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Scattering parameters

Scattering parameters or S-parameters (the elements of a scattering matrix or S-matrix) describe the electrical behavior of linear electrical networks when undergoing various steady state stimuli by electrical signals.

The parameters are useful for several branches of electrical engineering, including electronics, communication systems design, and especially for microwave engineering.

The S-parameters are members of a family of similar parameters, other examples being: Y-parameters, Z-parameters, H-parameters, T-parameters or ABCD-parameters. They differ from these, in the sense that S-parameters do not use open or short circuit conditions to characterize a linear electrical network; instead, matched loads are used. These terminations are much easier to use at high signal frequencies than open-circuit and short-circuit terminations. Contrary to popular belief, the quantities are not measured in terms of power (except in now-obsolete six-port network analyzers). Modern vector network analyzers measure amplitude and phase of voltage traveling wave phasors using essentially the same circuit as that used for the demodulation of digitally modulated wireless signals.

Many electrical properties of networks of components (inductors, capacitors, resistors) may be expressed using S-parameters, such as gain, return loss, voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR), reflection coefficient and amplifier stability. The term 'scattering' is more common to optical engineering than RF engineering, referring to the effect observed when a plane electromagnetic wave is incident on an obstruction or passes across dissimilar dielectric media. In the context of S-parameters, scattering refers to the way in which the traveling currents and voltages in a transmission line are affected when they meet a discontinuity caused by the insertion of a network into the transmission line. This is equivalent to the wave meeting an impedance differing from the line's characteristic impedance.

Although applicable at any frequency, S-parameters are mostly used for networks operating at radio frequency (RF) and microwave frequencies. S-parameters in common use - the conventional S-parameters - are linear quantities (not power quantities, as in the below mentioned 'power waves' approach by Kaneyuki Kurokawa (黒川兼行)). S-parameters change with the measurement frequency, so frequency must be specified for any S-parameter measurements stated, in addition to the characteristic impedance or system impedance.

S-parameters are readily represented in matrix form and obey the rules of matrix algebra.

Background
The first published description of S-parameters was in the thesis of Vitold Belevitch in 1945. The name used by Belevitch was repartition matrix and limited consideration to lumped-element networks. The term scattering matrix was used by physicist and engineer Robert Henry Dicke in 1947 who independently developed the idea during wartime work on radar. In these S-parameters and scattering matrices, the scattered waves are the so-called traveling waves. A different kind of S-parameters was introduced in the 1960s. The latter was popularized by Kaneyuki Kurokawa (黒川兼行), who referred to the new scattered waves as 'power waves.' The two types of S-parameters have very different properties and must not be mixed up. In his seminal paper, Kurokawa clearly distinguishes the power-wave S-parameters and the conventional, traveling-wave S-parameters. A variant of the latter is the pseudo-traveling-wave S-parameters. In the S-parameter approach, an electrical network is regarded as a 'black box' containing various interconnected basic electrical circuit components or lumped elements such as resistors, capacitors, inductors and transistors, which interacts with other circuits through ports. The network is characterized by a square matrix of complex numbers called its S-parameter matrix, which can be used to calculate its response to signals applied to the ports.

For the S-parameter definition, it is understood that a network may contain any components provided that the entire network behaves linearly with incident small signals. It may also include many typical communication system components or 'blocks' such as amplifiers, attenuators, filters, couplers and equalizers provided they are also operating under linear and defined conditions.

An electrical network to be described by S-parameters may have any number of ports. Ports are the points at which electrical signals either enter or exit the network. Ports are usually pairs of terminals with the requirement that the current into one terminal is equal to the current leaving the other. S-parameters are used at frequencies where the ports are often coaxial or waveguide connections.

The S-parameter matrix describing an N-port network will be square of dimension N and will therefore contain $$N^2\,$$ elements. At the test frequency each element or S-parameter is represented by a unitless complex number that represents magnitude and angle, i.e. amplitude and phase. The complex number may either be expressed in rectangular form or, more commonly, in polar form. The S-parameter magnitude may be expressed in linear form or logarithmic form. When expressed in logarithmic form, magnitude has the "dimensionless unit" of decibels. The S-parameter angle is most frequently expressed in degrees but occasionally in radians. Any S-parameter may be displayed graphically on a polar diagram by a dot for one frequency or a locus for a range of frequencies. If it applies to one port only (being of the form $$S_{nn}\,$$), it may be displayed on an impedance or admittance Smith Chart normalised to the system impedance. The Smith Chart allows simple conversion between the $$S_{nn}\,$$ parameter, equivalent to the voltage reflection coefficient and the associated (normalised) impedance (or admittance) 'seen' at that port.

The following information must be defined when specifying a set of S-parameters:
 * 1) The frequency
 * 2) The nominal characteristic impedance (often 50 Ω)
 * 3) The allocation of port numbers
 * 4) Conditions which may affect the network, such as temperature, control voltage, and bias current, where applicable.

A definition
For a generic multi-port network, the ports are numbered from 1 to N, where N is the total number of ports. For port i, the associated S-parameter definition is in terms of incident and reflected 'power waves', $$a_i\,$$ and $$b_i\,$$ respectively.

Kurokawa defines the incident power wave for each port as

 * $$a_i = \frac{1}{2}\, k_i (V_i + Z_{i} I_i)\,$$

and the reflected wave for each port is defined as

 * $$b_i = \frac{1}{2}\, k_i (V_i - Z_{i}^{*} I_i)\,$$

where $$Z_i\,$$ is the impedance for port i, $$Z_i^{*}\,$$ is the complex conjugate of $$Z_i\,$$, $$V_i\,$$ and $$I_i\,$$ are respectively the complex amplitudes of the voltage and current at port i, and

 * $$k_i = \left(\sqrt{\left|\real\{Z_{i}\}\right|}\right)^{-1}\,$$

Sometimes it is useful to assume that the reference impedance is the same for all ports in which case the definitions of the incident and reflected waves may be simplified to

 * $$a_i = \frac{1}{2}\, \frac{(V_i + Z_{0} I_i)}{\sqrt{\left|\real\{Z_{0}\}\right|}}\,$$

and

 * $$b_i = \frac{1}{2}\, \frac{(V_i - Z_{0}^{*} I_i)}{\sqrt{\left|\real\{Z_{0}\}\right|}}\,$$

Note that as was pointed out by Kurokawa himself, the above definitions of $$a_i$$ and $$b_i$$ are not unique.

The relation between the vectors a and b, whose i-th components are the power waves $$a_i$$ and $$b_i$$ respectively, can be expressed using the S-parameter matrix S:

 * $$\mathbf{b} = \mathbf{S} \mathbf{a}\,$$

Or using explicit components:

\begin{pmatrix} b_1   \\ \vdots \\ b_n \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} S_{11} & \dots &S_{1n} \\ \vdots &\ddots &\vdots \\ S_{n1} & \dots &S_{nn} \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} a_1   \\ \vdots \\ a_n \end{pmatrix} $$

Reciprocity
A network will be reciprocal if it is passive and it contains only reciprocal materials that influence the transmitted signal. For example, attenuators, cables, splitters and combiners are all reciprocal networks and $$S_{mn} = S_{nm}\,$$ in each case, or the S-parameter matrix will be equal to its transpose. Networks which include non-reciprocal materials in the transmission medium such as those containing magnetically biased ferrite components will be non-reciprocal. An amplifier is another example of a non-reciprocal network.

A property of 3-port networks, however, is that they cannot be simultaneously reciprocal, loss-free, and perfectly matched.

Lossless networks
A lossless network is one which does not dissipate any power, or: $$\Sigma\left|a_n\right|^2 = \Sigma\left|b_n\right|^2\,$$. The sum of the incident powers at all ports is equal to the sum of the outgoing (e.g. 'reflected') powers at all ports. This implies that the S-parameter matrix is unitary, that is $$(S)^H (S) = (I)\,$$, where $$(S)^H\,$$ is the conjugate transpose of $$(S)\,$$ and $$(I)\,$$ is the identity matrix.

Lossy networks
A lossy passive network is one in which the sum of the incident powers at all ports is greater than the sum of the outgoing (e.g. 'reflected') powers at all ports. It therefore dissipates power: $$\Sigma\left|a_n\right|^2 \ne \Sigma\left|b_n\right|^2\,$$. Thus $$\Sigma\left|a_n\right|^2 > \Sigma\left|b_n\right|^2\,$$, and $$(I) - (S)^H (S)\,$$ is positive definite.

Two-port S-parameters
The S-parameter matrix for the 2-port network is probably the most commonly used and serves as the basic building block for generating the higher order matrices for larger networks. In this case the relationship between the outgoing ('reflected'), incident waves and the S-parameter matrix is given by:

 * $$\begin{pmatrix}b_1 \\ b_2 \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} S_{11} & S_{12} \\ S_{21} & S_{22} \end{pmatrix}\begin{pmatrix} a_1 \\ a_2 \end{pmatrix}\,$$.

Expanding the matrices into equations gives:

 * $$b_1 = S_{11}a_1 +S_{12}a_2\,$$

and

 * $$b_2 = S_{21}a_1 +S_{22}a_2\,$$.

Each equation gives the relationship between the outgoing (e.g. reflected) and incident waves at each of the network ports, 1 and 2, in terms of the network's individual S-parameters, $$S_{11}\,$$, $$S_{12}\,$$, $$S_{21}\,$$ and $$S_{22}\,$$. If one considers an incident wave at port 1 ($$a_1\,$$) there may result from it waves exiting from either port 1 itself ($$b_1\,$$) or port 2 ($$b_2\,$$). However, if, according to the definition of S-parameters, port 2 is terminated in a load identical to the system impedance ($$Z_0\,$$) then, by the maximum power transfer theorem, $$b_2\,$$ will be totally absorbed making $$a_2\,$$ equal to zero. Therefore, defining the incident voltage waves as $$a_1 = V_1^+$$ and $$a_2 = V_2^+$$ with the outgoing/reflected waves being $$b_1 = V_1^-$$ and $$b_2 = V_2^-$$,

 * $$S_{11} = \frac{b_1}{a_1} = \frac{V_1^-}{V_1^+}$$ and $$S_{21} = \frac{b_2}{a_1} = \frac{V_2^-}{V_1^+}\,$$.

Similarly, if port 1 is terminated in the system impedance then $$a_1\,$$ becomes zero, giving

 * $$S_{12} = \frac{b_1}{a_2} = \frac{V_1^-}{V_2^+}\,$$ and $$S_{22} = \frac{b_2}{a_2} = \frac{V_2^-}{V_2^+}\,$$

The 2-port S-parameters have the following generic descriptions:

 * $$S_{11}\,$$ is the input port voltage reflection coefficient
 * $$S_{12}\,$$ is the reverse voltage gain
 * $$S_{21}\,$$ is the forward voltage gain
 * $$S_{22}\,$$ is the output port voltage reflection coefficient.

If, instead of defining the voltage wave direction relative to each port, they are defined by their absolute direction as forward $$V^+$$ and reverse $$V^-$$ waves then $$b_2 = V_2^+$$ and $$a_1 = V_1^+$$. The S-parameters then take on a more intuitive meaning such as the forward voltage gain being defined by the ratio of the forward voltages $$S_{21} = V_2^-/V_1^+$$.

