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Indian logic

The development of Indian logic dates back to the anviksiki of Medhatithi Gautama (c. 6th century BCE); the Sanskrit grammar rules of Pāṇini (c. 5th century BCE); the Vaisheshika school's analysis of atomism (c. 6th century BCE to 2nd century BCE); the analysis of inference by Gotama (c. 6th century BC to 2nd century CE), founder of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy; and the tetralemma of Nagarjuna (c. 2nd century CE).

Indian logic stands as one of the three original traditions of logic, alongside the Greek and the Chinese logic. The Indian tradition continued to develop through early to modern times, in the form of the Navya-Nyāya school of logic.

Origins
The Nasadiya Sukta of the Rigveda (RV 10.129) contains ontological speculation in terms of various logical divisions that were later recast formally as the four circles of catuskoti: "A", "not A", "A and 'not A'", and "not A and not not A".

Medhatithi Gautama (c. 6th century BCE) founded the anviksiki school of logic. The Mahabharata (12.173.45), around the 4th century BCE to 4th century CE, refers to the anviksiki and tarka schools of logic. (c. 5th century BCE) developed a form of logic (to which Boolean logic has some similarities) for his formulation of Sanskrit grammar. Logic is described by Chanakya (c. 350-283 BCE) in his Arthashastra as an independent field of inquiry anviksiki.

Vaisheshika
Vaisheshika, also Vaisesika, (Sanskrit: वैशेषिक) is one of the six Hindu schools of Indian philosophy. It came to be closely associated with the Hindu school of logic, Nyaya. Vaisheshika espouses a form of atomism and postulates that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number of atoms. Originally proposed by Kanāda (or Kana-bhuk, literally, atom-eater) from around the 2nd century BCE.

Catuskoti
In the 2nd century, the Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna refined the Catuskoti form of logic. The Catuskoti is also often glossed Tetralemma (Greek) which is the name for a largely comparable, but not equatable, 'four corner argument' within the tradition of Classical logic.

Nyaya
Nyāya (ni-āyá, literally "recursion", used in the sense of "syllogism, inference") is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy — specifically the school of logic.

The Nyaya school of philosophical speculation is based on texts known as the Nyaya Sutras, which were written by Gotama in around the 2nd century CE. The most important contribution made by the Nyaya school to modern Hindu thought is its methodology. This methodology is based on a system of logic that has subsequently been adopted by most of the other Indian schools (orthodox or not), much in the same way that Western philosophy can be said to be largely based on Aristotelian logic.

Followers of Nyaya believed that obtaining valid knowledge was the only way to obtain release from suffering. They therefore took great pains to identify valid sources of knowledge and to distinguish these from mere false opinions. According to the Nyaya school, there are exactly four sources of knowledge (pramanas): perception, inference, comparison and testimony. Knowledge obtained through each of these can, of course, still be either valid or invalid. As a result, Nyaya scholars again went to great pains to identify, in each case, what it took to make knowledge valid, in the process creating a number of explanatory schemes. In this sense, Nyaya is probably the closest Indian equivalent to contemporary analytic philosophy.

Jain logic
Jainism made its own unique contribution to this mainstream development of logic by also occupying itself with the basic epistemological issues, namely, with those concerning the nature of knowledge, how knowledge is derived, and in what way knowledge can be said to be reliable. Jain logic developed and flourished from 6th century BCE to 17th century CE. According to Jains, the ultimate principle should always be logical and no principle can be devoid of logic or reason. Thus one finds in the Jain texts, deliberative exhortations on any subject in all its facts, may they be constructive or obstructive, inferential or analytical, enlightening or destructive. The Jains have doctrines of relativity used for logic and reasoning:
 * Anekāntavāda – the theory of relative pluralism or manifoldness;
 * Syādvāda – the theory of conditioned predication and;
 * Nayavāda – The theory of partial standpoints.

These Jain philosophical concepts made most important contributions to the ancient Indian philosophy, especially in the areas of skepticism and relativity.

Following is the list of Jain philosophers who contributed to Jain Logic:
 * Kundakunda (2nd century CE), exponent of Jain mysticism and Jain nayas dealing with the nature of the soul and its contamination by matter, author of Pañcāstikāyasāra (Essence of the Five Existents), the Pravachanasāra (Essence of the Scripture) and the Samayasāra (Essence of the Doctrine).
 * Umāsvāti or Umasvami (2nd century CE), author of first Jain work in Sanskrit, Tattvārthasūtra, expounding the Jain philosophy in a most systematized form acceptable to all sects of Jainism.
 * Siddhasena Divākara (5th century CE), Jain logician and author of important works in Sanskrit and Prakrit, such as, Nyāyāvatāra (on Logic) and Sanmatisūtra (dealing with the seven Jaina standpoints, knowledge and the objects of knowledge).
 * Akalanka (8th century CE), a Jain logician whose Sanskrit-language works are seen as landmarks in Indian logic; called the "Master of Jain logic".
 * Haribhadrasuri (8th century CE), a Jaina thinker, author and great proponent of anekāntavāda and classical yoga, as a soteriological system of meditation in Jaina context. His works include and Yogabindu.
 * Aacharya Hemacandra (1089–1172 CE) - a Jaina thinker, author, historian, grammarian and logician. His works include Yogaśāstra and Trishashthi Shalaka Purusha charitra.
 * Mahopadhya Yaśovijayaji (1624–88 CE) – Jain logician.
 * Acharya Mahapragya (1920–2010 CE);– Jain logician. The scholar of Philosophy Daya Krishna has recognized Acharya Shri Mahapragya as the most knowledgeable person on the subject of Jain Logic. His book "New Dimensions in Jaina Logic" is one of the best works on the subject in modern era. In 1975, he was specially invited to deliver a series of nine lectures on Jain Logic at the University of Rajasthan at Jaipur. The University published these lectures in the form of a book entitled "Jain Nyay Ka Vikas". His books on the subjects include "Jain Darshan-Mannan aur Mimansa", "Jain Dharma Aur Sanskriti", "Jain Darshan and Anekantvad", "Jain Dharma aur Darshan".

Buddhist logic
Indian Buddhist logic (called Pramana) flourished from about 500 CE up to 1300 CE. The three main authors of Buddhist logic are Vasubandhu (400–800 CE), Dignāga (480–540 CE), and Dharmakīrti (600–660 CE). The most important theoretical achievements are the doctrine of Trairūpya (Skrt. त्रैरूप्य) and the highly formal scheme of the Hetucakra (Skrt. हेतुचक्र) ("Wheel of Reasons") given by Dignāga. There is still a vibrant living tradition of Buddhist logic in the Tibetan Buddhist traditions, where logic is an important part of the education of monks.

Navya-Nyaya
The Navya-Nyāya or Neo-Logical darśana (school) of Indian philosophy was founded in the 13th century CE by the philosopher Gangesha Upadhyaya of Mithila. It was a development of the classical Nyāya darśana. Other influences on Navya-Nyāya were the work of earlier philosophers Vācaspati Miśra (900–980 CE) and Udayana (late 10th century).

Gangeśa's book Tattvacintāmaṇi ("Thought-Jewel of Reality") was written partly in response to Śrīharśa's Khandanakhandakhādya, a defence of Advaita Vedānta, which had offered a set of thorough criticisms of Nyāya theories of thought and language. In his book, Gangeśa both addressed some of those criticisms and – more importantly – critically examined the Nyāya darśana himself. He held that, while Śrīharśa had failed successfully to challenge the Nyāya realist ontology, his and Gangeśa's own criticisms brought out a need to improve and refine the logical and linguistic tools of Nyāya thought, to make them more rigorous and precise.

Tattvacintāmani dealt with all the important aspects of Indian philosophy, logic, set theory, and especially epistemology, which Gangeśa examined rigorously, developing and improving the Nyāya scheme, and offering examples. The results, especially his analysis of cognition, were taken up and used by other darśanas.

Navya-Nyāya developed a sophisticated language and conceptual scheme that allowed it to raise, analyse, and solve problems in logic and epistemology. It systematised all the Nyāya concepts into four main categories: sense or perception (pratyakşa), inference (anumāna), comparison or similarity (upamāna), and testimony (sound or word; śabda).

This later school began around eastern India and Bengal, and developed theories resembling modern logic, such as Gottlob Frege's "distinction between sense and reference of proper names" and his "definition of number," as well as the Navya-Nyaya theory of "restrictive conditions for universals" anticipating some of the developments in modern set theory. Udayana in particular developed theories on "restrictive conditions for universals" and "infinite regress" that anticipated aspects of modern set theory. According to Kisor Kumar Chakrabarti:

"In the third part we have shown how the study of the so-called 'restrictive conditions for universals' in Navya-Nyaya logic anticipated some of the developments of modern set theory. [...] In this section the discussion will center around some of the 'restrictive conditions for universals (jatibadhaka) proposed by Udayana. [...] Another restrictive condition is anavastha or vicious infinite regress. According to this restrictive condition, no universal (jati) can be admitted to exist, the admission of which would lead to a vicious infinite regress. As an example Udayana says that there can be no universal of which every universal is a member; for if we had any such universal, then, by hypothesis, we have got a given totality of all universals that exist and all of them belong to this big universal. But this universal is itself a universal and hence (since it cannot be a member of itself, because in Udayana's view no universal can be a member of itself) this universal too along with other universals must belong to a bigger universal and so on ad infinitum. What Udayana says here has interesting analogues in modern set theory in which it is held that a set of all sets (i.e., a set to which every set belongs) does not exist."

Influence of Indian logic on modern logic
In the late 18th-century British scholars began to take an interest in Indian philosophy and discovered the sophistication of the Indian study of inference. This process culminated in Henry T. Colebrooke's The Philosophy of the Hindus: On the Nyaya and Vaisesika Systems in 1824, which provided an analysis of inference and comparison to the received Aristotelian logic, resulting in the observation that the Aristotelian syllogism could not account for the Indian syllogism. Max Mueller contributed an appendix to the 1853 edition of Thomson's Outline of the Laws of Thought, in which he placed Greek and Indian logic on the same plane: "The sciences of Logic and Grammar were, as far as history allows us to judge, invented or originally conceived by two nations only, by Hindus and Greeks."

