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Geobiology

Geobiology is a field of scientific research that explores the interactions between the physical Earth and the biosphere. It is a relatively young field, and its borders are fluid. There is considerable overlap with the fields of ecology, evolutionary biology, microbiology, paleontology, and particularly soil science and biogeochemistry. Geobiology applies the principles and methods of biology, geology, and soil science to the study of the ancient history of the co-evolution of life and Earth as well as the role of life in the modern world. Geobiologic studies tend to be focused on microorganisms, and on the role that life plays in altering the chemical and physical environment of the pedosphere, which exists at the intersection of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and/or cryosphere. It differs from biogeochemistry in that the focus is on processes and organisms over space and time rather than on global chemical cycles.

Geobiological research synthesizes the geologic record with modern biologic studies. It deals with process - how organisms affect the Earth and vice versa - as well as history - how the Earth and life have changed together. Much research is grounded in the search for fundamental understanding, but geobiology can also be applied, as in the case of microbes that clean up oil spills.

Geobiology employs molecular biology, environmental microbiology, organic geochemistry, and the geologic record to investigate the evolutionary interconnectedness of life and Earth. It attempts to understand how the Earth has changed since the origin of life and what it might have been like along the way. Some definitions of geobiology even push the boundaries of this time frame - to understanding the origin of life and to the role that humans have played and will continue to play in shaping the Earth in the Anthropocene.

History
The term geobiology was coined by Lourens Baas Becking in 1934. In his words, geobiology "is an attempt to describe the relationship between organisms and the Earth," for "the organism is part of the Earth and its lot is interwoven with that of the Earth." Baas Becking's definition of geobiology was born of a desire to unify environmental biology with laboratory biology. The way he practiced it aligns closely with modern environmental microbial ecology, though his definition remains applicable to all of geobiology. In his book, Geobiology, Bass Becking stated that he had no intention of inventing a new field of study. Baas Becking's understanding of geobiology was heavily influenced by his predecessors, including Martinus Beyerinck, his teacher from the Dutch School of Microbiology. Others included Vladimir Vernadsky, who argued that life changes the surface environment of Earth in The Biosphere, his 1926 book, and Sergei Vinogradsky, famous for discovering lithotrophic bacteria.

The first laboratory officially dedicated to the study of geobiology was the Baas Becking Geobiological Laboratory in Australia, which opened its doors in 1965. However, it took another 40 or so years for geobiology to become a firmly rooted scientific discipline, thanks in part to advances in geochemistry and genetics that enabled scientists to begin to synthesize the study of life and planet.

In the 1930s, Alfred Treibs discovered chlorophyll-like porphyrins in petroleum, confirming its biological origin, thereby founding organic geochemistry and establishing the notion of biomarkers, a critical aspect of geobiology. But several decades passed before the tools were available to begin to search in earnest for chemical marks of life in the rocks. In the 1970s and '80s, scientists like Geoffrey Eglington and Roger Summons began to find lipid biomarkers in the rock record using equipment like GCMS.

On the biology side of things, in 1977, Carl Woese and George Fox published a phylogeny of life on Earth, including a new domain - the Archaea. And in the 1990s, genetics and genomics studies became possible, broadening the scope of investigation of the interaction of life and planet.

Today, geobiology has its own journals, such as Geobiology, established in 2003, and Biogeosciences, established in 2004, as well as recognition at major scientific conferences. It got its own Gordon Research Conference in 2011, a number of geobiology textbooks have been published, and many universities around the world offer degree programs in geobiology (see External links).

Major geobiological events
Perhaps the most profound geobiological event is the introduction of oxygen into the atmosphere by photosynthetic bacteria. This oxygenation of Earth's primordial atmosphere (the so-called oxygen catastrophe or Great Oxygenation Event) and the oxygenation of the oceans altered surface biogeochemical cycles and the types of organisms that have been evolutionarily selected for.

A subsequent major change was the advent of multicellularity. The presence of oxygen allowed eukaryotes and, later, multicellular life to evolve.

More anthropocentric geobiologic events include the origin of animals and the establishment of terrestrial plant life, which affected continental erosion and nutrient cycling, and likely changed the types of rivers observed, allowing channelization of what were previously predominantly braided rivers.

More subtle geobiological events include the role of termites in overturning sediments, coral reefs in depositing calcium carbonate and breaking waves, sponges in absorbing dissolved marine silica, the role of dinosaurs in breaching river levees and promoting flooding, and the role of large mammal dung in distributing nutrients.

Important concepts
Geobiology is founded upon a few core concepts that unite the study of Earth and life. While there are many aspects of studying past and present interactions between life and Earth that are unclear, several important ideas and concepts provide a basis of knowledge in geobiology that serve as a platform for posing researchable questions, including the evolution of life and planet and the co-evolution of the two, genetics - from both a historical and functional standpoint, the metabolic diversity of all life, the sedimentological preservation of past life, and the origin of life.

Co-evolution of life and Earth
A core concept in geobiology is that life changes over time through evolution. The theory of evolution postulates that unique populations of organisms or species arose from genetic modifications in the ancestral population which were passed down by drift and natural selection.

Along with standard biological evolution, life and planet co-evolve. Since the best adaptations are those that suit the ecological niche that the organism lives in, the physical and chemical characteristics of the environment drive the evolution of life by natural selection, but the opposite can also be true: with every advent of evolution, the environment changes.

A classic example of co-evolution is the evolution of oxygen-producing photosynthetic cyanobacteria which oxygenated Earth's Archean atmosphere. The ancestors of cyanobacteria began using water as an electron source to harness the energy of the sun and expelling oxygen before or during the early Paleoproterozoic. During this time, around 2.4 to 2.1 billion years ago, geologic data suggests that atmospheric oxygen began to rise in what is termed the Great Oxygenation Event (GOE). It is unclear for how long cyanobacteria had been doing oxygenic photosynthesis before the GOE. Some evidence suggests there were geochemical "buffers" or sinks suppressing the rise of oxygen such as volcanism though cyanobacteria may have been around producing it before the GOE. Other evidence indicates that the rise of oxygenic photosynthesis was coincident with the GOE. The presence of oxygen on Earth from its first production by cyanobacteria to the GOE and through today has drastically impacted the course of evolution of life and planet. It may have triggered the formation of oxidized minerals and the disappearance of oxidizable minerals like pyrite from ancient stream beds. The presence of banded-iron formations (BIFs) have been interpreted as a clue for the rise of oxygen since small amounts of oxygen could have reacted with reduced ferrous iron (Fe(II)) in the oceans, resulting in the deposition of sediments containing Fe(III) oxide in places like Western Australia. However, any oxidizing environment, including that provided by microbes such as the iron-oxidizing photoautotroph Rhodopseudomonas palustris, can trigger iron oxide formation and thus BIF deposition. Other mechanisms include oxidation by UV light. Indeed, BIFs occur across large swaths of Earth's history and may not correlate with only one event.

Other changes correlated with the rise of oxygen include the appearance of rust-red ancient paleosols, different isotope fractionation of elements such as sulfur, and global glaciations and Snowball Earth events, perhaps caused by the oxidation of methane by oxygen, not to mention an overhaul of the types of organisms and metabolisms on Earth. Whereas organisms prior to the rise of oxygen were likely poisoned by oxygen gas as many anaerobes are today, those that evolved ways to harness the electron-accepting and energy-giving power of oxygen were poised to thrive and colonize the aerobic environment.