Using this, the above matrix may be expanded in a more practical way

 * $$V_1^-= S_{11}V_1^+ +S_{12}V_2^+\,$$
 * $$V_2^- = S_{21}V_1^+ +S_{22}V_2^+\,$$

S-parameter properties of 2-port networks
An amplifier operating under linear (small signal) conditions is a good example of a non-reciprocal network and a matched attenuator is an example of a reciprocal network. In the following cases we will assume that the input and output connections are to ports 1 and 2 respectively which is the most common convention. The nominal system impedance, frequency and any other factors which may influence the device, such as temperature, must also be specified.

Complex linear gain
The complex linear gain G is given by

 * $$G = S_{21} = \frac{b_2}{a_1}\,$$.

That is the linear ratio of the output reflected power wave divided by the input incident power wave, all values expressed as complex quantities. For lossy networks it is sub-unitary, for active networks $$ |G| > 1$$. It will be equal with the voltage gain only when the device has equal input and output impedances.

Scalar linear gain
The scalar linear gain (or linear gain magnitude) is given by

 * $$\left|G\right| = \left|S_{21}\right|\,$$.

This represents the gain magnitude (absolute value), the ratio of the output power-wave to the input power-wave, and it equals the square-root of the power gain. This is a real-value (or scalar) quantity, the phase information being dropped.

Scalar logarithmic gain
The scalar logarithmic (decibel or dB) expression for gain (g) is:

 * $$g = 20\log_{10}\left|S_{21}\right|\,$$ dB.

This is more commonly used than scalar linear gain and a positive quantity is normally understood as simply a "gain", while a negative quantity is a "negative gain" (a "loss"), equivalent to its magnitude in dB. For example, at 100 MHz, a 10 m length of cable may have a gain of −1 dB, equal to a loss of 1 dB.

Insertion loss
In case the two measurement ports use the same reference impedance, the insertion loss ($IL$) is the reciprocal of the magnitude of the transmission coefficient $|S_{21}|$ expressed in decibels. It is thus given by:

$$IL = 10\log_{10}\left| \frac{1}{S_{21}^2} \right| = - 20\log_{10} \left| S_{21}\right|\,$$ dB.

It is the extra loss produced by the introduction of the device under test (DUT) between the 2 reference planes of the measurement. The extra loss may be due to intrinsic loss in the DUT and/or mismatch. In case of extra loss the insertion loss is defined to be positive. The negative of insertion loss expressed in decibels is defined as insertion gain and is equal to the scalar logarithmic gain (see: definition above).

Input return loss
Input return loss ($RL_{in}$) can be thought of as a measure of how close the actual input impedance of the network is to the nominal system impedance value. Input return loss expressed in decibels is given by

 * $$RL_\mathrm{in} = 10\log_{10}\left| \frac{1}{S_{11}^2} \right| = - 20\log_{10} \left| S_{11}\right|\,$$ dB.

Note that for passive two-port networks in which $|S_{11}| ≤ 1$, it follows that return loss is a non-negative quantity: $RL_{in} ≥ 0$. Also note that somewhat confusingly, return loss is sometimes used as the negative of the quantity defined above, but this usage is, strictly speaking, incorrect based on the definition of loss.

Output return loss
The output return loss ($RL_{out}$) has a similar definition to the input return loss but applies to the output port (port 2) instead of the input port. It is given by

 * $$RL_\mathrm{out} = - 20\log_{10}\left|S_{22}\right|\,$$ dB.

Reverse gain and reverse isolation
The scalar logarithmic (decibel or dB) expression for reverse gain ($$g_\mathrm{rev}\,$$) is:

 * $$g_\mathrm{rev} = 20\log_{10}\left|S_{12}\right|\,$$ dB.

Often this will be expressed as reverse isolation ($$I_\mathrm{rev}\,$$) in which case it becomes a positive quantity equal to the magnitude of $$g_\mathrm{rev}\,$$ and the expression becomes:

 * $$I_\mathrm{rev} = \left|g_\mathrm{rev}\right|   = \left|20\log_{10}\left|S_{12}\right|\right|\,$$ dB.

Reflection coefficient
The reflection coefficient at the input port ($$\Gamma_\mathrm{in}\,$$) or at the output port ($$\Gamma_\mathrm{out}\,$$) are equivalent to $$S_{11}\,$$ and $$S_{22}\,$$ respectively, so

 * $$\Gamma_\mathrm{in} = S_{11}\,$$ and $$\Gamma_\mathrm{out} = S_{22}\,$$.

As $$S_{11}\,$$ and $$S_{22}\,$$ are complex quantities, so are $$\Gamma_\mathrm{in}\,$$ and $$\Gamma_\mathrm{out}\,$$.

The reflection coefficients are complex quantities and may be graphically represented on polar diagrams or Smith Charts

See also the Reflection Coefficient article.

Voltage standing wave ratio
The voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) at a port, represented by the lower case 's', is a similar measure of port match to return loss but is a scalar linear quantity, the ratio of the standing wave maximum voltage to the standing wave minimum voltage. It therefore relates to the magnitude of the voltage reflection coefficient and hence to the magnitude of either $$S_{11}\,$$ for the input port or $$S_{22}\,$$ for the output port.

At the input port, the VSWR ($$s_\mathrm{in}\,$$) is given by

 * $$s_\mathrm{in} = \frac{1+\left|S_{11}\right|}{1-\left|S_{11}\right|}\,$$

At the output port, the VSWR ($$s_\mathrm{out}\,$$) is given by

 * $$s_\mathrm{out} = \frac{1+\left|S_{22}\right|}{1-\left|S_{22}\right|}\,$$

This is correct for reflection coefficients with a magnitude no greater than unity, which is usually the case. A reflection coefficient with a magnitude greater than unity, such as in a tunnel diode amplifier, will result in a negative value for this expression. VSWR, however, from its definition, is always positive. A more correct expression for port k of a multiport is;

 * $$s_k = \frac{1+\left|S_{kk}\right|}{|1-\left|S_{kk}\right||}\,$$

4-port S-parameters
4 Port S Parameters are used to characterize 4 port networks. They include information regarding the reflected and incident power waves between the 4 ports of the network.

 * $$\begin{pmatrix}S_{11} & S_{12} & S_{13} & S_{14} \\ S_{21} & S_{22} & S_{23} & S_{24} \\ S_{31} & S_{32} & S_{33} & S_{34} \\ S_{41} & S_{42} & S_{43} & S_{44} \end{pmatrix} $$

They are commonly used to analyze a pair of coupled transmission lines to determine the amount of cross-talk between them, if they are driven by two separate single ended signals, or the reflected and incident power of a differential signal driven across them. Many specifications of high speed differential signals define a communication channel in terms of the 4-Port S-Parameters, for example the 10-Gigabit Attachment Unit Interface (XAUI), SATA, PCI-X, and InfiniBand systems.

4-port mixed-mode S-parameters
4-port mixed-mode S-parameters characterize a 4-port network in terms of the response of the network to common mode and differential stimulus signals. The following table displays the 4-port mixed-mode S-parameters.

Note the format of the parameter notation SXYab, where "S" stands for scattering parameter or S-parameter, "X" is the response mode (differential or common), "Y" is the stimulus mode (differential or common), "a" is the response (output) port and b is the stimulus (input) port. This is the typical nomenclature for scattering parameters.

The first quadrant is defined as the upper left 4 parameters describing the differential stimulus and differential response characteristics of the device under test. This is the actual mode of operation for most high-speed differential interconnects and is the quadrant that receives the most attention. It includes input differential return loss (SDD11), input differential insertion loss (SDD21), output differential return loss (SDD22) and output differential insertion loss (SDD12). Some benefits of differential signal processing are;
 * reduced electromagnetic interference susceptibility
 * reduction in electromagnetic radiation from balanced differential circuit
 * even order differential distortion products transformed to common mode signals
 * factor of two increase in voltage level relative to single-ended
 * rejection to common mode supply and ground noise encoding onto differential signal

The second and third quadrants are the upper right and lower left 4 parameters respectively. These are also referred to as the cross-mode quadrants. This is because they fully characterize any mode conversion occurring in the device under test, whether it is common-to-differential SDCab conversion (EMI susceptibility for an intended differential signal SDD transmission application) or differential-to-common SCDab conversion (EMI radiation for a differential application). Understanding mode conversion is very helpful when trying to optimize the design of interconnects for gigabit data throughput.

The fourth quadrant is the lower right 4 parameters and describes the performance characteristics of the common-mode signal SCCab propagating through the device under test. For a properly designed SDDab differential device there should be minimal common-mode output SCCab. However, the fourth quadrant common-mode response data is a measure of common-mode transmission response and used in a ratio with the differential transmission response to determine the network common-mode rejection. This common mode rejection is an important benefit of differential signal processing and can be reduced to one in some differential circuit implementations.

S-parameters in amplifier design
The reverse isolation parameter $$S_{12}\,$$ determines the level of feedback from the output of an amplifier to the input and therefore influences its stability (its tendency to refrain from oscillation) together with the forward gain $$S_{21}\,$$. An amplifier with input and output ports perfectly isolated from each other would have infinite scalar log magnitude isolation or the linear magnitude of $$S_{12}\,$$ would be zero. Such an amplifier is said to be unilateral. Most practical amplifiers though will have some finite isolation allowing the reflection coefficient 'seen' at the input to be influenced to some extent by the load connected on the output. An amplifier which is deliberately designed to have the smallest possible value of $$\left|S_{12}\right|\,$$ is often called a buffer amplifier.

Suppose the output port of a real (non-unilateral or bilateral) amplifier is connected to an arbitrary load with a reflection coefficient of $$\Gamma_{L}\,$$. The actual reflection coefficient 'seen' at the input port $$\Gamma_\mathrm{in}\,$$ will be given by

 * $$\Gamma_\mathrm{in} = S_{11} + \frac{S_{12}S_{21}\Gamma_L}{1-S_{22}\Gamma_L}\,$$.

If the amplifier is unilateral then $$S_{12} = 0\,$$ and $$\Gamma_\mathrm{in} = S_{11}\,$$ or, to put it another way, the output loading has no effect on the input.

A similar property exists in the opposite direction, in this case if $$\Gamma_\mathrm{out}\,$$ is the reflection coefficient seen at the output port and $$\Gamma_{s}\,$$ is the reflection coefficient of the source connected to the input port.

 * $$\Gamma_{out} = S_{22} + \frac{S_{12}S_{21}\Gamma_s}{1-S_{11}\Gamma_s}\,$$

Port loading conditions for an amplifier to be unconditionally stable
An amplifier is unconditionally stable if a load or source of any reflection coefficient can be connected without causing instability. This condition occurs if the magnitudes of the reflection coefficients at the source, load and the amplifier's input and output ports are simultaneously less than unity. An important requirement that is often overlooked is that the amplifier be a linear network with no poles in the right half plane. Instability can cause severe distortion of the amplifier's gain frequency response or, in the extreme, oscillation. To be unconditionally stable at the frequency of interest, an amplifier must satisfy the following 4 equations simultaneously:

 * $$\left|\Gamma_s\right| < 1\,$$

 * $$\left|\Gamma_L\right| < 1\,$$

 * $$\left|\Gamma_\mathrm{in}\right| < 1\,$$

 * $$\left|\Gamma_\mathrm{out}\right| < 1\,$$

The boundary condition for when each of these values is equal to unity may be represented by a circle drawn on the polar diagram representing the (complex) reflection coefficient, one for the input port and the other for the output port. Often these will be scaled as Smith Charts. In each case coordinates of the circle centre and the associated radius are given by the following equations:

$Γ_{L}$ values for $|Γ_{in}| = 1$ (output stability circle)
Radius $$r_L = \left| \frac{S_{12}S_{21}}{\left|S_{22}\right|^2 - \left|\Delta\right|^2} \right|.$$

Center $$c_L = \frac{(S_{22} - \Delta S_{11}^*)^*}{\left|S_{22}\right|^2 - \left|\Delta\right|^2}.$$

$Γ_{S}$ values for $|Γ_{out}| = 1$ (input stability circle)
Radius $$r_s = \left| \frac{S_{12} S_{21}}{|S_{11}|^2 - |\Delta|^2} \right|.$$

Center $$c_s = \frac{(S_{11} - \Delta S_{22}^*)^*}{|S_{11}|^2 - |\Delta|^2}.$$

In both cases

 * $$\Delta = S_{11} S_{22} - S_{12} S_{21},$$

and the superscript star (*) indicates a complex conjugate.