Jonardon Ganeri has observed that this period saw George Boole (1815-1864) and Augustus De Morgan (1806-1871) make their pioneering applications of algebraic ideas to the formulation of logic (such as algebraic logic and Boolean logic), and has suggested that these figures were likely to be aware of these studies in xeno-logic, and further that their acquired awareness of the shortcomings of propositional logic are likely to have stimulated their willingness to look outside the system.

Indian logic attracted the attention of many Western scholars, and had an influence on pioneering 19th-century logicians such as Charles Babbage (1791-1871), Augustus De Morgan, and particularly George Boole, as confirmed by Boole's wife Mary Everest Boole in an "open letter to Dr Bose" titled "Indian Thought and Western Science in the Nineteenth Century" written in 1901.

De Morgan himself wrote in 1860 of the significance of Indian logic: "The two races which have founded the mathematics, those of the Sanskrit and Greek languages, have been the two which have independently formed systems of logic."

Mathematicians became aware of the influence of Indian mathematics on the European. For example, Hermann Weyl wrote: "Occidental mathematics has in past centuries broken away from the Greek view and followed a course which seems to have originated in India and which has been transmitted, with additions, to us by the Arabs; in it the concept of number appears as logically prior to the concepts of geometry. [...] But the present trend in mathematics is clearly in the direction of a return to the Greek standpoint; we now look upon each branch of mathematics as determining its own characteristic domain of quantities."

title: Indian logic


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Kovpak

Kovpak (Ковпак) is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Basil Kovpak (born 1967), Ukrainian priest
 * Lev Kovpak (born 1978), Russian politician
 * Oleksandr Kovpak (born 1983), Ukrainian footballer
 * Sydir Kovpak (1887–1967), Soviet partisan

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Kovpak


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Ignition coil

An ignition coil is used in the ignition system of a spark-ignition engine to transform the battery voltage to the much higher voltages required to operate the spark plug(s). The spark plugs then use this burst of high-voltage electricity to ignite the air-fuel mixture.

The ignition coil is constructed of two sets of coils wound around an iron core. Older engines often use a single ignition coil which has its output directed to each cylinder by a distributor, a design which is still used by various small engines (such as lawnmower engines). Modern car engines often use a distributor-less system (such as coil-on-plug), whereby every cylinder has its own ignition coil.

Diesel engines use compression ignition and therefore do not have ignition coils.

Design
An ignition coil consists of an iron core surrounded by two coils (windings) made from copper wire. The primary winding has relatively few turns of heavy wire, while the secondary winding consists of thousands of turns of smaller wire and is insulated from the high voltage by enamel on the wires and layers of oiled paper insulation.

When the electrical circuit connected from the power source (e.g. the car's battery) to the primary winding is closed (by a contact breaker or transistor), current flows through the primary winding, which produces a magnetic field around the core. This current flow lasts for a period of time to build up energy in the coil. Once the coil is charged, the circuit is opened, and the resulting oscillation in the magnetic field induces a high voltage in the secondary winding. This high-voltage electricity travels through several components (such as a distributor and spark plug wires), before reaching the spark plug, where it is used to ignite the air/fuel mixture.

The timing of the circuit opening must be coordinated with the rotation of the engine, so that the burst of high-voltage electricity is produced at the optimal time to ignite the air/fuel mixture.

Modern electronic ignition systems operate using the same principle of charging an electric circuit, however they use a capacitor charged to around 400 volts, rather than using the induction charging of an ignition coil. Typical output voltages for modern ignition coils vary from 15 kV (for a lawnmower engine) to 40 kV (for a larger engine).

A modern single-spark system has one coil per spark plug. To prevent premature sparking at the start of the primary pulse, a diode or secondary spark gap is installed in the coil to block the reverse pulse that would otherwise form. In older wasted spark systems for four-stroke engines, the secondary winding of the ignition coil has two output terminals, both of which connect to a spark plug. The reverse pulse triggers the spark plug in a cylinder contains no air/fuel mixture (since that cylinder is out of phase by 180 degrees).

Materials
Formerly, ignition coils were made with varnish and paper insulated high-voltage windings, inserted into a drawn-steel can and filled with oil or asphalt for insulation and moisture protection. Later, ignition coils were instead cast in filled epoxy resins, which penetrate any voids forming within the windings.

The ignition coil is usually inserted into a metal can or plastic case with insulated terminals for the high voltage and low voltage connections.

Predecessor
Early cars used a magneto ignition system, due to the lack of an electric power source (e.g. battery) in the car. Ignition coils replaced magneto ignition in new cars as batteries became a common inclusion in cars (for cranking and lighting). Compared with magneto ignition, an ignition coil system can provide a high-voltage spark at low engine speeds (RPM), making starting easier.

Early systems
Most older ignition coil systems used a single coil shared by all the spark plugs (via a distributor). There were some exceptions, such as the Saab 92 and the Wartburg 353 using a separate coil for each cylinder and the 1948 Citroën 2CV using a wasted spark system with a double-ended ignition coil and no distributor.

Distributorless systems

Since the 1990s, ignition systems have mostly switched to a design where the distributor is omitted and ignition is instead electronically controlled. In these distributor-less systems, multiple smaller ignition coils are used, usually in the form of one coil for each cylinder or a wasted spark system with one coil for each pair of cylinders.

The ignition coils for these can be combined into a single casing (a coil pack) and located away from the spark plugs; however it is increasingly common for coil-on-plug systems to be used, whereby the individual ignition coils are small units attached directly to the top of each spark plug. An advantage of coil-on-plug systems is that in the event of a fault, a single ignition coil can be replaced rather than unnecessarily replacing the coils for all of the other cylinders.

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Talk:Indian logic

dates
This article contradicts itself in the dates it gives. This should be fixed by someone knowledgable about these dates. Rick Norwood 21:06, 13 March 2006 (UTC)

 * The problem is that there are two main dating systems: the first is the one agreed to by modern scholars — rarely precise, but pretty well unanimously accepted in both India and the West. The second is the old system, supported by many religious believers; this sets most dates back by anything up to ten centuries, and is based on a set of myths about the various figures in philosophy/religion.  Normally, we'd just use the former, and either forget about or merely mention the latter; in this field, there are quite a few editors who are esxteemely insistent on putting the latter on at least equal footing with the former (as if a bunch of editors from Oxford insisted that the University was much older than it really is, based on the legend that it was founded by Alfred the Great — and became mildly hysterical when contradicted, accusing other editors of anti-Oxford bigotry, etc.).

 * I'm a bit puzzled, incidentally, as to why the subsections seem not only include links to the main articles, but also the text (or large chunks of the text) of those articles; shouldn't we have just one or the other (preferably just the links)? --Mel Etitis ( Μελ Ετητης ) 22:49, 13 March 2006 (UTC)

Westerners are always trying to prove that the development of science and philosophy in the west preceded any such development in the east. Quite the contrary is true .It must be understood that Indian thought considered the universe as one "whole". This notion of essential unity of the universe reflected itself in the seeming overlapping of the religio-philosophical, scientific and spiritual traditions .This may puzzle westerners as they seem to think of these fields as water-tight compartments ,having no relation with each other. There is no controversy with the dates if we keep in mind the above facts .Of course this "doubt" about the dates and two differing "systems" is a myth propagated to undermine east's contributions and to somehow disprove and distort the gradual discovery of superiority of Indian thought over the west .- —Preceding unsigned comment added by Indocentric (talk • contribs) 06:37, 20 May 2008 (UTC)

literature
does anybody know a new weblink to ''V. V. S. Sarma: Indian Systems of Logic (Nyaya): A Survey, Proc. Bombay Logic Conference, 2005''. the old one is dead. if not, i would really appreciate an electronic copy of this paper ... anybody? thanks --TobiasKlaus (talk) 17:55, 1 May 2009 (UTC)

logical triangle of Indian logic
(79.90.42.149 (talk) 14:39, 10 August 2012 (UTC)] Useful references:

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Jagged 85
I have removed some unquestionable links which was been added by user jagged85 who was involved in misusing sources in Wikipedia Myuoh kaka roi (talk) 17:00, 5 November 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Indian logic


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Galingale

Galingale may refer to:

 * Galangal, one of several plants in the ginger family with aromatic rhizomes used for food and medicines
 * Galingale, any of several species of Cyperus sedges with aromatic rhizomes, especially:
 * Cyperus longus

title: Galingale


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Giovanni Battista Zupi

Giovanni Battista Zupi or Zupus (2 November 1589 – 26 August 1667) was an Italian astronomer, mathematician, and Jesuit priest.

He was born in Catanzaro. In 1639, Giovanni was the first person to discover that the planet Mercury had orbital phases, like those of the Moon and Venus. His observations demonstrated that the planet orbited around the Sun.

He died in Naples.

The crater Zupus on the Moon is named after him.

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Battle of Pagan

The Battle of Pagan was fought in 1287 between the Yuan dynasty of China and the Pagan Kingdom of Burma. The invasion ended the Pagan Kingdom, which disintegrated into several small kingdoms.

Overview
The battle was initiated by the Yuan dynasty, which sensed an opportunity in the political turmoil caused by their successful 1283 invasion of the Pagan Empire in the Battle of Bhamo. After Bhamo, the Yuan army penetrated the Irrawaddy River valley and established garrisons there. The political turmoil of these events tempted Kublai Khan's grandson Esen-Temür, who was stationed in Yunnan, into action. Temür led a large army down the Irrawaddy river valley and attempted to capture Pagan city.

The Burmese king Narathihapate fled Pagan to Lower Burma leaving the Burmese defenses under the three brother commanders of Myinsaing, Athinkhaya, Yazathingyan, and Thihathu. The king is remembered in Burmese history as Tayokpyemin (lit. "the king who ran away from the Chinese"). According to mainstream traditional (colonial-era) scholarship, the Mongol army ignored the imperial orders to evacuate; fought its way down to Pagan with the loss of 7000 men; occupied the city; and sent out detachments to receive homage, one of which reached south of Prome. But not all colonial period scholars agreed with the assessment as none of the contemporary Mongol/Chinese records specifically mentioned the conquest of Pagan or the temporary completeness of the conquest.

Recent research shows that the Mongol forces most probably never reached Pagan. They were held at bay by the Burmese defenses led by commanders Athinkhaya, Yazathingyan and Thihathu, and probably never got closer than 160 km north of Pagan. (An inscription dated 16 February 1293 by the three brothers claimed that they defeated the Mongol army. ) Even if the Mongols did reach Pagan, the damage they inflicted was probably minimal. At any rate, the Mongol army suffered heavy casualties, and retreated north to Tagaung. They remained there as the treaty was now void.