The Earth has changed
Earth has not remained the same since its planetary formation 4.5 billion years ago. Continents have formed, broken up, and collided, offering new opportunities for and barriers to the dispersal of life. The redox state of the atmosphere and the oceans has changed, as indicated by isotope data. Fluctuating quantities of inorganic compounds such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, methane, and oxygen have been driven by life evolving new biological metabolisms to make these chemicals and have driven the evolution of new metabolisms to use those chemicals. Earth acquired a magnetic field about 3.4 Ga that has undergone a series of geomagnetic reversals on the order of millions of years. The surface temperature is in constant fluctuation, falling in glaciations and Snowball Earth events due to ice–albedo feedback, rising and melting due to volcanic outgassing, and stabilizing due to silicate weathering feedback.

And the Earth is not the only one that changed - the luminosity of the sun has increased over time. Because rocks record a history of relatively constant temperatures since Earth's beginnings, there must have been more greenhouse gasses to keep the temperatures up in the Archean when the sun was younger and fainter. All these major differences in the environment of the Earth placed very different constraints on the evolution of life throughout our planet's history. Moreover, more subtle changes in the habitat of life are always occurring, shaping the organisms and traces that we observe today and in the rock record.

Genes encode geobiological function and history
The genetic code is key to observing the history of evolution and understanding the capabilities of organisms. Genes are the basic unit of inheritance and function and, as such, they are the basic unit of evolution and the means behind metabolism.

Phylogeny predicts evolutionary history
Phylogeny takes genetic sequences from living organisms and compares them to each other to reveal evolutionary relationships, much like a family tree reveals how individuals are connected to their distant cousins. It allows us to decipher modern relationships and infer how evolution happened in the past.

Phylogeny can give some sense of history when combined with a little bit more information. Each difference in the DNA indicates divergence between one species and another. This divergence, whether via drift or natural selection, is representative of some lapse of time. Comparing DNA sequences alone gives a record of the history of evolution with an arbitrary measure of phylogenetic distance “dating” that last common ancestor. However, if information about the rate of genetic mutation is available or geologic markers are present to calibrate evolutionary divergence (i.e. fossils), we have a timeline of evolution. From there, with an idea about other contemporaneous changes in life and environment, we can begin to speculate why certain evolutionary paths might have been selected for.

Genes encode metabolism
Molecular biology allows scientists to understand a gene's function using microbial culturing and mutagenesis. Searching for similar genes in other organisms and in metagenomic and metatranscriptomic data allows us to understand what processes could be relevant and important in a given ecosystem, providing insight into the biogeochemical cycles in that environment.

For example, an intriguing problem in geobiology is the role of organisms in the global cycling of methane. Genetics has revealed that the methane monooxygenase gene (pmo) is used for oxidizing methane and is present in all aerobic methane-oxidizers, or methanotrophs. The presence of DNA sequences of the pmo gene in the environment can be used as a proxy for methanotrophy. A more generalizable tool is the 16S ribosomal RNA gene, which is found in bacteria and archaea. This gene evolves very slowly over time and is not usually horizontally transferred, and so it is often used to distinguish different taxonomic units of organisms in the environment. In this way, genes are clues to organismal metabolism and identity. Genetics enables us to ask 'who is there?' and 'what are they doing?' This approach is called metagenomics.

Metabolic diversity influences the environment
Life harnesses chemical reactions to generate energy, perform biosynthesis, and eliminate waste. Different organisms use very different metabolic approaches to meet these basic needs. While animals such as ourselves are limited to aerobic respiration, other organisms can "breathe" sulfate (SO42-), nitrate (NO3-), ferric iron (Fe(III)), and uranium (U(VI)), or live off energy from fermentation. Some organisms, like plants, are autotrophs, meaning that they can fix carbon dioxide for biosynthesis. Plants are photoautotrophs, in that they use the energy of light to fix carbon. Microorganisms employ oxygenic and anoxygenic photoautotrophy, as well as chemoautotrophy. Microbial communities can coordinate in syntrophic metabolisms to shift reaction kinetics in their favor. Many organisms can perform multiple metabolisms to achieve the same end goal; these are called mixotrophs.

Biotic metabolism is directly tied to the global cycling of elements and compounds on Earth. The geochemical environment fuels life, which then produces different molecules that go into the external environment. (This is directly relevant to biogeochemistry.) In addition, biochemical reactions are catalyzed by enzymes which sometimes prefer one isotope over others. For example, oxygenic photosynthesis is catalyzed by RuBisCO, which prefers carbon-12 over carbon-13, resulting in carbon isotope fractionation in the rock record.

Sedimentary rocks tell a story
Sedimentary rocks preserve remnants of the history of life on Earth in the form of fossils, biomarkers, isotopes, and other traces. The rock record is far from perfect, and the preservation of biosignatures is a rare occurrence. Understanding what factors determine the extent of preservation and the meaning behind what is preserved are important components to detangling the ancient history of the co-evolution of life and Earth. The sedimentary record allows scientists to observe changes in life and Earth in composition over time and sometimes even date major transitions, like extinction events.

Some classic examples of geobiology in the sedimentary record include stromatolites and banded-iron formations. The role of life in the origin of both of these is a heavily debated topic.

Life is fundamentally chemistry
The first life arose from abiotic chemical reactions. When this happened, how it happened, and even what planet it happened on are uncertain. However, life follows the rules of and arose from lifeless chemistry and physics. It is constrained by principles such as thermodynamics. This is an important concept in the field because it represents the epitome of the interconnectedness, if not sameness, of life and Earth.

While often delegated to the field of astrobiology, attempts to understand how and when life arose are relevant to geobiology as well. The first major strides towards understanding the “how” came with the Miller-Urey experiment, when amino acids formed out of a simulated “primordial soup”. Another theory is that life originated in a system much like the hydrothermal vents at mid-oceanic spreading centers. In the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, a variety of hydrocarbons form under vent-like conditions. Other ideas include the “RNA World” hypothesis, which postulates that the first biologic molecule was RNA, and the idea that life originated elsewhere in the solar system and was brought to Earth, perhaps via a meteorite.

Methodology
While geobiology is a diverse and varied field, encompassing ideas and techniques from a wide range of disciplines, there are a number of important methods that are key to the study of the interaction of life and Earth that are highlighted here.
 * 1) Laboratory culturing of microbes is used to characterize the metabolism and lifestyle of organisms of interest.
 * 2) Gene sequencing allows scientists to study the relationships between extant organisms using phylogenetics.
 * 3) Experimental genetic manipulation or mutagenesis is used to determine the function of genes in living organisms.
 * 4) Microscopy is used to visualize the microbial world. Microscope work ranges from environmental observation to quantitative studies with DNA probes to high-definition visualization of the microbe-mineral interface by electron microscope (EM).
 * 5) Isotope tracers can be used to track biochemical reactions to understand microbial metabolism.
 * 6) Isotope natural abundance in rocks can be measured to look for isotopic fractionation that is consistent with biologic origin.
 * 7) Detailed environmental characterization is important to understanding what about a habitat might be driving life's evolution and, in turn, how life might be changing that niche. It includes and is not limited to, temperature, light, pH, salinity, concentration of specific molecules like oxygen, and the biologic community.
 * 8) Sedimentology and stratigraphy are used to read the rocks. The rock record stores a history of geobiologic processes in sediments which can be unearthed through an understanding of deposition, sedimentation, compaction, diagenesis, and deformation.
 * 9) The search for and study of fossils, while often delegated to the separate field of paleontology, is important in geobiology, though the scale of fossils is typically smaller (micropaleontology).
 * 10) The biochemical analysis of biomarkers, which are fossilized or modern molecules that are indicative of the presence of a certain group of organisms or metabolism, is used to answer the evidence for life and metabolic diversity questions.
 * 11) Paleomagnetics is the study of the planet's ancient magnetic field. It is significant to understanding magnetofossils, biomineralization, and global ecosystem changes.

