text: User talk:84.153.185.103

title: User talk:84.153.185.103


text:
Communist Party of Finland (1994)

The Communist Party of Finland (Suomen Kommunistinen Puolue, SKP; Finlands kommunistiska parti, FKP) or New Communist Party of Finland (Uusi Suomen Kommunistinen Puolue, USKP; Finlands nya kommunistiska parti, FNKP) is a political party in Finland. It was founded in the mid-1980s as Communist Party of Finland (Unity) (Suomen Kommunistinen Puolue (yhtenäisyys), SKPy; Finlands kommunistiska parti (enhet), FKP(e)) by the former opposition of the old Communist Party of Finland (1918–1992). SKP has never been represented in the Parliament of Finland, but the party has had local councillors in some municipalities, including the city councils of major cities such as Helsinki and Tampere. SKP claims 2,500 members.

The party has been officially registered since 1997. In the 1980s, when the opposition and the organizations it controlled were expelled from the SKP led by Arvo Aalto, the SKPy, however, chose not to register since they considered themselves the real SKP and claimed Aalto had illegally taken control of the party. The courts later ruled all the expulsions illegal.

The opposition inside SKP
The internal conflict of Finnish communists began in the mid-1960s, when the party led by the new chairman Aarne Saarinen, began to modernize the party line / outlook. A minority of the party cadre didn't accept this and they accused the SKP leadership of being revisionist. SKP didn't break up in the 1960s and the party was formally united until the mid-1980s. After the 20th party congress in 1984 things, however, changed as Arvo Aalto was elected chairperson, after which the opposition did not participate in (or was left out of) the SKP central committee. The opposition was also known as "the taistoists".

The founding of SKPy
The central committee of the SKP expelled eight opposition district organizations from the party 13 October 1985. Also, 494 other basic organizations and 17 city or regional organizations were expelled 13 June 1986, which the expelled then dubbed "Black Friday". The opposition considered the actions to be against the law. They took the conflict to courts and because of minor technicalities Helsingin Hovioikeus court overruled SKP's decision 11 June 1987. SKP then re-expelled these same organizations in its 21st party congress (12–14 June 1987). However, a week before this happened, the newly founded SKP (Unity) held its own "21st" party congress. The ambiguities in the expelling process and the opposition's firm belief in its own cause gave it the justification it needed and they considered SKPy to be the real SKP. They claimed Aalto had illegally seized the party with "paper members". SKPy was never taken to the official party register of Finland as the party considered that to have been voluntary resignation and admission of SKPy not being the real SKP.

On 26 April 1986 a meeting of "the representatives of SKP organizations" was held in Tampere and those present elected a new central committee. The leader of the new central committee was Taisto Sinisalo, former vice chairman of the SKP and the most well-known figure of the opposition, who already had led Committee of SKP Organizations founded in November 1985. In the SKPy's 21st party congress Sinisalo was re-elected. Yrjö Hakanen and Marja-Liisa Löyttyjärvi became the vice chairmen while the former SKP chairman Jouko Kajanoja was elected party secretary. In his congress speech, Sinisalo told that the suffix "unity" meant "strong intention to gather all the forces of the SKP". The congress, however, also was heading to future and building of a new party, or "rebuilding" as they thought it. Before the name SKPy was adopted the party was known in media as the unity or Tiedonantaja group.

SKP and the Soviet Union
SKPy was very committed to the Soviet Union and the political line of its Communist Party (CPSU), which was going through great changes during Gorbachev's time. SKPy supported perestroika but criticized those who claimed to have been "Gorbachevist" even before Gorbachev's time. SKPy claimed SKP to be anti-SU and tried to give the Finnish people as positive a picture as possible of that country. When SKP split the monetary support from Soviet Union was halted and, for example, the very profitable publishing deals of the SKP had gone to SKPy. Gorbachev's CPSU, however, had relations with both parties.

KTP splits from SKPy
In the late 1970s the opposition of SKP began to split as those supporting a more traditional version of Marxism–Leninism began to criticize opposition leaders. When it was decided that SKPy would not be registered as an official party, some communists protested and demanded registration. They thought SKPy was clinging to the unity slogan in a situation in which it no longer seemed realistic. In the 1987 party congress, these people were warned by the SKPy leadership but they chose to ignore the advice and oriented themselves toward founding a new party. Communist Workers' Party – For Peace and Socialism (Kommunistinen Työväenpuolue – Rauhan ja Sosialismin puolesta, KTP) was founded early in the year 1988. Founders of KTP felt to be securing the existence of a Marxist-Leninist party in Finland while criticizing SKPy for being revisionist and supporting Mikhail Gorbachev. The most famous figure in the new party was probably Markus Kainulainen, a longtime SKP district secretary of Uusimaa and a former MP.

The founding of Left Alliance
Esko-Juhani Tennilä, a member of the Parliament of Finland, was elected new chairman of SKPy 22 October 1989 when Kajanoja decided to resign while strongly criticizing his comrades. Tennilä has later told he took the job to secure that the founding of a new united left party would not be sabotaged by his own party comrades many of which were quite critical of it. The Left Alliance (Vasemmistoliitto) was founded in spring 1990 and members of SKPy and its electoral front Deva also joined even though prejudices were very high on both sides at this point.

Dispute over double membership
Members of the Left Alliance (LA) disliked that many of their members were also members of the SKPy. It was thus decided that SKPy members couldn't participate in the LA's electoral lists, even though they could be members. Because of this, Tennilä also had to quit his job as party chairman when joining LA group in parliament. Yrjö Hakanen was chosen Tennilä's successor. The dispute over double membership, as it was called, led to many SKPy members leaving LA and relations between the two parties got even colder. On the other hand, many former SKPy members were actively participating in LA.

The "new" SKP
In its 1993 party congress (August 28–29) SKPy oriented towards founding a new officially registered communist party and drafting of a new party program. A new party logo was also introduced to mark renewal. It was suggested that a congress to continue SKP's work should be held and that happened next year (November 26–27). In the congress the suffix "unity" was dropped from the name as SKPy now considered to consist of all those comrades who wanted to have an independent communist party. An athletic club was made the basis of new organization and renamed SKP. The decision split the party as some supporters would have preferred SKP to have a lesser role as "Marxist forum" of some kind. Leadership of Left Alliance was also not pleased with those plans. SKP would have wanted to stay inside LA but that wasn't possible and the parties split in the spring of 1994. SKP wasn't however "re-registered" until 1997. There was some confusion, as the new SKP didn't accept responsibility for debts of the old one, which had gone bankrupt.

Organization
SKP has a nationwide organization consisting of 14 district organizations. The central committee has 41 members and the politburo 10. The organ of SKP is Tiedonantaja, which was founded in the 1960s. Tiedonantaja was also the organ of Deva during 1986–1990. The editor-in-chief is Marko Korvela since 2012. SKP also has some local papers.

As the SKPy considered itself to be the real SKP it also had the same organizational structure. It was based on Leninist principle of democratic centralism and the party rules of 1958 (modified in 1978).

Deva – SKPy's electoral front
While SKPy was never officially registered, its supporters founded an electoral front Democratic Alternative (Demokraattinen vaihtoehto, syllabic abbreviation: Deva). Those MPs of Finnish People's Democratic League (Suomen kansan demokraattinen liitto, SKDL, a front organization dominated by SKP) who were against expulsions were expelled from SKDL and they found the parliament group of Deva. Deva was SKPy's SKDL and it was supposed to attract some democratic allies. The small Socialist Workers Party (Sosialistinen työväenpuolue, STP) didn't join Deva but it had members on the DEVA list. Young supporters of SKPy and Deva founded Revolutionary Youth League (Vallankumouksellinen nuorisoliitto, VKN) which was Deva's youth organization. SKDL's Socialist Student League (Sosialistinen opiskelijaliitto, SOL) also joined. Deva was led by actress Kristiina Halkola.

In 1987 parliamentary elections Deva got 4.3% of votes and four MPs. In 1988 presidential elections Deva candidate Jouko Kajanoja got under 2 per cent of the votes. Not even all members of SKPy supported Kajanoja who was the party chairman. Deva was closed down in 1990 after Left Alliance was founded and most of its members joined the new party.

European Parliament
The SKP participates in parliamentary, European Parliament and municipal elections. The party has not put up candidates in recent presidential elections. No national representatives has been elected from the SKP lists but the party has a few local councillors. The SKP also participates in trade union and cooperative elections.

The SKP first took part in parliamentary elections in 1999. The party had electoral alliances with small parties of Muutos 99 coalition. It was the first time the Finnish electorate had an opportunity to vote for a list named Communist Party of Finland. In 2003 the vote-puller for the party was rock musician Kari Peitsamo (1,803 votes) and in 2007 rap artist Seppo "Steen1" Lampela (1,842).

In municipal elections the SKP has had elected councillors in a total of ten different municipalities. The party has got its strongest support in Nokia, where there are three SKP councillors. The communists also briefly had three councillors in the Jyväskylä city council until early 2008.

The SKP has made electoral coalitions with other small parties, especially the Communist Workers Party (KTP). Communist League members were on SKP lists before they in 2006 founded the Workers' Party of Finland (STP). The SKP condemned the STP for scattering communist forces. The parties have made some limited electoral cooperation since. The Left Alliance has never been interested in coalitions with the communists, although the parties have had coalitions in few municipalities.

The former SKP chairperson Yrjö Hakanen has been an elected member of the S Group worker cooperative council since 1999. The SKP represented a joint list with the KTP.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Communist Party of Finland (1994)


text:
Radimir Čačić

Radimir Čačić (born 11 May 1949) is a Croatian politician and businessman who has been President of the People's Party – Reformists (NS-R) since the party's formation in 2014, as well as Prefect of Varaždin County from 2017 to 2021.

Čačić previously served as President of the Croatian People's Party (HNS) between 1995 and 2000. Following the 2000 Croatian parliamentary election, he became part of the first cabinet of Ivica Račan where he notably spearheaded the construction of motorways.