The circles are in complex units of reflection coefficient so may be drawn on impedance or admittance based Smith charts normalised to the system impedance. This serves to readily show the regions of normalised impedance (or admittance) for predicted unconditional stability. Another way of demonstrating unconditional stability is by means of the Rollett stability factor ($$K$$), defined as

 * $$K = \frac{1 - |S_{11}|^2 - |S_{22}|^2 + |\Delta|^2}{2 |S_{12} S_{21}|}.$$

The condition of unconditional stability is achieved when $$K > 1$$ and $$|\Delta| < 1.$$

Scattering transfer parameters
The Scattering transfer parameters or T-parameters of a 2-port network are expressed by the T-parameter matrix and are closely related to the corresponding S-parameter matrix. However, unlike S parameters, there is no simple physical means to measure the T parameters in a system, sometimes referred to as Youla waves. The T-parameter matrix is related to the incident and reflected normalised waves at each of the ports as follows:

 * $$\begin{pmatrix}b_1 \\ a_1 \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} T_{11} & T_{12} \\ T_{21} & T_{22} \end{pmatrix}\begin{pmatrix} a_2 \\ b_2 \end{pmatrix}\, $$

However, they could be defined differently, as follows :

 * $$\begin{pmatrix}a_1 \\ b_1 \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} T_{11} & T_{12} \\ T_{21} & T_{22} \end{pmatrix}\begin{pmatrix} b_2 \\ a_2 \end{pmatrix}\, $$

The RF Toolbox add-on to MATLAB and several books (for example "Network scattering parameters" ) use this last definition, so caution is necessary. The "From S to T" and "From T to S" paragraphs in this article are based on the first definition. Adaptation to the second definition is trivial (interchanging T 11 for T 22, and T 12 for T 21 ). The advantage of T-parameters compared to S-parameters is that providing reference impedances are purely, real or complex conjugate, they may be used to readily determine the effect of cascading 2 or more 2-port networks by simply multiplying the associated individual T-parameter matrices. If the T-parameters of say three different 2-port networks 1, 2 and 3 are $$\begin{pmatrix}T_1\end{pmatrix}\,$$, $$\begin{pmatrix}T_2\end{pmatrix}\,$$ and $$\begin{pmatrix}T_3\end{pmatrix}\,$$ respectively then the T-parameter matrix for the cascade of all three networks ($$\begin{pmatrix}T_T\end{pmatrix}\,$$) in serial order is given by:

 * $$\begin{pmatrix}T_T\end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix}T_1\end{pmatrix}\begin{pmatrix}T_2\end{pmatrix}\begin{pmatrix}T_3\end{pmatrix}\,$$

Note that matrix multiplication is not commutative, so the order is important. As with S-parameters, T-parameters are complex values and there is a direct conversion between the two types. Although the cascaded T-parameters is a simple matrix multiplication of the individual T-parameters, the conversion for each network's S-parameters to the corresponding T-parameters and the conversion of the cascaded T-parameters back to the equivalent cascaded S-parameters, which are usually required, is not trivial. However once the operation is completed, the complex full wave interactions between all ports in both directions will be taken into account. The following equations will provide conversion between S and T parameters for 2-port networks.

From S to T:

 * $$T_{11} = \frac{-\det \begin{pmatrix}S\end{pmatrix}}{S_{21}}\,$$

 * $$T_{12} = \frac{S_{11}}{S_{21}}\,$$

 * $$T_{21} = \frac{-S_{22}}{S_{21}}\,$$

 * $$T_{22} = \frac{1}{S_{21}}\,$$

Where $$\det \begin{pmatrix}S\end{pmatrix}\,$$ indicates the determinant of the matrix $$\begin{pmatrix}S\end{pmatrix}$$,
 * $$\det \begin{pmatrix}S\end{pmatrix}\ = S_{11} \cdot S_{22} - S_{12} \cdot S_{21}$$.

From T to S

 * $$S_{11} = \frac{T_{12}}{T_{22}}\,$$

 * $$S_{12} = \frac{\det \begin{pmatrix}T\end{pmatrix}}{T_{22}}\,$$

 * $$S_{21} = \frac{1}{T_{22}}\,$$

 * $$S_{22} = \frac{-T_{21}}{T_{22}}\,$$

Where $$\det \begin{pmatrix}T\end{pmatrix}\,$$ indicates the determinant of the matrix $$\begin{pmatrix}T\end{pmatrix}\,$$.
 * $$\det \begin{pmatrix}T\end{pmatrix}\ = T_{11}.T_{22}-T_{12}.T_{21},$$

1-port S-parameters
The S-parameter for a 1-port network is given by a simple 1 × 1 matrix of the form $$(s_{nn})\,$$ where n is the allocated port number. To comply with the S-parameter definition of linearity, this would normally be a passive load of some type. An antenna is a common one-port network for which small values of $$s_{11}$$ indicate that the antenna will either radiate or dissipate/store power.

Higher-order S-parameter matrices
Higher order S-parameters for pairs of dissimilar ports ($$S_{mn}\,$$), where $$m \ne \; n\,$$ may be deduced similarly to those for 2-port networks by considering pairs of ports in turn, in each case ensuring that all of the remaining (unused) ports are loaded with an impedance identical to the system impedance. In this way the incident power wave for each of the unused ports becomes zero yielding similar expressions to those obtained for the 2-port case. S-parameters relating to single ports only ($$S_{mm}\,$$) require all of the remaining ports to be loaded with an impedance identical to the system impedance therefore making all of the incident power waves zero except that for the port under consideration. In general therefore we have:

 * $$S_{mn} = \frac{b_m}{a_n}\,$$

and

 * $$S_{mm} = \frac{b_m}{a_m}\,$$

For example, a 3-port network such as a 2-way splitter would have the following S-parameter definitions
 * $$\begin{pmatrix}b_1 \\ b_2 \\ b_3 \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix}S_{11} & S_{12} & S_{13} \\ S_{21} & S_{22} & S_{23} \\ S_{31} & S_{32} & S_{33} \end{pmatrix}\begin{pmatrix} a_1 \\ a_2 \\ a_3 \end{pmatrix}\,$$

with
 * $$S_{11} = \frac{b_1}{a_1} = \frac{V_1^-}{V_1^+}\,$$ ; $$S_{12} = \frac{b_1}{a_2} = \frac{V_1^-}{V_2^+}\,$$ ; $$S_{13} = \frac{b_1}{a_3} = \frac{V_1^-}{V_3^+}\,$$

 * $$S_{21} = \frac{b_2}{a_1} = \frac{V_2^-}{V_1^+}\,$$ ; $$S_{22} = \frac{b_2}{a_2} = \frac{V_2^-}{V_2^+}\,$$ ; $$S_{23} = \frac{b_2}{a_3} = \frac{V_2^-}{V_3^+}\,$$

 * $$S_{31} = \frac{b_3}{a_1} = \frac{V_3^-}{V_1^+}\,$$ ; $$S_{32} = \frac{b_3}{a_2} = \frac{V_3^-}{V_2^+}\,$$ ; $$S_{33} = \frac{b_3}{a_3} = \frac{V_3^-}{V_3^+}\,$$

where $$S_{mn}$$ refers to the outgoing wave at port m induced by the incident wave at port n.

Measurement of S-parameters
S-parameters are most commonly measured with a vector network analyzer (VNA).

Output format of measured and corrected S-parameter data
The S-parameter test data may be provided in many alternative formats, for example: list, graphical (Smith chart or polar diagram).

List format
In list format the measured and corrected S-parameters are tabulated against frequency. The most common list format is known as Touchstone or SnP, where n is the number of ports. Commonly text files containing this information would have the filename extension '.s2p'.

Graphical (Smith chart)
Any 2-port S-parameter may be displayed on a Smith chart using polar co-ordinates, but the most meaningful would be $$S_{11}\,$$ and $$S_{22}\,$$ since either of these may be converted directly into an equivalent normalized impedance (or admittance) using the characteristic Smith Chart impedance (or admittance) scaling appropriate to the system impedance.

Graphical (polar diagram)
Any 2-port S-parameter may be displayed on a polar diagram using polar co-ordinates.

In either graphical format each S-parameter at a particular test frequency is displayed as a dot. If the measurement is a sweep across several frequencies a dot will appear for each.

Measuring S-parameters of a one-port network
The S-parameter matrix for a network with just one port will have just one element represented in the form $$S_{nn}\,$$, where n is the number allocated to the port. Most VNAs provide a simple one-port calibration capability for one port measurement to save time if that is all that is required.

Measuring S-parameters of networks with more than 2 ports
VNAs designed for the simultaneous measurement of the S-parameters of networks with more than two ports are feasible but quickly become prohibitively complex and expensive. Usually their purchase is not justified since the required measurements can be obtained using a standard 2-port calibrated VNA with extra measurements followed by the correct interpretation of the results obtained. The required S-parameter matrix can be assembled from successive two port measurements in stages, two ports at a time, on each occasion with the unused ports being terminated in high quality loads equal to the system impedance. One risk of this approach is that the return loss or VSWR of the loads themselves must be suitably specified to be as close as possible to a perfect 50 Ohms, or whatever the nominal system impedance is. For a network with many ports there may be a temptation, on grounds of cost, to inadequately specify the VSWRs of the loads. Some analysis will be necessary to determine what the worst acceptable VSWR of the loads will be.

Assuming that the extra loads are specified adequately, if necessary, two or more of the S-parameter subscripts are modified from those relating to the VNA (1 and 2 in the case considered above) to those relating to the network under test (1 to N, if N is the total number of DUT ports). For example, if the DUT has 5 ports and a two port VNA is connected with VNA port 1 to DUT port 3 and VNA port 2 to DUT port 5, the measured VNA results ($$S_{11}\,$$, $$S_{12}\,$$, $$S_{21}\,$$ and $$S_{22}\,$$) would be equivalent to $$S_{33}\,$$, $$S_{35}\,$$, $$S_{53}\,$$ and $$S_{55}\,$$ respectively, assuming that DUT ports 1, 2 and 4 were terminated in adequate 50 Ohm loads. This would provide 4 of the necessary 25 S-parameters.

title: Scattering parameters


text:
Rick Hurst

Richard Douglas Hurst (born January 1, 1946) is an American actor who portrayed Deputy Cletus Hogg, Boss Hogg's cousin, in the 1980 to 1983 seasons of The Dukes of Hazzard as well as The Dukes of Hazzard: Reunion! in 1997 and The Dukes of Hazzard: Hazzard in Hollywood in 2000.

He also starred as Earl, the chef in the short-lived Bea Arthur series Amanda's.

He appeared in many movies, including The Karate Kid Part III (1989) as the Announcer. He makes numerous appearances at various Dukes of Hazzard events and at Cooters in Nashville and Gatlinburg, Tennessee. He also has made appearances at The World Of Wheels in Birmingham, Alabama.

