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List of people from Wyoming

This is a list of prominent people who were born in or lived for a significant period of time in U.S. state of Wyoming.

Acting

 * Burnu Acquanetta (1921–2004), actress and model; born in Cheyenne
 * Jim Beaver (born 1950), actor; born in Laramie
 * Jim J. Bullock (born 1955), actor; born in Casper
 * Darren Dalton (born 1965), actor; born in Powell
 * Mickey Daniels (1914–1970), actor; born in Rock Springs
 * Matthew Fox (born 1966), actor; raised in Crowheart
 * Jesse Garcia (born 1982), actor; born in Rawlins
 * Mildred Harris (1901–1944), actress; born in Cheyenne
 * Cecilia Hart (1948–2016), actress; born in Cheyenne
 * Kirby Heyborne (born 1976), actor; born in Evanston
 * Isabel Jewell (1907–1972), actress; born in Shoshoni
 * Michael Pearlman (born 1972), actor; lives in Jackson
 * Jim Siedow (1920–2003), actor; born in Cheyenne
 * Wally Wales (1895–1980), actor; born in Sheridan
 * Larry Wilcox (born 1947), actor; raised in Rawlins

Literature

 * Craig Arnold (born 1967), poet; teaches at the University of Wyoming; lives in Laramie
 * C. J. Box, author of the Joe Pickett series of novels
 * Maxwell Struthers Burt (1882–1954), novelist
 * James A. "Jim" Corbett (1933–2001), writer, philosopher, and human-rights activist; born in Casper
 * Gretel Ehrlich, novelist
 * Joe Clifford Faust, novelist
 * Alexandra Fuller (born 1969), writer, author of Don't Let's Go to the Dogs Tonight; lives in Jackson Hole
 * Kathleen O'Neal Gear (born 1954), writer
 * W. Michael Gear (born 1955), writer
 * Dan Hausel (born 1949), author of several geology books in Wyoming
 * Grace Raymond Hebard (1861–1936), western history writer whose findings regarding Sacajawea and Esther Hobart Morris tend to be challenged by contemporary historians
 * Craig A. Johnson (born 1961), author of the Walt Longmire mysteries; lives in Ucross
 * George Clayton Johnson (1929–2015), co-author of the novel Logan's Run; born in Cheyenne
 * Theodore Judson, science-fiction writer
 * Patricia MacLachlan (1938–2022), children's book writer; her book Sarah, Plain and Tall won the Newbery Medal; born in Cheyenne
 * Rodger McDaniel (born 1948), legislator, attorney, pastor, author of Dying for Joe McCarthy's Sins: The Suicide of Senator Lester Hunt; from Cheyenne
 * Kyle Mills (born 1966), writer; lives in Jackson Hole
 * Florabel Muir (1889–1970), newspaper reporter and columnist; born in Rock Springs
 * Edgar Wilson Nye (1850–1896), journalist and humorist; postmaster of Laramie City in the Wyoming Territory
 * Todd Parr (born 1962), children's book writer, artist, children's television show producer; grew up in Rock Springs
 * E. Annie Proulx (born 1935), writer; author of the short story "Brokeback Mountain"; lives in Wyoming
 * Chip Rawlins, non-fiction writer, outdoorsman; lives in Laramie
 * Tracy Ringolsby, sports writer, born and lives in Cheyenne, fifth generation
 * David Romtvedt, Poet Laureate of Wyoming
 * Owen Wister (1860–1938), writer of Western novels

Music

 * Scott Avett (born 1976), musician; member of The Avett Brothers; born in Cheyenne
 * John Perry Barlow (1947–2018), Grateful Dead lyricist; co-founder of the Electronic Frontier Foundation; retired cattleman; born in Jackson Hole
 * Ronnie Bedford (1931–2014), jazz musician; music professor at Northwest College in Powell
 * Richard Kermode (1946–1996), keyboardist; played with Janis Joplin, Malo and Santana, born in Lovell
 * Chris LeDoux (1948–2005), country music singer-songwriter, bronze sculptor and rodeo champion (professional bareback rider); lived in Kaycee
 * Charlie Martineau, musician
 * Teenage Bottlerocket, punk rock band from Laramie

Television

 * Curt Gowdy (1919–2006), sportscaster; born in Green River
 * Ian James Lee, CNN correspondent; born in Lander
 * Pete Williams, NBC news correspondent; born in Casper

Visual arts

 * Earl W. Bascom (1896–1992), painter, sculptor, "Cowboy of Cowboy Artists", "Dean of Rodeo Cowboy Sculpture"; lived in Rock Springs
 * Elsa Spear Byron (1896–1992), photographer; born in Big Horn; lived most of her life in Sheridan
 * Jackson Pollock (1912–1956), artist; born in Cody
 * Floyd Shaman (1935–2005), sculptor; born in Wheatland
 * Penny Wolin (born 1953), photographer; author of "The Jews of Wyoming: Fringe of the Diaspora" and "Descendants of Light: American Photographers of Jewish Ancestry"; born in Cheyenne

Other

 * Tony Andruzzi (1925–1991), magician; born in Cheyenne
 * Robyn Johnson (born 1985), Miss Wyoming USA 2007
 * Melba Ogle (born 1942), model; born in Cheyenne
 * Lyle Waggoner (1935–2020), actor, sculptor; lives in Jackson

Politics and public office

 * A–G
 * Thurman Arnold (1891–1969), associate judge of the Court of Appeals for the D. C. Circuit
 * Amos W. Barber (1861–1915), Governor of Wyoming (1890–1893)
 * John Barrasso (born 1952), Republican U.S. Senator from Wyoming (since 2007)
 * Frank A. Barrett (1892–1962), U.S. Senator, Representatives, Governor of Wyoming
 * Eli Bebout (born 1946), Republican gubernatorial nominee (2002); member of the Wyoming State Senate (since 2007)
 * Mary Bellamy (1861–1954), first woman elected to the Wyoming Legislature
 * Eliza Stewart Boyd (1833–1912),
 * Bryant Butler Brooks (1861–1944), Governor of Wyoming (1905–1911)
 * Anne Gorsuch Burford (1942–2004), first female administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency; born in Casper
 * Harriet Elizabeth Byrd (1926–2015), first African American elected to the Wyoming Legislature
 * John Allen Campbell (1835–1880), first governor of the Wyoming Territory (1869–1875)
 * Joseph M. Carey (1845–1924), Governor of Wyoming, first U.S. Senator from Wyoming
 * Robert D. Carey (1878–1937), Governor of Wyoming (1919–1923), U.S. Senator (1930–1937)
 * Vincent Carter (1891–1972), U.S. Representative (1929–1935)
 * Cale Case (born 1958), Wyoming state senator from Lander (since 1998)
 * Fenimore Chatterton (1860–1958), Acting Governor of Wyoming (1903–1905)
 * Dick Cheney (born 1941), vice-president of the United States; raised in Casper; lives in Jackson Hole
 * Lynne Cheney (born 1941), member of the American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research; chairwoman of the National Endowment for the Humanities; wife of Dick Cheney; born in Casper
 * Alonzo M. Clark (1868–1952), Governor of Wyoming (1931–1933)
 * Clarence D. Clark (1851–1930), member of the Wyoming constitutional convention, U.S. Representative (1890–1893), U.S. Senator (1895–1917)
 * Tom Coburn (1948–2020), Junior Republican Senator from Oklahoma; born in Casper
 * Henry A. Coffeen (1841–1912), U.S. Representative (1893–1895)
 * Arthur G. Crane (1877–1955), Governor of Wyoming (1949–1951)
 * Patrick Crank, Attorney General of Wyoming (2002–2007)
 * Edward D. Crippa, interim U.S. Senator (1954)
 * Barbara Cubin (born 1946), U.S. Representative (1995–2009)
 * W. G. Curtis, founder and mayor of Torrington; Wyoming State representative
 * Stephen Wheeler Downey (1839–1902), Wyoming territorial government leader; member of the Wyoming congressional convention; University of Wyoming trustee and president
 * Frank Emerson (1882–1931), Governor of Wyoming (1926–1931)
 * Mike Enzi (1944–2021), U.S. Senator (1997–2021)
 * Dave Freudenthal (born 1950), Governor of Wyoming (2003–2011)
 * Nancy Freudenthal (born 1954), judge on the United States District Court for the District of Wyoming
 * Jack R. Gage (1899–1970), Governor of Wyoming (1961–1963)
 * Jim Geringer (born 1944), Governor of Wyoming (1995–2003)
 * Paul Ranous Greever (1891–1943), U.S. Representative (1935–1938); mayor of Cody

 * H–M
 * Clifford Hansen (1912–2009), Governor of Wyoming (1963–1967), U.S. Senator (1967–1978)
 * William Henry Harrison (1896–1990), Republican U.S. Representative from Wyoming (1950s and 1960s)
 * Stanley K. Hathaway (1924–2005), Governor of Wyoming (1967–1975), U.S. Secretary of the Interior (1975)
 * Edgar Herschler (1918–1990), Governor of Wyoming (1975–1987)
 * John J. Hickey (1911–1970), U.S. Senator (1961–1962)
 * Frank O. Horton (1882–1948), U.S. Representative (1939–1941)
 * Lester C. Hunt (1892–1954), Governor of Wyoming (1943–1949); U.S. Senator (1949–1954)
 * John B. Kendrick (1857–1933), Governor of Wyoming (1915–1917), U.S. Senator (1917–1933)
 * Frank E. Lucas (1876–1948), Republican Governor of Wyoming (1924–1925)
 * Cynthia Lummis (born 1954), former Republican member of both houses of the Wyoming legislature and former state treasurer
 * Randall Luthi (born 1953), former Speaker of the Wyoming House of Representatives
 * Max Maxfield (born 1945), Republican secretary of state of Wyoming
 * Rodger McDaniel (born 1948), Democrat, House of Representatives (1970–1976), Wyoming Senate (1976–1980), attorney; author of biography of U.S. Senator Lester C. Hunt (2013)
 * Gale W. McGee (1915–1992), U.S. Senator (1959–1977)
 * John J. McIntyre (1904–1974), U.S. Representative (1941–1943); Wyoming Supreme Court Justice
 * Ron Micheli (born 1948), former Republican member of Wyoming Legislature, former Wyoming Director of Agriculture
 * Leslie A. Miller (1886–1970), Governor of Wyoming (1932–1939)
 * Franklin Wheeler Mondell (1860–1939), U.S. Representative (1895–1897; 1899–1923)