He was elected president of the HNS again in 2008. Following the 2011 parliamentary election, as the leader of the second-largest party in the four-party Kukuriku coalition alliance, Čačić became Deputy Prime Minister, as well as Minister of Economy, in the cabinet of Zoran Milanović.

After causing a car crash that resulted in two fatalities, a Hungarian court sentenced him to 22 months in prison in November 2012. He resigned from his government post, and was ejected from the HNS in 2013. After serving his prison sentence, Čačić returned to politics with a new political party, the People's Party – Reformists. In 2017 he was elected the prefect of Varaždin County for the second time.

Early life
After graduating from the Faculty of Architecture at the University of Zagreb in 1973, he worked for a Zagreb company before moving to Varaždin and joining the construction company Zagorje. Together with several partners, in 1979 he left Zagorje and founded the construction company DP Coning. In 1989, the Yugoslav Chamber of Commerce awarded him with the title of manager of the year. Čačić amassed considerable wealth in the process, and when the laws were changed in March 1989 to allow for privatization, he spent 750,000 German marks to buy a 25% stake in his old company Zagorje, and later merged the two companies, with some jobs being lost in the process.

1990s
He first entered politics in the Coalition of People's Accord (KNS) in 1989, but with no electoral success. In 1990 and 1991, with Čačić as the director, Coning was involved in a failed construction project in Dubrovnik.

During the Croatian War of Independence, Čačić was a brigadier of the fledgling Croatian Army. In the Battle of the Barracks, he led the September 1991 negotiations with the Yugoslav People's Army to abandon the Varaždin barracks and was used as a hostage to make sure disarmed army members were safely escorted to Serbia. He was later awarded the Homeland War Memorial Medal and the Order of Duke Domagoj.

In 1991–92, Coning was involved in another much larger failed construction project in Israel, for which the company was later involved in multimillion-dollar lawsuits. DP Coning was transformed into Coning holding with several daughter companies, and the Holding was later renamed Ingprojekt. This transaction was later undone in a court of law, but Čačić had since sold or transferred his stakes in the Coning companies to a legal firm. Čačić's business affairs were commonly used against him when he became more active in politics, and for the Israel case he was once defamed by Miroslav Rožić. By 1995, he was one of the few Croatian politicians who were wealthy prior to entering a public office, although his wealth would later multiply during the course of his political activity.

He succeeded Savka Dabčević-Kučar as President of the Croatian People's Party (HNS) and held the position for six years. He in turn was succeeded by Vesna Pusić, while Čačić became the president of the central committee of the party. He became a member of the Croatian Parliament after the 1995 parliamentary election.

2000s
In the 2000 parliamentary election, the HNS won more seats in the Croatian Parliament and participated in the six-party coalition that formed the government under Ivica Račan. Čačić was the only member of HNS in the government but was given the influential and suitable position of the Minister of Public Works, Reconstruction and Building which granted him access to many government-sponsored projects.

Čačić was instrumental in reviving the project to build the Zagreb–Split highway, arranging a more viable financing model – one that did not favour Bechtel Corporation so much as the contracts signed by the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) did, both before and after Čačić. The ministry invited tenders in order to choose the construction companies which would build the new road, and this method proved successful in getting the building under way. When Čačić exited the office, the sections from Karlovac to Zadar were mostly completed and the rest were also partially built.

Čačić also helped organize the public state-sponsored housing project for young families, the first such endeavour in modern-day Croatia. The buildings were later nicknamed Čačićevi stanovi (Čačić apartments) after him.

After the 2003 parliamentary election, the HNS returned to the opposition but Čačić retained a seat in the Parliament.

The new HDZ leadership organized a parliamentary investigation panel on Čačić's alleged misdeeds: he was accused of conflict of interest given how his old company Coning was also awarded contracts in building the Zagreb–Split highway. However, after the subsequent inquiry, Čačić was cleared of all charges. In December 2006, the HDZ parliamentary investigation panel again convened and changed its previous decision, saying Čačić was indeed in conflict of interest because of twelve contracts worth 132 million Croatian kunas signed with companies with a connection to Čačić, without this connection being properly registered according to relevant law. He in turn insisted that this was a meaningless distinction and that he was already disassociated from his old companies, and tried to get the decision reversed in court, but his plea was rejected by a Zagreb court in 2007. His appeal against the verdict was ultimately rejected by the Constitutional Court of Croatia in 2010.

In 2005 his party won the local elections in Varaždin County and Čačić became the prefect of the county on 9 June. He was replaced in June 2008, after two HNS deputies in the county council switched sides to the opposition.

2010s
On 8 January 2010, he caused a severe traffic accident on the M7 motorway in Hungary which resulted in the death of two passengers in the car he hit. Čačić's Chrysler 300 rear-ended a Škoda Fabia in dense fog. In 2011, Čačić caused two more traffic accidents in Zagreb, both times without causing injury. The 2010 incident led to Čačić handing in his resignation as president of the Croatian Tennis Association, which was later refused by the federation's governing board.

Čačić represented HNS in the Kukuriku coalition and was the top-listed candidate for the 3rd electoral district at the 2011 parliamentary election. In the district they won 52.73% of the vote. Following the overall election win, Čačić became Deputy Prime Minister in the cabinet of Zoran Milanović.

On 29 June 2012 the court of first instance found him guilty for the car accident and sentenced him to 1 year and three months on probation. Croatian opposition politicians Tomislav Karamarko, Jadranka Kosor and Dragutin Lesar called for Čačić to resign; members of the ruling coalition Mirela Holy and Josip Leko expressed reservations about the issue. On 14 November 2012 the court of second instance confirmed the verdict and increased his sentence to 22 months in prison. The same day, Čačić resigned from the Croatian Government.

Čačić was ejected from the HNS in January 2014. He was released from prison in June 2014 after serving a year out of his 22-month sentence.

On 28 September 2014 he became the first president of the People's Party – Reformists.

title: Radimir Čačić


text:
Let Loose Live

Let Loose Live, premiering on Sunday 29 May 2005, was an hour-long Australian live sketch comedy television programme loosely based on Saturday Night Live. At least two-thirds of each episode's content was broadcast live, requiring a large cast and crew. The show was broadcast on the Seven Network on Sunday nights at 8:30 PM, but was axed after just two episodes due to disappointing ratings. It was not replaced; instead, the Seven Network's regular Sunday night movies returned to the 8.30 slot.

Let Loose Live's cancellation was announced the day after the second episode aired. Tim Worner, Seven's programming boss, conceded that it did not live up to expectations despite being strongly promoted. According to OzTAM, 955,000 viewers tuned in to its pilot episode, but then the ratings plummeted almost by a third to 650,000 the following week. Not long after the cancellation, the Seven Network announced plans to reinstate the series during the summer (non-ratings) season, but nothing came of it.

Prior to the show's debut, director Ted Emery (Fast Forward, The Micallef Program, Kath & Kim) remarked in an interview that Let Loose Live would either 'soar majestically, or crash and burn'.

Cast

 * Peter Moon
 * Michael Veitch
 * Marg Downey
 * Colin Lane
 * Dave O'Neil
 * Jane Hall
 * Andrew Curry
 * Paul Calleja
 * Queenie van de Zandt
 * Kate McLennan
 * Sam McMillan
 * Julie Eckersley

Guest Hosts

 * Episode #1 - William McInnes (Sunday 29 May 2005)
 * Episode #2 - Tom Williams (Sunday 5 June 2005)
 * Episode #3 - Guy Sebastian (Failed to air)

title: Let Loose Live


text:
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Nové Město na Moravě

Nové Město na Moravě (Neustadt in Mähren) is a town in Žďár nad Sázavou District in the Vysočina Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 9,900 inhabitants. It is known as a winter sports resort. The historic town centre is well preserved and is protected by law as an urban monument zone.

Administrative parts
The villages of Hlinné, Jiříkovice, Maršovice, Olešná, Petrovice, Pohledec, Rokytno, Slavkovice and Studnice are administrative parts of Nové Město na Moravě.

Etymology
The name of the town literally means "New Town in Moravia".

Geography
Nové Město na Moravě is located about 9 km east of Žďár nad Sázavou and 53 km northwest of Brno. It lies in the Křižanov Highlands, in the highest parts of the whole Bohemian-Moravian Highlands. Most of the municipal territory is located in the Žďárské vrchy Protected Landscape Area. The highest peak in the territory is Kopeček at 822 m above sea level.

History
The first written mention of Nové Město na Moravě is from 1267 under the name Bočkov. It was founded during the colonization by royal burgrave Boček of Obřany after the nearby Cistercian monastery in Žďár nad Sázavou was established in 1252, not later than in 1255. The name Nové Město was used for the first time in a deed of King Wenceslaus II from 1293 and it was first referred to as a market town.

In 1312, Nové Město was inherited by lords of Lipá. Probably in the late 14th century, they had built a fortress here. In 1496, it was acquired by William II of Pernštejn. During the rule of the Pernštejn family (especially under Vratislav II of Pernštejn in 1561–1582), the town experienced an economic boom. The Renaissance town hall was built and the fortress was rebuilt into a Renaissance castle. The Pernštejn family owned Nové Město until 1588. The next owners were Vilém Dubský, who reconstructed the castle, Archbishop Franz von Dietrichstein, and the Kratzer family, who took care of the economic prosperity of the estate and supported glass making and ironworks in the estate.

At the end of the 19th century, skiing developed, thanks to which the town became a centre of winter sports. The railway was built in 1905.

Economy
The largest employer based in the town is the local hospital. There are only small and medium-sized industrial enterprises.

Despite its mountainous location, the town has a long tradition of manufacturing. Among the significant employers are Sporten, producer of ski equipment, and Medin, producer of medical instruments. Other production includes wireless communication modems by Racom.

Transport
The I/19 road from Žďár nad Sázavou to Boskovice pasess through the town.

Nové Město na Moravě is located on a short railway line from Žďár nad Sázavou to Tišnov.

Sport
The town is a prominent Czech winter sports resort. The Vysočina Aréna hosted the 2013 Biathlon World Championships and since the 2011–12 season, the Biathlon World Cup event has been held here more or less regularly. It also hosted events of the Tour de Ski in 2007–08 and 2008–09.