Family
His sons are actor Ryan Hurst, and Collin Hurst. He was married to Shelly Weir, the mother of Collin.

Filmography

 * The Doris Day Show (TV series) as Mechanic, episode "Happiness Is Not Being Fired" (1971)
 * Sanford and Son (TV series) as Police Officer, episode "The Piano Movers" (1972)
 * The Partridge Family (TV series) as Deputy Haynie, episode "M is for the Many Things" (1972)
 * Unholy Rollers (1972) as Mover
 * The Doris Day Show (TV series) as Herb, episode "Anniversary Gift" (1972)
 * To Hell You Preach (1972)
 * The Bob Newhart Show (1972-1978) as Maintenance Man, episode "Motel" (1973)
 * Love, American Style (TV series 1969-1974) on Season 4, Episode 14 (1973) and on Season 5, Episode 3 (1973)
 * Kung Fu (TV series 1972-1975) as Tubbs, episode "The Chalice" (1973)
 * Gunsmoke (TV series 1955-1975) as Mayhew, episode "Kitty's Love Affair" (1973)
 * Kojak (TV series 1973-1978) Crew Cut Hostage (as Richard Hurst), episode "Siege of Terror" (1973)
 * Executive Action (1973) as Used Car Salesman
 * The Girl with Something Extra (TV Series 1973-1974), episode "It's So Peaceful in the Country" (1973)
 * Happy Days (TV Series 1974-1984) as Cook, episode "All the Way" (1974)
 * Get Christie Love! (TV Movie 1974) as Sergeant Tom Farrell
 * It's Good to Be Alive (TV Movie 1974) as Ambulance Attendant
 * Little House on the Prairie (TV Series) as Jacob Jacobsen, episode "100 Mile Walk" (1974)
 * Paper Moon (TV Series 1974–1975), episode "The Manly Art" (1974)
 * The Six Million Dollar Man (TV Series 1974–1978) as Connors, episode "The Midas Touch" (1974)
 * Keep Off My Grass! (1975) as Grady Talbot
 * The Blue Knight (TV Series 1975–1976) as Detective Harriman, episode "Pilot" (1975)
 * W.W. and the Dixie Dancekings (1975) as Butterball
 * Tunnel Vision (1976) as Father
 * On the Rocks (TV Series 1975–1976) as Cleaver
 * M*A*S*H (TV Series 1972–1983) as Capt. Schaeffer, episode "Fade Out, Fade In" (1977)
 * The Legend of Frank Woods (1977) as Ace Starkey
 * Baretta (TV Series 1975–1978) as Charlie, episode "Lyman P. Dokker, Fed" (1977)
 * The Cat from Outer Space (1978) as Dydee Guard
 * M*A*S*H (TV Series 1972–1983) as Schaeffer, episode "Our Finest Hour" (1978)
 * From Here to Eternity (1979 TV Mini-Series) as Pfc. Hanson
 * Supertrain (1979 TV Series) as David, episode "Where Have You Been Billy Boy" (1979)
 * CHiPs (TV Series) as The Movie Director, episode "Death Watch"
 * Going Ape! (1981) as Brandon
 * The Dukes of Hazzard (TV Series 1979-1985) as Cletus, 47 episodes (1979-1982)
 * Amanda's (1983 TV Series) as Earl Nash, 13 episodes
 * Wildside (TV Series 1984) as Floyd Fussell, episode "Don't Keep the Home Fires Burning"
 * The Karate Kid (1984) as Announcer
 * Highway to Heaven (TV Series 1984-1989) as Burt Morgan, episode "Birds of a Feather" (1985)
 * The Last Precinct (TV Series 1986) as Albert the Ape, episode "Pilot"
 * Blue City (1986) as Redneck
 * Jackals (1986) as Harley
 * The Karate Kid Part II (1986) as Announcer
 * Starman (TV Series 1986-1987) as Charlie Ewing, episode "Blue Lights" (1986)
 * Sidekicks (TV Series 1986-1987) as Berglund, episode "The Boy Who Saw Too Much" (1987)
 * Earth Girls Are Easy (1988) as Joe the Cop
 * Murder, She Wrote (TV Series) as Police Chief Slocum, episode "Something Borrowed, Someone Blue" (1989)
 * The Karate Kid Part III (1989) as Announcer
 * Worth Winning (1989) as Big Bouncin' Bob
 * 227 (TV Series) as Bronco Bob, episodes "How the West Was Fun: Part 1" (1989) "How the West Was Fun": Part 2 (1989)
 * Steel Magnolias (1989) as Bark Boone
 * Perfect Strangers (TV Series 1986-1983) as Uncle Shaggy, episode "Digging Up the News" (1990)
 * The Wonder Years (TV Series 1988–1993) as Harry Detweiler, episode "Growing Up" (1990)
 * Good Grief (TV Series) as Buckaroo Bob, episode "Cub Scouts and Horses & Whiskers on Kittens" (1990)
 * Evening Shade (TV Series) as Nelson, episode "Something to Hold on To" (1990)
 * In the Line of Fire (1993) as Bartender
 * Family Matters (TV Series) as Santa, episode "Christmas Is Where the Heart Is" (1993)
 * Melrose Place (TV Series) as Sydney's Client, episode "Under the Mistletoe" (1993)
 * The John Larroquette Show (TV Series) as Richard, episode "In the Pink" (1995)
 * The Client (TV Series) as Officer Grindle, episode "Drive, He Said" (1995)
 * The Dukes of Hazzard: Reunion! (1997 TV Movie) as Deputy Cletus Hogg
 * Anywhere But Here (1999) as Reverend
 * Suckers (2001) as Texas Customer
 * The Dukes of Hazzard: Hazzard in Hollywood (2000 TV Movie) as Deputy Cletus Hogg
 * Venomous (2001) as Edgar Williams
 * The Guardian (TV Series) as Frank Churchill, episode "Ambition" (2003)
 * Return of the Killer Shrews (2012) as Harold Rook

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Rick Hurst


text:
St Mary's College, Oscott

St Mary's College in New Oscott, Birmingham, often called Oscott College, is the Roman Catholic seminary of the Archdiocese of Birmingham in England and one of the three seminaries of the Catholic Church in England and Wales.

Purpose
Oscott College admits students for the priesthood from various dioceses of England and Wales, as well as some students from overseas. The first three years of the academic programme are validated by the University of Birmingham as a BA in Fundamental Catholic Theology. Those who complete the six-year programme also obtain a Bachelor of Sacred Theology (STB) through affiliation with the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven.

Oscott College is also a centre for the formation of candidates for the permanent diaconate.

Old Oscott
The college was founded in Oscott, in present-day Great Barr, in 1794 for both the training of priests and the education of lay pupils. It developed out of a small mission founded by Fr Andrew Bromwich around 1687.

New Oscott
In 1838, the college moved to a new site, which came to be known as New Oscott (and the original site as "Old Oscott"). The Maryvale Institute remains on the original site. The new building was designed by Augustus Pugin and Joseph Potter at a cost of £40,000. It is grade II* listed. The college quickly became a symbol of the rebirth of the Catholic faith in England and played a prominent part in the life of the Church in the 19th century. In 1889, the college was closed, but reopened the following year as a seminary only.

21st Century
After the closure of St Cuthbert's College, Ushaw, Durham, in 2011, many of the dioceses in the province of Liverpool sent their students to Oscott to complete their training. This gave a boost in numbers at the college at a time when vocations seemed to be scarce.

Pope Benedict XVI visited on 19 September 2010 following the beatification, earlier that day in Birmingham's Cofton Park, of Cardinal Newman who stayed at the college in the late 1840s. During his visit to Oscott, Benedict met and had lunch with the Roman Catholic bishops of England, Scotland, and Wales. The Oscott visit was the last scheduled event during the four-day 2010 State Visit of Benedict to the UK. The Pope would later depart the UK from Birmingham Airport.

In 2023, the college hosted a seminar called "Rethink Abortion Day", led by prominent US-based activist anti-abortion groups. The seminar was based on building on the successes experienced by the Pro-Life movement in the United States and expanding their successes into the United Kingdom.

A national Eucharistic Congress for England and Wales is scheduled to take place at the college in September 2024.

Choral music
A CD of choral music, Sedes Sapientiae, performed by The Schola and recorded live in the college's chapel on 7 June 2008, was released by the college (cat. no. OSCOTTCD01).

Bishops

 * Francis Amherst (1819–1883), Bishop of Northampton.
 * Tomás Bryan Livermore (1824–1902), Bishop of Cartagena
 * Edward Bagshawe (1829–1915), Bishop of Nottingham.
 * Terence Brain (1938–), Bishop of Salford.
 * Kevin Dunn (1950–2008), Bishop of Hexham and Newcastle.
 * William Lee (1875–1948), Bishop of Clifton.
 * Leo McCartie (1925–2020), Bishop of Northampton.
 * David McGough (1944-), Auxiliary Bishop of Birmingham.
 * James McGuinness (1925–2007), Bishop of Nottingham.
 * Robert Willson (1794–1866), Bishop of Hobart.
 * David Oakley (1955), Bishop of Northampton

Priests

 * William Francis Barry (1849–1930), writer.
 * Frederick Charles Husenbeth (1796–1872), writer.
 * Henry Weedall (1788–1859), educator.
 * William Purcell Witcutt (c.1910–c.1970), author.

Laity

 * John Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton (1834–1902).
 * George Ashlin (1837–1921), architect.
 * John Ball (1818–1889), Irish politician and naturalist.
 * Wilfrid Scawen Blunt (1840–1922), poet.
 * Thomas Henry Burke (1829–1882), Permanent Under Secretary at the Irish Office.
 * John Cornwell (1940–), writer.
 * Charles Kent (1823–1902), journalist and editor.
 * Edmund Kirby (1838–1920), architect.
 * Nicholas Lash (1934–2020), theologian.
 * Ernest Law (1854–1930), historian and barrister.
 * Edwin de Lisle MP (1852–1920), politician.
 * St. George Jackson Mivart (1827–1900), biologist.
 * George Moore (1852–1933), novelist.
 * Francis Loraine Petre (1852–1925), civil servant and military historian.
 * Thomas Nicholas Redington (1815–1862), Irish political administrator.
 * Frederick Rolfe, also known as Baron Corvo (1860–1913), writer and artist.
 * Joseph Stevenson (1806–1895), archivist and editor.
 * Gerald Strickland, 1st Baron Strickland (1861–1940), Prime Minister of Malta.
 * Charles Towneley (1803–1876) and his younger brother John (1806–1878), both were MPs, officers in the 5th Royal Lancashire Militia and trustees of the British Museum.

Former presidents and rectors
Presidents

 * 1794–1808 John Bew
 * 1808–15 Thomas Potts
 * 1816–18 John Francis Quick
 * 1818–25 Thomas Walsh
 * 1825–40 Henry Weedall
 * 1840–47 Nicholas Wiseman
 * 1847–48 Henry F.C. Logan
 * 1848–53 John Moore
 * 1853–59 Henry Weedall
 * 1859–60 George Morgan
 * 1860–77 James Spencer Northcote
 * 1877–80 John Hawksford
 * 1880–84 Edward Acton
 * 1885 Joseph Henry Souter

Rectors

 * 1885–90 Joseph Henry Souter
 * 1890–96 Edward Ilsley
 * 1896–1924 Henry Parkinson
 * 1924–29 Charles Cronin
 * 1929–35 James Dey
 * 1935–61 Leonard Emery
 * 1961–68 Richard Foster
 * 1968–79 Francis Thomas
 * 1979–84 Patrick Kelly
 * 1984–89 Michael Kirkham
 * 1989–98 Patrick McKinney
 * 1998–2001 Kevin McDonald
 * 2001–13 Mark Crisp
 * 2013–20 David Oakley
 * 2020–21 Giles Goward
 * 2021-Present: Fr Michael Dolman

title: St Mary's College, Oscott


text:
Rowland Rivron

Rowland John Rivron (born 28 September 1958) is a British writer, comedic actor and television personality.