Sub-disciplines and related fields
As its name suggests, geobiology is closely related to many other fields of study, and does not have clearly defined boundaries or perfect agreement on what exactly they comprise. Some practitioners take a very broad view of its boundaries, encompassing many older, more established fields such as biogeochemistry, paleontology, and microbial ecology. Others take a more narrow view, assigning it to emerging research that falls between these existing fields, such as with geomicrobiology. The following list includes both those that are clearly a part of geobiology, e.g. geomicrobiology, as well as those that share scientific interests but have not historically been considered a sub-discipline of geobiology, e.g. paleontology.

Astrobiology
Astrobiology is an interdisciplinary field that uses a combination of geobiological and planetary science data to establish a context for the search for life on other planets. The origin of life from non-living chemistry and geology, or abiogenesis, is a major topic in astrobiology. Even though it is fundamentally an earth-bound concern, and therefore of great geobiological interest, getting at the origin of life necessitates considering what life requires, what, if anything, is special about Earth, what might have changed to allow life to blossom, what constitutes evidence for life, and even what constitutes life itself. These are the same questions that scientists might ask when searching for alien life. In addition, astrobiologists research the possibility of life based on other metabolisms and elements, the survivability of Earth's organisms on other planets or spacecraft, planetary and solar system evolution, and space geochemistry.

Biogeochemistry
Biogeochemistry is a systems science that synthesizes the study of biological, geological, and chemical processes to understand the reactions and composition of the natural environment. It is concerned primarily with global elemental cycles, such as that of nitrogen and carbon. The father of biogeochemistry was James Lovelock, whose “Gaia hypothesis” proposed that Earth's biological, chemical, and geologic systems interact to stabilize the conditions on Earth that support life.

Geobiochemistry
Geobiochemistry is similar to biogeochemistry, but differs by placing emphasis on the effects of geology on the development of life's biochemical processes, as distinct from the role of life on Earth's cycles. Its primary goal is to link biological changes, encompassing evolutionary modifications of genes and changes in the expression of genes and proteins, to changes in the temperature, pressure, and composition of geochemical processes to understand when and how metabolism evolved. Geobiochemistry is founded on the notion that life is a planetary response because metabolic catalysis enables the release of energy trapped by a cooling planet.

Environmental microbiology
Microbiology is a broad scientific discipline pertaining to the study of that life which is best viewed under a microscope. It encompasses several fields that are of direct relevance to geobiology, and the tools of microbiology all pertain to geobiology. Environmental microbiology is especially entangled in geobiology since it seeks an understanding of the actual organisms and processes that are relevant in nature, as opposed to the traditional lab-based approach to microbiology. Microbial ecology is similar, but tend to focus more on lab studies and the relationships between organisms within a community, as well as within the ecosystem of their chemical and geological physical environment. Both rely on techniques such as sample collection from diverse environments, metagenomics, DNA sequencing, and statistics.

Geomicrobiology and microbial geochemistry
Geomicrobiology traditionally studies the interactions between microbes and minerals. While it is generally reliant on the tools of microbiology, microbial geochemistry uses geological and chemical methods to approach the same topic from the perspective of the rocks. Geomicrobiology and microbial geochemistry (GMG) is a relatively new interdisciplinary field that more broadly takes on the relationship between microbes, Earth, and environmental systems. Billed as a subset of both geobiology and geochemistry, GMG seeks to understand elemental biogeochemical cycles and the evolution of life on Earth. Specifically, it asks questions about where microbes live, their local and global abundance, their structural and functional biochemistry, how they have evolved, biomineralization, and their preservation potential and presence in the rock record. In many ways, GMG appears to be equivalent to geobiology, but differs in scope: geobiology focuses on the role of all life, while GMG is strictly microbial. Regardless, it is these tiniest creatures that dominated to history of life integrated over time and seem to have had the most far-reaching effects.

Molecular geomicrobiology
Molecular geomicrobiology takes a mechanistic approach to understanding biological processes that are geologically relevant. It can be at the level of DNA, protein, lipids, or any metabolite. One example of Molecular geomicrobiology research is studying how recently created lava fields are colonized by microbes. The University of Helsinki is currently conducting research to determine what specific microbial traits are necessary for successful initial colonization, and how waves of microbial succession can transform the volcanic rock into fertile soil.

Organic geochemistry
Organic geochemistry is the study of organic molecules that appear in the fossil record in sedimentary rocks. Research in this field concerns molecular fossils that are often lipid biomarkers. Molecules like sterols and hopanoids, membrane lipids found in eukaryotes and bacteria, respectively, can be preserved in the rock record on billion-year timescales. Following the death of the organism they came from and sedimentation, they undergo a process called diagenesis whereby many of the specific functional groups from the lipids are lost, but the hydrocarbon skeleton remains intact. These fossilized lipids are called steranes and hopanes, respectively. There are also other types of molecular fossils, like porphyrins, the discovery of which in petroleum by Alfred E. Treibs actually led to the invention of the field. Other aspects of geochemistry that are also pertinent to geobiology include isotope geochemistry, in which scientists search for isotope fractionation in the rock record, and the chemical analysis of biominerals, such as magnetite or microbially-precipitated gold.

Paleontology
Perhaps the oldest of the bunch, paleontology is the study of fossils. It involves the discovery, excavation, dating, and paleoecological understanding of any type of fossil, microbial or dinosaur, trace or body fossil. Micropaleontology is particularly relevant to geobiology. Putative bacterial microfossils and ancient stromatolites are used as evidence for the rise of metabolisms such as oxygenic photosynthesis. The search for molecular fossils, such as lipid biomarkers like steranes and hopanes, has also played an important role in geobiology and organic geochemistry. Relevant sub-disciples include paleoecology and paleobiogeoraphy.

Biogeography
Biogeography is the study of the geographic distribution of life through time. It can look at the present distribution of organisms across continents or between microniches, or the distribution of organisms through time, or in the past, which is called paleobiogeography.

Evolutionary biology
Evolutionary biology is the study of the evolutionary processes that have shaped the diversity of life on Earth. It incorporates genetics, ecology, biogeography, and paleontology to analyze topics including natural selection, variance, adaptation, divergence, genetic drift, and speciation.

Ecohydrology
Ecohydrology is an interdisciplinary field studying the interactions between water and ecosystems. Stable isotopes of water are sometimes used as tracers of water sources and flow paths between the physical environment and the biosphere.

title: Geobiology


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Fuheis

Fuheis (الفحيص) is a Christian majority town in the central Jordanian governorate of Balqa. It lies in between Salt and Amman, at a distance of 6 and 13 kilometers respectively. .

The population of Fuheis was estimated to be 21,908 in 2021, 87% are Jordanian citizens, 95% are Christians, and with a male-to-female ratio of 52:48.

According to a national census in 2015, the population was 18,916, there were 4,658 households in the town with an average of 4.06 persons per household, lower than the national average of 4.82 persons per household. The population of Fuheis increases in the summer, as many of the town's residents who have emigrated to the United States and Europe return for their summer vacations. The town's elevation renders it cool enough to spend the summer comfortably.

Fuheis is also famous for its traditional habits from singing and dancing (dabke), and for depending on its farms.