 * N–Z
 * Joseph C. O'Mahoney (1884–1962), U.S. Senator (1934–1953; 1954–1961)
 * John Eugene Osborne (1858–1943), Governor of Wyoming (1892–1895), U.S. Representative (1987–1999)
 * Dana Perino (born 1972), 26th White House Press Secretary
 * DeForest Richards (1846–1903), Governor of Wyoming (1899–1903)
 * William A. Richards (1849–1912), Governor of Wyoming (1895–1899)
 * Edward V. Robertson (1881–1963), U.S. Senator (1943–1949)
 * Teno Roncalio (1916–2003), U.S. Representative (1965–1967; 1971–1978)
 * Nellie Tayloe Ross (1876–1977), Governor of Wyoming (1925–1927), first female governor of a U.S. state
 * William B. Ross (1873–1924), Governor of Wyoming (1923–1924)
 * Tom Sansonetti, Assistant U.S. Attorney General for the Environment and Natural Resources Division of the Justice Department
 * Henry H. Schwartz (1869–1955), U.S. Senator (1937–1943)
 * Bryan Sharratt (1947–2007), member of Clinton administration defense team; Democratic candidate for Congress (1988), having been defeated by Dick Cheney
 * Alan K. Simpson (born 1931), U.S. Senator (1979–1997)
 * Milward L. Simpson (1897–1993), Republican governor and U.S. Senator from Wyoming
 * Mike Sullivan (born 1939), Governor of Wyoming (1987–1995)
 * Patrick Sullivan (1880–1959), Wyoming State Representative (1913–1917)
 * Patrick Joseph Sullivan (1865–1935), mayor of Casper; U.S. Senator (1929–1930)
 * John Thayer (1820–1906), Governor of Wyoming Territory (1875–1878)
 * Craig L. Thomas (1930–2007), U.S. Senator (1995–2007)
 * Edwin Keith Thomson (1919–1960), U.S. Representative (1955–1960)
 * Thyra Thomson (1916–2013), Wyoming Secretary of State (1962–1987)
 * Malcolm Wallop (1933–2011), U.S. Senator (1977–1995)
 * Francis E. Warren (1844–1929), Governor of Wyoming (1890), U.S. Senator (1890–1893; 1895–1929)
 * James G. Watt (born 1938), U.S. Secretary of the Interior (1981–1983)
 * Charles E. Winter (1870–1948), U.S. Representative (1923–1929)
 * John S. Wold (1916–2017), U.S. Representative (1969–1971)

Sportspeople

 * Adam Archuleta (born 1977), professional football player; born in Rock Springs
 * Zane Beadles (born 1986), professional football player; born in Casper
 * Nick Bebout (born 1951), professional football player; played for the University of Wyoming; born in Riverton
 * Jim Benepe (born 1963), professional golfer; born in Sheridan
 * Jacob Bobenmoyer (born 1997), NFL long snapper for the Denver Broncos; Born in Cheyenne
 * Bill Briggs (born 1943), pioneer in ski mountaineering, lives in Jackson Hole
 * Tom Browning (born 1960), MLB pitcher; born in Casper
 * John Buck (born 1980), MLB catcher, born in Kemmerer
 * Karen Budge (born 1949), former World Cup and Olympic alpine ski racer; born in Jackson
 * Jaycee Carroll (born 1983), professional basketball player; born in Laramie
 * Gail Cogdill (1937–2016), professional football player; born in Worland
 * Chris Cooley (born 1982), professional football player; born in Powell
 * Alicia Craig (born 1982), distance runner; born in Gillette
 * Jesseca Cross (born 1975), Olympic athlete; born in Laramie
 * Lance Deal (born 1961), Olympic athlete; born in Riverton; attended high school in Casper
 * Mike Devereaux (born 1963), MLB outfielder; NLCS MVP in 1995 with the Atlanta Braves; born in Casper
 * Boyd Dowler (born 1937), professional football player; born in Rock Springs
 * Aaron Elling (born 1978), professional football player; played for the University of Wyoming; lived in Lander
 * Dick Ellsworth (born 1940), MLB pitcher; born in Lusk
 * Rulon Gardner (born 1971), wrestler; Olympic gold medalist in Greco-Roman wrestling; born in Afton
 * John Godina (born 1972), shot putter; three-time world champion; two-time Olympic medalist; lived in Cheyenne
 * W. Dan Hausel (born 1949), hall-of-fame karate and kobudo grandmaster
 * Jerry Hill (born 1939), professional football player; born in Torrington
 * Bryan Iguchi (born 1973), snowboarder; 1997 X-Games bronze medalist in half-pipe; lives in Jackson Hole
 * James Johnson (born 1987), professional basketball player for the Toronto Raptors; born in Cheyenne
 * Jaelin Kauf (born 1996), Olympic freestyle skier; born in Alta
 * Brett Keisel (born 1978), professional football player for the Pittsburgh Steelers; born in Greybull
 * Mike Lansing (born 1968), MLB infielder; born in Rawlins
 * Nate Marquardt (born 1979), Ultimate Fighting Championship middleweight fighter; born in Lander
 * Bryce Meredith (born 1995), professional MMA fighter, three-time NCAA Division I wrestling All-American and two-time National Finalist; born in Cheyenne
 * Tommy Moe (born 1970), world-class alpine skier; two-time Olympic medalist; member of the National Ski Hall of Fame; lives in Jackson Hole
 * Heather Moody (born 1973), water polo player; two-time Olympic medalist; lived in Green River
 * Jonah Nickerson (born 1985), pitcher for the Oregon State Beavers; born in Casper
 * Brandon Nimmo (born 1993), outfielder for New York Mets; born in Cheyenne
 * Jay Novacek (born 1962), professional football player; played college football at the University of Wyoming
 * Gail O'Brien (1911–1978), professional football player; born in Cheyenne
 * Brady Poppinga (born 1979), professional football player; born in Evanston
 * Chris Prosinski (born 1987), professional football player; born in Newcastle
 * Travis Rice (born 1982), professional snowboarder; co-producer of documentary films That's It, That's All (2008) and The Art of Flight (2011); born and raised in Jackson Hole
 * Ken Sailors (1921–2016), professional basketball player; popularized the jump shot; member of the National Collegiate Basketball Hall of Fame; raised outside Hillsdale, Wyoming; played college basketball at the University of Wyoming
 * Todd Skinner (1958–2006), rock climber; born in Pinedale
 * Rick Sofield (born 1956), MLB outfielder; born in Cheyenne
 * Josef Stiegler (born 1937), world-class alpine skier; three-time Olympic medalist in slalom and giant slalom; lives in Jackson Hole
 * Resi Stiegler (born 1985), alpine skier; born and raised in Jackson Hole
 * John Wendling (born 1983), professional football player; born in Cody
 * Jamila Wideman (born 1975), left-handed point guard basketball player, lawyer and activist
 * Logan Wilson (born 1996), professional football player for the Cincinnati Bengals; born and raised in Casper

Miscellaneous

 * Thurman Arnold (1891–1969), lawyer and judge; born in Laramie
 * Edward L. Baker Jr. (1865–1913), United States Army; recipient, Medal of Honor; born in Laramie County
 * Harold Roe Bartle (1901–1974), lawyer; politician; helped to establish Scouting in Wyoming
 * George T. Beck (1856–1943), politician; businessman; helped William Cody establish the town of Cody
 * "Buffalo Bill" Cody (1846–1917), Old West figure; helped create Cody
 * John Colter (1774–1813), explorer; first white man to set foot in Wyoming
 * Clayton Danks (1879–1970), model cowboy on the Wyoming trademark, the Bucking Horse and Rider; winner of three competitions at Cheyenne Frontier Days
 * Black Elk (1863–1950), heyoka of the Oglala Lakota people
 * Otto Franc (1846–1903), cattle baron and homesteader in the Big Horn Basin
 * Lilian Heath, first female doctor in Wyoming
 * James L. Herdt, Master Chief Petty Officer of the Navy; born in Casper
 * Leonard S. Hobbs (1896–1977), aeronautical engineer and author; won the 1952 Collier Trophy for designing the P&W J57 turbojet engine; born in Carbon County
 * Raymond A. Johnson, aviation pioneer
 * Harold McCracken (1894–1983), creator and director of the Buffalo Bill Historical Center in Cody
 * M. Margaret McKeown (born 1951), U.S. Appeals Court Judge; born in Casper
 * Esther Hobart Morris (1814–1902), appointed first female judge in United States in 1870 to complete the term of a justice who resigned in protest of the Wyoming Territory's passage of women's suffrage
 * Margaret Murie (1902–2003), conservationist; lived in Wyoming
 * John Pedersen, firearms designer who worked for Remington Arms
 * Chance Phelps (1985–2004), soldier; born in Dubois
 * Matthew Shepard (1976–1998), murdered student from the University of Wyoming; born in Casper
 * Jedediah Smith (1799–1831), mountain man, trapper, explorer; first American to get to California from the East
 * Gerry Spence (born 1929), lawyer; born in Laramie
 * Willis Van Devanter (1859–1941), city attorney for Cheyenne; chief judge of Wyoming territorial court
 * Robert R. Wilson (1914–2000), physicist; a group leader of the Manhattan Project; born in Frontier

title: List of people from Wyoming


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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: File:A Bright And Shining Lie.JPG


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User talk:Tommy dockz

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikipedia. It is considered vandalism. If you want to experiment, please use the sandbox. Thank you. Zzyzx11 (Talk) 22:31, 12 Jun 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Tommy dockz


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Fair game (Scientology)

The term fair game is used to describe policies and practices carried out by the Church of Scientology towards people and groups it perceives as its enemies. Founder of Scientology, L. Ron Hubbard, established the policy in the 1950s, in response to criticism both from within and outside his organization. Individuals or groups who are "fair game" are judged to be a threat to the Church and, according to the policy, can be punished and harassed using any and all means possible. In 1968, Hubbard officially canceled use of the term "fair game" because of negative public relations it caused, although the Church's aggressive response to criticism continued.