Early career
Rivron played the comic character "Dr Martin Scrote" on the Jonathan Ross chat show The Last Resort, and also played Scrote on Night Network's Bunker Show. This became a series for Channel 4 called Set of Six about Scrote and his brothers. In 1989 he and Jools Holland starred in The Groovy Fellers. In the early 1990s he presented his own chat show, Rivron, in which Rivron, his guests and the entire set floated in the River Thames. He also made an appearance in the children's schools series Cats' Eyes.

Music
Rivron played drums on Fat Les's 1998 single "Vindaloo". As one half of the band "Raw Sex" (with Simon Brint) he also featured regularly on BBC TV's French and Saunders show.

Rivron featured on drums in the "Sophisticated Fool" song and "All We've Got To Do Is..." song from A Bit of Fry and Laurie, also on BBC TV. He was a contributing writer to Rhythm, a UK drumming magazine, and is a regular guest on Jools Holland's BBC shows, in which he once demonstrated a square snare drum made by Robert Daniels. Rivron appeared on the children's TV programme Blue Peter at age 15, playing the drums.

For eighteen months Rivron drummed for Jools Holland's Rhythm and Blues Orchestra. He later played with the Idiot Bastard Band, with Adrian Edmondson, Phill Jupitus, Simon Brint, and Neil Innes.

Presenting
Rivron regularly presented television shows such as Holiday and Summer Holiday. Rowland Rivron presented the comedy BBC Radio 2 shows Jammin' and Radio Rivron, and starred in the Channel 5 programme Trust Me - I'm A Holiday Rep. He also co-presented the Saturday breakfast show on BBC London 94.9.

Rivron also appeared on Richard & Judy's New Position as the celebrity barman. He also presented the video to promote One Foot in the Grave for the title of BBC Britain's Best Sitcom in 2004.

Game shows
Rivron acted as a team captain on Question of TV on BBC One, and was a panellist on the first episode of Shooting Stars on BBC Two. A special celebrity edition of the show "Incredible Games" was broadcast at the end of its first season with Philippa Forrester and Keith Chegwin appearing alongside Rivron as the contestants in place of the usual kids taking part (who were shown to be tied up before the games started). In 2004 he hosted the short-lived regional gameshow The Price of Fish, starring local commercial radio presenters. The gameshow was filmed at The Talk venue in Norwich and shown only in the Anglia TV region. In 2006 Rivron was part of Channel 4's Come Dine with Me. He was the first celebrity to be voted out on 2007's edition of Comic Relief Does Fame Academy.

In 2012, Rivron was a contestant on Let's Dance for Sport Relief with his take on the Fatboy Slim music video Weapon of Choice, winning his heat and going straight through to the live final on Sport Relief, which he went on to win on 17 March 2012.

On 1 December 2012, he took part in an episode of Pointless Celebrities on BBC One, as well as a Sport Relief special on 21 March 2014, paired with Mark Durden-Smith.

Acting
In 1984, Rivron appeared in the episode "Cash" of The Young Ones. In 1994 he starred in the improvised comedy film There's No Business..., and in the BBC children's science programme Cats' Eyes: in 2005 he appeared in the BBC One sitcom Blessed. In 1990 he appeared as the main characters – the six Scrote brothers – in Set of Six (TV series).

Activism
In October 2007, Rivron "waded into an unholy row" over plans for a mobile phone mast planned for the tower of his local church in North London. After joining the mass protest, he explained: "It's not really needed... In the Good Book they turned water into wine and now they're turning masts into misery". Fellow campaigner Paul Barnard commenting: "We were very grateful to Rowland Rivron for his support and he managed to cheer people up with his quips and jokes".

Personal life
Rivron was born in Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire, and brought up in Hillingdon, and attended Abbotsfield Secondary School. He has two brothers, Richard and Raymond.

He and his wife Monica (née Appleby), have three children and two dogs. The couple are avid caravanners, and Monica is the author of The Caravan Cookbook.

title: Rowland Rivron


text:
The Runelords

The Runelords is a series of fantasy novels by American author David Farland (1957 – 2022) of which the first part was published in 1998. In the universe of The Runelords, there exists a unique magical system which relies on the existence of distinct bodily attributes, such as brawn, grace, and wit. These attributes can be transferred from one individual (or animal) to another in a process known as "giving an endowment". Lords who have taken many endowments become extremely powerful, almost superhuman, and are known as Runelords.

The Sum of All Men
Seeking the hand of the Princess Iome Sylvarresta, Prince Gaborn Val Orden is sidetracked when the Wolf Lord Raj Ahten invades the Kingdom of Heredon, seeking to rule all of Rofehavan.

Brotherhood of the Wolf
Raj Ahten and the forces of Rofehavan strike an uneasy alliance as they join forces to battle a Reaver invasion at the walled city of Carris.

Wizardborn
Following the Battle of Carris, Gaborn leads the troops of Rofehavan against the fleeing Reaver horde, while Raj Ahten returns to Indhopal to protect his own kingdom from a separate Reaver invasion.

The Lair of Bones
Gaborn Val Orden leads an expedition into the heart of the underworld to confront the One True Master of the Reavers, to decide in battle the fate of mankind and of the Earth itself.

Sons of the Oak
Nine years after the events of The Lair of Bones, Gaborn the Earth King finally succumbs to old age and passes on. In his wake, enemies of the Earth try to take control of the land, and Gaborn's eldest son Fallion, still only a child, must fight to protect his kingdom and his family.

Worldbinder
The sixth book of The Runelords was released in the US on 21 September 2007.

Fallion returns to Mystarria and is tricked into combining his world with another, when he tries to restore a sapling of the 'One True Tree' which has been cursed by Lady Despair. Areth Sul Urstone, the mirror world incarnation of Fallion's father, Gaborn val Orden, is being held captive in the wyrmling lair, with Lady Despair eventually taking human form by using Areth as her host.

The Wyrmling Horde
The seventh book in the series was released on 16 September 2008.

Lord/Lady Despair tortures Fallion through many dedicates with a rune of compassion. Both sides vie for possession of the mountains of blood metal available on the combined world. Despair begins to accumulate new and evil accomplices from other worlds. Rhianna saves Fallion and the 'rescue party' by bypassing Despair's new found "Earth Sense", by not harming any wyrmlings during the rescue. Despair has 'Chosen' Fallion, and knows his whereabouts at all times. Vulgnash the death lord is sent by Despair to retrieve Fallion, and is confronted by the Wizard Sisel, who makes Vulgnash mortal and human rather than killing him. Fallion returns with Vulgnash to Despair in the wyrmling lair.

Chaosbound
The eighth book in the series was released on 13 October 2009.

Borenson and Myrrima arrive back from Landesfallen following the binding of the worlds, at Ox Port, where they are hunted by the wyrmlings, but surreptitiously helped and protected by the local wyrmling leader, Crull-maldor, who hopes to aid Borenson/Aaath Ulber in his prophesied destruction of the emperor Zul-Torac, clearing the way for Crull-maldor to replace him as Lord Despair's side. The wight exacts vengeance on Borenson/Aaath Ulber after his successful, endowment aided, destruction of the wyrmling forces and lair, by murdering Myrrima.

Legends and history
The universe of The Runelords is well fleshed out, populated by diverse beings, with rich backstories that assist the understanding of the events as described in the books.

Daylan Hammer – The Sum of All Men
There is a legend about the "Sum of All Men", a man with so many endowments and so beloved by the people that he became immortal and retained all of his endowments even after the deaths of his Dedicates. The strengths of the people supposedly flowed to him unrestrained, somehow without draining the dedicates themselves of the attributes. The books refer to Daylan of the Black Hammer as the Sum of All Men, although in the sixth novel it is revealed that Daylan is in fact a Bright One from the Netherworld, rather than a mortal man with many endowments. It is also revealed that Daylan has a mere four endowments of Brawn, in stark contrast to the legends which claim he has a huge number. Daylan himself claims to have started these legends, though his purpose for doing so has not been revealed.

The Earth King
Like the Sum of All Men, the Earth King is a legendary figure among all cultures. The first human Earth King, for there have been Earth Kings of many races, was a man named Erden Geboren, who united humanity using wizardly powers granted to him by the god-like force of Earth to protect his followers from the Toth and reavers. The Toth were eliminated, but the reavers survived. Geboren's nation was eventually split up after his death, and the royal families of most human nations are directly descended from his most trusted lieutenants and related to Geboren through intermarriage. It has become common for small, homemade dolls and icons of the Earth King to be placed at doorways during Hostenfest, an annual harvest festival, to invite the power and blessings of the Earth King into one's home.

The Earth King is commonly given immense power in magics wielded by the Earth Wardens, the common wizards of the Earth. He can sleep buried under soil and commune with the Earth in his dreams or may be granted the knowledge of previously unknown runes and spells. Earth Kings are also known to have the magical "Earth Sight," a gift which they can use to see across long distances or into the minds and souls of other people. Using this Earth Sight, they can judge who is worthy to save, and can Choose people. The Earth Kings sense danger approaching their Chosen, though do not know specifics, and can send telepathic warnings or other messages to their Chosen. The death of a Chosen is very painful to an Earth King. Legends say that Erden Geboren died without a single wound upon his body but with a heart broken from the swift deaths of many of his Chosen.

Races and groups
The Runelords universe has a number of races and groups:

Duskin
Very little is revealed about the Duskin in the course of the series, though it is known they were great Earth-wizards and craftsmen. The Duskin were smaller than humans but bore a general resemblance to human shape, having the same number of limbs and being bipeds. Duskin dwelt beneath the surface of the earth, but in caverns much closer to the surface then their ancient rivals, the Reavers.

Humans
Humans are the dominant species of the surface world. They are identical to real humans, except they are not the first or only intelligent race to arise in the world. Humanity's survival has been placed at risk many times, just as other dominant species have been eliminated in the past.

Humans reside mainly upon one continent, though more exist throughout the world. They are divided principally into the Rofehavanish, the Indhopalese, and the Inkarrans. They have produced wizards of all kinds, while many other species only have one or two different kinds of wizards. Individually, a single human might have slim to no chance of standing against the monstrous might of creatures such as the Reavers. However, in numbers and through the magical granting of endowments, humans have learned to consolidate their strength and stand against other species that could otherwise destroy them. They are also the most technologically advanced of the extant species.

Reavers
Reavers are a massive species of subterranean creatures which bear no resemblance to any surface-dwelling creature. Reavers are somewhat like insects, communicating through scents and having various "castes" which perform different functions within their "hives", though they do not have a collective intelligence. They are unchallenged masters of the Underworld.

Reavers are incredibly hard to kill due to their vast size, armor-like skin and crystalline bones. The best way to slay a Reaver is to attack its brain through the mouth or the "sweet triangle", an area on the back of the Reaver's head where its bone-plates do not quite meet.