Mountain bike races are also being organised in Nové Město na Moravě, hosting races at the UCI Mountain Bike World Cup level as well as the cross-country event of the 2016 UCI Mountain Bike & Trials World Championships.

The local football club SFK Vrchovina Nové Město na Moravě plays in the Moravian-Silesian Football League, the third tier of the Czech football system.

Sights
In the middle of the historic centre is the Vratislavovo Square, named after Vratislav of Pernštejn, where most of the landmarks of the town are located. The elongated square is lined with Renaissance, Baroque and Neoclassical houses.

In the middle of the square is the Church of Saint Cunigunde, the oldest monument in the town. The first mention of the church is from 1362. It has façade sgraffito decoration by native artist Karel Němec from 1928–1929. There is also a fountain by Karel Němec on the square.

The castle in Nové Město na Moravě was baroque rebuilt in the 18th century, and in the Neo-Renaissance style in 1874. Nowadays the building houses the Horácko Gallery that focuses on glassmaking, landscaping and 20th century sculpture.

The Renaissance building of the former town hall now serves as the Horácko Museum.

Notable people

 * Josef Vratislav Monse (1733–1793), historian
 * Jan Štursa (1880–1925), sculptor
 * Otakar Šín (1881–1943), composer
 * Oldřich Blažíček (1887–1953), painter
 * Jaromír Nečas (1888–1945), politician
 * Ivan Sekanina (1900–1940), journalist, lawyer and resistance fighter
 * Vincenc Makovský (1900–1966), sculptor
 * František Balvín (1915–2003), cross-country skier
 * George Brady (1928–2019), Holocaust survivor and brother of Hana Brady
 * Hana Brady (1931–1944), Jewish girl murdered in the Holocaust, subject of documentary and children's book Hana's Suitcase
 * Miroslava Němcová (born 1952), politician
 * Pavel Tlustoš (born 1955), agrochemist
 * Vladimír Havlík (born 1959), action artist, painter
 * Ivo Strejček (born 1962), politician
 * Radek Jaroš (born 1964), mountaineer and author
 * Ivana Zemanová (born 1965), First Lady of the Czech Republic
 * Martin Koukal (born 1978), cross-country skier
 * Martina Sáblíková (born 1987), speed skater
 * Martin Nečas (born 1999), ice hockey player

Twin towns – sister cities
Nové Město na Moravě is twinned with:
 * 🇺🇦 Mizhhiria, Ukraine
 * Waalre, Netherlands
 * 🇮🇹 Ziano di Fiemme, Italy

title: Nové Město na Moravě


text:
The Four Apostles

The Four Apostles is a panel painting by the German Renaissance master Albrecht Dürer. It was finished in 1526, and is the last of his large works. It depicts the four apostles larger-than-life-size. The Bavarian Elector Maximilian I obtained The Four Apostles in the year 1627 due to pressure on the Nuremberg city fathers. Since then, the painting has been in Munich, in the Alte Pinakothek, and, despite all the efforts of Nuremberg since 1806, it has not been returned to Dürer's hometown.

Synopsis
Saints John and Peter are depicted in the left panel; the figures in the right panel are Saints Mark and Paul. The former are shown reading from the opening page of John's own Gospel, and the latter both appear alert, however only Paul, the father of Theology, seems to have recognized the spectator. At the bottom of each panel, quotations from the Bible are inscribed.

The apostles are recognizable by their symbols:
 * St. John the Evangelist: open book
 * St. Peter: keys
 * St. Mark: scroll
 * St. Paul: sword and closed book

They are also associated with the four temperaments:
 * St. John: sanguine
 * St. Peter: phlegmatic
 * St. Mark: choleric
 * St. Paul: melancholic

Historical context
The Four Apostles was created during the Reformation, begun in 1517 and having the largest initial impact on Germany. Some Protestants believed that icons were contradictory to the Word of God, which was held in the utmost supremacy over, thus some Protestant churches would not patron any sacred art. Many aspects of the image depicted prove significant in light of the Reformation itself. Durer placed Peter, often held as the symbol of the papacy, behind John the Evangelist. Both men read from the Scriptures, which Luther upheld as the sole authority for doctrine in the Church. Durer also placed quotations from Luther's translation of the German New Testament on the panel beneath the Apostles.

This painting has had many speculations as to Durer's intentions, one being that it was his way of creating a sort of worthy legacy piece. When Dürer moved back to Nuremberg he produced many famous paintings there, including several self-portraits. He gave The Four Apostles to the town council.

title: The Four Apostles


text:
Berlin–Baghdad railway

The Baghdad railway, also known as the Berlin–Baghdad railway (Bağdat Demiryolu, Bagdadbahn, سكة حديد بغداد, Chemin de Fer Impérial Ottoman de Bagdad), was started in 1903 to connect Berlin with the then Ottoman city of Baghdad, from where the Germans wanted to establish a port on the Persian Gulf, with a 1600 km line through modern-day Turkey, Syria, and Iraq.

The line was completed only in 1940. By the outbreak of World War I, the railway was still 960 km (600 miles) away from its intended objective. The last stretch to Baghdad was built in the late 1930s and the first train to travel from Istanbul to Baghdad departed in 1940.

Funding, engineering and construction were mainly provided by the German Empire through Deutsche Bank and the Philipp Holzmann company, which in the 1890s had built the Anatolian Railway (Anatolische Eisenbahn) connecting Istanbul, Ankara and Konya. The Ottoman Empire wished to maintain its control of the Arabian Peninsula and to expand its influence across the Red Sea into the nominally Ottoman (until 1914) Khedivate of Egypt, which had been under British military control since the Urabi Revolt in 1882. If the railway had been completed, the Germans would have gained access to suspected oil fields in Mesopotamia, as well as a connection to the port of Basra on the Persian Gulf. The latter would have provided access to the eastern parts of the German colonial empire, and avoided the Suez Canal, which was controlled by British and French interests.

The railway became a source of international disputes during the years immediately preceding World War I. Although it has been argued that they were resolved in 1914 before the war began, it has also been suggested that the railway was a manifestation of the imperial rivalry that was the leading cause of World War I. Technical difficulties in the remote Taurus Mountains and diplomatic delays meant that by 1915 the railway was still 480 km short of completion, severely limiting its use during the war in which Baghdad was captured by the British while the Hejaz railway in the south was attacked by guerrilla forces led by T. E. Lawrence. Construction resumed in the 1930s and was completed in 1940.

A recent history of this railway in the specific context of World War I neatly outlines in the prologue the German global interest in countering the British Empire, and Ottoman Turkey's regional interest in countering their Russian, French and British rivals on all sides. As stated by a contemporary 'on the ground' at the time, Morris Jastrow wrote:

""It was felt in England that if, as Napoleon is said to have remarked, Antwerp in the hands of a great continental power was a pistol leveled at the English coast, Baghdad and the Persian Gulf in the hands of Germany (or any other strong power) would be a 42-centimetre gun pointed at India.""

Overview
Had it been completed earlier, the Berlin-Baghdad (ultimately a Hamburg to Basra) railway would have enabled transport and trade from a port in Germany through a port on the Persian Gulf, from which trade goods and supplies could be exchanged directly with the farthest of the German colonies, and the world. The journey home to Germany would have given German industry a direct supply of oil. This access to resources, with trade less affected by British control of shipping, would have been beneficial to German economic interests in industry and trade, and threatening to British economic dominance in colonial trade.

The railway also threatened Russia, since it was accepted as axiomatic that political influence followed economic, and the railway was expected to extend Germany's economic influence towards the Caucasian frontier and into north Persia where Russia had a dominant share of the market.

By the late 19th century the Ottoman Empire was weak, and cheap imports from industrialised Europe and the effects of the disastrous Russo-Turkish War (1877–78) had resulted in the country's finances being controlled by the Ottoman Public Debt Administration, composed of and answerable to the Great Powers. The Europeans saw great potential to exploit the resources of the weakening empire, irrigation could transform agriculture, there were chromium, antimony, lead and zinc mines and some coal. Not least there were potentially vast amounts of oil.

As early as 1871 a commission of experts studied the geology of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and reported plentiful oil of good quality, but commented that poor transportation made it doubtful these fields could compete with those already operating in Russia and the United States. In 1901, a German report announced the region had a veritable "lake of petroleum" of almost inexhaustible supply.

In 1872 German railway engineer Wilhelm von Pressel was retained by the Ottoman government to develop plans for railways in Turkey. However, private enterprise would not build the railway without subsidies, so the Ottoman Government had to reserve part of its revenues to subsidise its construction, thus increasing its debt to the European powers.

The process of constructing a rail line from Istanbul to Baghdad began during 1888 when Alfred von Kaulla, manager of Württembergische Vereinsbank, and Georg von Siemens, Managing Director of Deutsche Bank, created a syndicate and obtained a concession from Turkish leaders to extend the Haydarpaşa – İzmit railway to Ankara. Thus, came into existence the Anatolian Railway Company (SCFOA, or ARC).

After the line to Ankara was completed during December 1892, railway workshops were built in Eskişehir and permission was obtained to construct a railway line from Eskişehir to Konya; that line was completed in July 1896. These two lines were the first two sections of the Baghdad railway. Another railway built at the same time by German engineers was the Hejaz railway, commissioned by Sultan Hamid II.

The Ottoman Empire chose to place the line outside the range of the guns of the British Navy. Therefore, the coastal way from Alexandretta to Aleppo was avoided. The line had to cross the Amanus Mountains inland at the cost of expensive engineering including an 8 km tunnel between Ayran station and Fevzipaşa.

The Baghdad Concession

During 1898 and 1899 the Ottoman Ministry of Public Works received many applications for permission to construct a railway to Baghdad; it was not because of lack of competition that the Deutsche Bank was finally awarded the concession. A Russian plan was rejected for fear of it extending Russian influence in Istanbul. A well-financed British plan collapsed due to the outbreak of the Boer War. A well-financed French proposal titled the Imperial Ottoman railway enabled them to become financiers of the winning Deutsche Bank plan.