History
In 1838 Fuheis was noted located  east of Al-Salt.

The Jordanian census of 1961 found 2,946 inhabitants in Fuheis, of whom 2,391 were Christians.

Geography and Climate
The town has an elevation ranging from 740 to 1,050 meters (2,425 to 3,445 ft) above mean sea level, and experiences a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa). It receives approximately 500 mm (20 in) of precipitation annually, with occasional snowfall accumulating on its peaks.

Economy and development
Fuheis' economy has historically centered around agriculture. Most of Fuheis' population works in agriculture, trade, cement industry, service industry, and civil or office jobs. The olive industry is important to Fuheis' economy, along with orchards and vineyards. The cement factory - Jordan's largest - is by far the largest industry in Fuheis, employing about 70% of the town's population. Among its most important villages are al-Rahwa, Ras al-Jundi, and al-Suqariah, known for their farms and trees.

In 2010, German researchers from the Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research implemented a demonstration facility for decentralised wastewater technology in Fuheis. The project was handed over to the management of Al-Balqa` Applied University.

Religion
Approximately 60% of the town's population belong to Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem, 35% are members of the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem. Sunni Muslims and Armenian Orthodox Christians make up the rest 5% of the population. The Latin Parish of Fuheis established a secondary school during the Ottoman Period in 1885. Students of this school learned Arabic, Religion and Math. The school has since expanded, remaining open until today.

Heritage and archaeology
Archaeological excavations in Fuheis uncovered a circular building from white limestone which dates back to the Iron Age and the Byzantine age. This building was repurposed as a church in the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods, and within the building is a blueprint of the church in addition to a number of graves that were built in the church's land. The excavations suggest that the area's water sources may have drawn many to the region or that the settlement had a military purpose. The ruins are surrounded by small dug wells and enclosed water closets which were connected by a spout carved from rock. In the same area, excavators found a carving on basalt rock in Greek letters and crosses carved into limestone.

Al-Rowaq
Fuheis' Rowaq Al-Balqa' district boasts hundred-year-old stone cottages in the old town, preserved by a local who bought an art gallery in the area and proceeded to buy several cottages near it, converting them to art-and-craft shops.

Fuheis festival
Fuheis Festival is an annually held event in Fuheis, and it is considered to be the second biggest festival in Jordan, after Jerash Festival.

They have celebrated their silver jubilee in 2016, where they have welcomed bands and artists from Jordan, Syria, Palestine and Lebanon to perform in concerts and poetry evenings.

Several artists and singers from across the region were invited to perform in the town, like: Wadih El Safi, Melhem Barakat, Sabah Fakhri, Fares Karam, Moeen Charif, Omar Al-Abdallat, George Kurdahi, Najwa Karam, and many more, and the variety of night events and activities attracts around 10,000 to 30,000 visitors yearly.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Fuheis


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Vanderbilt Commodores

The Vanderbilt Commodores are the intercollegiate athletic teams that represent Vanderbilt University, located in Nashville, Tennessee. Vanderbilt fields 16 varsity teams (6 men's teams and 10 women's teams), 14 of which compete at the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I level as a member of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). Vanderbilt's women's lacrosse team plays in the American Athletic Conference. The bowling team plays in Conference USA (C-USA), which absorbed Vanderbilt's former bowling home of the Southland Bowling League after the 2022–23 season. The University of Tennessee Volunteers are Vanderbilt's primary athletic rival, and the only other SEC team in Tennessee.

History
Vanderbilt is a charter member of the Southeastern Conference and is the conference's only private school. With approximately 6,400 undergraduates, the school is also by far the smallest in the conference; the University of Mississippi, the next smallest, has nearly twice as many undergraduate students. Vanderbilt fields fewer teams than any of its rivals and sometimes lacks the national prominence enjoyed by schools such as the University of Florida or the University of Kentucky. Men's and women's tennis and men's and women's basketball are traditionally Vanderbilt's strongest sports, with the more recently founded women's lacrosse and bowling programs as well as the long-standing men's baseball program experiencing national success, winning the 2014 and 2019 College World Series. And being the national runner up in the 2015 and 2021 College World Series. After enjoying success in the first half of the 20th century, the football program struggled through the beginning of the 21st century. In the 2008–09 season, however, the Vanderbilt football team posted a winning season and won its first bowl game in 53 years. Under previous coach James Franklin, the football program enjoyed somewhat of a renaissance; since Franklin's arrival at Vanderbilt in 2011, the Commodores have appeared in consecutive bowl games for the first time in school history (2011 and 2012), and the 2012 team posted Vanderbilt's first 9-win season in over 80 years.

Lack of athletic department
In September 2003, Vanderbilt disbanded its athletic department. Intercollegiate athletics are now administered as a part of the university's Division of Student Life, which oversees all student organizations and activities. Vanderbilt is currently the only Division I school without a separate athletic department. In making this decision, Chancellor Gordon Gee cited a need to reform college athletics, returning the emphasis to the student half of student-athletes.

Mascot history
Vanderbilt's intercollegiate athletics teams are nicknamed the Commodores, in honor of the nickname given to Cornelius Vanderbilt, who made his fortune in shipping. Fans often refer to Vanderbilt athletic teams as "Dores" or use the cheer "Go Dores!"

The term commodore was used by the Navy during the mid- to late nineteenth century. A commodore was the commanding officer of a task force of ships, and therefore higher in rank than a captain but lower in rank than an admiral. It was the highest rank in the United States Navy until the Civil War. The closest warfighting rank in today's Navy is rear admiral lower half. (In the British Royal Navy, the designation of commodore was applied to the commanding officer.)

Since the term was used most during the late nineteenth century—and because it was then that Cornelius received his nickname—Vanderbilt's mascot is always portrayed as a naval officer from the 1880s, complete with chops, cutlass, and nineteenth-century naval regalia.

School colors
The school colors are black and gold. Opinions vary as to the reason for selecting black and gold as the colors for Vanderbilt's teams. Some say the original colors were orange and black, given to the university by Judge W.L. Granbery of Princeton. Others say that Commodore Vanderbilt's legacy was called upon to develop school colors for the university that bears his name: black for the magnate's control of coal and gold for his money.

When questioned about the subject in the 1930s, the few remaining members of the school's first football squad from 1890 did not recall why they suddenly began appearing in black and gold. Whatever the source of the colors, by 1892, the Commodores were known by the colors that Vanderbilt fans still wear today.