Applying the principles of "fair game", Hubbard and his followers targeted many individuals as well as government officials and agencies, including a program of covert and illegal infiltration of the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) and other United States government agencies during the 1970s. They also conducted private investigations, character assassination and legal action against the Church's critics in the media. The policy remains in effect and has been defended by the Church of Scientology as a core religious practice.

Starting in the 1980s, for their major branch in Los Angeles, California, the Scientology organization largely switched from using church members in harassment campaigns to hiring private investigators, including former and current Los Angeles police officers. The reason seemed to be that this gave the Church of Scientology a layer of protection in case embarrassing tactics were used and made public.

Background
Scientology's founder, L. Ron Hubbard, said all opposition came from what he called "suppressive persons" (SPs) – which Scientologists claim are "anti-social people who want to destroy anything that benefits humanity." In written policies dating from the mid-1950s, Hubbard told his followers to take a hard line against perceived opponents. In 1955 he wrote, "The purpose of the suit is to harass and discourage rather than to win. The law can be used easily to harass, and enough harassment on somebody who is simply on the thin edge anyway, well knowing that he is not authorized, will generally be sufficient to cause his professional decease. If possible, of course, ruin him utterly".

In his confidential Manual of Justice of 1959, Hubbard wrote "People attack Scientology. I never forget it, always even the score." He advocated using private investigators to investigate critics, who had turned out to be "members of the Communist Party or criminals, usually both. The smell of police or private detectives caused them to fly, to close down, to confess. Hire them and damn the cost when you need to." He said that in dealing with opponents, his followers should "always find or manufacture enough threat against them to cause them to sue for peace. Don't ever defend. Always attack." He urged the use of "black propaganda" to "destroy reputation or public belief in persons, companies or nations."

The Church of Scientology has retained an aggressive policy towards those it perceives as its enemies, and argued as late as 1985 that retributive action against "enemies of Scientology" should be considered a Constitutionally-protected "core practice" of Scientology.

Policy
In 1965, Hubbard formulated the "Fair Game Law", which states how to deal with people who interfere with Scientology's activities. These suppressive persons could be considered "fair game" for retaliation:

"By FAIR GAME is meant, may not be further protected by the codes and disciplines or the rights of a Scientologist."

In other words, a person who attacked the Church would not be protected by the Church or granted the rights of Scientologists in good standing.

In December of that year, Hubbard reissued the policy with additional clarifications to define the scope of fair game. He made it clear that the policy applied to non-Scientologists as well, declaring:

"The homes, property, places and abodes of persons who have been active in attempting to: suppress Scientology or Scientologists are all beyond any protection of Scientology Ethics, unless absolved by later Ethics or an amnesty[...] [T]his Policy Letter extends to suppressive non-Scientology wives and husbands and parents, or other family members or hostile groups or even close friends."

In his Introduction to Scientology Ethics, published in 1968, Hubbard wrote that no Scientologist could be punished "for any action taken against a suppressive person or Group during the period that person or group is 'fair game'."

He made it clear elsewhere in his writings that the policy would be applied to external organizations, including governments, that interfered with Scientology's activities. He told Scientologists:

"If the Internal Revenue Service (in refusing the FCDC non-profit status) continues to act up or if the FDA does sue we can of course Comm Ev them and if found guilty, label and publish them as a Suppressive Group and fair game[...] [N]one is fair game until he or she declares against us."

In a 1967 policy titled Penalties for Lower Conditions, Hubbard wrote that opponents who are "fair game" may be "deprived of property or injured by any means by any Scientologist without any discipline of the Scientologist. May be tricked, sued or lied to or destroyed."

In a policy letter dated July 21, 1968, Hubbard explicitly cancelled these penalties. The new list of Penalties for Lower Conditions now said that someone in a condition of Enemy "(m)ay be restrained or imprisoned. May not be protected by any rules or laws of the group he sought to injure.[...] May not be trained or processed or admitted to any [Scientology organisation]. The same list says that in a condition of Treason, a person, "May not be protected by the rights and fair practices he sought to destroy for others. May be retrained or debarred.[...] Not covered by amnesties." Another policy letter from October that year announces:

"The practice of declaring people FAIR GAME will cease. FAIR GAME may not appear on any Ethics Order. It causes bad public relations. This [policy letter] does not cancel any policy on the treatment or handling of an SP."

Scientology officials have maintained that the fair game policy was rescinded in 1968 because people had misinterpreted it. Spokesmen said that Hubbard's intended meaning was merely that former members could not appeal to Scientology's legal system for support or protection against anyone who might try to trick, sue or destroy them. Sociologist Roy Wallis commented that this interpretation seemed to be "contradicted by the words on the page, and by actions taken against those regarded as enemies of the movement."

The Church continued to pursue an aggressive response to external critics, especially the U.S. Government. The doctrine of "fair game" was a central element of the Guardian's Office's operational policies. The original 1965 "Fair Game Law" is listed as a reference for GO staff in its confidential Intelligence Course, which was later entered into evidence in a U.S. federal court case in 1979. During the case, Church lawyers admitted that "fair game" had been practiced long after its supposed cancellation in 1968.

Hubbard said in a 1976 affidavit that he had never intended to authorize harassment:

"There was never any attempt or intent on my part by the writing of these policies (or any others for that fact), to authorise illegal or harassment type acts against anyone.

As soon as it became apparent to me that the concept of 'fair game' as described above was being misinterpreted by the uninformed, to mean the granting of a license to Scientologists for acts in violation of the law and/or other standards of decency, these policies were cancelled."

As revised in 1991, Scientology's policy on the handling of "suppressive persons" states:

"Nothing in this policy letter shall ever or under any circumstances justify any violation of the laws of the land or intentional legal wrongs. Any such offense shall subject the offender to penalties prescribed by law as well as to ethics and justice actions."

In practice
An "Ethics Order" dating from March 6, 1968, issued by L. Ron Hubbard aboard his boat the Royal Scotsman, lists twelve Scientologists who were accused of distributing altered versions of upper level materials. Hubbard writes "They are fair game. No amnesty may ever cover them.[...] Any Sea Org member contacting them is to use Auditing Process R2-45." The R2-45 Auditing Process consists of shooting a person with the intent to kill them.

It later emerged that "fair game" had actually continued in use until at least 1980, despite its cancellation, and there have been frequent allegations that it has remained in force since then. During the 1970s the Guardian's Office (GO) of the Church of Scientology, headed by Hubbard's wife Mary Sue, conducted a wide-ranging and systematic series of espionage and intimidation operations against perceived enemies of Scientology. (See Operation Freakout for a noteworthy example.)

According to an American Lawyer investigation, "fair game" tactics had been used to force the withdrawal of the presiding judge in an attempt to "throw" the case. As the US Government's attorneys put it:

"Defendants, through one of their attorneys, have stated that the fair game policy continued in effect well after the indictment in this case and the conviction of the first nine co-defendants. Defendants claim that the policy was abrogated by the Church's Board of Directors in late July or early August, 1980, only after the defendants' personal attack on Judge Richey."

The abrogation mentioned above was issued in a policy letter of July 22, 1980, "Ethics, Cancellation of Fair Game, more about", issued by "The Board of Directors of the Churches of Scientology". However, this cancellation was itself cancelled in a subsequent HCO Policy Letter of September 8, 1983, "Cancellation of Issues on Suppressive Acts and PTSes", which cancelled a number of HCOPLs on the ground that they "were not written by the Founder [Hubbard]". In two subsequent court cases the Church defended "fair game" as a "core practice of Scientology", and claimed that it was therefore protected as "religious expression".

Since then, a number of ex-Scientologists who formerly held senior management positions in the Church have alleged that while working for the Church they saw "fair game" tactics continuing to be used. In 1994, Vicki Aznaran, who had been the chairman of the Board of the Religious Technology Center (the Church's central management body), claimed in an affidavit that:

"Because of my position and the reports which regularly crossed my desk, I know that during my entire presidency of RTC 'fair game' actions against enemies were daily routine. Apart from the legal tactics described below, the 'fair game' activities included break-ins, libel, upsetting the companies of the enemy, espionage, harassment, misuse of confidential communications in the folders of community members and so forth."

Janie Peterson, a former Scientologist, testified in a Clearwater City hearing in 1982 that while working in the Guardians Office she had conducted smear campaigns against Church opponents, sometimes using information from confidential confessional files. A lawyer for the Church denounced the hearings as a "witch hunt". The former Scientologist stated that the fair game policy still applied despite the cancellation of the name.

In the United Kingdom
In the UK, targets of fair game and related harassment over the years have included ex-members, authors, journalists, broadcasters, the mental health profession, cult-monitoring groups, government and law enforcement.