Other nations of Europe paid little attention to the building of the railway lines until 1903, when the Ottoman Government gave an Ottoman corporation permission to build the railway line from Konya to Baghdad. This Baghdad Railway Company was controlled by a few German banks. (McMurray rejects the theory that the railway tied Turkey to Germany.) There was concern in Russia, France, and Britain after 1903 as the implications of the German scheme to construct a great Berlin-Baghdad railway became apparent. A railway that would link Berlin to the Persian Gulf would provide Germany with a connection to its southernmost colonies in Africa, i.e. with German East Africa (present-day Rwanda and Burundi and the mainland part of Tanzania) and German South-West Africa (present-day Namibia, less Walvis Bay). The railway might eventually have strengthened the Ottoman Empire and its ties to Germany and might have shifted the balance of power in the region.

Despite obstructions at the diplomatic level, work slowly began on the railway. Both geographical and political obstacles prevented the completion of the Baghdad railway before World War I commenced in 1914. Much of the construction work was undertaken by Philipp Holzmann.

Route
The railway passed through the following towns and places, NW to SE:
 * Konya
 * Anatolian table lands
 * Karaman
 * Ereğli
 * The foothills of Taurus
 * Cilician Gates
 * Çukurova plain
 * Yenice
 * Adana
 * Amanus range
 * Rajo
 * Aleppo
 * Tell Abyad
 * Nusaybin
 * Mosul
 * Baghdad
 * Basra

The Mersin–Yenice–Adana line existed prior to the construction of the Bagdad railway and was used for the latter in its Yenice–Adana section.

British view of the railway
The initial reaction of Britain was one of strong support. A long article outlining the positive benefits of the enterprise appeared in the Times newspaper. But a plan for an extension from Basra towards the Persian Gulf faced opposition from the British and as a result, the Sheikh of Kuwait refused to rent any storage facilities to the Germans.

The railway would eventually compete with British trade in Mesopotamia, but this would not happen for many years. However, in 1906, the Hamburg-American Steamship Line announced its intention to run regular steamships between Europe and the Persian Gulf. After a futile price war, the British lines, which had lost their monopoly, came to agreement in 1913 with their competitors, ending a rivalry which had caused considerable political concern.

In 1911 the railway company looked to build a branch line to Alexandretta from Aleppo to pick up on the valuable trade of Northern Syria and the Northern Mesopotamian valley. However the Young Turk government could not offer further railway concessions without raising customs duties from 11 to 14 percent. Such a raise required the agreement of all the powers, but was vetoed by Britain after Sir Edward Grey spoke in the House of Commons: " ... if the money is to be used to promote railways which may be a source of doubtful advantage to British trade ... I say it will be impossible for us to agree to that increase ... ".

The British realised that the railways would be slightly too close to their oilfields in Persia. The British were worried that the Young Turks could block off oil supplies vital for the navy.

The main British commercial interest that the British government insisted was protected, was that of the Right Honourable James Lyle Mackay, Baron Inchcape of Strathnaver. As well as being the foremost shipping magnate of the British Empire, Lord Inchcape was a director of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company and of the D'Arcy Exploration Company. On 23 February a contract was signed in London between Lord Inchcape and the Baghdad Railway Company. In March 1914 the German government was obliged to recognise southern Mesopotamia, as well as central and southern Persia, as the exclusive field of operations of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company.

Russian view of the railway
The Russians also opposed the railway, being concerned about the territories in the Caucasus. Russian support for the railway was only achieved in 1910, when in a meeting between Tsar Nicholas II and the German Emperor Wilhelm II, the German Emperor assured the Tsar that no lines were planned into Kurdish or Armenian areas.

Role in origins of World War I

Discussion of the railway's role as a contributing factor to the outbreak of war is complicated by two issues:

Firstly, historians and political analysts who wrote about this issue directly after the war were not in possession of closed diplomatic records - an important piece and perspective on the historical record. Diplomatic documents of the German government were released between 1922 and 1927, British documents between 1926 and 1938. Only some Russian documents were released, and Italian documents came out only after the Second World War.

Marxist historians emphasise imperial rivalries and economics as the driving force for the war, as was popularly reported with respect to the railway at the time and especially as revealed in the Russian diplomatic documents. Regardless of diplomacy, financing and agreements, and later points of view, the existence of the railway would have created a threat to British dominance over German trade, as it would have given German industry access to oil, and a port in the Persian Gulf. The importance of oil as opposed to coal as fuel was recognised, as it could greatly improve the performance and capacity of the rival navies. The recognised strategic importance is seen by the wartime presence of the British there, and by the earlier establishment of the Sheikdom of Kuwait as an autonomous kaza (district) of the Ottoman Empire and a de facto protectorate of Great Britain by the Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1913, blocking northern access to the Persian Gulf.

Other historians have argued that the sum of many other issues, including intractable nationalities and the denial of self-determination to minority groups, were the dominant causes of World War I. They argue that although the railway issue was heated before 1914 (Corrigan shows that the railway issue was driving Germany and Turkey further apart), Anglo-American conservative historians argue that it was not a cause of World War I, because the main controversies had been addressed in principle before the war started.

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However, war began on 1 August 1914 – and one day later the secret treaty establishing the Ottoman-German Alliance was signed, perhaps giving credence to the notion that the issue had not been fully resolved. In fact, restriction of German access to Mesopotamia and its oil, and strategic exclusion from rail access to the Persian Gulf, was enforced by British military presence during World War I, and afterwards in the Treaty of Versailles by removal of the would-be Baghdad railway from German ownership. Thus the potential consequences to Anglo-German economic rivalry in oil and trade by the existence of the railway were ultimately addressed by ownership and outright control, rather than by agreement. Marxist historians, unpopular in the Anglo-American perspective on process, would suggest that economic contexts, rather than nationalistic and political rivalries, underlie the root causes.

During World War I
By 1915, the railway ended some 80 km east of Diyarbakır. Another spur, heading east from Aleppo, ended at Nusaybin. Additionally some rail was laid starting in Baghdad reaching north to Tikrit and south to Kut. This left a gap of some 480 kilometres (300 miles) between the railway lines. Additionally, there were three mountains which the railway was going to go through, but the tunnels through these three mountains were not complete. So the railway was, in fact, broken into four different sections at the start of the war. The total time to get from Istanbul to Baghdad during the war was 22 days. The total distance was 2020 km

The breaks in the railway meant that the Ottoman government had significant difficulties in sending supplies and reinforcements to the Mesopotamian Front. The fighting in Mesopotamia remained somewhat isolated from the rest of the war. During the conflict, Turkish and German workers, together with allied prisoners of war, laboured to complete the railway for military purposes but with limited manpower and so many more important things to spend money on, only two of the gaps were closed.

The first use of railways for genocide occurred in early 1915 when Armenian women and children from Zeitun were deported on trains to Konya and later marched into the Syrian Desert. Many Armenians were deported via the railways and later killed in the course of the Armenian genocide.

After World War I

In 1919, the Treaty of Versailles cancelled all German rights to the Baghdad railway, however, the Deutsche Bank transferred its holdings to a Swiss bank.

The Treaty of Ankara in 1921 established the Syria–Turkey border as running along the railway track from Al-Rai in the west to Nusaybin in the east, with the border being on the Syrian side of the track, leaving the track in Turkish territory. Further west, the Treaty also set the border immediately north of the town and railway station of Meidan Ekbis.

People in Turkey, Italy, France, and Britain created various arrangements that gave a certain degree of control over the Baghdad railway to various indistinct interests in those nations. Investors, speculators, and financiers were involved by 1923 in secretive and clandestine ways.

The British Army had completed the southeastern section from Baghdad to Basra, so that part was under British control. The French held negotiations to obtain some degree of control over the central portion of the railway, and Turkish interests controlled the oldest sections that had been constructed inside of Turkey, but talks continued to be held after 1923. The United States involvement in the Near East began in 1923 when Turkey approved the Chester concession, which aroused disapprovals from France and the United Kingdom.

In 1930, a passenger service by road was introduced to bridge the missing section of line between Nusaybin and Kirkuk. At different times the service used Rolls-Royce cars and Thornycroft buses.

In 1932, the Kingdom of Iraq became independent from the UK. In 1936, Iraq bought all railways in its territory from the UK and started building the missing section of line from Tel Kotchek to Baiji. On 15 July 1940 the railway had been completed, and two days later the Taurus Express made its first complete journey between Istanbul and Baghdad. In that year, the Robert Stephenson and Hawthorns locomotive works in Britain built a class of streamlined Pacific steam locomotives to haul the Taurus Express between Baghdad and Tel Kotchek. These were delivered to Iraqi State Railways in 1941 and entered service as the PC class.

A new standard gauge railway opened between Baghdad and Basra for freight traffic in 1964 and for freight in 1968. It was also used for passenger traffic at least into the 1970s. This replaced a metre gauge line built in 1920 and for the first time connected the Bosphorus with the Persian Gulf without a break of gauge. Due to the strained relations between Turkey, Syria and Iraq however, continuous traffic remained rare, and other means of transport soon reduced its strategic and economic relevance.

Current situation

 * Most of the line is in a usable condition and Robinson's World Rail Atlas (2006) shows it as intact.
 * Most of the stations are still original.
 * The part between Toprakkale and Narlı in Turkey has been electrified for heavy ore transport.
 * The right-of-way of the railway marks the border between Syria and Turkey for over 350 km, from Al-Rai station in the West to Nusaybin in the east, with the rail line on the Turkish side squeezed between the minefields and control strip in Turkey and Syria.
 * On 16 February 2010 the link between Mosul in Iraq and Gaziantep in Turkey was reopened. The first train went from Mosul to Gaziantep, taking 18 hours. On 18 February a return journey departed from Gaziantep to Mosul. This line has now closed once again. There are limited train services between Baghdad and Basra until new trains are delivered.

title: Berlin–Baghdad railway


text:
Norwood, South Australia

Norwood is a suburb of Adelaide, about 4 km east of the Adelaide city centre. The suburb is in the City of Norwood Payneham & St Peters, whose predecessor was the oldest South Australian local government municipality.