Traditions and rivalries
Vanderbilt's primary rival in almost every sport is the University of Tennessee. There is also a rivalry with the University of Kentucky in basketball. In addition, the Commodores' second-oldest rivalry is with Ole Miss, and the two schools play each other every year as SEC cross-division "permanent opponents". In addition, Vanderbilt and the University of Louisville of the ACC play for the "Battle of the Barrel" each year in baseball.
 * Rivalries

Formed by extending the thumb, index, and middle fingers of the hand (similar to the Serbian three-finger salute), the resulting shape forms a "V" and "U". It was introduced by Vanderbilt's cheerleaders in 2003.
 * VU hand sign

Vanderbilt has a number of football traditions: the "Commodore Creed" in the football locker room; the "Corridor of Captains" that honors Vanderbilt's athletics history; the "Star Walk" with fans, cheerleaders, and the Spirit of Gold Marching Band; the "Star V," an on-field formation by the marching band; the "Admiral", a foghorn from a U.S. Navy battleship that blows after every Vanderbilt score; "Mr. C," the mascot; the "Anchor Dash" by first-year students rushing the football field before kickoff of each season's home opener; the "Victory Flag" that is raised over Dudley Field after home wins; and the singing of the "Alma Mater" at the conclusion of a game (in most sports), win or lose.
 * Football gameday traditions

The Vanderbilt fight song, "Dynamite," was written by student Francis Craig in 1924. The song references the vigor with which Vanderbilt plays and the enthusiasm of the university's fans, who cheer regardless of the outcome of the game.
 * Fight song

Baseball
Baseball has been a part of Vanderbilt athletics since its official debut in 1886. The sport started out as a two-game schedule which featured a draw between Vanderbilt and then conference rival Sewanee. As the number of games increased the game became more and more popular especially in 1921 when Vanderbilt (20–8) first reached twenty wins in a season and won the Southern Conference baseball championship. Manager Bill Schwartz who formerly coached the Nashville Vols (1917, 1924–40, 1952) helped bring Vanderbilt to national prominence. Under his reign he led the Commodores to a 155–112–1 record which still ranks third all-time in victories at Vanderbilt. Under the direction of Larry Schmittou (1968–1978) the Commodores found even more success as the 1971 team began a four-year streak as SEC Eastern Divisional Champs with a 34–19 record. He also guided Vanderbilt to back-to-back SEC conference titles in 1973 and 1974 while being awarded Coach-of-the-Year honors. Schmittou currently ranks second all-time in Vanderbilt wins (306–252–1) and has coached 20 All-SEC players, 14 of which were drafted in the MLB draft.

Tim Corbin (2003–present) has led Vanderbilt baseball into national prominence with players like Jeremy Sowers, David Price, Casey Weathers, Sonny Gray, Jensen Lewis and Pedro Álvarez. Vanderbilt's baseball team has enjoyed a great deal of success under his reign. The team qualified for the NCAA Super Regionals in 2004, had the nation's top recruiting class in 2005 according to Baseball America made the NCAA field again in 2006, and won the 2007 SEC regular-season and SEC tournament crowns. The Commodores were ranked first in most polls for a large portion of the 2007 season and earned the #1 national seed for the 2007 NCAA tournament. In 2011, the team was ranked as high as #1 and won the SEC regular-season title. That year, the team entered the NCAA Regionals with a #6 national seed and went undefeated through Regionals and Super Regionals to enter the College World Series for the first time. That year Vanderbilt also broke a SEC record of most players drafted in MLB with 12 players, breaking Auburn's record of 11.

Vanderbilt won the 2014 College World Series, the school's first national championship in any men's sport. The team returned to the national championship series in 2015, finishing as runners-up to Virginia.

Vanderbilt's 2019 baseball team compiled a 59–12 record and won the 2019 College World Series in addition to the SEC regular-season and tournament titles. Freshman Kumar Rocker was named the Most Outstanding Player of the College World Series and Freshman of the Year.

Men's basketball
Vanderbilt basketball began on February 7, 1893 with a 9–6 victory over the Nashville YMCA, making it the first basketball game played by a collegiate team. It would take several years for the Commodores to make an impact in the game. In December 1900, the school first produced a formal basketball team coached by W.D. Weatherford. The first actual schedule for Vanderbilt consisted of three games against the Nashville YMCA and one against the Nashville Athletic Club. That year the Commodores lost their first meeting against the YMCA but managed to finish their season 2–2. Vanderbilt's first modern basketball team began with the hiring of Bob Polk (1948–58, 1960–61) as the school's first full-time basketball coach. During that time, Polk was able to recruit Vanderbilt's first scholarship player, Billy Joe Adcock, who would later become Vanderbilt's first All-American. From 1982–1989, Vanderbilt found success under the coaching of C.M. Newton who was able to bring Vanderbilt to new heights. In 1988, Vanderbilt managed to make it to the Sweet Sixteen in the NCAA tournament with the help of center and SEC Player of the Year Will Perdue. Newton was a two-time SEC Coach of the Year and was able to coach other notable players, including Phil Cox, Jeff Turner and Frank Kornet. In 1990, coach Eddie Fogler (1990–93) led Vanderbilt to the NIT championship, which remains Vanderbilt's only national tournament title. In 1992, the Commodores (28–6) managed to win their third and SEC title and a trip to the Sweet Sixteen with the help of Duke transfer Billy McCaffrey. Presently, Kevin Stallings is in his eighth season leading the Commodores. Under his guidance Vanderbilt has appeared in two NIT's and advanced to the Sweet Sixteen of the NCAA tournament. In 2004 Matt Freije became the Commodores all-time leading scorer with 1,891 points. Since the 2000s Vanderbilt has been able to produce several important players including Greg LaPointe, Russell Lakey, Scott Hundley, Corey Smith, Mario Moore, Julian Terrell, Shan Foster, Derrick Byars (2007 SEC Player of the Year), John Jenkins, Festus Ezeli, Jeffery Taylor and Darius Garland.

The Vanderbilt men have an overall record entering the 2007–08 season of 1,378–995. Their home record in Memorial Gymnasium is 650–184. They have made nine NCAA tournament appearances including four in the Sweet Sixteen and one Elite Eight. The Commodores have made 11 NIT (18–10) appearances with one championship (1990) and one Runner-up (1994). The men's basketball program is one of three Division I programs to hit at least one 3-pointer in every game since the 3-point line was implemented in the 1986–1987 season. Princeton and UNLV are the other two.

Women's basketball
The first Vanderbilt women's basketball game was in March 1897. During that time their schedule consisted of five games which expanded as the game became more popular nationally. The Lady Commodores began their modern and successful period when Joe Pepper (1977–80) was named part-time coach. Phil Lee (1980–91) became the school's first full-time coach in 1980 and helped lead the Lady Dores to their first 20 win season in 1981 and an appearance in the AIAW women's basketball tournament. The Vanderbilt women captured the WNIT championship in 1984 and later made their first appearance in the NCAA tournament in 1986 while finishing the season ranked No. 20. The Vanderbilt women soon became one of the top SEC teams and were consistently ranked nationally. Coach Jim Foster (1992–2002) brought the Vanderbilt women to new heights and national prominence with his hiring. Vanderbilt advanced to the Sweet Sixteen in the NCAA tournament in eight of his 11 seasons. In 1993, the Commodores were able to advance to the Final Four before falling to eventual champion Texas Tech. Vanderbilt managed to receive a No.1 ranking in the poll taken before the tournament. Foster's teams also won three SEC Tournaments in 1993, 1995, and 2002. Melanie Balcomb became Vanderbilt's fourth coach in May 2002. She has taken the Commodores to the NCAA tournament in each of her six seasons and added SEC Tournament titles in 2004 and 2007.

The Commodores have an overall record of 623–307 record entering the 2007–08 season. Their Memorial Gymnasium all-time mark is 344–81. The Commodores have appeared in 20 NCAA tournaments (third most in the SEC) and have 12 Sweet Sixteen appearances.

Football
The first game in Vanderbilt Commodores football history was in 1890 when they met the University of Nashville. Four years later, Vanderbilt became one of the seven founding members of the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association. During those years, Vanderbilt was often a major player in southern football dominating many teams. In 1932, Vandy became a founding member of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). The original teams of the SEC consisted of Alabama, Florida, Kentucky, Georgia, Ole Miss, Tennessee, Mississippi State, LSU, Auburn, Sewanee, Tulane, and Georgia Tech. Vanderbilt's primary rivalries consist of the Tennessee Volunteers and the Ole Miss Rebels.