Maurice William Johnson was a Scientologist who resigned in June 1966 and successfully sued for his money back. He told a court that after leaving he had received over 100 abusive letters, many of them using violent language. An article in The Auditor, a Scientology publication, was produced to the court, stating outright that Johnson was "fair game" and describing him as "an enemy of mankind, the planets and all life".

Jon Atack, an ex-Scientologist who left in 1983, wrote the book A Piece of Blue Sky: Scientology, Dianetics and L. Ron Hubbard Exposed, and the pamphlet "The Total Freedom Trap" as well as providing research for Bare-Faced Messiah. He provided help to other members in leaving the organisation, as well as acting as an expert witness in various cases concerning Scientology. In response, Atack's home was repeatedly picketed by placard-carrying Scientologists over the course of six days. Eugene Ingram, a private investigator employed by the Church of Scientology, made visits to Atack, his elderly mother and other family and friends, spreading rumours that Atack would be going to prison. Scientologists also distributed leaflets entitled "The Truth about Jon Atack", implying that he was a drug dealer who only criticised Scientology for money.

Atack eventually went bankrupt due to the cost of defending himself against legal action from the Church. According to Baroness Sharples speaking in the House of Lords, a number of ex-Scientologists "have been both threatened and harassed and a considerable number of them have been made bankrupt by the Church."

Journalist Paul Bracchi investigated Scientology in the mid-1990s while working at the Evening Argus in East Grinstead. He recounted the case of a Scientologist who had been accused of stealing documents from Saint Hill Manor, and was told in writing that he was a suppressive person and fair game. The man's wife told Bracchi, "For months after, we had anonymous notes delivered in the post almost daily. They said, 'You bastard,' 'You're dead,' 'Nothing will save you.' It was terribly frightening."

Sandy Smith, the editor of the 2007 BBC television programme Panorama, alleged that his team had been subjected to fair game tactics from the Church while filming the documentary Scientology and Me. When the team were filming in the United States, Scientology representatives followed them and repeatedly harangued them. Unknown men also trailed the team, one even appearing at journalist John Sweeney's wedding. Sweeney later complained of being "chased round the streets of Los Angeles by sinister strangers[...] In LA, the moment our hire car left the airport we realised we were being followed by two cars. In our hotel a weird stranger spent every breakfast listening to us." When the crew returned to London, Church of Scientology executive Mike Rinder was sent from the United States to lobby the BBC, even camping out at their offices.

Cases
A series of court cases in England in the 1970s saw "fair game" being strongly criticized by senior judges. The Court of Appeal of England and Wales suggested in one case that Scientology organisations were willing to harass their critics. They also described multiple cases brought against author Russell Miller as a deliberate form of harassment. In a case where the Church of Scientology of California sought to block publication of a book quoting Scientology materials, Lord Justice Goff cited the fair game policy along with what he described as the Church's "deplorable means adopted to suppress inquiry or criticism." He concluded that publication of the materials was in the public interest.

Charles Berner, 1965
According to an FDA investigation, in 1965, ex-Scientologist Charles Berner received a "fair game order". Afterwards, Berner stated he received other life-threatening letters, "indicating he should apply technique R2-45 to himself. This particular technique is a route whereby an individual places a 45 caliber pistol to his head and disassociates [sic] himself from his body."

L. Gene Allard, 1974
In 1974, the Church lost a case against an ex-Scientologist named L. Gene Allard who in 1969, shortly after leaving the Church of Scientology, had been arrested on a charge of grand theft made by the Church of Scientology. The charge was dismissed "in the interest of justice", and Allard sued the Church for malicious prosecution. At the trial, Allard's lawyer introduced the October 1967 and October 1968 "fair game" policy statements into evidence. Allard was awarded US$50,000 in compensatory damages and $250,000 in punitive damages. Attorneys acting for the Church of Scientology had argued that the fair game policy had been canceled, was irrelevant to the suit and had not been applied to Allard. An appellate court, while reducing the amount of punitive charges from $250,000 to $50,000, upheld the verdict against the Church, arguing that the Church had been given ample opportunity "to produce evidence that the fair-game policy had been repealed" but had "failed to do so". In July 1976, the California Supreme Court refused to review the case.

Paulette Cooper, 1976

In Operation Freakout, the Church of Scientology attempted to cause journalist and writer Paulette Cooper to be imprisoned, killed, driven to suicide or committed to a mental institution, as revenge for her publication in 1971 of a highly critical book, The Scandal of Scientology. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) discovered documentary evidence of the plot and the preceding campaign of harassment during an investigation into the Church of Scientology in 1977, eventually leading to the Church compensating Cooper in an out-of-court settlement.

Department of Health and Social Security (UK), 1979
The Church of Scientology of California sued the Department of Health and Social Security (DHSS) in British courts for defamation. The DHSS had suggested that Scientologists were dangerous charlatans who would worsen rather than cure mental illness. The Church demanded as part of discovery that the DHSS release letters and medical records from people who had complained about the Church. Lord Justice Stephenson declined the request, citing the fair game policy, which he believed still applied despite its name being cancelled. He was concerned that the documents would be used "not for legitimate purposes of the action but for harassment of individual patients, informants and renegades named in them, not only by proceedings for defamation against them but by threats and blackmail."

Lawrence Wollersheim, 1980

Lawrence Wollersheim, a former Scientologist, successfully argued that he had been harassed and his photography business nearly destroyed as a result of fair game measures. These included getting Scientologist employees to resign, and Scientologist customers to boycott or refuse to pay him. The 1986 judgment by a Los Angeles jury was upheld by the California Court of Appeal in 1989. During appeals, the Church again claimed fair game was a "core practice" of Scientology and was thus constitutionally protected "religious expression". The court decided that the Church's campaign "to ruin Wollersheim economically, and possibly psychologically" should be discouraged rather than protected. Twenty years after the start of the case, the Church paid Wollersheim a judgment, with interest, that amounted to $8,674,643.

Jakob Anderson, 1981
In the March 11–16, 1981, Danish court case of Jakob Anderson v. The Church of Scientology of Denmark, ex-Guardian's Office operative Vibeke Damman testified that the Church did in fact practice fair game and had done so in Anderson's case, in an attempt to get Anderson committed to a psychiatric hospital.

Gerald Armstrong, 1984

In 1980, Scientologist and Sea Org officer Gerry Armstrong was assigned to organize some of Hubbard's personal papers as the basis for a biography of Hubbard. Omar Garrison, a non-Scientologist known to be sympathetic to Scientology, was hired to write the biography. Both Armstrong and Garrison quickly realized that the papers reflected unfavorably on Hubbard, and revealed that many of Hubbard's claimed accomplishments were exaggerations or outright fabrications. Garrison abandoned the project, and a disillusioned Armstrong and his wife left the Church, retaining copies of the embarrassing materials as insurance against the expected harassment to come. Armstrong was sued by the Church in 1982 for the theft of private documents. The "fair game" policy became an issue in court. Armstrong won the case, in part because the Judge ruled that Armstrong, as a Scientologist of long standing, knew that fair game was practiced, and had good reason to believe that possession of these papers would be necessary to defend himself against illegal persecution by the Church. In a scathing decision, Judge Paul Breckenridge wrote:

"In addition to violating and abusing its own members' civil-rights, the organization over the years with its 'fair game' doctrine has harassed and abused those persons not in the Church whom it perceives as enemies.[...] [Armstrong] was declared an enemy by the Church. He believed, reasonably, that he was subject to 'fair game'."

Latey judgment, 1984
A child custody case in London's High Court examined the culture of Scientology to investigate the risks to children being raised within it. Stating his conclusions in a public hearing, Mr. Justice Latey read some of Scientology's internal documents into the record. Despite the alleged cancellation of "Fair game", he reported that, "Deprival of property, injury by any means, trickery, suing, lying or destruction have been pursued throughout and to this day with the fullest possible vigour." As an example, he cited the case of a doctor at Harvard Medical School who at one point was regarded as the Church's "Number One Enemy". The Church had persecuted him by stealing his employment records from a hospital, launching frivolous lawsuits against him and tracking down his patients and neighbors. The Citizens' Commission on Human Rights, which Latey described as "a Scientology 'front'", made multiple complaints of misconduct against the doctor.

Pat Broeker, 1989
In 2009, the Tampa Bay Times reported that after Pat Broeker left the Church of Scientology in 1989 and moved to Colorado, David Miscavige hired private detectives for $32,000 a month. They followed him for the next two decades to Wyoming and ten years in Czech Republic, where he went to medical school and worked as an English teacher. In 2012, Paul Marrick and Greg Arnold, the two private detectives who followed Broeker for 25 years, sued the Church of Scientology for breach of contract when the organization stopped paying them for their investigations.

Pedro Lerma Gámez, 1990
The Dominican cartoonist Pedro Lerma Gámez, known as Petrus, was successfully treated for his drug addiction at a Narconon center in Paris. The Church of Scientology considered that Lerma was not following the instructions of the organization and sent missions to try to redirect him. This included a smear campaign conducted against Lerma by "Judit" and "Greg" and a private detective and former National Police inspector, José Manuel Villarejo Pérez. During their fourth mission, Villarejo introduced a brother-in-law, (with the nickname el Pitrancas and codenamed Hero) to Narconon; the information Hero gathered there made it possible to include the detox center's clients in the smear campaign.