The Parade runs east to west through the centre of the suburb. Two roads run parallel to this, also along the whole length of the suburb: Beulah Road to the north, and William Street to the south.

History
Before British colonisation of South Australia and subsequent European settlement, Norwood was inhabited by one of the groups who later collectively became known as the Kaurna peoples.

Early settler Edward Stephens, who arrived in the colony in 1839, wrote: "Norwood and Kent Town were unknown then. The site of the present Norwood was then a magnificent gum forest, with an undergrowth of kangaroo grass, too high in places for a man to see over; in fact persons lost their way in going from Adelaide to Kensington in those days, through attempting a short or near cut across the country".

Norwood is named after Norwood, then a village south of London. The new village east of Adelaide was first laid out in 1847. The former City of Kensington and Norwood was the first outside of the City of Adelaide to receive the right to set up their own municipal corporation. The charter of the town was given on 7 July 1853 by the Governor, Sir Henry Young.

Trams
The first permanent street-based public transport service in Adelaide was provided in Norwood and Kensington, and these suburbs were also the first to be served by electric trams. The Adelaide and Suburban Tramway Company, the first horse-drawn tram company, started laying tracks from the City of Adelaide to Norwood and Kensington in 1877, with the first trams running in June 1878. The Adelaide and Suburban Tramway Company was acquired by the Municipal Tramways Trust, and the Kensington line converted to an electric tramway in 1909. The interim Kensington terminus was at The Parade/Gurrs Road intersection, before being extended, as part of the network of Adelaide trams, to serve the recently created reserve up The Parade at Kensington Gardens.

Until 1952, the service was linked in with the other eastern suburbs tramlines and terminated in the city, but in that year it was "through routed" with trams running to Henley Beach. The tramway closed in February 1957.

Jubilee Cycling Arena
In February 1951 the Jubilee Cycling Arena, aka Norwood Velodrome, opened on Osmond Terrace. It was a steeply banked concrete velodrome, with six laps to the mile, designed by Eddie Smith. During the summer, there were races held every Friday night. It became a popular spot for keen cyclists, and was also used as a venue for square dancing in the 1950s.

In 1965 over A$11,000 was raised by cyclists of the Norwood Cycling Club to re-concrete the track.

In 1970, residents organised protests and a green ban in order to stop the destruction of the Norwood Velodrome for high-rise apartments. However, Norwood Council sold the velodrome and surrounding land to real estate developers in 1981.

Geography and landmarks
The suburb consists of four segments, being divided into north and south by the major thoroughfare of The Parade and east and west by Osmond Terrace. It is bounded on the south by Kensington Road on the north by Magill Road, on the east by Portrush Road and on the west by Fullarton Road. It is a leafy suburb, with streets lined with plane trees.

First Creek and Second Creek once flowed through the suburb, but First Creek is only visible between Edward Street and Birrell Street, and both creeks are mostly underground in concrete tunnels.

Osmond Terrace is a street with a wide grass, median strip featuring a prominent war memorial commemorating ANZAC soldiers who fought in the first and second World Wars, created by architect H.F.R. Culley. The median strip also features sculptures from local artists, and rose gardens. There is a sculpture of the first Italian to arrive in the new colony of South Australia in 1839, Antonio Giannoni (1814–1883), who worked as a cab driver in Norwood, and whose son, Peter Gannoni, became mayor in 1920. The memorial bust, created by Wandrina Douglas-Boers, was unveiled in November 1993.

One of the most visible landmarks in Norwood is the Clayton Wesley Uniting Church, at the eastern end of The Parade, on the north-east corner of Portrush Road. Actually located in Beulah Park, the church and spire that are visible along the road from Norwood was built in 1883, although an earlier building (still behind the present church) was built in 1856. The Norwood Town Hall is on the north-western corner of The Parade and George Street.

Demography
Norwood attracted many European migrants post-World War II, in particular Italians. In the 2016 Australian census, 4.1% of the population spoke Italian at home, with Greek coming a close second at 3%. By the 2016 Australian census, the top language other than English spoken at home was Mandarin Chinese, at 3.6%, while 3.2% of the population spoke Italian and 2.8% Greek.

In 2016, there were 5,953 people living in the suburb, with a median income of A$1,485 per week. The top ancestries in 2016 were English, at 26.3% and Australian, at 17%. Only 64.4% were born in Australia, while 43.2% had both parents born in Australia.

Norwood Oval
Norwood Oval, known as the Coopers Stadium, on The Parade, is home to the Norwood Redlegs, a South Australian National Football League (Australian Rules Football) team It also hosts some AFL Women's (national league) matches, including the Adelaide Crows. It is the former home of Adelaide Bite, an Australian Baseball League team.

Norwood Cycling Club
The Norwood Cycling Club (NCC) is the largest cycling club in South Australia, with 380 members, and its 1883 foundation date makes it the oldest such club in the southern hemisphere. It was founded as the Norwood Cycle and Motor Club, and its official opening was at Kensington Oval, a bit further up The Parade in the suburb of Kensington, on 4 February 1884. Sir Edwin Smith was a foundation member and patron of the club, which became incorporated in 1918, after it had bought land and built clubrooms at Port Noarlunga. After the Jubilee Cycling Arena was built in Norwood in 1951, the club's members used to race there, and in 1965 the club raised money to concrete the track. Its clubrooms opened in George Street in 1975.

Former members of the club include many champions, including Jack Bobridge, Luke Roberts, Tim Roe, Alexis Rhodes, Tiffany Cromwell, Patrick Jonker, Michael Turtur, David Solari (son of Nino Solari ), Wayne McCarney, Charlie Walsh and Jay Sweet.

Each year the club promotes four major cycling events:
 * the Noarlunga Road race (since 1919);
 * the Burra 2-day Classic;
 * the Tour of the Riverland (established 1975); and
 * the AlphutteClassic Handicap.

NCC is affiliated with Cycling SA, which is in turn affiliated with the national parent body of the state bodies, Cycling Australia.

Attractions
Norwood is known for its many restaurants and shops selling fashion and goods of all kinds. It also plays host to a variety of events and festivals throughout the year.

Odeon Theatre
The Odeon Theatre is on the corner of The Parade and Queen Street. Originally the Star Theatre, it was designed as a picture theatre by Sydney architects Kaberry and Chard (who also designed the Thebarton Theatre, the Athenium Theatre in Junee, New South Wales, and many other cinemas across Australia ) in association with local supervising architect Chris A. Smith. It was officially opened by Norwood mayor William Essery (Snr) on Wednesday 16 May 1923, with its entrance on The Parade. The operator was D. Clifford Theatres (formerly Star Theatres) by 1946. Later it was taken over by Greater Union Cinemas and renamed the Odeon Theatre (also known as Odeon Norwood). It closed as a cinema, reopening in 1986 as a live theatre specialising in children's productions. The entrance was moved around the corner onto Queen Street, and the original foyer converted into restaurant, St Louis dessert bar.

, the Odeon is home to Australian Dance Theatre, which offers dance classes to adults. The venue is hired out for various performing arts events, such as the Adelaide Festival, Adelaide Fringe and State Theatre Company of South Australia performances.

Pubs
Historic pubs in Norwood include:
 * Bath Hotel, on the southeast corner of the Parade and Queen Street, was designed by Thomas English and built around 1881 to 1883. It replaced two earlier buildings, the original having been licensed in 1857 and rebuilt after a fire in 1877. A balcony on the Parade facade was removed in 1960. It was locally heritage-listed in August 2000; and underwent a major renovation in 2006.

 * The Colonist, formerly known as The Colonist Tavern and Old Colonist Hotel, was first licensed in 1851, but the present building on the south-western corner of the Parade and Sydenham Road was only constructed around 1883, when it was built as a single-storey building. It underwent significant refurbishments in the 1870s, and an upper storey was constructed in 1911. It was locally heritage-listed in August 2000.

 * Norwood Hotel, situated on the northeast corner of the Parade and Osmond Terrace, was designed by Charles Howard Marryat and completed in 1884, built by C.H.F. Boehm. Considered too elaborate at that time, it was described in an 1984 heritage assessment as an "imposing and solid example of largely intact high Victorian architecture", and was heritage-listed on the South Australian Heritage Register in September 1990. An earlier building, known as the Norwood Arms, was a single-storey building built in 1848, and the first pub in Norwood. The first meeting of the Kensington and Norwood Council was held in it.

 * The Republic, formerly the Oriental Hotel, on the southwest corner of Osmond Terrace and Magill Road, locally heritage-listed in August 2000

 * Robin Hood Hotel, 315 Portrush Road, present building built 1882 to replace an earlier one licensed in 1845; locally heritage-listed in August 2000

Other buildings

 * Norwood Town Hall was heritage-listed on the SA Heritage Register in November 1985.
 * Norwood Library is located on 110 The Parade, near the corner of Osmond Terrace, in the old Kensington and Norwood Institute building, which was heritage-listed in 1981 on the South Australian Heritage Register. The institute, designed by government architect W. H. Abbott free of charge, and built in 1876, was one of many mechanics' institutes in Australia established during the 19th century. It was largely funded by its founding president, Sir Edwin Smith. In 1882 its collection, available for loan by subscriptions paid by members, was enhanced by books acquired from the Magill Institute after its demise. In 1883 extensions were added to the building, including a hall and reading room, and in 1895 it also had a musical program. In 1914 the library held 13,744 volumes, and 190 periodicals and newspapers, and an art school was opened in the building. In the 1950s the Institute supported the free lending of books, but fell into debt to the council. In 1977 the City of Kensington and Norwood acquired the building, and carried out renovations, retaining the library. In 1986 the institute was dissolved, setting up a Friends of the Library group as the building becoming the responsibility of the council. The building was refurbished in period style and became Norwood Library.
 * The former Norwood Baptist Church, on the south-eastern corner of Church Avenue and The Parade (no. 134), designed by architect James Cumming, built in 1869 by Charles Farr and opened in January 1870, was heritage-listed on the SA Heritage Register in 1982. Its classical style was particularly influenced by the Metropolitan Tabernacle in Newington Butts in London, where influential Baptist preacher Charles Spurgeon used to preach. The building contains one of the most significant church organs in South Australia, installed in 1882. Its use as a church ceased and for some time it housed the Mary Martin Bookshop, but that closed in the 2010s and has since been used as a restaurant.