Aftermath
In Lower Burma, the king was promptly assassinated by one of his sons, Thihathu of Prome. The 250-year-old Pagan Empire now disintegrated. The kingdom was fractured into several small power centers as the Yuan dynasty did not fill the power vacuum in the searing Irrawaddy valley. The Yuan army instead stayed farther north in Tagaung (present-day northern Mandalay Region).

In central Burma, another son of Narathihapate, Kyawswa, was installed as king by dowager queen Saw. But Kyawswa controlled only the immediate surrounding area of Pagan. Even in central Burma, the real power rested with three Pagan military commanders who through their small but well-disciplined army controlled the Kyaukse district, the most important granary of Pagan. Kyawswa had no choice but to recognize them as lords of Kyaukse. The brothers increasingly acted like sovereigns. Nearly ten years after the fall of Pagan, Kyawswa decided to become a Yuan vassal in January 1297. He received official recognition from the Yuan dynasty as the ruler of Burma in March 1298. Unsatisfied with their reduced status, the brothers dethroned Kyawswa in December 1298, and founded the Myinsaing Kingdom, officially ending the Pagan Kingdom. The Mongol army's effort to install their new nominee, one of Kyawswa's sons, to the Pagan throne in 1301 was unsuccessful. Two years later, in 1303, the Yuan court decided to withdraw completely from Upper Burma, and the Yuan army left Tagaung.

title: Battle of Pagan


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Georgia Railroad and Banking Company

The Georgia Railroad and Banking Company also seen as "GARR", was a historic railroad and banking company that operated in the U.S. state of Georgia. In 1967 it reported 833 million revenue-ton-miles of freight and 3 million passenger-miles; at the end of the year it operated 331 mi of road and 510 mi of track.

History
The company was chartered in 1833 in Augusta, Georgia. In 1835, the charter was amended to include banking. Originally the line was chartered to build a railroad from Augusta to Athens, with a branch to Madison. It was converted to in 1886.

The gauge railroad opened in 1845 with J. Edgar Thomson as its Chief Engineer and Richard Peters as its first Superintendent.

At that time the rates were as follows:
 * 5¢ per mile for passengers
 * 50¢ per 100 mi for freight

Several other railroads were then under construction:
 * The Western and Atlantic Railroad was chartered to build a line from 7 mi south of the Chattahoochee River, at a point named Terminus (present-day Atlanta), to Chattanooga, Tennessee (formerly Ross Landing).
 * The South Carolina Railroad was building a line from Charleston to North Augusta, South Carolina (formerly Hamburg).
 * The Memphis and Charleston Railroad was being built from Memphis to Chattanooga.
 * The Nashville and Chattanooga Railroad and the Louisville and Nashville Railroad (L&N) were both constructing rival lines between Louisville, Kentucky, and Nashville, Tennessee.

The Georgia Railroad decided to extend the Madison branch to Terminus (Atlanta) and thereby compete with the Central Railroad and Banking Company of Georgia (later the Central of Georgia Railroad), which together with the Macon & Western Railroad, was competing for traffic through Charleston's rival port of Savannah, Georgia. By 1850, this railroad had built 213 mi of track and was up to 232 mi by 1860. At the time, goods from the Mississippi and Ohio valleys had to go by riverboat to New Orleans and then via coastal steamships around the Florida Keys, to get to the big population centers in the Northeast. Shipping cross-country by rail to the ports of Charleston and Savannah made perfect economic sense.

Banking
The banking side of the business was quickly more successful than the railroad side. The Georgia Railroad & Banking Company was perhaps the strongest bank in Georgia for many years. The bankers used some of their wealth to buy controlling interests in the Atlanta & West Point Railroad (A&WP) and the Western Railway of Alabama (WofA), which provided a continuous line from Atlanta to Montgomery, Alabama, although the WofA was standard gauge, while all the other lines in the South were broad gauge.

Civil War
During the American Civil War, the Confederate States of America maintained a gunpowder factory in Augusta. Carloads of gunpowder would be transported on the Georgia Railroad to various battlefields in the "Western Campaign."

Although the Civil War saw heavy damage to railroads such as the Georgia Railroad, management used their considerable resources to restore operation as quickly as possible. The Georgia Railroad even resorted to temporarily abandoning the Athens branch to secure enough rail to reopen its main line. After their defeat, returning Confederate soldiers were given free rides home, to the extent that the company's limited rail network would allow.

They also honored all Confederate scrip issued by their bank. No depositor lost their savings even if Confederate money had no value. It helped that the Georgia Railroad and Banking Company had the financial strength to honor those promises. At that time, most Southern banks were repudiating any obligations related to Confederate currency. This helped to solidify the bank's reputation as one of the premier banks in the southeastern United States, well into the 20th century.

Post-war years
The Georgia Railroad Freight Depot, designed by architect Max Corput, was completed in 1869 and is the oldest building in Downtown Atlanta. The company was later re-chartered as the Georgia Railroad Bank, then a subsidiary of the First Railroad and Banking Company, which eventually opened banks in Atlanta under the name of First Georgia Bank. The banking operations were merged with First Union in 1986 and First Union subsequently merged with Wachovia Corporation (now Wells Fargo).

The Georgia Railroad Bank entered the insurance business using subsidiaries such as First of Georgia, however these were subsequently sold, at considerable profit to the company.

In 1881, Colonel William M. Wadley, Central Railroad and Banking Company of Georgia president, leased the railroad properties of the Georgia Railroad and Banking Company, including the A&WP and WofA. Wadley assigned half of the lease to his company and half to the L&N. Following the Panic of 1896, the Central went into receivership and its portion of the lease lapsed, whereupon it was eventually reassigned to the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad (ACL). In 1902, the ACL acquired controlling interest in the L&N; thus the Georgia, A&WP, and WofA became non-operating subsidiaries of the Atlantic Coast Line. In 1909, white firemen of the Georgia Railroad, organized under the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and Enginemen, went on a mass strike.

With the building of the Savannah and Atlanta Railroad, which connected with the Georgia Railroad at Warrenton, the Georgia Railroad now competed with the Central of Georgia Railroad for traffic to and from Savannah. Soon the ACL came to dominate the Augusta interchange traffic, through its Charleston and Western Carolina Railway subsidiary and via the ACL's spur from its main line at Florence, South Carolina, in order that the Georgia Railroad could compete with the Seaboard Air Line Railroad and Southern Railway for traffic from Atlanta up the Eastern seaboard.

A 1925 timetable showed four daily roundtrips between Atlanta and Augusta. A trip on the Night Express of that era was described by W.F Beckum.

By the opening of the 1960s, however, passenger service had been reduced to an overnight through-train from Atlanta to Augusta, continuing as an Atlantic Coast Line Railroad train to Wilmington, North Carolina, and a day train from Atlanta, making connections at Augusta with an ACL train bound for Florence, South Carolina.

A unique feature of the Georgia Railroad and Banking Company charter was that the state legislature gave the corporation large tax breaks, which were legally challenged on several occasions. The charter also called for daily-except-Sunday passenger service. The lawyers advised management to maintain passenger service on all lines, so as to not violate the charter. The Georgia was among the last railroads to operate both freight and inter-city passenger trains in the "Lower 48" states, into the Amtrak era.

CSX
The Georgia Railroad originally fell under common management with the Atlanta & West Point Railroad and the Western Railway of Alabama, commonly known as "the West Point Route."

In 1967, ACL merged with the Seaboard Air Line Railroad to form the Seaboard Coast Line Railroad (SCL). SCL continued to operate the Georgia Railroad as a subsidiary alongside the Louisville & Nashville Railroad and the Clinchfield Railroad. These were known collectively as the "Family Lines System." SCL continued to operate the Georgia Railroad under its initial charter; the Georgia Railroad was maintained as a separate company, with SCL leasing the rail properties. Two years later, the Georgia Railroad ended its traditional passenger service, though it continued to operate a bare-bones mixed train service between Atlanta (Atlanta Union Station) and Augusta (Augusta Union Station).

In 1980, SCL merged with Chessie System to form CSX Corporation. In 1982, SCL and L&N merged to form the Seaboard System Railroad, beginning what would be a process in which the CSX operating companies would be merged into a single railroad. The Georgia Railroad was the first to be merged away. The railroad properties of the Georgia Railroad and Banking Company, which had been operated under a lease for 90 years by CSX and its predecessors, were formally merged into Seaboard System Railroad. The mixed train service ended in 1983.

In 1986, Seaboard System Railroad renamed itself CSX Transportation. The same year, Georgia Railroad Bank was acquired by First Union; most former branches are now part of Wells Fargo. A year later, Chessie System merged into CSX Transportation.

After a period of somewhat heavy use during the CSX ownership, most through traffic has been diverted from the former Georgia Railroad mainline. As of October 2018, only a single through train in each direction daily uses the line.

1867 rail timetable

 * Distances of depots from Atlanta

Trains departed from Atlanta at 8:55am and 7:15pm and arrived in Augusta at 6:00pm and 10:05am.

title: Georgia Railroad and Banking Company


text:
Talk:Indian logic/to do

 * 1) Split content of Nyaya page, bringing acroos the narrowly history of logic based material
 * 2) Describe the 5 and 7 part analyses of inference

title: Talk:Indian logic/to do


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Sharam Q

Sharam Q (シャ乱Q) was a Japanese rock band composed of lead singer Tsunku (つんく), Hatake (はたけ) on guitar, Makoto (まこと) on drums and Taisei (たいせい) on keyboards.

Biography
They debuted with "18kagetsu" (18ヶ月) in 1992. They were not an instant hit initially, but their fourth single "Jōkyō Monogatari" (上・京・物・語) broke the top 50 of the Oricon charts. Eventually, the single "Single Bed" (シングル ベッド) got a lot of attention since it was used in the DNA^2 anime series, breaking into the top 10. The next single "Zurui Onna" (ズルい女), also broke into the top 10. "Zurui Onna" is the 84th best-selling single in Japan of all-time. Their 11th single, "Namida no Kage" (涙の影), topped the charts in 1996.