In April 1984 a fifth mission, headed by Rodolfo Sabanero, was aimed at getting Lerma incarcerated. Villarejo brainwashed Juan Carlos Borrallo Rebolledo, a drug addict with a criminal record for robberies who had been treated at Narconon. The plan consisted of Borrallo giving himself up to the authorities (for robbery) and then implicating Lerma in being accessory to a robbery at the Dianetics headquarters. On May 8, 1984, Borrallo appeared at a Madrid police station, admitting to two robberies that he had actually committed (to give credibility to the matter) and of a theft of several E-Meters at the Dianetics headquarters, saying that he was induced to steal them by Pedro Lerma. Another individual, named José Luis Díaz López, conveniently presented himself to police with the same deposition. Villarejo – still having friendly contacts within the police – influenced the development of the police investigation, resulting in Lerma being arraigned and entered in prison with bail being set at 800,000 pesetas. During proceedings, however, the presiding judge, José María Vázquez Honrubia, discovered the smear plot and Lerma was acquitted by the Sixteenth Section of the Madrid Court in 1990.

Richard Behar, 1991

In 1991, investigative journalist Richard Behar wrote "The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power", a Time cover story on Scientology. The acclaimed article won several awards. The Church of Scientology brought several lawsuits over the article, all of which were eventually dismissed. While investigating the story, he experienced some of Scientology's "fair game" tactics:

"I later learned, a copy of my personal credit report – with detailed information about my bank accounts, home mortgage, credit-card payments, home address and Social Security number – had been illegally retrieved from a national credit bureau called Trans Union. The sham company that received it, 'Educational Funding Services' of Los Angeles, gave as its address a mail drop a few blocks from Scientology's headquarters. The owner of the mail drop is a private eye named Fred Wolfson, who admits that an Ingram associate retained him to retrieve credit reports on several individuals. Wolfson says he was told that Scientology's attorneys 'had judgments against these people and were trying to collect on them.' He says now, 'These are vicious people. These are vipers.' Ingram, through a lawyer, denies any involvement in the scam.[...] After that, however, an attorney subpoenaed me, while another falsely suggested that I might own shares in a company I was reporting about that had been taken over by Scientologists (he also threatened to contact the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission). A close friend in Los Angeles received a disturbing telephone call from a Scientology staff member seeking data about me – an indication that the cult may have illegally obtained my personal phone records. Two detectives contacted me, posing as a friend and a relative of a so-called cult victim, to elicit negative statements from me about Scientology. Some of my conversations with them were taped, transcribed and presented by the church in affidavits to Time's lawyers as 'proof' of my bias against Scientology."

Carmen Llywelyn, 2002
Actress and photographer Carmen Llywelyn was introduced to Scientology through her partner (and future husband) professional skateboarder and actor Jason Lee. In 2015, Llywelyn penned an article entitled "Why I Left Scientology". According to her account, when she revealed to her talent manager that she had read A Piece of Blue Sky, a book critical of the Church, she was labeled a suppressive person and shunned (or "disconnected") by her Scientologist friends. Llywelyn's manager, a Scientologist, also "disconnected" and allegedly convinced United Talent Agency to drop Llywelyn as a client.

Llwelyn reports being subjected to a campaign of surveillance and harassment. Writes Llywelyn: "Scientology has a sophisticated intelligence agency known as the Office of Special Affairs, which is essentially a complex system dedicated to ruining the lives of those it sees as enemies in any way possible. Those who work for the OSA do not follow the law."

John Sweeney, 2007

Journalist John Sweeney said of fair gaming: "While making our BBC Panorama film Scientology and Me I have been shouted at, spied on, had my hotel invaded at midnight, denounced as a 'bigot' by star Scientologists and been chased round the streets of Los Angeles by sinister strangers." Sweeney also claimed that his family and neighbours had been harassed by unidentified strangers back in the UK, including an intruder at his wedding who fled when confronted.

Mark and Monique Rathbun, 2009

Mark C. "Marty" Rathbun, a former senior executive of the Church of Scientology, left the organization in 2004. A one-hour feature titled Scientologists at War was broadcast on June 17, 2013, on British Channel Four. The feature, a rare insider view of the Church of Scientology, investigated the pressure tactics used by the "Squirrel Busters" affiliated to the organization to discredit and silence members who leave the Church. It highlighted the story of Mark Rathbun, his role in Scientology, his fall out with Scientology leader David Miscavige, his attempts to further the cause of an independent Scientology movement, his confrontations with the "Squirrel Busters" and the repercussions on his family life.

Videographer Bert Leahy reported being paid $2,000 a week by the "Squirrel Busters" to help document their activities. Leahy reported that his employer had "flat-out said our goal is to make Marty's life a living hell".

In 2013, Mark Rathbun's wife, a non-Scientologist, filed suit against the Church of Scientology, alleging four years of harassment by the Church. In October 2014, Rathbun filmed an encounter which he claimed showed three members of the Church's top management as they "ambushed" him at Los Angeles International Airport. The Church defended this activity as being protected by first amendment (religious freedom) and free speech rights. , the court has denied a Church motion to have the case dismissed under anti-SLAPP law, but the ruling that Miscavige must testify in the case was overturned on appeal. After more than 32 months of litigation, Monique Rathbun dropped the lawsuit against the Church, after firing her attorneys in January 2016, due to financial constraints. She filed a motion to end the legal proceedings which the state Supreme court granted on May 6, and Monique Rathbun filed for dismissal on May 10.

Ronald Miscavige Sr., 2012
David Miscavige's father, Ronald Miscavige Sr., was a longtime Scientologist who left the Church of Scientology in 2012. In July 2013, Wisconsin police responding to a suspicious person call found Dwayne S. Powell outside Ronald's home. Powell was in possession of firearms and an illegal homemade silencer. Powell claimed to have received $10,000 a week, for over a year, to conduct full-time surveillance on the elder Miscavige for Scientology. Powell told police that on one occasion, he witnessed what he believed to be Ron Sr. undergoing cardiac arrest. According to Powell, after immediately reporting the perceived emergency to his superiors, he received a call for further instructions from a man who identified himself as David Miscavige. According to the police report, Powell was instructed "to let him die and not intervene in any way."

Mike Rinder and Tony Ortega, 2015

In March 2015, private investigator Eric Saldarriaga pleaded guilty to the federal charge of conspiracy to commit computer hacking after he illegally gained access to at least 60 email accounts. Among those targeted were Mike Rinder, the former spokesman for the Church of Scientology, and journalist Tony Ortega. Both men had participated in the HBO documentary film Going Clear: Scientology and the Prison of Belief.

title: Fair game (Scientology)


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A Bright Shining Lie

A Bright Shining Lie: John Paul Vann and America in Vietnam (1988) is a book by Neil Sheehan, a former New York Times reporter, about U.S. Army lieutenant colonel John Paul Vann (killed in action) and the United States' involvement in the Vietnam War.

Sheehan was awarded the 1988 National Book Award for Nonfiction and the 1989 Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction for the book. It was adapted as a film of the same name released by HBO in 1998, starring Bill Paxton and Amy Madigan.

Summary
John Paul Vann became an adviser to the Saigon regime in the early 1960s. He was an ardent critic of how the war was fought by the Saigon regime, which he viewed as corrupt and incompetent, and increasingly, on the part of the U.S. military. He was critical of the U.S. military command, especially under William Westmoreland and its inability to adapt to the fact that it was facing a popular guerrilla movement while backing a corrupt regime. He argued that many of the tactics employed (for example the Strategic Hamlet Program of relocation) further alienated the population and were counterproductive to U.S. objectives. He was often unable to influence the military command but used the Saigon press corps including Sheehan, David Halberstam and Malcolm Browne to disseminate his views.

The prologue recounts Vann's funeral on June 16, 1972, after his death in a helicopter crash in Vietnam. Sheehan, a friend, had attended the funeral. The subsequent account is divided into seven "books" detailing Vann's career in Vietnam and America's involvement in the conflict.
 * Book I tells of Vann's assignment to Vietnam in 1962.
 * Book II "The Antecedents to a Confrontation" tells of the origin of the Vietnam War.
 * Book III gives a detailed account of the shambolic Battle of Ap Bac on January 2, 1963, in which the South Vietnamese army suffered a humiliating defeat at the hands of the Viet Cong.
 * Book IV details Vann's criticism of the way the war was being fought, his conflict with the U.S. military command and his transfer back to America.
 * Book V tracks back to give Vann's personal history before his involvement in the war, explaining how his career path to becoming a general officer was likely truncated by serial adulteries and the statutory rape of an Army chaplain's 15-year-old daughter.
 * Books VI and VII give an account of Vann's return to Vietnam in 1965 and his doomed attempt to implement a winning strategy for the U.S. Army and how he eventually compromised with the military system he once criticized.

Sheehan describes Vann as having led more American troops in direct combat than any other civilian in US history. Vann had retired from the Army by then.

Reception and influence
According to The New York Times Book Review, "If there is one book that captures the Vietnam war in the sheer Homeric scale of its passion and folly, this book is it. Neil Sheehan orchestrates a great fugue evoking all the elements of the war". The New York Review of Books proclaimed it "an unforgettable narrative, a chronicle grand enough to suit the crash and clangors of whole armies. A Bright Shining Lie is a very great piece of work; its rewards are aesthetic and [...] almost spiritual".

The book received the Robert F. Kennedy Center for Justice and Human Rights 1989 Book Award given annually to a book that "most faithfully and forcefully reflects Robert Kennedy's purposes – his concern for the poor and the powerless, his struggle for honest and even-handed justice, his conviction that a decent society must assure all young people a fair chance, and his faith that a free democracy can act to remedy disparities of power and opportunity."

In September 1988, Sheehan was interviewed by Brian Lamb about A Bright Shining Lie. The discussion was aired on C-SPAN in five 30-minute segments and was the basis for the later C-SPAN show Booknotes.

title: A Bright Shining Lie


text:
Stone, Gloucestershire

Stone is a small village in the parish of Ham and Stone, Gloucestershire, England. It stands on the A38 road, just south-west of its crossing of the Little Avon River, roughly halfway between Bristol and Gloucester at. It is adjacent to the county boundary with South Gloucestershire. The part of the community just north-east of the river is called Woodford. In 2019 it had an estimated population of 527.