In Vanderbilt Commodores football history, there have been several coaches who have been honored with College Football Hall of Fame honors. Some of those coaches often returned to the school to continue the success they found there. This list includes Dan McGugin, who coached from 1904–1917 and 1919–1934; Ray Morrison, who not only played for the Commodores but also coached for the Commodores from 1936–1939; and Red Sanders, who led the Commodores from 1940–1942 and 1946–1948, and Paul "Bear" Bryant prior to his becoming head football coach at Alabama. Over the years, Vanderbilt has sent a numerous players to the NFL. One of the most notable football players is Jay Cutler, who served as quarterback and offensive captain for the Commodores. He was selected as the 11th overall pick in the 2006 NFL Draft and went on to play for the Denver Broncos and then the Chicago Bears. While at Vanderbilt, he started more than 40 consecutive games and set school records in touchdowns and rushing yards.

Women's volleyball
Vanderbilt is currently one of only two Power 5 schools that does not sponsor women's volleyball; the other is Oklahoma State. Vanderbilt once had a women's volleyball team, but dropped the sport after the 1979–80 school year. On April 19, 2022, Vanderbilt announced that it would reinstate women's volleyball in the 2025-26 school year (2025 season). In addition, Vanderbilt is the only school in the SEC that does not sponsor softball.

Climbing
The rapidly expanding and successful climbing team at Vanderbilt was founded in 2017 and is competing in the Appalachian region of the USA Climbing Collegiate Series. The American collegiate climbing scene has grown by a staggering amount since the advent of modern climbing gyms and the addition of climbing in the Summer Olympic Games. At the 2019 USA Climbing Collegiate National Championships, where over 100 teams attended, Vanderbilt placed 3rd in speed climbing and 13th overall. There are currently over 50 active team members, who compete in all three disciplines - bouldering, speed climbing and lead climbing. The club roster has over 200 undergraduate as well as graduate & professional students.

Club baseball
Founded in 2008, the Vanderbilt University Club Baseball team competes in the Mid-Atlantic conference of NCBA Division 1 in the West division. In the 2012–2013 season, opponents included clubs in the division (Appalachian State University, UNC Charlotte, University of Kentucky, and University of Tennessee) and others out of conference. The 2012–2013 roster included 26 undergraduate and graduate students, including 12 freshmen and 2 graduating seniors.

Rugby
Founded in 1970, Vanderbilt University Rugby Football Club plays in the Division 1 Southeastern Collegiate Rugby Conference against its traditional SEC rivals such as Tennessee and Ole Miss. Vanderbilt had previously played in Division 2, where it was one of the stronger teams. Every fall Vanderbilt hosts the Oak Leaf Cup tournament. Vanderbilt is led by head coach James Snell.

Rowing
Founded in 1985, the Vanderbilt University Rowing team is one of the largest club teams on campus and competes as a member of the Southeastern Intercollegiate Rowing Association (SIRA) and the American Collegiate Rowing Association (ACRA). Coached by former University of Michigan rower Jon Miller, Vanderbilt has won a national championship in the Varsity Women's 4+ race at the ACRA National Championships in 2018 and the Men's Collegiate 4+ race at the Head of the Charles Regatta in 2021.

NCAA team championships
Vanderbilt has won six NCAA team national championships.

 * Men's (2)
 * Baseball (2): 2014, 2019

 * Women's (4)
 * Bowling (3): 2007, 2018, 2023
 * Tennis (1): 2015
 * see also
 * SEC NCAA team championships
 * List of NCAA schools with the most NCAA Division I championships

Program success
Vanderbilt's athletics programs have seen more success in recent years, and 2006–2007 was one of the best in the school's athletic history. At one point, seven of Vanderbilt's 16 teams were ranked in the Top 25 of their respective sports. Women's bowling won the NCAA championship, bringing the university its first team championship since the advent of the NCAA. In 2014, the baseball team won its first College World Series over the Virginia Cavaliers. In 2015, the Vanderbilt women's tennis team won its first national championship by defeating the defending champions UCLA Bruins. In 2018, the women's bowling team won its second national championship by defeating the defending champions McKendree University. And in 2019, the baseball team won its second College World Series title.

Facilities
Campus athletic facilities include:

 * FirstBank Stadium, seating capacity: 40,350
 * Memorial Gymnasium, 14,326
 * Hawkins Field, 3,700
 * Vanderbilt Soccer/Lacrosse Complex, 2,400
 * Brownlee O. Currey, Jr. Tennis Center
 * Vanderbilt Legends Club of Tennessee (off-campus golf course)

Relevant literature

 * Goheen, Barry. 2020 Buzzer Beaters and Memorial Magic: A Memoir of the Vanderbilt Commodores 1987-1989. Mercer University Press.

title: Vanderbilt Commodores


text: Category:Universities in Peru

title: Category:Universities in Peru


text:
1969–70 NFL playoffs

The NFL playoffs following the 1969 NFL season determined the league's representative in Super Bowl IV.

This was the last NFL playoff tournament before the AFL–NFL merger and the last awarding of the Ed Thorp Memorial Trophy to the NFL champion, which was introduced in 1934.

Tournament bracket
The four-team postseason format was introduced for the season, when the NFL expanded to 16 teams and realigned into four division with four teams each.

Within each conference, the two division winners qualified for the playoffs. In the first round, the Capitol winner met the Century winner in the Eastern Conference game, while the Coastal and Central played for the Western Conference title. The winners of the two conference games advanced to the NFL Championship Game to compete for the NFL league title and the right to face the American Football League champion in Super Bowl IV. The losers of the conference championship games played in the Playoff Bowl, a third place game at the Orange Bowl in Miami, Florida; the Playoff Bowl of January 1970 was its tenth and final edition.

Prior to, the playoff sites rotated and were known prior to the start of the season. In, the hosts were the Capitol and Central division winners for the conference championships (first round), and the Western Conference for the championship game. This gave home field advantage to the Central Division winner, the Minnesota Vikings (12–2), which had the league's best record. The previous year's playoff hosts were Century, Coastal, and Eastern, respectively, and 1967 was like 1969. All three playoff games in 1969 were hosted by the team with the better regular season record.

Western Conference: Minnesota Vikings 23, Los Angeles Rams 20
Three weeks prior to this game, the teams met in Los Angeles in a battle between the undefeated (11–0) Rams and the 10–1 Vikings. The Vikings won that game 20–13. The rematch was played in the cold and snow of Minnesota. Despite committing more turnovers (3 to 1) and only gaining 20 more total yards (275–255), the Vikings managed to edge out the Rams for their first postseason win in franchise history.

In the game in L.A., the Viking defense shut down the Rams' wide receivers and outside running game, so in this game, the Rams attacked the middle of the Viking defense and neutralized the Viking pass rush with short quick passes to the tight ends. The Rams defense held Minnesota's high powered offense in check, with the "Fearsome Foursome" defensive line harassing Viking QB Joe Kapp. Early on, the momentum seemed to be in LA's favor. Rams safety Richie Petitbon recovered a fumble from fullback Bill Brown that gave his team a first down on the Minnesota 45-yard line. On the next play, it appeared that the Vikings took a quick lead as Carl Eller intercepted a Roman Gabriel pass and returned for a touchdown but the score was nullified on an offside penalty on Alan Page. Taking advantage of their second chance, running back Larry Smith gained 19 yards on three carries, and Gabriel eventually finished the drive with a 3-yard touchdown pass to tight end Bob Klein. The Vikings quickly stormed back, with Kapp completing four consecutive passes on a 10-play, 75-yard drive. Three of the completions were to receiver Gene Washington for 49 total yards, including a 27-yard reception that gave the Vikings the ball on the Rams' 4-yard line. Dave Osborn ran for a touchdown on the next play, tying the score at 7 with a little over 3 minutes left in the first quarter.