In 1997, the band held an audition on the evening show ASAYAN to find a new female vocalist. While the audition eventually yielded winner Michiyo Heike, the competition would be the impetus for the formation of Morning Musume. Runners-up Yuko Nakazawa, Natsumi Abe, Kaori Iida, Aya Ishiguro, and Asuka Fukuda took up Tsunku's offer after the competition to form a group he would personally produce if they could sell 50,000 copies of their debut independent single Ai no Tane in five days. The mission was accomplished in four.

After the 2000 release of "Shin Ramen Daisuki Koike-san no Uta" (新 ラーメン大好き小池さんの唄), the band went on hiatus. During this period, Tsunku focused on establishing Morning Musume's career and the formation of Hello! Project stable. Makoto would frequently act as an emcee during these concerts.

During the end of 2006 and early 2007, Hakate, Makoto, and Taisei would frequently appear on the short music show Uta Doki! to play their respective instruments in support of the guest vocalist.

Sharam Q became active again in 2006, having released a new single entitled Aruiteru (歩いてる) in November 2006. Tsunku originally wrote and composed the song for Morning Musume, who debuted their recording two weeks before Sharam Q's rendition.

In March 2014, Tsunku announced on his blog that he had laryngeal cancer, which he found out after having throat surgery due to an unspecified condition. On April 4, 2015, Tsunku revealed that he had his vocal cords removed as part of his cancer treatment, whereupon Sharam Q's activities ceased.

Filmography

 * Sharam Q no Enka no Hanamichi (1997)

title: Sharam Q


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Howard DGA-15

The Howard DGA-15 was a single-engine civil aircraft produced in the United States by the Howard Aircraft Corporation from 1939 to 1944. After the United States' entry into World War II, it was built in large numbers for the United States Navy and also served various roles in the United States Army Air Forces.

Design and development
The Howard Aircraft Company (later Howard Aircraft Corporation) was formed in 1936 to build commercial derivatives of the Howard DGA-6 (named Mister Mulligan), a successful four-seat racing aircraft which had won both the Bendix and the Thompson Trophies in 1935, the only aircraft ever to win both races. These successes did indeed bring the DGA series much attention, and Howard produced a series of closely related models differing mainly in the engine type, consisting of the DGA-7, -8, -9, -11 and -12. Offering high performance and being comprehensively equipped, despite a high purchase price (with the DGA-11 selling for $17,865), these became coveted aircraft owned by corporations, wealthy individuals, and movie stars, such as Wallace Beery, who was himself a pilot. (In the movie Bugsy, Warren Beatty, playing the title role, is flown from Los Angeles to Las Vegas in a red Howard DGA-15.)

In 1939, the Howard Aircraft Corporation produced a new development of the basic design, the DGA-15. Like its predecessors, the DGA-15 was a single-engined high-winged monoplane with a wooden wing and a steel-tube-truss fuselage, but it was distinguished by a deeper and wider fuselage, allowing five people to be seated in comfort. It was available in several versions, differing in the engine fitted. The DGA-15P was powered by a Pratt & Whitney Wasp Junior radial engine, while the DGA-15J used a Jacobs L6MB and the DGA-15W a Wright R-760-E2 Whirlwind. In an era when airlines were flying Douglas DC-3s, the Howards cruising at 160 to 170 mph could match their speed, range and comfort with the rear seat leg room exceeding airline standards with limousine-like capaciousness, and high wing loading allowing the Howards to ride through most turbulence comfortably.

World War II
Prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, about 80 DGA-8 through -15 aircraft had been built at the Howard Aircraft Corporation factory on the south side of Chicago Municipal Airport. With America's entry into World War II, most of the civilian Howards were commandeered by the military. The Army used them as officer transports and as air ambulances, with the designation UC-70. The Navy, in particular, much liked the aircraft and contracted Howard Aircraft Corporation to build hundreds of DGA-15Ps to its own specifications. They were used variously under several designations as an officers' utility transport (GH-1, GH-3), aerial ambulance (GH-2), and for instrument training (NH-1). A second factory was opened at Dupage County airport, west of Chicago, and about 520 DGA-15s were eventually completed.

Vintage years
In their vintage years, Howards DGA series are prized more for their utility than for their clean lines. Contemporary cabin aircraft have already become antiques, living pampered lives as show pieces rather than working aircraft. In the 1960s a modification was offered by the Jobmaster company of Renton, Washington, including additional seating, windows, and float installation making Howard DGA-15s attractive to bush operators, and the large cabin proved popular with sky-divers as low-capital-outlay, low-operating-cost jumping platforms.

With most of the working Howard DGAs retired from active commercial service, they have become popular as restoration subjects and as alternatives to more modern equivalents with higher cost of ownership. Almost 100 of the Howard variants are still flying, mostly DGA-15s. A few of the DGA-11s also still fly, including one out of Santa Paula, California, which is probably the world headquarters for Howards, with at least five flying out of that field.

Superb travelling airplanes with much better visibility, headroom, and shoulder room than some contemporary cabin aircraft, they have very long "legs" with a fuel capacity of 151 gallons in 3 belly-mounted tanks, giving an endurance of more than 7 hours, for a range, at normal cruise (130 kn, 150 mph), of over 1,000 statute miles. With modern avionics, the Howard can compete in many respects with many contemporary light aircraft, due to its combination of room, comfort, speed, range and carrying capacity. A DGA-15P competed in the 1971 London (England) to Victoria (British Columbia, Canada) air race.

Variants

 * DGA-15J
 * Variant fitted with a Jacobs L6MB radial engine (330 hp, 246 kW)

 * DGA-15P
 * Variant fitted with a Pratt & Whitney R-985 radial engine (450 hp, 336 kW)

 * DGA-15W
 * Variant fitted with a Wright Whirlwind J6-7 radial engine (350 hp, 261 kW)

Military designations

 * GH-1
 * Communications and liaison version of the DGA-15P built for the United States Navy and United States Coast Guard, 29 built new and four civil aircraft impressed.

 * GH-2 Nightingale
 * Ambulance version for the US Navy, 131 built.

 * GH-3
 * A variant of the GH-1 with equipment changes, 115 built.

 * NH-1
 * Instrument training variant for the United States Navy, 205 built.

 * UC-70
 * Ten civil DGA-15Ps impressed into service by the United States Army Air Forces and one aircraft leased.

 * UC-70B
 * Four civil DGA-15Js impressed into service by the United States Army Air Forces.

title: Howard DGA-15


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Turkana people

The Turkana are a Nilotic people native to the Turkana County in northwest Kenya, a semi-arid climate region bordering Lake Turkana in the east, Pokot, Rendille and Samburu people to the south, Uganda to the west, to the South Sudan ( Didinga and Toposa ) and Ethiopia to the north.

Overview
According to the 2019 Kenyan census, Turkana number 1,016,174, or 2.14% of the Kenyan population, making the Turkana the third largest Nilotic ethnic group in Kenya, after the Kalenjin and the Luo, slightly more numerous than the Maasai, and the tenth largest ethnicity in all of Kenya. Although this figure was initially controversial and rejected as too large by Planning Minister Wycliffe Oparanya, a court ruling (February 7, 2012) by Justice Mohammed Warsame stated that the Kenyan government accepts the 2009 census figures for Turkana.

They refer to themselves as ŋiTurkana (i.e. ngiTurkana, meaning the Turkana, or people of Turkan) and to their land as "Turkan". The language of the Turkana, an Eastern Nilotic language, is also called Turkana; their own name for it is ŋaTurkana or aŋajep a ŋiTurkana. The ethnic group as a whole is composed of two major divisions, each of which is composed of further territorial sections. The major divisions are the Ngimonia, divided into Ngisir and non-Ngisir sections; and the Ngichuuro, divided into the Ngilukumong, Ngiwoyakwara, Ngikamatak, Ngibilai, and Ngikebotok.

They are mainly semi-nomadic pastoralists, and are noted for raising camels and weaving baskets. In their oral traditions, they designate themselves the people of the grey bull, after the Zebu, the domestication of which played an important role in their history. In recent years, development aid programs have aimed at introducing fishing among the Turkana (a taboo in some sections of The Turkana society) with very limited success.

Famous Turkana include Paul Ereng, the 1988 800m Olympic Champion and 800m former indoor world record holder, supermodel Ajuma Nasenyana, Ikal Angelei (winner of THE GOLDMAN ENVIRONMENTAL PRIZE) Ekaale Epakan an award-winning human rights defender and a dedicated champion of change, not only in Turkana County but also beyond its borders, and key Kenyan government officials, including: Kenyan Ambassador to Thailand, H.E. Dr. Richard Titus Ekai; Minister of Labour, Hon. John Kiyonga Munyes - MP; and Hon. Ekwee Ethuro, current Speaker of the Senate and former MP for Turkana Central.

Origins
The Turkana entered Turkana basin from the north as one unit of the Ateker confederation. This cluster split as a result of internal differences, leading to the emergence of distinct independent groups. The Turkana people emerged as a victorious group in the subsequent conflict, which led to enmity between the Turkana and other Ateker cluster groups, who formed military alliances against the Turkana. The Turkana emerged victorious again by co-opting young people from conquered groups. The military power and wealth of the Turkana increased in what is now the northern plains of Turkana. Turkana tradition often states that the cultivation of Zebu cattle and the rise of the diviners allowed the Turkana to accrue such wealth and power. Both Zebu and the continue to play an important role in Turkana culture today.

Establishment
The establishment of the Turkana people developed as a distinct group which expanded southwards conquering ethnic nations south of its borders. The Turkana people easily conquered groups it came in contact with by employing superior tactics, weapons, and military organization. By the 1600s, the Turkana basin had been fully occupied by the Turkana and their allies.

Subsequently, there was a period of relative peace among the indigenous ethnic communities of the region, which lasted until the onset of the European colonization of Africa. There were, however, sporadic skirmishes between the Turkana and Arab, Swahili, and Abyssinian slave raiders and ivory traders.

Colonial period
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the British Empire gradually expanded across East Africa, coming into conflict with the Turkana. In 1926, the British colonial administration in Kenya "effectively gained control" over the Turkana people and forcibly confined them to the Turkana District.

During the First and Second World Wars, Turkana recruits enlisted in the King's African Rifles (KAR), a British colonial regiment. In the KAR, Turkana soldiers served against Italian forces in the East African campaign. After World War II, a number of Turkana people were forcibly relocated to the Turkana District by the colonial administration.