The village of Stone has a church, a village green, a Church of England primary school and a village hall. The village also had a pub, the Berkeley Vale Hotel, but this was closed in 2013 and has been redeveloped.

The village has many links with the town of Berkeley, some 2+1/2 mi to the north. Also to the north lies the village of Newport.

Governance
The village is part of the 'Vale' electoral ward. This ward stretches from Stone north easterly on the line of the M5 motorway to Stinchcombe. The total ward population taken at the 2011 census was 1,879.

title: Stone, Gloucestershire


text:
Talk:Likelihood

Disambiguation
This article previously redirected to likelihood function, but I could sense a significant difference, such as its talk page entry "Which came first? the common use as in "in all likelihood this will not occur" or the mathematical function?". I have the idea that likelihood can be expressed in terms of either probability and odds, or am I wrong? Anyhow, I think at least disambiguation page is warranted. Mikael Häggström (talk) 05:00, 25 October 2011 (UTC)
 * Yes. I don't think it should even be labelled as a dab page, as it could be massively expanded. The book I cited, (James franklin, the science of conjecture) seems to be an excellent source for probabilistic reasoning before the invention of math -- goes back to insurance contracts for shipping in ancient egypt, greece, and various legal cases 500BC to 1500 AD that deal with the "likelihood" that something may or may not happen. I've only read the first chapter so far, but its fascinating... linas (talk) 21:38, 9 December 2011 (UTC)

"Weaker??"
The article here says:

"Likelihood is a function of how likely an event is, which is weaker than probability (or odds in favor)."

I know likelihoods and probabilities fairly well, but I have no idea what this is saying. As pointed out clearly in Likelihood function, the true difference is as follows:

"likelihood function (often simply the likelihood) is a function of the parameters of a statistical model... that is $$\mathcal{L}(\theta |x) = P(x | \theta)$$."

Saying they are weaker makes it sound like they are somehow capturing the same idea, but that likelihood has weaker confidence or some such.

Merger with Likelihood Function
This page was originally redirected to likelihood function. Then it became a stub because of the colloquial usage of the term. However, the discussion of likelihood as different from the function was only a single sentence and does not deserve its own page. The remainder of the page was basically a redirect to likelihood function anyway. I've merged the content and redirected this page to the appropriate section of the other page. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Prax54 (talk • contribs) 19:00, 26 January 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Likelihood


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Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health

Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health, sometimes abbreviated as DMSMH, is a book by L. Ron Hubbard about Dianetics, a pseudoscientific system that he claimed to have developed from a combination of personal experience, basic principles of Eastern philosophy and the work of Sigmund Freud. The book is considered part of Scientology's canon. It is colloquially referred to by Scientologists as Book One. The book launched the movement, which later defined itself as a religion, in 1950. As of 2013, New Era Publications, the international publishing company of Hubbard's works, sells the book in English and in 50 other languages.

In this book, Hubbard wrote that he had isolated the "dynamic principle of existence", which he states as the basic command Survive!, and presents his description of the human mind. He identified the source of human aberration as the "reactive mind", a normally hidden but always conscious area of the mind, and certain traumatic memories (engrams) stored in it. Dianetics describes counseling (or auditing) techniques which Hubbard claimed would get rid of engrams and bring major therapeutic benefits.

The work was criticized by scientists and medical professionals, who note the work is pseudoscientific and observe that the claims presented in the book are written in superficially scientific language but without evidence. Despite this, Dianetics proved a major commercial success on its publication, although B. Dalton employees have stated these figures were inflated by Hubbard's Scientologist-controlled publisher, who had groups of Scientologists each purchase dozens or even hundreds of copies of Hubbard's books and who sold these back to the same retailers. Adam Clymer, a New York Times executive and journalist, said the newspaper examined the sales patterns of Hubbard's books and uncovered no instances in which vast quantities of books were being sold to single individuals.

Background
Before the publication of Dianetics, L. Ron Hubbard was a prolific writer for pulp magazines. He attended George Washington University engineering school, but did not graduate. The Church of Scientology considers the book Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health as a representation of Hubbard's concepts of "the human mind, its functions, and the problems related to these functions." Hubbard presented Dianetics as a "therapeutic technique with which can be treated all inorganic mental ills and all organic psychosomatic ills, with the assurance of complete cure in unselected cases." In this body of work, Hubbard also attested that human beings are motivated "only" by survival.

According to Hubbard, the ideas in Dianetics were developed over twelve years of research, although many of his friends at the time said this claim is false. The first public outline of those ideas was an article in the pulp magazine Astounding Science Fiction, titled "Dianetics: A new science of the mind" appearing a few weeks before the publication of the book but published in the May 1950 issue of the magazine, the same month the book was published; the book-length article was later published as the book Dianetics: The Evolution of a Science. This advance publicity generated so much interest that in April 1950, Hubbard and Astounding editor John W. Campbell with other interested parties established the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation. Hubbard claimed to have written Dianetics in three weeks. His writing speed was assisted by a special IBM typewriter which accepted paper on a continuous roll and which had dedicated keys for common words like the or but. An early version of the book, Abnormal Dianetics, intended for the medical profession, was rejected by numerous publishers as well as the medical profession but was passed in mimeograph form from hand to hand and was later sold under the name Dianetics: The Original Thesis; the same book is published at present as The Dynamics of Life. Like other works by L. Ron Hubbard, Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health has been subject to continuous editing since its inception so that at present it hardly resembles the original 1950 edition.

Content
According to religion scholar Dorthe Refslund Christensen, in Scientology, DMSMH represents "the most elaborate of Hubbard's presentations on the human mind, its functions, and the problems related to these functions." The opening chapter presents the context of Dianetics as human beings being preoccupied with "finding a science of the mind that could not only isolate the common denominator of life and the goal of thought" but also isolate the only source of "strange illnesses and aberrations". Hubbard claims that the two answers to the question of human misery across time and civilizations have been religion and magical practices and modern psychotherapy that includes the practice of electroshocks and brain surgeries, which according to him, have turned patients into "helpless zombies". Dianetics, he claims is the answer to this dilemma.

In the section "How to Read this Book", L. Ron Hubbard suggests to read right on through. An "Important Note" appeared in later editions of the book advising the reader to understand every word read. In the book, Hubbard uses two different and contradictory definitions for the word engram. In Book One, the Goal of Man, chapter 5, summary, Hubbard states the Fundamental Axioms of Dianetics, among which is "The engram is a moment of 'unconsciousness' containing physical pain or painful emotion and all perceptions and is not available to the analytical mind as experience." Later in the text, Hubbard writes of the engram in a footnote on page 74 of Book Two, chapter two, of the 2007 edition of Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health. The footnote reads: "The word engram in Dianetics is used in its severely accurate sense as a 'definite and permanent trace left by a stimulus on the protoplasm of a tissue'. It is considered as a unit group of stimuli impinged solely on the cellular being." In other words, Hubbard takes a definition previously debunked by biology and labels it Dianetics. Dianetics, in and of itself, thus presents nothing that was not already known to science in that area, while adding phenomena and functional systems that have no basis in fact. Robert Todd Carroll, writing in the Skeptic's Dictionary, characterises Hubbard's work as essentially anti-science, in that the claims made in the books are based not on peer-reviewed observation of phenomena, with its attendant blind testing, control groups etc., but rather on an a priori decision that a phenomenon exists–followed by an attempt to prove its validity.

In Dianetics, to explain the abilities of a Clear, Hubbard makes use of tropes and special idioms and draws the attention away by pointing to old colloquialisms as the "mind's eye". Hubbard uses such terms as "optimum recall", "optimum individual", "What a Clear can do easily, quite a few people have, from time to time, been partially able to do in the past", "A clear uses imagination in its entirety", "Rationality, as divorced from aberration, can be studied in a Cleared person only", a Clear's intelligence is above normal, a Clear is free from all aberrations and the attributes of a Clear have never been previously included in a study of man and man's inherent abilities. After faithfully attributing all kinds of benefits to the Clear state, Hubbard finally admits "Until we obtain Clears, it remains obscure why such differences should exist" as if no Clear has ever been made or no Clear ever made it. L. Ron Hubbard was extremely apt and able in using these tropes to suit Dianetics presentation of a new reality.

Through Dianetics, Hubbard claimed that most illnesses were psychosomatic and caused by engrams, including arthritis, dermatitis, allergies, asthma, coronary difficulties, eye trouble, bursitis, ulcers, sinusitis and migraine headaches. He further claimed that dianetic therapy could treat these illnesses, and also included cancer and diabetes as conditions that Dianetic research was focused on.

In 1951, Consumer Report announced a one-month $500 course, based on the recently published Dianetics, open to anyone and intended to produce the Clear, the goal of Dianetic therapy. The report on "a new cult" places Dianetics beyond the scope of medical practice.

According to Hubbard, the book Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health follows the original line of research:

 * A) The discovery of the dynamic principle of existence and its meaning.
 * B) The discovery of the source of aberration: the reactive mind.
 * C) Therapy and its application.

Hubbard leaves out all the basic philosophy.