Churches
Saint Ignatius Church is a Catholic parish church, built after land at the north-eastern corner of William and Queen Streets was purchased by the Society of Jesus (more commonly referred to as Jesuits) in 1869 and the church built in Italianate style and opened in August 1870.

Saint Bartholomew's on Beulah Road in Norwood, also known as St Bart's Norwood, is "an Anglican church in the evangelical tradition that participates as a member of the Anglican Communion". It was for some years part of the Grace Anglican Network (created by St Bart's in 2016 ) with St Matthew's Church, Marryatville, but is again independent.

The Unitarian Meeting House at 99 Osmond Terrace is an independent, self-governed church "affiliated with the worldwide Unitarian and Unitarian-Universalist free church movements".

Schools

 * Norwood Primary School, Osmond Terrace, which was designed and built by the same architect and builder as the Norwood Baptist Church, architect James Cumming and builder Charles Farr, as Norwood Public School in 1871.
 * Saint Ignatius' College, junior campus

 * The upper primary campus of St Joseph's Memorial School, catering for children, William Street, caters for Year 2 to Year 6 (junior primary, preschool to Year 1, is in Bridge Street, Kensington).

Transport
Several Adelaide Metro bus routes serve the suburb. These are the main routes running through or adjacent to Norwood : In addition to these, there are a number of school services running during term-time, and special services to Adelaide Oval for big events.
 * H30, H33: Magill Road
 * H20, H21, H22, H23, H24, N22: The Parade
 * 140, 141,142: Kensington Road
 * 300: Suburban Connector (Portrush Road)

Notable residents

 * Reginald Blundell, politician
 * C.J. Dennis, writer
 * Bill Denny, politician
 * Don Dunstan, former Premier of South Australia
 * Antonio Giannoni, first Italian settler in South Australia
 * May Gibbs, writer
 * Max Harris, poet
 * Lionel Hill, politician
 * Mary MacKillop, Australia's first beatified saint
 * Mary Martin, bookseller
 * Sir Edwin Thomas Smith
 * Catherine Helen Spence, women's rights campaigner
 * Alexander Tolmer, former police officer and police commissioner
 * Stanley Price Weir, public servant and Australian Army officer

title: Norwood, South Australia


text:
Michelle Magorian

Michelle Magorian (born 6 November 1947) is an English author of children's books. She is best known for her first novel, Goodnight Mister Tom, which won the 1982 Guardian Prize for British children's books and has been adapted several times for screen or stage. Two other well-known works are Back Home and A Little Love Song. She resides in Petersfield, Hampshire.

Biography
Michelle Magorian was born in Portsmouth, Hampshire, and is of Irish descent, her father William Magorian being from County Down, Ireland She lived in Singapore and Australia from age seven to nine. As a child she spent as much time as possible in the Kings Theatre, Southsea.

Her ambition was always to become an actress. After three years of study at the Rose Bruford College of Speech and Drama, she spent two years at Marcel Marceau's L'école Internationale de Mime in Paris. From there she launched into a professional acting career and spent a few years touring all over the country - from Scotland to Devon and then Yorkshire - working in repertory companies, taking any part she could. Michelle's worst stage part was playing Orinoco in The Wombles musical. All this time she had been secretly writing stories. When she was 24 she became interested in children's books, and decided to write one herself.

The result was Goodnight Mister Tom. The idea for the book came from the colours in a song from Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat. She thought of brown as an earthy, old colour and green as a colour of youth. The character of William Beech came into her head because she thought of a beech tree with its slim trunk and it gave her the idea for a slim young boy. Some details for the story came from her mother's tales about her time as a nurse in World War II. She took four-and-a-half years to complete it because she was also working in the theatre. After she had finished the book, she joined a novel-writing class at City Lit, at which she shared the book. It was published by Kestrel Books in 1981 and quickly became an international success. At home Magorian won the annual Guardian Children's Fiction Prize, a once-in-a-lifetime award judged by a panel of British children's writers and she was a commended runner up for the Carnegie Medal from the Library Association, recognising the year's best children's book by a British subject. She also won the International Reading Association Children's Book Award. The book was adapted as a film of the same name by ITV and aired in 1998; it has also been adapted as a musical.

Magorian followed Goodnight Mister Tom with Back Home (1984), another story about a child evacuated during World War II. Where Mister Tom featured a London boy living in the English countryside during the war, Back Home featured a girl struggling back home in Britain after five years with a family in United States.

A Little Love Song (Not a Swan in the US), her third novel, features a young woman becoming independent and finding first love in wartime Britain. Most of Magorian's other books are also set in the mid-20th century, often based around theatres. She has written three more novels —Cuckoo in the Nest (1994), A Spoonful of Jam (1998), and Just Henry (2008)— and two collections of poetry, a collection of short stories, and two picture books.

In 2007, she received an honorary doctorate from Portsmouth University.

Just Henry won the 2008 Costa Book Award in the Children's Book category.

Works

 * Goodnight Mister Tom (1981) (ISBN 0-7226-5701-3)
 * Back Home (1984) (ISBN 0-06-440411-0)
 * Waiting for My Shorts to Dry (1989)
 * Who's Going to Take Care of Me? (1990)
 * Orange Paw Marks (1991)
 * A Little Love Song (1991) (ISBN 0-7497-1061-6); U.S. title, Not a Swan
 * In Deep Water (1992)
 * Jump (1992)
 * A Cuckoo in the Nest (1994)
 * A Spoonful of Jam (1998)
 * Be Yourself (2003)
 * Just Henry (2008)
 * Impossible (2014)

title: Michelle Magorian


text:
Glee (music)

A glee is a type of English part song composed during the Late Baroque, Classical, and early Romantic periods (roughly the Georgian era, taken together). The respectable and artistic character of glees contrasts with the bawdiness of the many catches which continued to be composed and sung well into the early years of the 19th century.

The use of the countertenor voice on the upper part(s) in glees composed for men's voices, and on the Alto part(s) in those for mixed voices, is a particular characteristic of the form (the most famous exponent, known for his elegant ornamentation, was William Knyvett) and serves to distinguish glees from other male voice partsongs, which usually lack countrapuntal writing and have the top part taken by a tenor. This gives them a highest note around a major third below that of men's voice glees. Some care is required in interpreting the intended voicing of glees in contemporary editions, due to the gradual replacement, taking place at this time, of the C clef with the treble clef but often without the required octave transposition being specified.

Form
The term "glee" has been as loosely used as madrigal, from whose rediscovery the impulse for glee composition likely grew (that, at least, was John Callcott's opinion). Glees, although often in simple binary form, can also be extended pieces consisting of a number of short movements contrasted in key and tempo, including so-called word-painting. Their texts can be convivial, fraternal, idyllic, tender, philosophical or even (occasionally) dramatic. Glee composers often turned to near-contemporary poets for their texts on pastoral themes, as well as sources as diverse as Chaucer, Nicholas Breton, Shakespeare and Milton or translations of Classical poets or even Goethe. Some composers also used texts from more Romantic sources such as James Macpherson's Ossianic epics.

The form was very flexible and text-driven and could therefore be a great deal more complex in terms of variety of texture and freedom of expression than that of the post-Mendelssohnian, Romantic part song which largely superseded the glee and was intended to be sung by choirs. Several glee composers wrote pieces they described as madrigals, in imitation of the Renaissance style, the most famous being Thomas Linley Snr's 'Let me careless and unthoughtful lying'. Many glees in fact use madrigalian contrapuntal procedures as part of their tapestry of effects. Other composers successfully juxtaposed sections in the French Overture style and style galant with Affetuoso 3/4 movements and sections of robust Handelian fugal writing as well as short sections for solo or duetting voices. A very few glees have basso continuo or other instrumental accompaniment.

A notable example of the simpler sort of glee is Glorious Apollo, by Samuel Webbe Sr., written in 1787 as a theme song for the newly founded London Glee Club, it is a vigorous piece for 3 voices (ATB). Webbe's glee took root with the Harvard Glee Club, the oldest such group in America, which still sings this song. Webbe wrote the text as well as the music, and in it he faithfully traced the London Glee Club's history; for the first couple of years, the meetings circulated among members' homes. This is reflected in the second line, which notes that the club was "wand'ring to find a temple for his praise." It finally found its "temple" when the club's meetings moved to the Newcastle Coffee House. Webbe's references to the gods of the Greek pantheon were part and parcel of the Georgian gentlemen's singing clubs' identification with the learning and leisure activities of the classical world. Webbe structured the poem so that the first two couplets of each verse were sung by solo voices, with all the members joining in at the refrain, "Thus then combining...".

 * Glorious Apollo
 * Glorious Apollo from on high beheld us,
 * Wand'ring to find a temple for his praise.
 * Sent Polyhymnia hither to shield us,
 * While we ourselves such a structure might raise.
 * Thus then combining, hands and hearts joining,
 * Sing we in harmony Apollo's praise.

 * Here ev'ry gen'rous sentiment awaking,
 * Music inspiring unity and joy.
 * Each social pleasure giving and partaking,
 * Glee and good humour our hours employ.
 * Thus then combining, hands and hearts joining,
 * Long may continue our unity and joy.

History
The first song to be described as a glee was Turn, Amaryllis, to thy Swain by Thomas Brewer and a few so-called glees were produced during the remainder of the 17th century but the heyday of the glee was in the years between 1750 and 1850. The form began to grow in importance with the establishment in the early 18th century of gentlemen's singing, or vocal music clubs in London from around 1726 when the Academy of Vocal Music (renamed the Academy of Ancient Music in 1731) was established. These clubs comprised select groups of enthusiasts whose members and guests included well-known musicians, in particular organists and professional singing men from major churches in addition to the amateur gentlemen. Much of the music was for men's voices, and any soprano parts were usually sung by a small group of boys (church choristers). Ladies were rarely present except as listeners. Glees were scored for from three to eight voices and the more elaborate of them are ideally intended to be sung a cappella, one to a part, by professional choral or solo singers.

