas was sold to the Hillcone Shipping Company. The Salinas was involved in a minor maritime accident in June 1950, when it was delivering oil to the Time Oil Company docks near the Ballard Locks. The ship ran aground in Shilshole Bay. No reported oil spill was recorded at that time, and the ship was reported taken back to San Pedro, Los Angeles for repairs to its hull plates.

title: USS Salinas


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Symbol of Software Piracy

 This page is an archive of the proposed deletion of the article below. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page, if it exists; or after the end of this archived section. The result of the debate was delete --cesarb 15:28, 24 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Symbol Of Software Piracy
It seems the presented symbol is not what the article claims it to be and as such, the article appears pointless Michał Kosmulski 20:53, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * Merge, I'm pretty sure I've seen these before. Abstain towards a delete, ah wait, that was a copyleft symbol. It's used in an improper context. Ambush Commander 23:03, Jun 14, 2005 (UTC)

 * Merge with what? It's just another stupid and tedious attack on Free Software by an idealogue who represents not to understand the difference between releasing one's own work under a free licence and misappropriating someone else's work. Delete. Ben-w 00:21, 15 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * Delete. Wrong article. Eric119 08:57, 15 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, redirect to software piracy. Radiant_ >|< 19:07, Jun 19, 2005 (UTC)

 * ''The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be placed on a related article talk page, if one exists; in an undeletion request, if it does not; or below this section.