Dianetics purports to reveal revolutionary discoveries about the source of psychosomatic illness, neuroses and other mental ailments, as well as an exact, infallible way of permanently curing them. Hubbard divides the human mind into an "analytic mind" which supposedly functions perfectly, and a "reactive mind" which is incapable of thinking or making distinctions. When the analytic mind is unconscious, the reactive mind physically records memories called "engrams". As a result of all stimuli it receives, the Reactive Mind is a mass of engrams, feeding the otherwise perfect Analytical Mind incorrect data. Misinterpretation of these Reactive Mind engrams by the analytical mind causes damage later in life. Actually, these engrams cause compulsions and repressions in later life. According to Hubbard, a person is affected in later life by the unconscious effects of these engrams. By a process called "Dianetic auditing", the book promises, people can achieve a superhuman state called "Clear" with superior IQ, morally pure intentions and greatly improved mental and physical health. In August 1950, Hubbard predicted that Clears would become the world's new aristocracy, although he admitted that he had not achieved the state himself. In welcoming expectancy, the Theosophist Magazine compares the Dianetic engram to the Theosophic permanent atom as these atoms receive and retransmit impressions received life after life so that as the ego descends to a new birth, the new incarnation receives the stored impressions of engrams from previous lives. As the appearance of a new science, it was not so explicitly stated in DMSMH but eventually, Hubbard would go into the exploration of past lives with Dianetics.

A) The dynamic principle of existence: Survive!

According to Hubbard, the basic discovery is not that man survives, but that he is solely motivated by survival.

B) The single source of aberration: The Reactive Mind

According to Hubbard, the Reactive Mind works solely on a stimulus-response basis and it stores not memories but engrams.

In Dianetics, Hubbard mentions the post-hypnotic suggestion. This phenomenon of the post-hypnotic suggestion was described as far back as 1787. The development of Dynamic psychiatry dates back to the encounter between the physician Mesmer and the exorcist Johann Joseph Gassner. According to followers of the school of Dynamic Psychiatry, the advent of hypnotism signaled the discovery of the unconscious. At the Oak Knoll Naval Hospital, where he was being treated for ulcers, Hubbard studied hypnosis, psychological theory and other similar subjects; Hubbard was quite adept at hypnotism. According to Hubbard, it was trying to find what makes hypnotism such a wide variable that led to the discovery of the Reactive Mind. Dr. Roy Grinker and Dr. John Spiegel developed Narcosynthesis which was widely used by psychiatrists in World War II. In the book Dianetics Hubbard mentions Narcosynthesis or drug-hypnosis. However, Hubbard states that the technique of drug-hypnosis has been known for ages, both in ancient Greece and in the Orient. The technique of narcosynthesis is not used in Dianetics even though Hubbard may have been trained in it while in Naval Intelligence. A shot of sodium pentothal is administered as a truth serum. The technique is described on page 150 of the 2007 edition of Dianetics: the modern science of mental health.

C) Therapy and its application

The medical establishment completely rejected the new "science" for lack of experimental proof. Dianetics has never passed any scientific rigor. In 1953, Harvey Jay Fischer wrote the report Dianetic Therapy: an experimental evaluation concluding that "Dianetic does not systematically favorably or adversely influence the ability to perform" either intellectually, mathematically or resolving personality conflicts. According to Hubbard's son, DMSMH is not the result of any research whatsoever but a man's obsession with abortion and other phenomena of the unconscious, specially the occult and black magic. There is an entire chapter in DMSMH devoted to demonology. To maintain the "scientific" appearance of DMSMH, Hubbard decries the belief in demons. In DMSMH, demons are explained as electronic circuits. However, in Hubbard's later writings, entities begin to appear that possess man's physical body. These entities are spirits which Hubbard calls "thetans". What Hubbard does assert is that demonology is good business. A person is a thetan but the person's physical body is possessed by thetans called body thetans. To be spiritually free, a person would have to audit out all those other thetans in the body and that would take a great deal of time and a great deal of money.

In advising the auditor to be uncommunicative, Hubbard was divorcing Dianetics from other psycho-therapies, as in psychoanalysis, where the therapist most obstinately offers a personal interpretation of what is happening in the patient's mind.

Scientologist Harvey Jackins said of Dianetics therapy: "The results have been nearly uniform and positive. Apparently, the auditor (listener or therapist) can be very forthright and direct in seeking out the past traumatic experiences which are continuing to mar the rationality and well being of the person. Once located, the exhaustion of the distress and re-evaluation of the experience apparently leads uniformly to dramatic improvement in ability, emotional tone and well-being."

Hubbard considered that to maintain silence around unconscious or injured persons is of the utmost importance in the prevention of aberration. After the publication of DMSMH, Hubbard moved to Cuba. There, the signs in every hospital zone are still prominently displayed: Hospital Silence. In a letter dated December 7, 1950, Ernest Hemingway's son Greg writes to his father mentioning that the publisher of Dianetics is coming down to Cuba to present Ernest with a copy in earnest. Hemingway's son's girlfriend is the publisher's daughter; Greg himself is working at the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation. On December 14, Hemingway answered: "The Dianetics king never sent the book so I bought one, but Miss Nita borrowed it and it is still outside of the joint. So have not been able to practice jumping back into the womb or any of those popular New York indoor sports and have to just continue to write them as I see them."

According to Martin Gardner, the workability of Dianetics lies in the field of faith healing as most neurotics will react positively to something they have faith in. There is nothing extraordinary about Dianetics case histories as it is something quite common in faith healing.

Finally, Hubbard gives fair warning to those who attempt to self-audit his DIY (do-it-yourself) Dianetic process. It cannot be done, says Hubbard, because every engram contains analytical attenuation. It is better to learn to audit the technique and apply it to others. Anyone engaged in self-auditing will only succeed in getting sick. However, in later developments of technique application Hubbard would develop "Solo Auditing" where auditor and preclear are one and the same except that in the procedure as always Hubbard would be obeyed to the letter. In Dianetics and Scientology, self-auditing always carries a bad connotation while solo auditing does not. As usual, Hubbard's particular use of nomenclature would win the day.

Hubbard says in DMSMH that all civilizations have had two responses to the reality of human misery: first, "religion and magical practices", second, "modern psychotherapy", which according to him, "have exceeded the brutality of magic and religious practices by turning patients into helpless zombies." He also said that because man does not understand himself, he has developed "terrifying weapons", which is the reason that the earth is in war.

Hubbard's response to the DSM-IV
Hubbard was against the diagnosis of psychiatric disorders, saying it "is so much wasted time", since, "on the one hand, detailed diagnoses does not cure the patient and, on the other hand, the things the auditor needs to know to cure the patient will appear to him or her during auditing: the patient will talk about them." According to Christensen, Hubbard claims that there are only three things that need to be established instead of a diagnosis: "(1) Are his or her 'perceptics' over or under optimum? (2) How is the patient's ability to recall by utilizing the different perceptics? and (3) is he or she 'overusing' his or her imagination by recalling too many things or by too many perceptics?"

Commentary on illness and disease
Hubbard believed in the ability of Dianetics to cure illnesses, and also claimed that most pathologies had a psychosomatic origin. "Psychosomatic disorders were estimated by Hubbard to include 70 percent of all illnesses and were exemplified by asthma, arthritis, dermatitis, allergies, some coronary difficulties, eye trouble, bursitis, ulcers, sinusitis, migraine headaches etc., while mental disorders were neuroses, psychoses, compulsions, serious depressions, etc." Hubbard later stated that Dianetics had nothing to do with psychosomatic illness: "Dianetics today is a science of ability. It has no traffic with psychosomatic illness or aberration. It does not care a whit about these two things. Dianetics today can be prepared to expect out of an asylum, or off a mount, alike some benefit to mankind."

Initial publication
Dianetics was first published May 9, 1950, by Hermitage House, at One Madison Ave., a New York-based publisher of psychiatric textbooks whose president, Arthur Ceppos, was also on the Board of Directors of the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation. The book became a nationwide bestseller, selling over 150,000 copies within a year. Due to the interest generated, a multitude of "Dianetics clubs" and similar organizations were formed for the purpose of applying Dianetics techniques. Hubbard himself established a nationwide network of Dianetic Research Foundations, offering Dianetics training and processing for a fee. Dianetics blossomed into a national fad and was then denounced by psychologists.

The original edition of the book included an introduction by J. A. Winter, M.D., who became the first medical director of the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation, an appendix on "The Philosophic Method" by Will Durant (reprinted from The Story of Philosophy, 1926), another on "The Scientific Method" by John W. Campbell and a third appendix by Donald H. Rogers. These contributions are omitted from editions of Dianetics published since about the start of the 1980s.

Reception
Despite its positive public reception, Dianetics was strongly criticized by scientists and medical professionals for its scientific deficiencies. The American Psychological Association passed a resolution about Dianetics in 1950 referring to "the fact that these claims are not supported by empirical evidence of the sort required for the establishment of scientific generalizations."

Dianetics received very negative reviews from the majority of sources. An early review in The New Republic summed up the book as "a bold and immodest mixture of complete nonsense and perfectly reasonable common sense, taken from long-acknowledged findings and disguised and distorted by a crazy, newly invented terminology" and warned of medical risks: "it may prove fatal to have put too much trust in the promises of this dangerous book." Frederick L. Schuman, political science professor at Williams College in Williamstown, Massachusetts became an ardent follower of Dianetics and wrote indignant letters to those who reviewed Dianetics adversely including the New Republic and The New York Times. Schuman wrote a favorable article on Dianetics in the April 1951 issue of Better Homes and Gardens. Dianetics received two favourable reviews from medical doctors.

Reviewing the book for Scientific American in 1951, physicist Isidor Isaac Rabi criticized the lack of either evidence or qualification, saying it "probably contains more promises and less evidence per page than has any publication since the invention of printing." An editorial in Clinical Medicine summarized the book as "a rumination of old psychological concepts, ... misunderstood and misinterpreted and at the same time adorned with the halo of the philosopher's stone and of an universal remedy", which had initiated "a new system of quackery of apparently considerable dimensions." According to Consumer Reports, the book over-extends scientific and cybernetic metaphors, and lacks the needed case reports, experimental replication and statistical data to back up its bold claims. Both Consumer Reports and Clinical Medicine also warned of the danger that the book would inspire unqualified people to harmfully intervene in others' mental problems.