Clothing
Traditionally, both men and women wear wraps made of rectangular woven materials and animal skins. Today, these clothes are normally purchased, having been manufactured in Nairobi or elsewhere in Kenya. Often, men wear their wraps similar to tunics, with one end connected with the other end over the right shoulder, and carry wrist knives made of steel and goat hide. Men also carry stools (known as ekicholong) and will use these for simple chairs rather than sitting on the hot midday sand. These stools also double as headrests, keeping one's head elevated from the sand, and protecting any ceremonial head decorations from being damaged. It is also not uncommon for men to carry several staves; one is used for walking and balance when carrying loads; the other, usually slimmer and longer, is used to prod livestock during herding activities. Women will customarily wear necklaces and will shave their hair completely which often has beads attached to the loose ends of hair. Men wear their hair shaved. Women wear two pieces of cloth, one wrapped around the waist while the other covers the top. Traditionally leather wraps covered with ostrich eggshell beads were the norm for women's undergarments, though these are now uncommon in many areas.

The Turkana people have elaborate clothing and adornment styles. Clothing is used to distinguish between age groups, development stages, occasions, and the status of individuals or groups in the Turkana community.

Today, many Turkana have adopted western-style clothing. This is especially prominent among both men and women who live in town centers throughout Turkana.

Livestock
The Turkana rely on several rivers, such as the Turkwel River and Kerio River. When these rivers flood, new sediment, and water extend onto the river plain that is cultivated after heavy rainstorms, which occur infrequently. When the rivers dry up, open-pit wells are dug in the riverbed; these are used for providing water to the livestock and also for human consumption. There are few, if any, developed wells for community and livestock drinking water, and often families must travel several hours searching for water for their livestock and themselves.

Livestock is an important aspect of Turkana culture. Goats, camels, donkeys and zebu are the primary herd stock utilized by the Turkana people. In this society, livestock functions not only as a milk and meat producer but as a form of currency used for bride-price negotiations and dowries. Often, a young man will be given a single goat with which to start a herd, and he will accumulate more via animal husbandry. In turn, once he has accumulated sufficient livestock, these animals will be used to negotiate for wives. It is not uncommon for Turkana men to lead polygynous lifestyles since livestock wealth will determine the number of wives each can negotiate for and support.

Livestock also plays an important part in interactions between the Turkana and other neighboring groups and is an important aspect of warfare in the region. Raids are not unusual in Turkana society and most of the time raids are conducted it is to steal cattle from neighboring groups such as the Taposa and the Pokot. In some cases, such raids have led to intense conflict in which dozens or even hundreds of people are injured or killed. In his book, Cattle bring us to our enemies: Turkana ecology, politics, and raiding in a disequilibrium system, J. Terrence McCabe cites several incidents in which raiding caused several deaths. McCabe notes that such raids often occur between the Turkana and the Pokot and that raiding seems to have increased in intensity over the last few years.

Food
Turkana relies on their animals for milk, meat, and blood. Wild fruits are gathered by women from the bushes and cooked for 12 hours. Slaughtered goats are roasted on a fire. Roasting is the favored method for preparing meat. The Turkana often trade with the Pokots for maize, beans, and vegetables, and with the Marakwet for tobacco. The Turkana buy tea from the towns and make milk tea. In the morning, people eat maize porridge with milk, while for lunch and dinner, they eat plain maize porridge (nang'aria) with a stew. Zebu is only eaten during festivals, while goat is consumed more frequently. Fish is taboo for some of the Turkana clans (or brands, ). After the hunt, men go out again to gather honey, which is the only natural sweetener available in traditional diets.

While the Turkana mainly rely on pastoralism they also cultivate some of their food. Multiple studies have made note of sorghum cultivation in Turkana society. One such study, Sorghum Gardens in South Turkana: Cultivation among a Nomadic Pastoral People, notes that, while sorghum cultivation is quite productive, it is more limited by environmental factors than pastoralism. The Jie, a longtime ally of the Turkana, have sometimes been known to gift sorghum to the Turkana.

Houses
Houses are constructed over a wooden framework of domed saplings on which fronds of the doum palm (Hyphaene thebaica), hides or skins, are thatched and lashed on. The house is large enough to house a family of six. Usually, during the wet season, they are elongated and covered with cow dung. Animals are kept in a brushwood pen. Due to changes in the climatic conditions, most Turkana has started changing from the traditional method of herding cattle to agro-pastoralism.

Traditional religion
No clear boundary is drawn between the sacred and the profane in Turkana society. In this regard, Turkana traditional religion is not differentiated from Turkana social structure or epistemological reality—the religion and the culture are one. The Turkana are pastoralists, whose lives are shaped by the extreme climate in which they live. Each day, one must seek to find the blessings of life—water, food, livestock and children—in a manner that appeases the ancestral spirits and is in harmony with the peace within the community. Properly following the traditions in daily life will certainly lead to blessings. Blessings are understood to be an increase in wealth, whether livestock, children or even food. It is only through proper relationships with God (Akuj) and the ancestors, proper protection from evil, and participation in the moral economy of the community that one can be blessed.

Essentially, Turkana believes in the reality of a Supreme Being named Akuj. Not much is known about Akuj other than the fact that he alone created the world and is in control of the blessings of life. There is also a belief in the existence of ancestors, or, yet these are seen to be malevolent, requiring animal sacrifices to be appeased when angry. When angered or troubled, the ancestors will possess people in the family in order to verbally communicate with their family. There is also the recognition of “The Ancestor”, Ekipe, who is seen as much more active in the everyday lives of people, yet only in negative ways. There is much concern over protecting one's family and oneself from the evil of the Ekipe. Turkana Christians and missionaries equate ekipe with the biblical character of the Devil or Satan and this has shifted more traditional understandings of ekipe away from “an evil spirit” to “The Evil one”. Turkana religious specialists,, continue to act as intermediaries between living people and ancestors and also help in problem-solving in communities. The Arabs also brought Islam to the people and hence the men wear the cap whether they are Muslims or not.

As in most African traditional religions, traditional religious specialists in Turkana are present and play an active role in almost every community event. help to identify both the source of evil, sickness, or other problems that present themselves and the solution or specific cure or sacrifice that needs to take place in order to restore abundant life in the family and the community. There are various types of diviners differentiated by the source of revelation. According to Barrett, the “true diviners,” also known as the “diviners of God”, are the most respected of the because they receive revelations directly from Akuj, normally through dreams. These “true diviners” follow in the pattern of the most famous Turkana, Lokerio and Lokorijem. The latter regularly received dreams from Akuj, supposedly informing him of the location of British colonialists during early 20th century, and the former is said to have used the power and knowledge of God to divide Lake Turkana so that Turkana warriors could walk across the lake to raid camels.

These of God can still be found throughout Turkana, each in their own territory, alongside specialized  who have received specific abilities to read tea leaves, tobacco, intestines, shoes, stones, and string. There are also hidden evil specialists,, who use objects in secret to work against people in the community, and , who specialize in pronouncing very strong curses employing the use of body parts from those recently deceased, but these are not included in the term. are the people that Akuj and the Fathers speak to in dreams; they are also the ones who can communicate with the ancestors to discern what sort of animal sacrifice is needed to restore peace, bring rain, find a remedy for a child's illness, or who can properly bless the families at a wedding.

The in each area receives direct revelations from Akuj, who is still directly active and concerned with the creation. These do not speak or receive messages through an intermediary god or spirit through possession. While ancestor possessions are common in Turkana, they normally occur among younger people at the home, so that the ancestor can communicate their message to those in the home. The would then be consulted as to what should be done. are not known as people who are normally possessed. Apart from the, there are also important clan rituals in Turkana that represent the acknowledgment and transitions of life force. The most important rituals are the birth rituals (aikido), male and female initiation rituals (aspen and akinyonyo; these do not include circumcision), marriage rituals (Akuuta), annual blessing sacrifices (Apiaret an awi), and death rituals (Akinuuk). Each of these rituals is overseen by the elders of the clan, both men and women. The elders also oversee the community-wide wedding rituals, but an normally plays a role in blessing the marriage.

title: Turkana people


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Talk:Turkana people

Ok folks, lots of this is poorly written, lacks cohesiveness and is not documented with citations. I will work on this as I have time. I am currently writing a dissertation on Turkana ngimurok, and so I've updated the religion portion. There are some Turkana scholars, who are in fact, Turkana, who should also contribute to this effort. signed comment added by Kklines (talk • contribs)

Keep up the good work! — Preceding unsigned comment added by Kklines (talk • contribs) 17:18, 10 February 2012 (UTC)

Yes, yes, yes...

I plan on expanding this article. I've got to do some research first though... Gringo300 19:08, 9 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Glad to hear it - a brief bit on Camels isn't really enough for an article - more would help! :) A curate's egg 19:11, 9 Jun 2005 (UTC)

I actually do not know how reliable the source is.http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Lake_Turkana.aspx Can anyone help please? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Suksesi (talk • contribs) 15:58, 20 February 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Turkana people


text:
Betrothal in a Monastery

Betrothal in a Monastery (Russian title Обручение в монастыре) is an opera in nine scenes (four acts) by Sergei Prokofiev to a Russian libretto by the composer and Mira Mendelson after Sheridan's The Duenna.

Prokofiev began the work in 1940, and it was in rehearsal that year, but World War II halted production of the opera. The composer revised the score in Almaty in 1943. The first performance did not occur until 3 November 1946 at the Kirov Theatre with Boris Khaikin conducting. The producer was I. Shlepianov.

Commentators have noted that, given the context of its creation in the 1940s in the Soviet Union, this opera lacks any particular political or social comment, except perhaps for a scene involving drunken monks.

Performance history
The opera was first performed in the United States (in English) in New York on June 1, 1948. The opera was first performed in the United Kingdom (in Russian) in London on May 5, 1963. In recent years, the opera has been performed in 1989 at the Wexford Festival, in 2006 at the Glyndebourne Festival and at the Palau de les Arts in Valencia, Spain in 2008, at Staatsoper Berlin, in 2019.

Act 1
Don Jerome intends his daughter Louisa to marry the vain, wealthy and ugly fish merchant Mendoza. However, she loves instead Antonio, who is poor, though noble in spirit. Furthermore, Don Ferdinand, son of Don Jerome and prone to fits of jealousy, wants to marry Clara d'Almanza, who is a virtual prisoner of her stepmother.