LA moved the ball effectively on their next drive, but it ended on a missed 38-yard field goal attempt by Bruce Gossett. The next time they got the ball, they did much better, taking up the majority of the second quarter, including a 13-yard run by Gabriel to convert a third down. Gossett finished the drive with a 20-yard field goal to put the Rams up 10–7 with 4:30 left before halftime. Following a punt, Gabriel led his team back for more points. This time he completed passes to tight end Billy Truax for gains of 18 and 16 yards before finishing the 13-play, 65-yard drive with a 2-yard touchdown pass to Truax. The Rams went into halftime leading 17–7, having scored on three of their four first half possessions.

In the second half, Viking coach Bud Grant adjusted his defense to stop the Ram tight ends, and his "Purple People Eaters" continued to punish the Ram running game. They also got increasing pressure on Gabriel. On offense, Grant neutralized the Ram pass rush by having QB Kapp run the ball, either on designed plays like quarterback draws or roll outs, or by instructing him to take off and run at the first sign of pressure. Kapp began frustrating the Rams with runs; this threat caused their pass rush to be less aggressive.

After forcing the Rams to punt for the first time in the game on the opening possession of the second half, Kapp completed a 41-yard pass to Washington on the LA 12-yard line. After a Rams penalty and a 5-yard run by Kapp, Osborn finished the drive with a 1-yard touchdown run that cut Minnesota's deficit to 17–14. However, Minnesota's comeback attempt suffered major setbacks over the next few drives against a punishing effort from the Rams defense. The next time the Vikings got the ball, they drove deep into Rams territory, only to have Kapp throw an interception to safety Ed Meador on the LA 4-yard line. Meador fumbled the ball during the return, but linebacker Jim Purnell recovered it. After an LA punt, Kapp was intercepted again, this time by Petitbon, who returned the ball 4 yards to the Vikings' 36. Once again, the Viking defense bent but didn't break, stopping the Rams inside the 10 yard line and making them settle for a 27-yard Gossett field goal. So instead of being down 24–14, it was only 20–14 going into the fourth quarter.

Kapp subsequently marched the Vikings 65 yards downfield, completing three passes for 40 yards and going the final 2 yards himself as Minnesota took its first lead of the game, 21–20, with 8:24 on the clock. Then the Viking defense took over. After their special teams unit tackled returner Ron Smith on the 12-yard line during the ensuing kickoff, Carl Eller sacked Gabriel in the end zone for a safety, giving the Vikings a 23–20 lead and the ball. But the Rams defense held, and 1969 NFL MVP Gabriel began to march the Rams down field in the last two minutes. As they crossed midfield, it appeared the Rams might get the tying field goal or winning touchdown, but a Gabriel pass was tipped and intercepted at the Viking 40-yard line by Alan Page with 30 seconds left, allowing his team to run out the clock and win.

Gabriel completed 22/30 passes for 150 yards and two touchdowns, with 1 interception, while also rushing for 26 yards. Larry Smith was the top rusher of the game with 11 carries for 60 yards, and he caught 6 passes for 36. Kapp completed 12/19 passes for 196 yards with 2 interceptions, while also rushing for 41 yards and a touchdown. Washington caught 4 passes for 90 yards.

Eastern Conference: Cleveland Browns 38, Dallas Cowboys 14
For the second year in a row, Cleveland eliminated Dallas from the playoffs, this time outgaining them in total yards 344 to 217 and forcing 3 turnovers, without losing any themselves.

Unlike the previous year's game which was a defensive struggle until the Browns put the game away in the fourth quarter, Cleveland dominated the first half, holding Dallas to just 17 plays and 39 total yards. They had to punt after taking the opening kickoff, but Don Cockroft's high short kick ended up bouncing off the leg of Dallas lineman Rayfield Wright and linebacker Bob Matheson recovered for the Browns on the Cowboys' 34-yard line. Cleveland then drove to their first score on a 2-yard touchdown run by Bo Scott. The Browns later increased their lead to 14–0 by driving 55 yards to score on Bill Nelsen's 6-yard touchdown pass to tight end Milt Morin. Cockroft missed two field goal attempts, but just before the end of the half, Ron Widby's 27-yard punt gave the Browns the ball on the Cowboys' 34-yard line, setting up Cockroft's 29-yard field goal that gave Cleveland a 17–0 halftime lead.

Early in the third quarter, Browns linebacker Jim Houston intercepted Craig Morton's pass and returned it 35 yards to the Dallas 19, leading to Scott's second 2-yard touchdown run to make the score 24–0. This time Dallas was able to respond, driving 72 yards in 12 plays, including a 26-yard catch by tight end Pettis Norman, to score on Morton's 2-yard touchdown run.

However, 24–7 was as close as the Cowboys would get. In the 4th quarter, a 39-yard burst by Browns running back Leroy Kelly (the longest gain of the day for either team) set up his 1-yard touchdown plunge to give the Browns a 31–7 lead. Dallas had a chance to score after a punt play when Cockroft bobbled a low snap from rookie center Chuck Reynolds and was tackled on the Browns' 22-yard line. But faced with 4th down from the 18 after 7 plays, Morton threw a short pass intended for Walt Garrison that was intercepted by rookie cornerback Walt Sumner, who took off for an 88-yard touchdown return.

The only notable thing remaining in the game would be the playoff debut of 27-year old rookie Dallas quarterback Roger Staubach. He got off to a shaky start, throwing an interception that was eliminated by a Browns holding penalty, but managed to lead the Cowboys to a touchdown, rushing three times for 22 yards and completing passes to Lance Rentzel for gains of 14 and 22 yards before finding him in the end zone for a 5-yard scoring pass.

Nelsen completed 18/27 passes for 219 yards and a touchdown. His top receiver was Paul Warfield, who caught 8 passes for 99 yards. Tight end Milt Morin caught 4 passes for 52 yards and a touchdown. Kelly had 66 rushing yards on 19 carries, 10 receiving yards, and a touchdown. Scott ran 11 times for 33 yards and 2 touchdowns and had 2 receptions for 39 yards. Morton was held to just 8/24 completions for 92 yards, with two interceptions that were both converted into Cleveland touchdowns. Playing in relief, Staubach completed 4/5 passes for 44 yards and a touchdown while also rushing 3 times for 22 yards.

NFL Championship Game: Minnesota Vikings 27, Cleveland Browns 7
Cleveland had lost the previous season's NFL title game 34–0, and this time fared little better. The Vikings dominated the game, racking up 381 yards without losing a single turnover, while Cleveland gained just 268 yards and turned the ball over three times.

The Vikings took a lead just four minutes into the first quarter, driving 70 yards for a touchdown in 8 plays. The key play of the drive was a pass from Joe Kapp to receiver Gene Washington that was nearly 5 yards short of the mark. Despite the short throw, Washington was able to come back and haul it in for a 33-yard gain to the Browns' 24-yard line. Two plays later, Dave Osborn's 12-yard run moved the ball to the 7. Then two plays after that, Bill Brown accidentally slipped and bumped into Kapp while moving up to take a handoff, but Kapp simply kept the ball himself and ran it 7 yards for a touchdown.