Toth
The Toth are an extinct race of sorcerers that were thought to be in some way related to the Reavers, though they were more vaguely humanoid and significantly smaller. The Toth were an expansionistic race and were slain by King Fallion of Mystarria when he led the massed armies of humanity across the Caroll Sea to the Toth homeland. The only surviving Toth take the form of wights, deadly ghost-like spirits which dwell in dangerous, wild places and bring icy death with their touch. Generally only Toth sorcerers remain as wights, their spirits presumably having been stronger than their non-magical fellows.

Nomen
Nomen are black-coated shaggy creatures that lumber on all fours in preference to an upright gait. They are crafty nocturnal hunters who prefer small packs to seeking prey alone. Their hands are clawed, and their eyes are red and seemingly glow in the dark. Nomen will drop on unwary travelers from a forest canopy rather than attempt a direct confrontation. They use basic weapons, favoring the spear most of all. Nomen can be found in the Dunwood and are said to inhabit the Hest Mountains beyond Inkarra in great numbers. In the distant past, they came north and invaded, but were slaughtered and their numbers greatly reduced.

Frowth Giants
Frowth giants are extremely large, standing roughly twenty feet tall and eight feet wide at the shoulders. They are covered in a matted yellow fur, and their faces are dominated by a long snout. Their huge size and strength makes them useful in labor and in combat. Frowth giants sometimes wear armor, and they carry huge iron-bound staves as weapons. With sharp teeth, they will kill or eat carrion if it is available. They have a limited ability for speech.

Ferrin
Ferrin are small, ratlike humanoids who live across the temperate world. Some live out in the wild, foraging for food and protecting their warrens, while many others live in human cities. Those who live in human cities often filch food and hunt rats. Most consider them a minor nuisance at best and vermin to be exterminated at worst. They are somewhat intelligent, though not as intelligent as humans. They have a very basic language and understand clothing and tools, including simple weapons.

The Days
The Days are an ancient order of historians whose goal is to follow and observe Kings and Runelords in order to record their actions for future generations. Each Days records the events of their charge via a mind link with another of their order, created by exchanging an endowment of Wit with another Days. The Days serve beings known simply as the Time Lords, although little has been discovered about these Time Lords as of yet.

While one Days follows their Lord, their counterpart lives in a monastery-type environment in the far north of Orwynne, kept away from anything other than their principal purpose, to compile the life journal of their chosen Runelord. The power of the Days order comes from knowing that at any given time they can find out what is happening to any particular noble at any place in the world. Therefore, should they wish to, the Days could influence events on a kingdom-wide scale. However, their service is completely focused upon observation, with a strict policy of noninterference – even in the face of cataclysmic war they would not act to save millions, nor would a Days stop to save a single drowning person. Rumors and legends abound, though, of some Days or another betraying his vows of noninterference and sharing knowledge with his lord. They also seem to use their knowledge to tear down lords who attempt to drive them away, sharing the lord's plans and secrets with his enemies.

The Days are easily identifiable by their simple brown robes.

Knights Equitable
The Knights Equitable are an order of knights and force soldiers who have forsworn their loyalties to their kings and lords. Instead, they organize in a loose brotherhood under a High Marshal, and hold themselves to a general devotion to eliminate Wolf Lords and evil from the world. No man in the Knights Equitable is a "lord" to another in the order, though they do have ranks, which anyone may advance through by merit, not birth. Skalbairn was the High Marshal of the Knights Equitable through the Earth King series, and as their leader holds as much military power as some kings. They are also known as the Righteous Horde.

Wights
Wights are the spirits of the dead, often human, Duskin, or Toth. Many hide in wild, out-of-the-way places away from the sight of humans. Some, such as the Duskin and human wights of the Dunnwood, are largely harmless. Others, like the Toth wights in the bogs in the south of Mystarria, loathe humans and do not hesitate to attack them. The chill touch of a wight is a slow and painful death.

Existence as a wight provides something of a "living" afterlife upon the world. Many people of Rofehavan, as long as they love the land, may become one of the wights of the Dunnwood upon their death, reunited with lost loved ones.

Netherworld creatures
Several important creatures come from the Netherworld. They are intensely magical beings, of great power far surpassing anything in the normal world. Bright Ones are inhabitants of the Netherworld and are much mightier and wiser than mortal men. Glories are angelic beings of light, air, and fire that occasionally fight alongside humans, whereas Darkling Glories are Glories that serve destruction and evil. Loci are malevolent spirits which can possess the bodies of other beings.

Countries
The human world of the Runelords is divided up into the three realms of Rofehavan, Inkarra, and Indhopal. Rofehavan, which dominates the northern half of the continent, is most like medieval Europe in culture. Indhopal, which takes up most of the southern half of the continent, is much like the historical Middle East, though with a wide variety of societies in the region. Readers see the least of Inkarra, a land hidden behind the Alcair Mountains to the east of Indhopal and south of Rofehavan. Inkarra is most similar to the Congo region of Africa, with jungles, exotic creatures, and humans that are seen as separate from the others (just as Africans were viewed as separate by both Middle Easterns and Europeans)

Rofehavan
The nations of Rofehavan are as follows:
 * Alnick
 * Ashoven
 * Beldinook – ruled by King Lowicker
 * Eyremoth
 * Fleeds – a nation of plains, known for its fine, fast horses and nomadic clans, though perhaps the poorest nation of Rofehavan
 * Haversind-by-the-Sea – an island nation off the east coast of the mainland, in the Caroll Sea
 * Heredon – ruled by King Jas Laren Sylvarresta and Queen Venetta Moshan Sylvarresta; Heredon steel is some of the best in Rofehavan
 * Internook – an island nation off the north coast of the mainland
 * Lonnock
 * Lysle – ruled by an upper class of merchant princes who win their station as much through wealth as anything else
 * Mystarria – one of the richest and largest nations of Rofehavan, ruled by King Mandellas Draken Orden; known for its many Water Wizards and for the House of Understanding.
 * North Crowthen
 * Orwynne
 * Seward
 * South Crowthen – ruled by King Anders
 * Toom

Indhopal
Indhopal dominates the southwest third of the continent, and much of it is known for its arid deserts. Other parts of Indhopal are rich and lush, covered in tropical rainforests. Raj Ahten has conquered all of Indhopal by the time the Runelords begins. The nations of Indhopal are as follows:
 * Aven
 * Bina
 * Deyazz
 * Dharmad
 * Hawat
 * Kartish – the farthest southern nation of Indhopal, known for its extremely rich blood metal mines
 * Khuram
 * Linah
 * Muttaya
 * Muyyatin
 * Old Indhopal – the mightiest nation of the region, after which the region was named; the first nation Raj Ahten took rulership of
 * Taif
 * Tuulistan
 * Umarish

Inkarra
On maps a united realm, Inkarra is rife with kings great and small who constantly scheme for power and place. The greatest is the Storm King Zandaros, both the High King of Inkarra and perhaps the mightiest human Air Wizard. As High King, all other kings of Inkarra must pay tribute to Zandaros. The Inkarrans despise the Rofehavanish, who they call the Dayborn, considering them to be utter barbarians.

The border between Mystarria and Inkarra is a closed one, as some sixty years before, criminals and assassins crept across the border. Three such assassins were captured and executed outright, their bodies sent home as warning. Zandaros protested the executions and insulted the Mystarrians, and so a response was sent by skyrider that if the Inkarrans would not patrol the border and catch their own criminals, Mystarria could not be blamed for doing so themselves. Zandaros's own response to this message was to send the child skyrider's head back in a sack. Ever since, Rofehavanish from Mystarria have been forbidden to enter Inkarra on penalty of death, and Mystarria has forbidden any Inkarrans from ever entering the nation. Most other nations of Rofehavan tolerate Inkarran traders and traveling performers.

The Inkarrans call themselves the "Night Children" in their own language. They are a closely related offshoot of humanity, one that has become nocturnal. Skin and hair is often solid white, as are their "ice white" eyes, which can see perfectly in near total darkness. There are more than a few halfbreeds amongst the Inkarrans, called kutasarri in their language, who are often shunned because of their "Dayborn" appearance and night-blind eyes.

Major characters

 * Gaborn Val Orden – Prince of the Kingdom of Mystarria and the main character of the series.
 * Raj Ahten – Often referred to as the Wolf Lord, King of all Indhopal. Raj Ahten has taken thousands of endowments making him an exceptionally powerful Runelord.
 * Iome Sylvarresta – Princess of Heredon. Iome is Gaborn's love interest, is ever at Gaborn's side, and helps him in whatever ways possible throughout the novels.
 * Ivarian Borenson – A powerful, skilled, and fierce warrior with red hair, bodyguard to Prince Gaborn Val Orden.
 * Binnesman – An herbalist, wizard, and Earth Warden, Binnesman is first an advisor to King Sylvarresta and later to Gaborn Val Orden. Binnesman's goal is to protect mankind from extinction.
 * Myrrima – A young woman who serves Gaborn Val Orden, wife of Ivarian Borenson.
 * Averan – A young messenger and skyrider.
 * Erin Connall – A young horsewoman of Fleeds, a powerful warrior.
 * Prince Celinor – Son of King Anders of South Crowthen.

Second series characters

 * Fallion Orden – Oldest son of Gaborn Val Orden.
 * Jaz Orden – Youngest son of Gaborn Val Orden.
 * Rhianna Connall – Daughter of Erin Connall.
 * Talon Borenson – Daughter of Ivarian Borenson.

Minor characters

 * King Jas Laren Sylvarresta – King of Heredon at the beginning of The Runelords.
 * King Mendellas Draken Orden – King of Mystarria at the beginning of The Runelords.
 * King Anders – King of South Crowthen.
 * Feykaald – An advisor of Raj Ahten's.
 * Jureem – An advisor of Raj Ahten's, devoted to serving.
 * Roland Borenson – Father of Ivarian Borenson, who gave an endowment of metabolism to King Mendellas Draken Orden.
 * Baron Poll – A fat lord forbidden from knowingly being within fifty leagues of Ivarian Borenson, due to a great feud between them in their youth.
 * Spring – Binnesman's wylde, mighty and born in the shape of a beautiful woman.
 * Saffira – Raj Ahten's favored consort in his harem, endowed with a glamour for each time Raj Ahten had lain with her, making her devastatingly beautiful.
 * Skalbairn – High Marshal of the Knights Equitable.
 * Duke Paldane – "The Huntsman," part of the Orden royal family and right-hand man to King Mendellas Orden, master of Carris and most of Mystarria's armies, Gaborn's uncle.
 * Chemoise Solette – Iome's Maid of Honor; her father was a Knight Equitable who was captured by one of Raj Ahten's guards and forced to grant an endowment of grace.
 * Storm King Aelgyr coly Zandaros – The High King of Inkarra and a mighty Air Wizard.
 * Waggitt – A simpleton who slew a number of reavers at the great battle at Carris and was rewarded with an endowment of wit for his deeds, to make him the equal of any other man.
 * Wuqaz Faharaqin – Leader of the Ah’kellah, he is a great warrior who was once in Raj Ahten's service. After Raj Ahten kills his nephew at Carris, Wuqaz swears revenge.
 * Sarka Kaul – Days to the petty Inkarran king Criomethes, increasingly dissatisfied with his order's unbending policy of noninterference.

Magic
The world of the Runelords has two major forms of magic, both based upon runes of power: elemental magic, and endowments. Wizards wield the elemental magics (air, earth, fire, and water), while anyone who knows the proper chants and songs (and uses them along with a rod called a "forcible", made of a particular special metal called "blood metal") can use the magic required to grant endowments.

Runes
Most works of magic require the use of runes. These symbols each carry power, some greater than others. Common people can use some of them to minor effect, though they are most powerful when created by wizards. For instance, anyone may draw runes of strength to make a stone keep durable, but those same runes drawn by a wizard will protect a fortress's walls for centuries.