Act 2
Don Jerome locks up Louisa in her room to force her to marry Mendoza. Louisa's nurse (the Duenna) provokes the fury of Don Jerome by pretending to be a messenger between Antonio and Louisa. Jerome dismisses her - but the Duenna exchanges clothes with Louisa who makes her escape in this disguise.

By the quayside - where fisherwomen are praising the quality of the fish caught in Mendoza's boats - Louisa encounters her friend Clara, who has also run away from home and intends to seek sanctuary at the nunnery. Louisa asks to borrow Clara's name for a day - Clara assents. Enter Mendoza and his courtly friend Don Carlos. Mendoza is recognized by Louisa but he has never seen her. She therefore approaches Mendoza claiming to be Clara and asks him to take her under his protection and find Antonio with whom she is in love. Mendoza is attracted by this idea as a means to rid himself of his rival Antonio by marrying him off to 'Clara'. Don Carlos escorts 'Clara' to Mendoza's house.

Mendoza visits the house of Don Jerome to meet 'Louisa' (the Duenna in disguise); whilst 'Louisa' is not as young and beautiful as Mendoza had been led to believe, her dowry is sufficient attraction. they agree to elope that evening.

Act 3
The mystified Antonio arrives at Mendoza's house; while he is offstage meeting 'Clara', Mendoza and don Carlos congratulate themselves on their cunning. Still unwitting, they agree to help the pair get married.

Don Jerome is rehearsing some amateur musicians (A trio of trumpet, clarinet and bass drum). He receives two messages- one from Mendoza saying he has eloped with Louisa, which delights him, and another from the real Louisa who asks for his blessing on her marriage, which he neglects to read carefully. He sends back his consent with both messengers and arranges for a great feast later that evening to celebrate.

At the monastery, Clara meets with Antonio and Luisa and laments her apparent loss of Ferdinand. Enter Ferdinand, who mistaking Clara for a nun exclaims that he is chasing his false friend Antonio who has run off with his beloved Clara. Clara is secretly overjoyed at this demonstration of Ferdinand's passion.

Act 4
The act opens with a drinking song for the monks in the monastery where the marriages are to be performed. The monks then switch to a hymn that extols fasting and abstinence, to a tune that is a slower variant of the earlier drinking song. Enter Mendoza and Antonio who by lavish bribery gain the monks consent to marry them to their loves. Enter Ferdinand who challenges Antonio to a duel, but the genuine Clara arrives and Ferdinand now understands the true situation. The three marriages are agreed.

At Don Jerome's feast, the host is increasingly amazed, exasperated and infuriated as the successive arrival of the newly-weds makes it clear that his plans have gone completely awry. He is slightly compensated by the likely size of Clara's dowry. He sings a drinking song, accompanying himself on a set of tuned glasses.

Recordings
Recordings include:
 * Stanislavsky Musical Theatre. With N. Korshunov (Don Jerome), Y. Kratov (Ferdinand), V. Kayevchenko (Louise), T. Yanko (Louise's Duenna), N. Issakova (Clara), E. Bulavin (Mendoza), S. Ilyinsky (Don Carlos), I. Petrov (Padre Augustin) cond. K. Abdullayev (Melodyia, 1963)
 * Orchestra and chorus of the Bolshoi Theatre cond. Alexander Lazarev, (BMG Classics, 1990)
 * Kirov Orchestra and Kirov Opera. With Evgeny Akimov, Marianna Tarassova, Anna Netrebko, Alexandr Gergalov, Nikolai Gassiev, Larissa Diadkova, Sergey Aleksashkin, Yury Shkliar. Chorus cond. Valery Gergiev (Philips, 1998)

Summer Night
Summer Night (Op. 123) is an orchestral suite with music drawn from Betrothal in a Monastery.

Movements
The suite, lasting around 20 minutes, consists of five movements:
 * 1) Introduction: Moderato, ma con brio
 * 2) Serenade: Adagio
 * 3) Minuet
 * 4) Dreams (Nocturne): Andante tranquillo
 * 5) Dance: Allegretto

Recordings
Recent recordings include:
 * Tampere Philharmonic Orchestra conductor Leonid Grin (Ondine, 1991)
 * London Philharmonic Orchestra conductor Vladimir Jurowski (Glyndebourne CD Label, 2008)
 * Russian National Orchestra conductor Mikhail Pletnev (Deutsche Grammophon, 1994)
 * St. Petersburg Philharmonic Orchestra conductor Vladimir Ashkenazy (Exton, 2002)

title: Betrothal in a Monastery


text: User talk:209.232.157.78

title: User talk:209.232.157.78


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Leeroy Thornhill

Leeroy Thornhill (born 8 October 1968) is a British electronic music artist and formerly a rave dancer and occasionally keyboardist for the British electronic group the Prodigy. Thornhill's live performances throughout the 1990s included his unique style of shuffling.

He has also recorded under the names Longman and Flightcrank.

Life and work
Thornhill was born in Barking but raised in Rayne near Braintree in Essex, and grew up as a football and James Brown fan.

He joined the Prodigy along with Keith Flint and Maxim Reality after they met Liam Howlett at a local rave club The Barn. Both were dancers for the band's live show. Thornhill is 6 feet 7 inches (201 cm) tall, compared to Flint who was 5 feet 7 inches (170 cm).

In 2000, Thornhill left the band and went on to record various solo EPs under the names "Longman" and "Flightcrank".

He now DJs at large venues and is still in touch with the Prodigy. During the Prodigy's "Their Law" tour Thornhill was the DJ support act at several venues. He also remixed tracks for other artists, such as the Italian Subsonica's "Nuvole Rapide".

Thornhill had worked with Hyper, appearing on their live shows. He appeared at the V Festival in 2007 in Chelmsford, Essex.

His latest project is the creation of nu skool breaks record label Electric Tastebuds. He signed breakbeat group The Wrongstar Society to the label.

In October 2008, a music video was created for "Everything U Need", a track by Thornhill's Smash Hi-Fi project. The video was directed by Philip Carrer and Bleeding Apple.

Videography
Thornhill appeared in numerous music videos during his time as a member of the Prodigy.

 * Music videos
 * "Charly" (1991)
 * "Everybody in the Place" (1991)
 * "Fire" (1992)
 * "Out of Space" (1992)
 * "Wind It Up" (1993)
 * "One Love" (1993) (CGI likeness and photographs, no physical appearance)
 * "No Good (Start the Dance)" (1994)
 * "Voodoo People" (1994)
 * "Poison" (1995)
 * "Firestarter" (1996)
 * "Breathe" (1996)

 * Video albums
 * Electronic Punks (1995)

Discography
Singles & EPs
 * Lowrise EP 12" (1993)
 * The Longman EP 12" (1996)
 * Flightcrank EP CD Ltd & 2×7" Ltd (2000)
 * Inside Out (Original Version) / Outside In 10", Ltd (2000)
 * Amazing CD & 12" (2001)
 * What U Need CD & 12" (2001)
 * Wait for Me / Breaking Out Digital Download (2018)
 * The Calling / Vibrations Digital Download (2018)

title: Leeroy Thornhill


text:
Charles Melville Hays

Charles Melville Hays (May 16, 1856 – April 15, 1912) was the president of the Grand Trunk Railway. He began working in the railroad business as a clerk at the age of 17 and quickly rose through the ranks of management to become the General Manager of the Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific Railway. He became Vice-President of that company in 1889 and remained as such until 1896 when he became General Manager of the Grand Trunk Railway (GTR) of Canada.

Hays left GTR for a short time to serve as the President of the Southern Pacific Railway Company but returned to GTR after one year. As Vice-President and General Manager of GTR he is credited with keeping the company from bankruptcy. In 1909, he became the president of GTR and all its consolidated lines, subsidiary railroads, and steamship companies. He was known for his philanthropy and received the Order of the Rising Sun, third class, from the Emperor of Japan in 1907.

Hays is credited with the formation of the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway (GTP), a plan he had to create a second transcontinental railroad within the borders of Canada. He is also blamed for the insolvency of both the GTR and the GTP. He died in the sinking of the RMS Titanic before his plan was complete. Before the ship collided with an iceberg, Hays said that in the near future there would be "the greatest...of all disasters at sea." His body was recovered, and he was buried in Montreal. He had a wife and four daughters.

Early life
Charles Melville Hays was born in Rock Island, Illinois, on May 16, 1856. His family moved to St. Louis, Missouri, when he was a child.

Career
In 1873, at the age of 17, he began his career in the railroad business working for the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad in St. Louis. From 1877 to 1884, Hays was Secretary to the General Manager of the Missouri Pacific Railroad. Beginning in 1884, he held the same position with the Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific Railway until 1886, when he became that company's General Manager. In 1889, he became Vice-President of the Wabash Railroad and remained as such until 1896, when he became General Manager of the Grand Trunk Railway (GTR) of Canada.

In 1901, Hays left GTR to serve as the President of the Southern Pacific Railway Company but returned to the company in January 1902 as Vice-President and General Manager. In October 1909, he was appointed president of GTR, which also gave him control of its subsidiary railroad and steamship companies. These included the Central Vermont Railway, the Grand Trunk Western Railway, the Grand Haven and Milwaukee Railway, the Detroit and Toledo Shoreline Railroad, the Toledo, Saginaw and Muskegon Railway, the Southern New England Railway Company, the Canadian Express Company, and several others. In addition, he was sought after to help manage several philanthropies. He was Governor of the Royal Victoria Hospital, Montreal, Montreal General Hospital and McGill University. He received the Order of the Rising Sun, third class, from the Emperor of Japan in 1907 for assistance he gave the Imperial Government Railways.

When Hays became General Manager of GTR in 1896, it was near bankruptcy and under-performing its rival, the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR). On the advice of American financier J. Pierpont Morgan, the GTR board selected Hays as General Manager to bring more aggressive, "American" business practices to the company. He reorganized the management of the company and successfully negotiated running rights with CPR. He also brought more efficiency to the handling of accounts, built new track and ordered more powerful locomotives. These changes produced an era of greater success for the railroad.