These warnings were echoed by psychoanalyst Erich Fromm, who contrasted the sophistication of Sigmund Freud's theories with the "oversimplified" and "propagandistic" ideas offered by Dianetics. The latter's extremely mechanistic view of the mind had no need for human values, conscience or any authority other than Hubbard himself. A similar point was made by psychologist Rollo May in The New York Times, arguing that Dianetics unwittingly illustrates the fallacy of trying to understand human nature by invariant mathematical models taken from mechanics.

A review by semantics expert S. I. Hayakawa described Dianetics as fictional science, meaning that it borrows several linguistic techniques from science fiction to make fanciful claims seem plausible. Science fiction, he explained, relies on vividly conveying imaginary entities such as Martians and rayguns as though they were commonplace. Hubbard was doing this with his fantastic "discoveries", and the reviewer refers to the possibility that Hubbard might "succeed in concealing the distinction between his facts and his imaginings from himself."

The review in The American Journal of Psychiatry made similar observations: "[Hubbard's] previous efforts in the realm of scientific fiction writing have subtly prepared him for that nice ignorance of reality without which he could not have developed this epic. Certain bits of internal evidence such as his insistence on the frequency of abortions, his cruel fathers, his unfaithful mothers, his blundering doctors, his arrogance toward authority, may indicate the author's own systematized paranoid delusions."

Science writer Martin Gardner criticized the book's "repetitious, immature style" likening it to the grand pseudoscientific pronouncements of Wilhelm Reich. "Nothing in the book remotely resembles a scientific report", he wrote.

Aleksei Shliapov, a columnist at the Russian paper Izvestia, said about Dianetics, "I think that our politicians should acquaint themselves with this book, since here is, as it were, a technology for how to become popular, how to acquire influence among the masses without having to appear a significant personality."

More recently, the book has been described by Salon as "a fantastically dull, terribly written, crackpot rant", which covers a lack of credible evidence with mere insistence and The Daily Telegraph called it a "creepy bit of mind-mechanics" which would cause rather than cure depression.

When Hubbard wrote the book in 1950, homosexuality was considered a pathological illness and in 1951 the DSM I listed it under Sexual Deviation which stance was reflected in passages of Dianetics where homosexuality is considered a mental illness. Besides the homosexual as sexual pervert, Hubbard also includes things such as lesbianism, sexual sadism and all the catalog of Ellis and Krafft-Ebing as being actually "quite ill physically".

Karl Lashley spent decades looking for the engram which he abandoned in 1950 for non-localized memory. This was not the same type of engram described by Hubbard. However, Hubbard derived his ideas and the term "engram", from psychology sources, and biology. Richard Semon coined the term "engram" in 1904 and wrote extensively about it in 1921, decades before the publication of Dianetics.

Publication history
It is unclear how many editions there have been, but at least 60 printings are said to have been issued by 1988, almost all having been printed by the Church of Scientology and its related organizations.

Current editions are published by Bridge Publications and New Era Publications, Scientology-owned imprints. Over twenty million copies have been sold according to the cover of the latest paperback books. The following statement is included on the copyright page of all editions: "This book is part of the works of L. Ron Hubbard, who developed Dianetics spiritual healing technology and Scientology applied religious philosophy. It is presented to the reader as a record of observations and research into the nature of mind and spirit, and not a statement of claims made by the author".

According to Bridge Publications, 83 million copies of Dianetics were sold in the forty years after publication. According to Nielsen BookScan, the book has sold 52,000 copies between 2001 and 2005. The book has been very aggressively marketed, often in ways that are unusual for the book industry, for instance appearing as one of the twelve sponsors of the Goodwill Games under a $4 million agreement between Bridge Publications and Turner Broadcasting System. Bridge Publications also sponsors NASCAR racer and Scientologist Kenton Gray, who races as the "Dianetics Racing Team" and whose No. 27 Ford Taurus is decorated with Dianetics logos.

Various sources allege that the book's continued sales have been manipulated by the Church of Scientology and its related organizations ordering followers to buy up new editions to boost sales figures. According to a Los Angeles Times exposé published in 1990, "sales of Hubbard's books apparently got an extra boost from Scientology followers and employees of the publishing firm [Bridge Publications]. Showing up at major book outlets like B. Dalton and Waldenbooks, they purchased armloads of Hubbard's works, according to former employees." Members are asked to contribute by placing Dianetics in public libraries. However, Dianetics was not added to the collection of the Brooklyn Public Library on the basis of a negative review.

Role in Scientology
Scientologists regard the publication of Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health as a key historical event for their movement and the world, and refer to the book as Book One. In Scientology, years are numbered relative to the first publication of the book: 1990, for example, being "40 AD" (After Dianetics). The book is promoted as "a milestone for Man comparable to his discovery of fire and superior to his inventions of the wheel and the arch."

Dianetics is still heavily promoted today by the Church of Scientology and has been advertised widely on television and in print. Indeed, it has been alleged that the Church has asked its members to purchase large quantities of the book with their own money, or with money supplied by the Church, for the sole purpose of keeping the book on the New York Times Best Seller list. Hubbard described the book as a key asset for getting people in Scientology:

"People who had read Book One and wanted Dianetics, when delivered enough Book One auditing, training or co-auditing, then started to reach for Scn [Scientology] services. Given sufficient quantity and quality of Book One, these people naturally started to WANT and reach for Scn services!"

The Church of Scientology has been explicit about using Dianetics' sponsorship of the Goodwill Games to boost Scientology membership. The Church's internal journal for Scientologists, International Scientology News, has stated that:

"In order to create an enormous international impact, Dianetics has become a major sponsor of the upcoming Goodwill Games ... All these dissemination actions are being done with the sole purpose of getting more and more people introduced to LRH's TECH so they will go into orgs [Scientology properties] and rapidly move up The Bridge to Total Freedom [advancing through Scientology's levels]."

Cover imagery
Dianetics uses the image of an exploding volcano, both on the covers of post-1967 editions, and in advertising. A giant billboard built in Sydney, Australia, measured 33 m (100 ft) wide and 10 m (30 ft) high and depicted an erupting volcano with "non-toxic smoke". Hubbard told his marketing staff that this imagery would make the books irresistible to purchasers by reactivating unconscious memories. According to Hubbard, the volcano recalls the incident in which galactic overlord Xenu placed billions of his people around Earth's volcanoes and killed them there by blowing them up with hydrogen bombs. A representative of the Church of Scientology has confirmed in court that the Dianetics volcano is indeed linked with the "catastrophe" wrought by Xenu.

Bent Corydon, a former Scientology mission holder, recounted that: "A special "Book Mission" was sent out to promote these books, now empowered and made irresistible by the addition of these supposedly overwhelming symbols or images. Organization staff were assured that if they simply held up one of the books, revealing its cover, that any bookstore owner would immediately order crateloads of them. A customs officer, seeing any of the book covers in one's luggage, would immediately pass one on through."


text:
List of prime ministers of Syria

This is a list of prime ministers of Syria since 1920.

title: List of prime ministers of Syria


text: User talk:80.202.23.240

title: User talk:80.202.23.240


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/David J James

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE. Golbez 06:39, Jun 18, 2005 (UTC)

David J James
Not quite sure this lives up to Importance so I'm putting it up on VfD. Do principals of schools deserve their own articles? The only thing that makes him distince is an he is an Officer of the British Empire (but lot's of people have those, about 858 per year actually). I remain neutral.Sasquatch′↔Talk↔Contributions 22:33, Jun 12, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep all principals if we're gong to keep all schools. RickK 04:36, Jun 13, 2005 (UTC)
 * Comment I didn't know we are keeping all schools. It can seem like that, but it is not the concensus or fact. Vegaswikian 06:12, 13 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * It's not the consensus, but it certainly is the fact. The inclusionists brag about it every chance they get -- "x number of schools pages have been kept, 0 pages have been deleted."  RickK 07:07, Jun 13, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete non notable. JamesBurns 05:01, 13 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete nn Vegaswikian 06:12, 13 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Gamaliel 07:10, 13 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete nn.  Grue   15:08, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete nn. carmeld1 01:11, 15 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages.  Please do not edit this page .


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Talk:Likelihood density function

What a bizarre article title! Michael Hardy 22:35, 12 Jun 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Likelihood density function


text:
Amodal perception

Amodal perception is the perception of the whole of a physical structure when only parts of it affect the sensory receptors. For example, a table will be perceived as a complete volumetric structure even if only part of it—the facing surface—projects to the retina; it is perceived as possessing internal volume and hidden rear surfaces despite the fact that only the near surfaces are exposed to view. Similarly, the world around us is perceived as a surrounding plenum, even though only part of it is in view at any time. Another much quoted example is that of the "dog behind a picket fence" in which a long narrow object (the dog) is partially occluded by fence-posts in front of it, but is nevertheless perceived as a single continuous object. Albert Bregman noted an auditory analogue of this phenomenon: when a melody is interrupted by bursts of white noise, it is nonetheless heard as a single melody continuing "behind" the bursts of noise.

Formulation of the theory is credited to the Belgian psychologist Albert Michotte and Fabio Metelli, an Italian psychologist, with their work developed in recent years by E.S. Reed and the Gestaltists.

Modal completion is a similar phenomenon in which a shape is perceived to be occluding other shapes even when the shape itself is not drawn. Examples include the triangle that appears to be occluding three disks and an outlined triangle in the Kanizsa triangle and the circles and squares that appear in different versions of the Koffka cross.

title: Amodal perception


text: Category:Castaways

title: Category:Castaways


text: User talk:212.0.138.93

title: User talk:212.0.138.93