The first of the great Georgian clubs specifically to embrace the glee was the Noblemen and Gentlemen's Catch Club of London, founded in 1761. Societies to sing, listen to and judge glees whilst dining and drinking became popular in the 18th century and remained so well into the 19th century. Glee clubs were at their most active during the second half of the 18th century, encouraging the production of new glees by awarding prizes to their composers. For example, in 1763 the Catch Club was offering four prizes annually—two for glees (one serious, one cheerful), one for a catch and one for a canon. If Warren's Collection is typical, the catches were usually smutty and the canons religious. Participation by Italian musicians resident in London seem to have been welcomed. Other clubs included the Hibernian Catch Club (Dublin), the Gentlemen's Glee Club (Manchester) and the Apollo Glee Club (Liverpool). Glees such as William Crotch's 'Mona on Snowdon calls' were sometimes introduced into stage productions.

As the 19th century progressed, musical tastes changed along with social structures, and the glee as a musical form began to be replaced by the romantic part song, aimed at larger choirs. By the mid-20th century, the glee was seldom performed. Since then, however, professional singing groups have performed and recorded glees with some success.

Glee clubs
From around 1850, as larger choral societies supplanted the earlier clubs, the term "glee club" was increasingly used in the U.S.A. to describe collegiate ensembles performing 'glees' and other light music in informal circumstances. As these glee clubs began more to resemble standard choirs during the 20th century, the tradition of singing glees in a social context faded.

Notable glee composers

 * Thomas Arne
 * Samuel Arnold
 * Luffman Atterbury
 * Thomas Attwood
 * Jonathan Battishill
 * William Beale
 * Thomas Brewer
 * John Callcott
 * Benjamin Cooke
 * William Crotch
 * John Danby
 * John Goss
 * William Hayes
 * Joseph Haydn
 * William Horsley
 * George William Martin
 * Lord Mornington
 * James Nares
 * William Paxton
 * John Sale
 * Reginald Spofforth
 * John Stafford Smith
 * R. J. S. Stevens
 * John Andrew Stevenson
 * Stephen Storace
 * T. A. Walmisley
 * Samuel Webbe Sr.

Further reading (and musical sources)

 * https://www.academia.edu/24525258/James_Hobson_PhD_Thesis_MUSICAL_ANTIQUARIANISM_AND_THE_MADRIGAL_REVIVAL_IN_ENGLAND_1726_1851_University_of_Bristol_2015
 * Brian Robins: Catch and Glee Culture in eighteenth-century England. Publ. Boydell and Brewer 2006, ISBN 978 1 84383 212 6
 * Hibernian Catch club: https://www.musicologyireland.com/jsmi/index.php/journal/article/view/169/172
 * Warren's Collection at IMSLP: https://imslp.org/wiki/A_Collection_of_Catches%2C_Canons_and_Glees_(Warren%2C_Thomas)
 * Samuel Webbe Snr.'s A Selection of Glees, Duets, Canzonets, etc. (3 Vols) at IMSLP https://imslp.org/wiki/A_Selection_of_Glees%2C_Duets%2C_Canzonets%2C_etc._(Webbe%2C_Samuel)
 * Glees by various composers available for free download at cpdl: http://www.cpdl.org/wiki/index.php/Category:Glees
 * Glees available from publisher notAmos, some with free download: https://www.notamos.co.uk/
 * Glees, together with partsongs, available from DovetonMusic: http://dovetonmusic.com/Cat_Glees_&_Partsongs.html
 * The Scholars' Book of Glees, ed. David Johnson. Publ. OUP 1985, ISBN 0 19 343659 0
 * The English Glee, Ed. Percy M. Young. Publ. OUP 1990, ISBN 0 19 343753 8
 * Ten Georgian Glees for four voices, ed. David Johnson. Publ. OUP 1981, ISBN 0 19 343658 2

title: Glee (music)


text:
Fritz Mauthner

Fritz Mauthner (22 November 1849 – 29 June 1923) was an Austrian philosopher and author of novels, satires, reviews and journalistic works. He was an exponent of philosophical scepticism derived from a critique of human knowledge and of philosophy of language.

He became editor of the Berliner Tageblatt in 1895, but is remembered mainly for his Beiträge zu einer Kritik der Sprache (Contributions to a Critique of Language), published in three parts in 1901 and 1902. Ludwig Wittgenstein took several of his ideas from Mauthner, and acknowledges him in his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1922).

Early life
Fritz Mauthner was born on 22 November 1849 into an assimilated, well-to-do Jewish family from Hořice in Bohemia (now in the Czech Republic). He was born as the fourth of six children of Emmanuel and Amalie Mauthner. The Mauthners were a wealthy Jewish family who did not practise their faith. Mauthner's grandfather was a follower of Frankism. Mauthner describes his father in the autobiography as having "literally grown up without knowledge of any catechism" and his educated mother, who took care of the children's education, as "anti-religious". Mauthner's family spoke German, unlike most of the Bohemian population. His parents were proud of the fact that they spoke German. Mauthner learned German through his family, Czech through his nursemaid and a little Hebrew through a private teacher. Philosopher Gershon Weiler suggests that "it is unlikely that he ever passed beyond the point of mastering the alphabet" in Hebrew. As a German-speaking Jew in the Bohemian region of the Austrian Empire, Mauthner belonged to a double minority and struggled to find a sense of belonging. This experience is cited in later years as formative for his intellectual development. In the autobiography, Mauthner writes "I do not understand at all if a Jew born in a Slavic region of Austria is not pushed into linguistic research."

In 1855, the five-year-old Mauthner moved to Prague with his family to be educated. Mauthner received private lessons, attended a private Jewish school (Klippschule) and later two secondary schools. In his autobiography he writes disparagingly about the low standard of the schools. He considered himself highly gifted and was resentful of the school system. His autobiography is largely a critique of the school system of the time, which was limited to corporal punishment and learning by rote.

Mauthner wanted to become a writer; his father wanted him to become a merchant. They agreed that he would study jurisprudence at Charles University in Prague. Mauthner studied jurisprudence from 1869 to 1873. At the university, Mauthner attended lectures in philosophy, music, physics, art history, medicine and theology. He read Arthur Schopenhauer and Ernst Mach, under whom he also attended lectures.

Mauthner passed the first state examination in law and worked as a theatre critic, writer and poet alongside his studies. With the death of his father in 1874, Mauthner broke off his studies. He published unsuccessful volumes of poetry, and worked as a journalist and playwright. His play Anna premiered at the Estates Theatre in 1874, but was discontinued after only a few performances. The comedy Die leidige Geldfrage (The tiresome question of money) was shown in Prague and Berlin in 1876.

Berlin and Freiburg im Breisgau
In 1876, at the age of 27, Mauthner moved to Berlin, known on the theatre scene as a critic and author. He chose Berlin and not Vienna because he was enthusiastic about Bismarck and because he did not want to be patronised by his family in Austria. In Berlin, Mauthner worked as a journalist for several newspapers and wrote literary and theatre criticism for the Berliner Tageblatt, a leading liberal daily newspaper. He published books and volumes of poetry and became a well-known cultural figure. Mauthner, together with Paul Lindau, was considered Germany's most qualified theatre critic.

In 1878 he married Jenny Ehrenberg, a pianist, and his only daughter Grete was born. In the following years, Mauthner worked as an editor, publisher, critic and writer. His novels were historical, socio-critical, German-national, satirical, and columnist. Some of his books, such as the parodies, were very successful, and were translated and published in several print runs during Mauthner's lifetime. Their literary quality is judged ambivalently: The commercially successful works consist mainly of light novels, which can be judged as being shallow. Some of Mauthner's novels, however, contain reflections that would later be considered philosophically.

1893 Mauthner began to work on the Beiträge zu einer Kritik der Sprache (Contributions to a Critique of Language). During the work, his wife Jenny died, and he suffered from an eye disease, which threatened to make him blind. He collaborated with anarchist philosopher and pacifist Gustav Landauer to finish the text. The Contributions to a Critique of Language appeared from 1901 to 1903 in the three volumes Zur Sprache und zur Psychologie (On Language and Psychology), Zur Sprachwissenschaft (On Linguistics) and Zur Logik und Grammatik (On Logic and Grammar). The work was largely rejected among academic circles, which disappointed Mauthner deeply. He suffered from depression and developed a strong dislike of the city life in Berlin and of his journalistic work, which he had always continued to do as a bread-and-butter occupation. He called journalism a "trade with words" (Worthandel) and expressed his dissatisfaction several times in letters.

In 1905, at the age of 56, Mauthner left Berlin and lived in Freiburg, where he met and married the physician and writer Hedwig (Harriet) Straub in 1907. His book on Spinoza was published in 1906, and as from 1907 he attended university lectures in mathematics and natural sciences, while devoting himself mainly to philosophy and writing. Mauthner regarded Hugo von Hofmannsthal's The Lord Chandos Letter (1906) as a work influenced by his own critique of language.

Meersburg
In 1909, Mauthner moved with his wife Hedwig to Meersburg on Lake Constance, in a well-known house called Glaserhäusle. There he wrote the monograph Die Sprache (Language) for the series Die Gesellschaft, edited by Martin Buber. Mauthner worked on the Wörterbuch der Philosophie (Dictionary of Philosophy) and Der Atheismus und seine Geschichte im Abendlande (Atheism and its History in the Occident). The Dictionary appeared in 1910 and 1911. In three volumes with about 2,000 pages in total, Mauthner exercised his critique of language, set out in the Contributions, exemplified on the central concepts of Western philosophy. His eye disease worsened during the process; he dictated the text to his wife Hedwig to write down and read out aloud. Mauthner developed a godless mysticism as a culmination of the critique of language. It is assumed that the importance of mysticism emerged from his collaboration with Hedwig Straub. In 1912, his last novel Der letzte Tod des Gautama Buddha (The Last Death of Gautama Buddha) was published.