Transcontinental Railway
At the time, the western prairies were being rapidly settled. Hays wanted to capitalize on the trend by constructing a transcontinental railroad, within the borders of Canada, to run 3,600 miles from Moncton, New Brunswick, to Prince Rupert, British Columbia. In 1900, he introduced a proposal to extend the lines of the Grand Trunk Western, an American subsidiary, from Chicago to Winnipeg, "and thence to the Pacific." However, he was turned down by the railroad's directors in London. Later that year, Hays left GTR to work for Southern Pacific, but a change in ownership there lead to his resignation. He returned to the GTR to find that the president, Sir Charles Rivers Wilson, had convinced the board of directors to pursue the transcontinental railway. Meanwhile, the government, under Sir Wilfrid Laurier, had also decided to back the project. Plans to construct the transcontinental line were announced on November 24, 1902.

Hays' plan involved the creation of a subsidiary line from Winnipeg to Prince Rupert, with the government building the line from New Brunswick to Winnipeg. The cabinet became weary of Hays' demands for subsidies, but after negotiations between the government and Hays, aided by the railroad's president Rivers Wilson, the National Transcontinental Railway Act was passed in 1903. It enabled the incorporation of the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway (GTP). The government's portion of the line would be called the National Transcontinental Railway (NTR).

There were problems with some of Hays' policies regarding the GTP.
 * Firstly, he had planned to buy out the Canadian Northern Railway (CNoR), but the company resisted and instead provided competition.
 * Secondly, Hays lacked support from the board of directors in London; he wanted to link the GTR with the GTP, but the board would not back this plan. He thus proceeded on his own authority, making commitments that would ultimately ruin both the GTP and the GTR.
 * Thirdly, Hays faced opposition to his choice of Prince Rupert, on Kaien Island, B.C., for the western terminal, because there was not much traffic there. Hays preferred the location as he believed it would provide a shorter route for transshipment to destinations in Asia.

Hays made the construction of the mainline his priority, failing to develop feeder lines. CNoR and CPR joined forces to gain control of the prairie traffic. The competition among the three railroads led to Canada's ending up with three transcontinental railways instead of one. This was to result in the GTP's being starved of traffic; even though it was arguably the best of the three, it ultimately failed to attract enough freight to make it profitable.

After construction on the GTP began in 1905, Hays started the Grand Trunk Pacific Development Company in order to purchase thousands of acres of land on which he established town sites along the route of the railway, including Melville, Saskatchewan, which was named after him. Hays' vision went beyond the building of the railway. He also had plans for a fleet of ocean liners and a string of resort hotels across the Rocky Mountains. He hired the famed architect Francis Rattenbury from CPR to design a grand hotel, the Château Prince Rupert, at the westernmost stop on the railway. In 1909, only 3000 people lived in Prince Rupert, but anticipation of the railroad caused it to grow rapidly, despite the rapidly rising cost of property and the muddy environs. The city was incorporated in 1910.

After Rivers Wilson retired as the railroad's president in 1909, Hays was appointed to fill the position. By 1910, Grand Trunk union workers were demanding wages on par with those of railroad workers in the United States. A strike put a stop to construction. Hays finally gave into the workers' demands but failed to re-hire 250 previously fired strikers despite promising to do so. He also denied workers their pensions, causing one member of Parliament to describe him as "heartless, cruel, and tyrannical."

By 1912, the cost of constructing the railway was increasing, with rising wages and price increases on materials, while the government refused to allow a rate increase. Another reason for the mounting costs was Hays' insistence on "building to the very highest standards". Meanwhile, CNoR and CPR monopolized the traffic in the west. In addition, Grand Trunk, which would be leasing the NTR from the government, was responsible for paying back the construction cost of that line. Hays began to fear insolvency.

RMS Titanic
In April 1912, Hays was in London soliciting financial support for the GTP. He was anxious to get back to Canada for the opening of the Château Laurier in Ottawa, Ontario, named after Prime Minister Laurier. The gala opening of this hotel was set for April 25, 1912. Hays had also received news that his daughter Louise was having difficulty with her pregnancy.

Additionally, he might have had business with J. Bruce Ismay, chairman of the White Star Line; in any case, Ismay had invited Hays to join him on the RMS Titanic. Hays, his wife, Clara, his daughter, Orian (see source note), his son-in-law, Thornton Davidson (son of Charles Peers Davidson), his secretary, Mr. Vivian Payne, and a maid, Miss Mary Anne Perreault, shared a deluxe suite (cabin B69) on B Deck, also known as the Bridge Deck.

At 11:40 pm on April 14, 1912, Titanic struck an iceberg. Hays helped the women in his party into one of the ship's 20 lifeboats, but he, his son-in-law, and his secretary remained and perished when the ship sank, along with nearly 1,500 other Titanic passengers and crew. Hays was reported to have made a prophetic remark on the evening of the disaster; deploring the way the steamship lines were competing to win passengers with ever-faster vessels, he is said to have commented, "The time will come soon when this trend will be checked by some appalling disaster."

Some early sources, aware that one of the Hays daughters (Orian Davidson) was accompanying her parents, misidentified the daughter as "Margaret Hays", who was actually a totally unrelated young woman, traveling with two female friends. Early newspaper reports incorrectly stated that Clara and Margaret Hays, and Mrs. Thornton [Orian] Davidson disembarked the rescue ship in New York City together and boarded a train for Montreal,

Death
Hays was a victim of the Titanic. Hays' body was recovered from the waters of the North Atlantic by the Minia, and he was buried at Mount Royal Cemetery in Montreal. Two funerals were held for him on May 8, one at the American Presbyterian Church in Montreal, the other in London at the Church of St Edmund, King and Martyr.

Legacy
Hays died before he could see the GTP completed. He was eulogized as one of the greatest railwaymen in Canada, and work on the GTR was stopped for five minutes, on April 25, 1912, in his memory. The period in which Hays led the GTR was its most prosperous era.

However, his policies led to the GTP's collapse in 1919. The company was placed in receivership, and the government seized GTR's stock. It was later alleged that Hays had deceived the company's London directors in 1903 by committing them to conditions in the railway's agreements with the Canadian government for the building of the GTP to which they did not agree. That scheme was blamed for the company's collapse.

The railroad car in which his body was transported back to Montreal is preserved at the Canadian Railway Museum, near Delson, Quebec. There is a statue of him in Prince Rupert, and the city of Melville, Saskatchewan, is named after him, as is the village of Haysport, British Columbia. Mount Hays, south of Prince Rupert, British Columbia is named for him.

Charles Hays Secondary School in Prince Rupert is also named in his honour.

Personal life
His wife was Clara Jennings (née Gregg), whom he married in St. Louis, Missouri on October 13, 1881. They had four daughters: Orian (who married Thornton Davidson, and later Robert N. Hickson), Clara (who married Hope Scott), Marjorie (who married George Hall), and Louise (who married a Mr. Grier).

title: Charles Melville Hays


text:
Wikipedia:Peer review/Battle of Trafalgar/archive1

Battle of Trafalgar
This needs to be a featured article on October 21 the 200th anniversary of the battle. To that end, it's here for peer review. Dunc|☺ 19:11, 9 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * It needs a references section to become a FA. You might also want to add a map, either of the location of the battle, or of the lines of battle before the engagement. The description of the battle itself is a little lacking. From reading Decision at Trafalgar, I seem to remember there being something about the front ships of the Spanish-French fleet (which had been far from Nelson's point of attack), turning to regroup and launch an unsuccessful counterattack toward the end of the battle. Sayeth 20:00, Jun 9, 2005 (UTC)

 * Great stuff. I've added a link to Nelson's Pillar.   A couple of points:  using the classic skin, I see a square wodge of four images to the left of the infobox before I get to the lead paragraph. Second, there is sharp transition from the section on strategic background to the digression on 18th century naval tactics, and then back again to Nelson's battle plan.  The reader needs the tactical background to understand the battle, but I can't help thinking there must be a more elegant way of integrating it - perhaps by describing Nelson's plan and then explaining why it was against the prevailing methods? -- ALoan (Talk) 20:21, 9 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * It looks good overall. Although it is mentioned somewhat, I think I'd like to see a little more of an explanation of why Nelson's plan was unorthodox. Crossing the tee was a standard naval tactic for the time, and his plan seemed to run smack into that logic. I believe his lead ships did get heavily pummeled as a result, including Nelson's flagship (which is likely also why he died during the battle). Also I've seen old maps showing the ship locations as Nelson's fleet approached the French. It'd be helpful if there were something like that here. Thanks. — RJH 17:36, 10 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Also as a note, the Gutenberg book 10694 has a chapter (IX) on the centenary of Trafalgar, and some critiques of the battle. (Although it's undoubtedly outdated by now. Still it's interesting to see what was thought about the battle a century ago.) See also chapter XI of the same. — RJH 17:43, 10 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * Expand. Background sections are good, but Nelson's Battle Plan, Battle and Consequences are way too short. I'd like to see them tripled in size (more or less). Format references according to Cite sources. --Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus Talk 10:43, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Agree with all above, esp. a geograpical location map Plus tactical map definitely needed. These two paragraphs mixes Napoleon with the actual governing entity in 1803. He was still only a medium size frog in the French pond at that point:
 * When the Napoleonic war broke out in 1803, after the short lived Peace of Amiens, Napoleon Bonaparte was determined to invade Britain. To do this he had to ensure that the Royal Navy would be unable to disrupt the invasion flotilla while the invasion was in progress. This would require the French fleet to control the English Channel.

Your next para jumps two years: I'll send you a ref source, and peruse on hardcopy for other input, but good job start based on a quick skim! Fabartus 06:06, 13 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * At that time, there were major French fleets in Brest in Brittany and Toulon on the Mediterranean coast. Other ports on the French Atlantic coast had smaller but not insignificant squadrons. In addition, France and Spain were now allied so the Spanish fleet based in Cádiz was also available.


text: User talk:169.153.136.23

title: User talk:169.153.136.23


text:
List of knot theory topics

Knot theory is the study of mathematical knots. While inspired by knots which appear in daily life in shoelaces and rope, a mathematician's knot differs in that the ends are joined so that it cannot be undone. In precise mathematical language, a knot is an embedding of a circle in 3-dimensional Euclidean space, R3. Two mathematical knots are equivalent if one can be transformed into the other via a deformation of R3 upon itself (known as an ambient isotopy); these transformations correspond to manipulations of a knotted string that do not involve cutting the string or passing the string through itself.