Endowments
The main magical system of the series relies on a system of "endowments"—transferring attributes which are inherent to every living creature. These attributes are transferable to and from both man and animal. (Attributes can even be transferred between members of different species; so, for example, brawn or the sense of smell from a dog can be transferred to a man.) Once an individual gives an attribute to another, the giver (called a "dedicate") loses that particular attribute until the death of the recipient; and if the recipient dies, the attribute returns to the giver once again. Each person can only give one endowment in their lifetime. Attributes which can be endowed upon another include brawn (physical strength), grace (physical dexterity), wit (memory and clearness of thought), metabolism (speed at which the body's processes operate), glamour (physical beauty), voice (both volume and persuasiveness), stamina, sight, hearing, smell, touch, taste, talent, will (strength of will), bloodlust, and pain. Talent and will are more difficult to transfer and the means to do so are only known by the Inkarrans. Endowments of bloodlust and pain are perverse in nature and were devised by the one true master of evil to strengthen her troops and torture the humans, specifically Fallion.

How Endowment works
Endowments are transferred with special tools, called forcibles. A forcible is a rod cast of a rare material called blood metal, with its tip shaped with the rune corresponding to the endowment to be transferred. Files and other tools can be used to refine the shape of the cast rune any time after casting. The finished forcible resembles more than anything a small branding iron. The method of creating forcibles, and the supervision of their creation, is part of the duties of a special class of magician called a facilitator. When the forcible is ready, the facilitator invokes its power, which causes the instrument to glow. The facilitator touches the forcible to the dedicate, who experiences a brief burst of excruciating pain as they are branded. The instrument glows more brightly, and leaves trails of light when moved through the air. An expert facilitator can tell whether the endowment worked properly by examining the forcible and the light trails. If satisfied, he touches the instrument to the recipient, who receives the attribute along with a feeling of ecstasy and is also branded with the rune. The dedicate experiences the corresponding loss of that attribute. The forcible's virtue is expended by this process, and the forcible and its metal may not be reused.

Dedicates
A dedicate must give up his attribute willingly; the simple act of touching him with a forcible is not enough. However, unscrupulous Runelords can threaten a potential dedicate's friends and family to force cooperation. Some also purchase endowments; poor folk will sometimes become dedicates to gain that money for themselves or their families. Dedicates are normally selected from individuals whose attributes are strong; one selects a strong man to dedicate his brawn, a person with excellent vision to dedicate sight, and so forth.

Special characteristics of certain Endowments

 * Not all attributes are alike; five are known as "greater endowments" which, with the exception of metabolism, can be deadly to give. They include brawn, grace, stamina, and wit. A man who gives strength might die because his heart no longer has the strength to beat, a man who gives "wit" in fact only gives the use of his memory, not his less tangible cerebral qualities such as reasoning or intuition. Despite this, a person who gives wit loses more than just their memory, they can die because they "forget" (how?) to breathe. Deaths after giving grace and stamina are less abrupt but all the more disturbing for that reason. A dancer who gives grace can find it difficult to even breathe and will likely be unable to eat anything but weak broth until either they or the recipient of their grace lives. With stamina any illness or injury they have when they give their stamina will never heal. They are like immuno-compromised chemotherapy patients and are liable to die from the slightest illness or injury. Metabolism is one of the least onerous endowments to give and the only greater endowment that will not risk the a pregnant woman's unborn child. The giver will generally fall in to a kind of suspended animation, no longer aging and needing only the barest of attention (perhaps none save a little water) to care for
 * Individuals must be careful that their physical endowments, such as brawn and stamina, are balanced. For example a warrior can't take more than a handful of endowments of metabolism as the increased speed of movement and thought is not always matched by an increase in the speed of the liver and kidneys. To give many endowments of metabolism two endowments of stamina must be given for each one of metabolism. It should also be noted that while strength and stamina may increase the strength of bones and toughness of the skin is unchanged and so a man with many endowments of brawn may be strong enough to lift a horse but it might tear his body apart to try. Stamina is also required for those who have many endowments of sight (far seer's) lest the sun blind them in the day.

A balance of endowments will usually make for a better (more deadly) force soldier. A warrior with 10 endowments each of brawn, grace, stamina, and wit but no metabolism will be helpless against an opponent who has just 3 each of the greater endowments, including metabolism, as they will be unable to react to a lethal strike in time to defend themselves. The most cause of imbalance is the death of one or more dedicates, resulting in the loss of their attributes. Such individuals are sometimes referred to as "warriors of unfortunate proportion."
 * Individuals endowed with metabolism move faster than ordinary men, but they pay a price: they age at the same proportion. A dedicate who provides metabolism sleeps until his lord dies, not aging at all. A dedicate who gives up metabolism requires virtually no caring for at all, other than a cat or rat terrier in the vicinity to ensure that the mice don't eat the flesh of the comatose dedicate.
 * Individuals with large numbers of glamour and voice endowments can become so beautiful and so persuasive that men will obey them even when they know rationally that it is a poor idea.
 * Two individuals who endow each other with wit become mentally linked. This is the basis of the Days' power. An individual endowed with wit learns much faster and remembers more than other men, but if his dedicates of wit die, then much of this knowledge disappears, as those memories are in fact stored in the others' brain(s). If he later receives additional endowments of wit, he must relearn what he once knew.

Vectoring Endowments
A dedicate can "vector" endowments, and is also thereafter referred to as "a vector" themselves. That is, they can receive one or more endowments of one particular attribute, and then dedicate that same attribute to another, who benefits from the endowment supplied by the vector and those supplied by all of that individual's dedicates. Each endowment requires space on the skin for the rune branded by the forcible; runelords who intend to acquire hundreds of endowments (such as Raj Ahten) must have them vectored from others because there isn't sufficient room on their bodies otherwise. There is also one other benefit to using a vector to gain endowments through them. A person with a dedicate also receives all endowments of the type vectored to them which are given to that same dedicate later; and, this happens regardless of the distance between the vector and the runelord. So, a runelord can receive an endowment from a person, leave, and at any time and distance, receive more endowments through that dedicate. In this way, facilitators can continue to vector endowments to a traveling runelord, without requiring their presence; facilitators, dedicates, and forcibles need not travel with the runelord or be found elsewhere during their travel. One disadvantage to using a vector, for the runelord, is that with that one vector's death, the runelord is suddenly deprived of all of the vector's collected endowments as they return to their original dedicates. With attempted assassination of dedicates being a common and expected tactic in conflict, this makes it all the more important to protect vectors well.

title: The Runelords


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St James Park railway station

St James Park railway station is a suburban railway station in Exeter, Devon, England. It is 170 mi down the line from London Waterloo. The station is adjacent to the Exeter City football ground. Great Western Railway manage the station and operate the train services.

History
A small station named Lion's Holt Halt was opened in the cutting west of Blackboy Tunnel on 26 January 1906. Mount Pleasant Road Halt was opened at the same time to the east of the tunnel but was closed in 1928.

The name of Lion's Holt was changed to St James Park on 7 October 1946, the name of the Exeter City F.C. football ground, which is next to the station. The club has adopted the station under the community railways scheme and contributes to its upkeep.

Tarka line services from Barnstaple terminated at St James Park from December 2018, reversing in the siding at Exmouth Junction before returning. In the May 2021 timetable they terminate at Exeter Central but will still run through St James Park when they reverse in the siding at Exmouth Junction.

Description
There are two platforms. The Exeter-bound Platform 1 is about 240 ft in length. Platform 2 (for trains toward Exmouth) was originally very short (about 120 ft) and could only be served by a one 20 m coach trains. Longer trains had to use selective door opening or single door opening. Works took place in October 2020 to extend platform 1 by 10 metres and platform 2 by 49 metres.

Services
Avocet Line services between Exmouth and Exeter St Davids call at St James Park. Beyond St Davids they generally continue on the Riviera Line to Paignton.

South Western Railway services between London Waterloo and Exeter St Davids pass through the station but do not stop; passengers for this route have to change at Exeter Central.

title: St James Park railway station


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User:Charles Matthews/Weston

Hope Emily Allen - Joseph Bédier - Robert Hugh Benson - A. C. L. Brown - James Douglas Bruce - Ernst Brugger - J. Neale Carman - Richard Cavendish - Deryck Cooke - Francis Cornford - Emmanuel Cosquin - Richard Dorson - Edmond Faral - Farnell - Wendelin Foerster - Joseph Fontenrose - Theodore Gaster - Wolfgang Golther - Janet Grayson - W. W. Greg - Jane Harrison - Sidney Hartland - Richard Heinzel - Hoffmann - Gidéon Huet - Stanley Edgar Hyman - W. P. Ker - G. L. Kittredge - Roger Sherman Loomis - Ferdinand Lot - Joseph Loth - Wilhelm Mannhardt - Ernst Martin - G. S. R. Mead - Ernest Newman - William A. Nitze - Alfred Nutt - A. Smythe Palmer - Gaston Paris - Lucy Paton - Walter Raleigh (professor) - Sir John Rhys - William Roach - Gertrude Schoepperle - W. H. Schofield - Von Schroeder - Karl Simrock - Samuel Singer - Leon Surette - Evelyn Underhill - John Vickery - A. E. Waite - Frank Weston - Heinrich Zimmer

J. L. Weston - Adapa the Wise - Bartsch - Birch-Hirschfeld - Bledhericus Latinarius - Bleheris - Blihis - Blihos-Bliheris - Bréri - E. Brugger - Burdach - Clement of Alexandria - Diu Crône - R. Eisler - Sebastian Evans - Freculf - Furnivall - Gerbert de Montreuil - W. Golther - Griffith - Paul Hagen - J. G. von Hahn - Helinandus - Heinrich von dem Tûrlin - Heinzel - W. Herz - Hucher - Jacob van Maerlant - Jeanne of Flanders - Kiot the Provencal - Abbé Lebeuf - Ferdinand Lot - Manessier - W. Mannhardt - G. R. S. Mead - W. Nitze - Alfred Nutt - Edward Owen - Philip of Flanders - C. Potvin - Robert de Borron - Roxburghe Club - Saint Guillaume du Desert - San Marte - Scholl - Von Schroeder - K. Simrock - Ulrich von Zatzikhoven - Vellay - M. de la Villemarqué - Wauchier de Denain - Wechssler - Eduard Wechssler - William of Malmesbury - Wolfram von Eschenbach

title: User:Charles Matthews/Weston


text:
James M. Mason

James Murray Mason (November 3, 1798 – April 28, 1871) was an American lawyer and politician who became a Confederate diplomat. He served as senator from Virginia, having previously represented Frederick County, Virginia, in the Virginia House of Delegates.

A grandson of George Mason, Mason strongly supported slavery as well as Virginia's secession as the American Civil War began. As chairman of the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations from 1851 until his expulsion in 1861 for supporting the Confederate States of America, Mason took great interest in protecting American cotton exporters. As the Confederacy's leading diplomat, he traveled to Europe seeking support, but proved unable to get the United Kingdom to recognize the Confederacy as a country. As Mason sailed to England in November 1861, the U.S. Navy captured his ship and detained him, in what became known as the Trent Affair. Released after two months, Mason continued his voyage, and assisted Confederate purchases from Britain and Europe but failed to achieve their diplomatic involvement. As the war ended, Mason went into exile in Canada, but later returned to Alexandria, Virginia, where he died in 1871.