During World War I, Mauthner wrote inflammatory and nationalistic newspaper articles. He reflected on the connection between philosophy and war; although he did not embrace the war, he placed the importance of Germany's military success above any philosophy. His political commitment disturbed his friends, especially Gustav Landauer.

During the last years of his life, he revised the Dictionary in parallel with his work on the history of atheism. From 1920 to 1923, Der Atheismus und seine Geschichte im Abendlande appeared in four volumes.

Mauthner died at age 74 on 29 June 1923. Hedwig Mauthner continued to live in the Glaserhäusle after her husband's death. During the National Socialist regime, as the widow of a Jew, she was banned from publishing books in 1933 and her pension payments were stopped. She survived through the help of friends and the Meersburg town priest Wilhelm Restle, and died impoverished in 1945. Fritz and Hedwig Mauthner are buried together at Meersburg cemetery; their gravestone reads Vom Menschsein erlöst (Redeemed from being human).

Philosophical work
Mauthner's philosophical work is concerned with the philosophy of language and atheism. Three books, each in several volumes, can be regarded as his main theoretical contributions: The Beiträge zu einer Kritik der Sprache (three volumes 1901–1902, third revised edition 1923), Wörterbuch der Philosophie (two volumes 1910, third revised edition in three volumes 1923–1924) and Der Athesimus und seine Geschichte im Abendlande (four volumes 1920–1923). Besides these works, Mauthner published shorter works on the philosophy of Aristotle, Spinoza and Schopenhauer, as well as on various topics related to his philosophy of language.

Mauthner's writing style is unorthodox: he draws on a variety of sources, combines his biography with theoretical considerations, he writes redundantly and, above all, comprehensively a lot (each of his three main works comprise more than 2,000 pages). Only a few of his smaller theoretical works have been translated into English (see Section "Philosophical works in English translation").

Critique of language
Mauthner advocates an empirical, sceptical nominalism, which he develops into a comprehensive and epistemological theory. He consistently pursues this approach to the conclusion that all philosophical problems are problems of language. Thus, Mauthner can be understood as a precursor of logical empiricism. Philosopher Elisabeth Leinfellner calls him a thinker in the Austrian tradition of philosophy, but also writes that he regards himself as a thinker in the succession of Hume. Weiler calls Mauthner paradigmatic for the English tradition of empiricism. Mauthner's philosophy, like logical empiricism, is characterised by an anti-metaphysical attitude and a methodical approach through linguistic analysis. At the same time, his premises are based in a different tradition and his goal is not a reform of language through its analysis, but – as a paradoxical project – the destruction of language as a tool to gain knowledge. For Mauthner, a logical analysis of language is also condemned to fail, as he regards logic as just another form of language. Mauthner's philosophy stands for the tragic admission that it is impossible to gain knowledge through the means of language.

Mauthner identifies empiricism as the school of thought that gave him the idea of the critique of language. For him, everything that is regarded knowledge can be traced back to sensory experience. The central feature for this assumption is his concept of the Zufallssinne (contingent senses): if all knowledge is traced back to sensory experience, then the sense organs are the condition for the possibility of knowledge. Animals and humans, however, have different sensory apparatuses and therefore perceive the world differently. The way humans see the world is a moment of evolutionary development. No organic condition of world perception can perceive the world as it actually is. Mauthner writes: "The words of language are ultimately unfit for penetrating into the essence of reality, because words are only memory-indices for the sensations of our senses and because these senses are contingent senses, which truly experience nothing more of reality than a spider does of the palace in whose oriel arbour it has spun its web. Thus mankind must quietly despair of ever knowing reality."

This scepticism concerns language only as an instrument of knowledge. The poetic and communicative function of language is recognised by Mauthner. Language is useful for daily life, but not for knowledge.

Belief in extra-linguistic reference is called word superstition (Wortaberglaube) or word fetish (Wortfetisch). In this context, Mauthner introduces the term Scheinbegriff (pseudo-concept), which later became one of the central concepts in the tradition of logical empiricism. The meaning attributed to the words of language is nothing other than the memory of its use. He argues that the meaning of language has to do with its use, similar to Wittgenstein. Mauthner intends to show that an abstract language consisting of grammatical rules and vocabulary is an artificial abstraction that negates psychological reality. Language is rooted in sensory experience. The deception that words refer to an extra-linguistic reality particularly affects philosophy, which he criticises as being metaphysically charged by historic traditions: "I live by the belief and the conviction that the sceptical nominalism, with which I have shown the inadequacy of human language in general, particularly affects philosophical concepts, and among them most strongly the most general concepts."

Mauthner states his philosophical programme of a critique of language in the introduction to the Dictionary as follows: "Philosophy is epistemology, epistemology is the critique of language; the critique of language, however, is the work on the liberating thought that people can never get beyond the figurative representation of the world with the words of their languages and with the words of their philosophies."

Legacy
While Mauthner's literary work can be considered forgotten, his philosophy of language resonated in the literature of the 20th century. Mauthner's influences can be found in the work of Jorge Luis Borges, Samuel Beckett and James Joyce. Today, Mauthner's philosophy is mainly addressed in relation to Wittgenstein.

Throughout his life, Mauthner himself was unhappy about the lack of response to his work. The lack of response, however, refers primarily to academic philosophy, which did not react to Mauthner. The Contributions to a Critique of Language sold well and were well reviewed in newspapers.

Mathematician Felix Hausdorff, for example, wrote a positive review and communicated his enthusiasm in letters to Mauthner. Kühn lists forty to fifty reviews from 1901 that react to the publication Mauthner's Contributions. Gustav Landauer undertakes an early examination of Mauthner's philosophy in 1902 and writes the book Skepsis und Mystik that depicts Mauthner as a mystic. Hermann Häfker and Theodor Lessing were critical of Mauthner and accused him of confusion in his philosophical foundations. The first monograph on Mauthner was published in 1926 by Theodor Kappstein, which is regarded as an uncritical praise by Kühn. With the rise of Nazism, the engagement with the Jewish thinker ends abruptly and Mauthner becomes forgotten.

It is, however, undisputed that Mauthner had been well known for his literary, journalistic and philosophical work. Two famous people in the history of philosophy bear witness to this: Karl Popper mentions in his autobiography some of the philosophy books in his father's library, and states Mauthner's Contributions as being there among the works of Descartes, Spinoza, Kant, Schopenhauer and others. The second mention, to which Mauthner credits the philosophical interest, comes from Ludwig Wittgenstein. Wittgenstein mentions Mauthner in the Tractatus, and although it is a delimiting remark, this mention can be understood as an expression of appreciation, since Wittgenstein mentions very few philosophers by name.

Mauthner's concept of word superstition is discussed in the influential book The Meaning of Meaning by C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards. The most influential reception in the English-speaking world comes from philosopher and writer Gershon Weiler, who published the first comprehensive English-language monograph on Mauthner, along with numerous essays. An intellectual biography is available in French. A modern German edition of Mauthner's works, including the Dictionary of Philosophy and the Contributions to a Critique of Language, was edited by German philosopher and literary scholar Ludger Lütkehaus.

Mauthner's estate is preserved as the Fritz Mauthner Collection at the Center for Jewish History, Leo Baeck Institute New York.

Works

 * Philosophy
 * Beiträge zu einer Kritik der Sprache, three volumes, Stuttgart: J.G. Cotta, 1901–1903.
 * Aristoteles, 1904
 * Spinoza, 1906
 * Die Sprache, 1907
 * Wörterbuch der Philosophie, two volumes 1910–11, three volumes 1923–24
 * Schopenhauer, 1911
 * Der letzte Tod des Gautama Buddha, 1913
 * Der Atheismus und seine Geschichte im Abendlande, four volumes 1920–23
 * Muttersprache und Vaterland, 1920

 * Fiction
 * Anna, 1874
 * Lyrik
 * Die große Revolution, 1872
 * Nach berühmten Mustern, satirical, 1878, 1889
 * Einsame Fahrten, 1879
 * Vom armen Franischko, story, 1879
 * Die Sonntage der Baronin, 1881
 * Der neue Ahasver, 1882
 * Dilettantenspiegel, satirical, 1883
 * Gräfin Salamanca, 1884
 * Xanthippe, 1884
 * Berlin W. (trilogy of novels): Quartett, 1886; Die Fanfare, 1888; Der Villenhof, 1890
 * Der letzte Deutsche von Blatna, novel, 1887
 * Der Pegasus, 1889
 * Zehn Geschichten, 1891
 * Glück im Spiel, 1891
 * Hypatia, 1892
 * Lügenohr, 1892 (under the title: Aus dem Märchenbuch der Wahrheit, 1899)
 * Kraft, novel 1894
 * Die Geisterseher, novel 1894
 * Die bunte Reihe, 1896
 * Der steinerne Riese, novella, 1896
 * Die böhmische Handschrift, novella 1897
 * Der wilde Jockey, 1897
 * Der letzte Tod des Gautama Buddha, novel 1913
 * Der goldene Fiedelbogen, 1917

 * Essays and theoretical works
 * Kleiner Krieg, 1879
 * Credo, 1886
 * Tote Symbole, 1892
 * Zum Streit um die Bühne, 1893
 * Totengespräche, 1906
 * Gespräche im Himmel und andere Ketzereien, 1914

 * Translations
 * Henriette Marechal, by Edmond de Goncourt, 1895

 * Editorial
 * Wochenschrift für Kunst und Literatur, 1889-1890
 * Magazin für die Literatur des In- und Auslandes, 1991
 * Bibliothek der Philosophen, from 1911

 * Collected works
 * Ausgewählte Schriften, 6 books, 1919

 * Miscellaneous
 * Erinnerungen, autobiography 1918
 * Selbstbiographie, 1922, in: Philosophie der Gegenwart in Selbstdarstellungen, Bd. 3.

Philosophical works in English translation

 * (1924). |"Skepticism and the Jews". The Menorah Journal 10 (1): 1–14, translated and introduced by A.S.O.
 * (2023). "Philosophy and the War". Journal of Continental Philosophy 4 (1/2): 61–70, translated and introduced by Thomas Hainscho. doi:10.5840/jcp202391350

title: Fritz Mauthner