Knots, links, braids

 * Knot (mathematics) gives a general introduction to the concept of a knot.
 * Two classes of knots: torus knots and pretzel knots
 * Cinquefoil knot also known as a (5, 2) torus knot.
 * Figure-eight knot (mathematics) the only 4-crossing knot
 * Granny knot (mathematics) and Square knot (mathematics) are a connected sum of two Trefoil knots
 * Perko pair, two entries in a knot table that were later shown to be identical.
 * Stevedore knot (mathematics), a prime knot with crossing number 6
 * Three-twist knot is the twist knot with three-half twists, also known as the 52 knot.
 * Trefoil knot A knot with crossing number 3
 * Unknot
 * Knot complement, a compact 3 manifold obtained by removing an open neighborhood of a proper embedding of a tame knot from the 3-sphere.
 * Knots and graphs general introduction to knots with mention of Reidemeister moves

Notation used in knot theory:
 * Conway notation
 * Dowker–Thistlethwaite notation (DT notation)
 * Gauss code (see also Gauss diagrams)
 * continued fraction regular form

General knot types

 * 2-bridge knot
 * Alternating knot; a knot that can be represented by an alternating diagram (i.e. the crossing alternate over and under as one traverses the knot).
 * Berge knot a class of knots related to Lens space surgeries and defined in terms of their properties with respect to a genus 2 Heegaard surface.
 * Cable knot, see Satellite knot
 * Chiral knot is knot which is not equivalent to its mirror image.
 * Double torus knot, a knot that can be embedded in a double torus (a genus 2 surface).
 * Fibered knot
 * Framed knot
 * Invertible knot
 * Prime knot
 * Legendrian knot are knots embedded in $$\mathbb R^3$$ tangent to the standard contact structure.
 * Lissajous knot
 * Ribbon knot
 * Satellite knot
 * Slice knot
 * Torus knot
 * Transverse knot
 * Twist knot
 * Virtual knot
 * welded knot
 * Wild knot

Links

 * Borromean rings, the simplest Brunnian link
 * Brunnian link, a set of links which become trivial if one loop is removed
 * Hopf link, the simplest non-trivial link
 * Solomon's knot, a two-ring link with four crossings.
 * Whitehead link, a twisted loop linked with an untwisted loop.
 * Unlink

General types of links:
 * Algebraic link
 * Hyperbolic link
 * Pretzel link
 * Split link
 * String link

Tangles

 * Tangle (mathematics)
 * Algebraic tangle
 * Tangle diagram
 * Tangle product
 * Tangle rotation
 * Tangle sum
 * Inverse of a tangle
 * Rational tangle
 * Tangle denominator closure
 * Tangle numerator closure
 * Reciprocal tangle

Braids

 * Braid theory
 * Braid group

Operations

 * Band sum
 * Flype
 * Fox n-coloring
 * Tricolorability
 * Knot sum
 * Reidemeister move

Elementary treatment using polygonal curves

 * elementary move (R1 move, R2 move, R3 move)
 * R-equivalent
 * delta-equivalent

Invariants and properties

 * Knot invariant  is an invariant defined on knots which is invariant under ambient isotopies of the knot.
 * Finite type invariant  is a knot invariant that can be extended to an invariant of certain singular knots
 * Knot polynomial is a knot invariant in the form of a polynomial whose coefficients encode some of the properties of a given knot.
 * Alexander polynomial and the associated Alexander matrix; The first knot polynomial (1923). Sometimes called the Alexander–Conway polynomial
 * Bracket polynomial is a polynomial invariant of framed links. Related to the Jones polynomial. Also known as the Kauffman bracket.
 * Conway polynomial uses Skein relations.
 * Homfly polynomial or HOMFLYPT polynomial.
 * Jones polynomial assigns a Laurent polynomial in the variable t1/2 to the knot or link.
 * Kauffman polynomial is a 2-variable knot polynomial due to Louis Kauffman.
 * Arf invariant of a knot
 * Average crossing number
 * Bridge number
 * Crosscap number
 * Crossing number
 * Hyperbolic volume
 * Kontsevich invariant
 * Linking number
 * Milnor invariants
 * Racks and quandles and Biquandle
 * Ropelength
 * Seifert surface
 * Self-linking number
 * Signature of a knot
 * Skein relation
 * Slice genus
 * Tunnel number, the number of arcs that must be added to make the knot complement a handlebody
 * Writhe

Mathematical problems

 * Berge conjecture
 * Birman–Wenzl algebra
 * Clasper (mathematics)
 * Eilenberg–Mazur swindle
 * Fáry–Milnor theorem
 * Gordon–Luecke theorem
 * Khovanov homology
 * Knot group
 * Knot tabulation
 * Knotless embedding
 * Linkless embedding
 * Link concordance
 * Link group
 * Link (knot theory)
 * Milnor conjecture (topology)
 * Milnor map
 * Möbius energy
 * Mutation (knot theory)
 * Physical knot theory
 * Planar algebra
 * Smith conjecture
 * Tait conjectures
 * Temperley–Lieb algebra
 * Thurston–Bennequin number
 * Tricolorability
 * Unknotting number
 * Unknotting problem
 * Volume conjecture

Theorems

 * Schubert's theorem
 * Conway's theorem
 * Alexander's theorem

Lists

 * List of mathematical knots and links
 * List of prime knots

title: List of knot theory topics


text:
Maria do Carmo Silveira

Maria do Carmo Trovoada Pires de Carvalho Silveira (born 14 February 1961) served as the 13th prime minister of São Tomé and Príncipe from 8 June 2005 to 21 April 2006.

Background
She was educated as an economist at the Donetsk National University (Ukraine), Master of Public Administration from the National School of Administration in Strasbourg and was the third governor of São Tomé and Príncipe's Central Bank from 1999 to 2005, she succeeded Carlos Quaresma Batista de Sousa and was succeeded by Arlindo Afonso Carvalho and again from 2011 to 2016 as the sixth governor succeeding Luís Fernando Moreira de Sousa.

Prime minister
She served as Prime Minister and Minister of Planning and Finance São Tomé and Príncipe from 8 June 2005 to 21 April 2006.

Silveira, the country's second female prime minister, is a member of the Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe-Social Democratic Party (MLSTP-PSD) and was a member of the party executive board.

Silveira declared that macroeconomic stability was her priority and made her mark by among others resolving the wage dispute with the unions in the public sector, securing assistance from the IMF and obtaining an agreement with Angola on cooperation in the oil sector.

Succession
Her term as prime minister ended after the 2006 parliamentary elections, when the opposition defeated the MLSTP-PSD, and she was succeeded as prime minister by Tomé Vera Cruz in 2006.

Executive Secretary of the CPLP
In January 2017, Maria do Carmo assumed the position of Executive Secretary of the Lusophone Commonwealth, succeeding the Mozambican Murade Murargy and being succeeded by the Portuguese Francisco Ribeiro Telles in January 2019.

title: Maria do Carmo Silveira


text:
Improved Touring

Improved Touring is a category of classifications for cars in amateur road racing defined by the Sports Car Club of America. The class is used by other sanctioning bodies with compatible rules, such as the International Conference of Sports Car Clubs.

The classifications within the Improved Touring group define cars that will run together competitively in a road race. While cars in different classifications may be on the track simultaneously, the only positioning that matters is between cars of the same classification.

The rules for the class include the General Competition Rules (GCR), a section of the SCCA rulebook that defines the basic setup and preparation for cars in any class of SCCA racing. Improved Touring cars are also subject to the rules in the Improved Touring Category Section (ITCS) of the rulebook, which define the specific classes and provide the class-specific rules.

GCR Rules
The rules from the GCR applying to Improved Touring cars mostly involve safety and basic setup. The GCR specifies the construction, fabrication, and material used in installing a roll-cage, for example. It also explains the rules of the road during racing events, including the flags and right of way rules for passing maneuvers.

Improved Touring is intended to provide a low barrier to entry by using a set of rules which limit modification of the cars while keeping the cars safe for competition. To this end, the cars are production-based models built after 1964 with a reasonable amount of limited modifications. The cars are run as-built by the manufacturer, except for modifications specifically allowed by the GCR or the ITCS.

The Improved Touring category is broken into five classes based on the performance potential of the car. Those classes are Improved Touring A (ITA), Improved Touring B (ITB), Improved Touring C (ITC), Improved Touring S (ITS) and Improved Touring R (ITR).

These basic rules make Improved Touring a popular class, since familiar and modern cars race together in groups which maximize the chances for a close finish.

Rules
This section is not an exhaustive set of rules; it is intended to give the reader an idea of the preparation level of the cars in this class.

The ITCS specifies that cars may remove almost all of their interior components, as a safe race car has few flammable features inside and drivers do not want to worry about projectiles from inside their own cars during a race.

For most cars, air induction to the point where the air meets either the carburetor or mass air flow sensor is unrestricted by the rules, so cars may be prepared with improved air intakes. Exhaust systems are also unrestricted, so exhaust systems including headers may be modified. Cars may have to remain under a maximum noise level, so mufflers might still be needed.

Stock brake calipers and rotors must be used, but pad material is unrestricted.

No internal engine modifications are allowed short of rebuilding to factory "blue print" specifications, though the car's ECU may be modified or replaced with an aftermarket unit.

"Bolt-on" suspension modifications are allowed, including most coil-over shock–strut systems. Relocation, reinforcement, or custom fabrication of mounting points is not allowed.

DOT-approved tires are required, so full race tires may not be used. There are however some very high quality "DOT" tires available that perform very well at the track but are not actually intended for street use. Lightweight racing wheels may be used, but the sizes are limited by the rules.

While the ITA, ITB, ITC, ITS and ITR classes allow different model cars in competition, the classes all use the same basic rules. The cars are grouped into the different classes based on their potential for performance. A sampling of popular cars and model years in each class includes:

 * ITA: Honda CR-X (1989–1991), Mazda RX-7 (12A engine, 1979–1985), Acura Integra (1.6-liter engine, 1986–1989)
 * ITB: BMW 318 (1984–1986)
 * ITC: Honda CR-X (1.5-liter engine, 1984–1987)
 * ITS: BMW 325 (E30 body, 1987-1991), Mazda RX-7 (13B engine, 1984-1991), Datsun 240Z (1970-1973)
 * ITR: BMW 328 (E36 body, 1996-1999), Porsche Boxster (2.5-liter engine, 1997-1999), Nissan 300ZX, Acura Integra Type R, Ford Mustang (V6 or 302), Mazda RX-8, Honda S2000
 * IT7: Mazda RX7, 1979-1985 12a rotary

title: Improved Touring