Early life
Mason was born on Analostan Island, now Theodore Roosevelt Island, in the District of Columbia. He graduated from the University of Pennsylvania (1818), then studied law in Williamsburg, Virginia and earned a law degree from the College of William & Mary (1820).

Political career
Following admission to the Virginia bar, Mason practiced law in Virginia, and also operated a plantation in Frederick County. Despite a sloppy and damaged census record, he may have owned 5 slaves in the 1830 census. In the 1850 federal census, Mason owned ten enslaved people, half of them children under ten years of age. In that year, he (or another man of similar name) also owned a 25 year old Black woman and her four children in nearby Rappahannock County. In the 1860 census, Mason owned a 49 year old Black man, 35 year old Black woman, and children aged 14, 13, 12, 10 and 3 years old. and he or another James M. Mason owned seven enslaved children (the oldest a 13-year-old girl) in southern Culpeper County. Mason soon began his political career, well before his father's death, winning election several times as one of Frederick County's (part-time) representatives in the Virginia House of Delegates. His first term began on December 4, 1826, alongside one-term veteran James Ship, but only Ship won re-election the following year. In 1828, Ship failed to win re-election and Mason won the election to represent the gateway to the Shenandoah Valley together with William Castleman, Jr., and both won re-election the following year. After veteran legislator Hierome L. Opie, one of the four joint delegates of Frederick and neighboring Jefferson County to the Virginia Constitutional Convention of 1829-1830, resigned, Mason took his place alongside John R. Cooke, congressman Alfred H. Powell and fellow delegate Thomas Griggs Jr. Although some had hoped that convention would limit slaveholder power, the resulting constitution only gave additional votes to western Virginians (including those in Frederick County and those counties which would secede and become West Virginia during the American Civil War), so Mason and Castleman were re-elected and joined by William Wood for the 1830-1831 legislative session.

In 1836, Congressman Edward Lucas of Shepherdstown (in what would become West Virginia decades later) announced his retirement. Voters in Virginia's 15th congressional district elected Mason as his successor in the Twenty-fifth United States Congress. The Jackson Democrat only served a single term, succeeded by Lucas' brother William Lucas.

In 1847, Virginia legislators elected Mason to the Senate after incumbent Isaac S. Pennybacker died in office, and Mason won re-election in 1850 and 1856. Mason famously read aloud the dying Senator John C. Calhoun's final speech to the Senate, on March 4, 1850, which warned of the likely breakup of the country if the North did not permanently accept the existence of slavery in the South, as well as its expansion into the Western territories. Mason also complained of Northern personal liberty laws, intended to help fugitive slaves: "Although the loss of property is felt, the loss of honor is felt still more."

Mason was President pro tempore of the Senate in 1857.

Champion of slavery
Mason "championed the Southern political platform", "and slavery, another of the three themes that most affected his life, lay at the core of that political ideology." (The other two themes were the secession of Virginia and the establishment of the Confederacy.)

Mason was not only a white supremacist, he believed that negroes were "the great curse of the country". Giving Blacks the vote particularly offended him; it was, he thought, the rule of the mob and the "end of the republic."

He so believed in the beneficence of slavery that, unlike many others in Frederick County, Mason refused to support the colonization project that led to the founding of Liberia. Mason's solution to the "problem" of free blacks was returning them to slavery, stating they were better off enslaved in the United States than they could possibly be in Africa. Mason believed that slavery did not need to be established or require a law to make it legal; it had already been established by God, as recorded in the Bible. It already existed in Africa: "The negro is as much property in Africa as the bullock or the ox". His position was that Congress had no authority to prohibit slavery anywhere, and certainly not in Kansas. Slavery was a condition, not an institution, by which he meant that Americans were not enslaving Africans, they were merely purchasing them from other Africans that had already enslaved them.

Mason wrote the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, arguably the most hated and openly-evaded Federal legislation in U.S. history. The whole idea of using "popular sovereignty" as a means to expand slavery into the Western territories, starting with Kansas, leading to the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the violence of the Bleeding Kansas period, was hatched in Mason's Washington boarding house. Mason also was the chair of the ad-hoc Senate committee that investigated John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry, and wrote its report, informally known as the Mason Report.

Secession advocate
Continuing the tradition of his mentor John C. Calhoun, whose last speech (1850) Mason read to the Senate when Calhoun was too sick to do so himself, Mason strongly believed states had the right to secede. Furthermore, the North's intolerance of their "peculiar institution", their "property rights" (the right to own human beings), left them no other choice than secession. He said he didn't need reasons to leave the Union, he needed a reason to stay in the Union.

Mason strongly favored the South's "immediate, absolute, and eternal separation" if anti-slavery, Republican candidate John C. Frémont were elected president in 1856.

In 1861 Mason worked behind the scenes to enable Virginia's secession, remaining in the Senate because he could get information useful for the seceding states, a type of spy behind enemy lines. He and Virginia's other Senator, Robert Hunter, told the commissioners of the new Confederate states that Virginia would join the secession if Jefferson Davis were elected president of a Southern confederacy, but not if it were pro-slavery Alabama Fire-Eater William L. Yancey, seen in Virginia as extreme. Davis was chosen as president three days later.

Mason disappears from Senate activities in March. He and other Southern senators were expelled from the Senate on July 11, 1861, by a vote of 32 to 10, because "they were engaged in a conspiracy for the destruction of the Union and Government, or, with full knowledge of said conspiracy, had failed to advise the Government of its progress or aid in its suppression."

Confederate diplomat
Mason became one of Virginia's representatives to the Provisional Confederate Congress from February 1861 through February 1862. However, his legislative duties were interrupted by a diplomatic assignment. While Mason sailed toward England as a Confederate envoy to Britain on the British mail steamer RMS Trent, the ship was stopped by USS San Jacinto on November 8, 1861. Mason and fellow Confederate diplomat John Slidell were confined in Fort Warren in Boston Harbor. The Trent Affair threatened to bring Britain into open war with the United States, despite triumphant rhetoric in the north. Even the cool-headed Lincoln was swept along in the celebratory spirit, but enthusiasm waned when he and his cabinet studied the likely consequences of a war with Britain. After careful diplomatic exchanges, they admitted that the capture was contrary to maritime law and that private citizens could not be classified as "enemy despatches". Slidell and Mason were released, and war was averted. The two diplomats set sail for England again on January 1, 1862.

Mason represented the Confederacy in England, bringing up Union blockades and unsuccessfully seeking diplomatic recognition for the Confederacy. After Britain issued its refusal in 1863, he moved to Paris, continuing his unsuccessful search for a nation that would recognize or assist the Confederacy. He was there until April 1865.

Later life
When the Union army took over Winchester in 1862, at first "Selma", Mason's house, was requisitioned for regimental offices. (Other Virginia houses named Selma are in Eastville and Leesburg, Virginia.) The lower officers probably did not know who Mason was. But General Banks, formerly a congressman and then governor of Massachusetts, certainly knew. Learning of Mason's pro-slavery activism and his authorship of the hated Fugitive Slave Act, the soldiers, on their own initiative, set about destroying Selma. The roof came off first. Sometime later the walls were pulled down and everything burnable was chopped into firewood. They were so thorough that "from turret to foundation stone, not one stone remains upon another; the negro houses, the out-buildings [there was an ice house], the fences are all gone, and even the trees are many of them girdled". According to Mason, the house was "obliterated". He never lived in Winchester again.

From 1865 until 1868 Mason lived in exile in Canada. After sanctions on Confederate officials were lifted, he returned to the United States, and bought the Clarens Estate, on 26 acres, today in Alexandria, Virginia. (In 2008 the house alone sold for over $8,000,000 .) He brought white servants from Canada, and went to some trouble to find others, as he did not want to hire any blacks; he believed free blacks to be "worse than worthless". He died at Clarens in 1871, and was interred in the churchyard of Christ Church (Alexandria, Virginia). His death was not noted by anyone outside his family.

Marriage and children
Mason married Eliza Margaretta Chew (1798–1874) on 25 July 1822 at Cliveden in Germantown, Pennsylvania. The couple had eight children:

 * Anna Maria Mason Ambler (31 January 1825 – 17 August 1863)
 * Benjamin Chew Mason (1826–1847)
 * Catharine Chew Mason Dorsey (24 March 1828 – 28 April 1893)
 * George Mason (16 April 1830 – 3 February 1895)
 * Virginia Mason (12 December 1833 – 11 October 1920)
 * Eliza Ida Oswald Mason (10 August 1836 – 16 December 1885)
 * James Murray Mason, Jr. (24 August 1839 – 10 January 1923)
 * John A. Mason (17 November 1841 – 6 June 1925)

He was a grandson of George Mason (1725–1792); nephew of George Mason V (1753–1796); grandnephew of Thomson Mason (1733–1785);  first cousin once removed of Stevens Thomson Mason (1760–1803) and John Thomson Mason (1765–1824);  son of John Mason (1766–1849) and Anna Maria Murray Mason (1776–1857);  first cousin of Thomson Francis Mason (1785–1838), George Mason VI (1786–1834), and Richard Barnes Mason (1797–1850);  second cousin of Armistead Thomson Mason (1787–1819), John Thomson Mason (1787–1850), and John Thomson Mason, Jr. (1815–1873);  second cousin once removed of Stevens Thomson Mason (1811–1843);  and first cousin thrice removed of Charles O'Conor Goolrick.

 * Sister Sarah Maria was the wife of Confederate general Adjutant Samuel Cooper (general).
 * Sister Anna Maria was the wife of Sydney Smith Lee-son of Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee; they were the parents of Confederate Major General and Virginia Governor Fitzhugh Lee.
 * Brother John T. married Catherine Macomb, daughter of Gen. Alexander Macomb, Jr., Commanding General of the army (1828–1841).

Assessments by political opponents
One perspective comes from Republican politician Carl Schurz. His visit to Washington coincided with debate over the Kansas-Nebraska Act.

"Still another type was represented to me by Senator Mason of Virginia, a thick-set, heavily built man with a decided expression of dullness in his face. What he had to say appeared to me to come from a sluggish intellect spurred into activity by an overweening self-conceit. He, too, would constantly assert in manner, even more than in language, the superiority of the Southern slave-holder over the Northern people. But it was not the prancing pride of Senator Butler nor the cheery buoyancy of the fighting spirit of Toombs that animated him. It appeared rather to be the surly pretension of a naturally stupid person to be something better than other people, and the insistence that they must bow to his assumed aristocracy and all its claims. When I heard Senator Mason speak, I felt that if I were a member of the Senate, his supercilious attitude and his pompous utterances of dull commonplace, sometimes very offensive by their overbearing tone, would have been particularly exasperating to me."

A leading Republican Senator Charles Sumner commented: "Among these hostile senators, there is yet another, with all the prejudices of the senator from South Carolina, but without his generous impulses, who, on account of his character. before the country, and the rancor of his opposition, deserves to be named. I mean the senator from Virginia [Mr. Mason], who, as the author of the Fugitive Slave Bill, has associated himself with a special act of inhumanity and tyranny. Of him I shall say little, for he has said little in this debate, though within that little was compressed the bitterness of a life absorbed in the support of Slavery. He holds the commission of Virginia; but he does not represent that early Virginia, so clear to our hearts, which gave to us the pen of Jefferson, by which the equality of men was declared, and the sword of Washington, by which Independence was secured; but he represents that other Virginia, from which Washington and Jefferson now avert their faces, where human beings are bred as cattle for the shambles, and where a dungeon rewards the pious matron who teaches little children to relieve their bondage by reading the Book of Life. It is proper that such a senator, representing such a State, should rail against Free Kansas."

title: James M. Mason