The situation never got any better for Cleveland. The next time Minnesota got the ball, Erich Barnes slipped while in one-on-one coverage with Washington, enabling him to catch a pass from Kapp and take off for a 75-yard touchdown completion. Near the end of the first quarter, Browns running back Leroy Kelly lost a fumble that was recovered by linebacker Wally Hilgenberg on the Cleveland 43. Kapp then completed a 12-yard pass to Washington before Fred Cox finished the drive with a 30-yard field goal, putting the Vikings up 17–0. Later in the second period, Hilgenberg snuffed out a Cleveland scoring threat by intercepting a pass from Bill Nelsen on the Vikings' 33-yard line. Minnesota subsequently drove 67 yards in 8 plays. Kapp started the drive with a pair of completions to John Henderson for 17 total yards, while Osborn broke off a 16-yard run and ended up finishing the drive with a 20-yard touchdown burst, giving the Vikings a 24–0 lead with 4:46 left in the first half. Cleveland responded with a drive to the Vikings' 17, but turned the ball over on downs when Nelsen overthrew receiver Gary Collins in the end zone on 4th and 3.

The third quarter was mostly uneventful, other than Cox's 32-yard field goal that gave Minnesota a 27–0 lead after an 11-play, 80-yard drive. The most noteworthy play was a 13-yard scramble by Kapp in which he plowed into 240-pound Browns linebacker Jim Houston so hard that Houston was knocked out of the game. In the 4th quarter, Cleveland finally got on the board when a diving 18-yard reception by Paul Warfield set up Nelsen's 3-yard touchdown pass to Collins. There were still 13 minutes on the clock at this point, but there would be no more scoring. The Vikings had a drive to the Cleveland 2-yard line, but decided to let the clock run out instead of going for another score.

Kapp completed just 7/13 passes, but threw for 169 yards and a touchdown, while also rushing for 57 yards and another score. Osborn rushed 18 times for 108 yards and a touchdown. Washington had 120 yards and a touchdown on just 3 receptions. Kelly was the Browns' top rusher with 80 yards, while also catching two passes for 17. Nelsen completed just 17 of 33 passes for 181 yards, with one touchdown and two interceptions.

title: 1969–70 NFL playoffs


text:
CD Video

CD Video (also known as CDV, CD-V, or CD+V) is a format of optical media disc that was introduced in 1987 that combines the technologies of standard compact disc and LaserDisc. CD-V discs are the same size as a standard 12 cm audio CD, and contain up to 20 minutes' worth of CD audio that can be played on any audio CD player. It also contains up to 5 minutes of LaserDisc video information with digital CD-quality sound, which can be played back on a newer LaserDisc player capable of playing CD-V discs or CD-V-only players.

The "CD Video" brand was also used to market some 20 cm and 30 cm LaserDiscs which included a digital soundtrack but no CD-compatible content.

12 cm "CD Video" disc format
One of the first LaserDisc players that can play CD-V discs is the Pioneer CLD-1010 from 1987. Though it is a CD-based format, CD Video was never given a rainbow book designation; the idea of encoding analogue video, which is incompatible between different regions, was poorly received by CD stakeholders other than Philips, who had not consulted them prior to demonstrating the format to the music industry.

CD Video discs have a distinctive gold color, to differentiate them from regular silver-colored audio CDs. This is a characteristic that would later be replicated in HVD, a more advanced disc format.

The physical size of the 12 cm discs limited the amount of LaserDisc content to around six minutes, which meant they were primarily suited to pop music videos. However, both players and discs were too expensive for the youth market likely to be most interested in such content.

"CD Video" branding on 20 and 30 cm LaserDiscs
The "CD Video" name and logo were also used to market some full-size 30 cm and EP-sized 20 cm LaserDiscs that featured a digital (rather than analog) soundtrack and the same gold colouring.

Unlike the newly-launched 12 cm discs, these were little more than a rebrand of existing LaserDisc formats. (Both disc sizes, along with support for digital soundtracks, had been in use for several years before CD Video launched.) In addition, despite the name, they did not feature CD-compatible content as the smaller discs did.

European LaserDisc relaunch
Philips' launch of the CD Video format (and the rebranding of existing LaserDisc formats under the name) also served as the basis of a relaunch for LaserDisc as a whole in Europe where sales under the original "LaserVision" name had been extremely poor, and Philips attempted to leverage the name recognition of the newly-successful audio CD format. Despite this, the rebranded format remained unsuccessful in Europe.

The use of digital audio on the relaunched "CD Video"-branded LaserDiscs rendered them incompatible with older analog-only "LaserVision" players made for the European PAL television standard. (PAL LaserDiscs can only support analog or uncompressed digital soundtracks, but not both.) However, at that point, Philips estimated there to have been just 12,000 to 15,000 analog-only Laservision players sold in Europe.

Discontinuation and legacy
CD Video lasted only a few years in the marketplace and was already being referred to as a "failed" format by mid-1990.

A similar format called Video Single Disc (VSD) was later announced for the Japanese market in 1990. While this used the same CD-sized 12 cm format as CD Video, it contained only an analog video track and no CD-compatible audio making it, in effect, a small LaserDisc. The price of VSDs was intended to be around half that of CD Video discs.

When CD Video failed to become the success Philips was hoping for, they turned their attention to the more promising MPEG-1-based digital video compression which ultimately formed the basis of Video CD - a similarly-named, but incompatible and fundamentally different (and all-digital) format launched in 1993.

title: CD Video


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Art of Dying (band)

Art of Dying is a Canadian rock band from Vancouver, British Columbia, formed in 2004 by lead singer Jonny Hetherington and guitarist Greg Bradley. Soon after, the duo added Chris Witoski on rhythm guitar, bassist Matt Rhode, and drummer Flavio Cirillo.

History
In 2006, Art of Dying released their first album, Art of Dying on Thorny Bleeder Records. In February 2007, Classic Rock Magazine released the compilation Classic Rock: The Bands You Need to Hear in 2007, and included the Art of Dying song "Completely". The band then supported Seether on the UK leg of their world tour.

On December 1, 2009, it was announced that the band had signed a record deal with Reprise Records and its division Intoxication Records, founded by Disturbed members David Draiman and Dan Donegan. Witoski and Rhode left the band and were replaced by bassist Cale Gontier and guitarist Tavis Stanley, both previously of the band Thornley.

Art of Dying's second album, Vices and Virtues, produced by Howard Benson and mixed by Chris Lord-Alge, was released on March 22, 2011. Art of Dying went on its 'Avalanche Tour', performing 128 concerts in 2011. In addition to headlining and co-headlining club shows, the band played some of the biggest hard rock and heavy metal festivals in the country. They played the 2011 and 2012 Avalanche Tours, headlined by Stone Sour and Shinedown, respectively, and toured on Rockstar's 2011 Uproar Festival, headlined by Avenged Sevenfold.

Let the Fire Burn, a completely acoustic album, was released on April 24, 2012. The band continued to tour heavily in the US, playing several dates with Papa Roach and Buckcherry, opening for Marilyn Manson and appearing at the Rock Vegas Festival and KUPD's first annual Desert Uprising in Phoenix.

In 2014, Art of Dying was signed to Better Noise Records (now Better Noise Music). In 2015, the band toured as the opening act for the cello-metal band Apocalyptica during the North American leg of its Shadowmaker tour. In December 2015, they released the album Rise Up. It was produced by David Bendeth at House of Loud and received excellent reviews.

In 2016, the band self-released the six-track EP Nevermore and stayed on the road.

In 2017, Art of Dying announced on Facebook that drummer Jeff Brown, who had replaced Flavio Cirillo in 2008, left the band to "pursue a different path". He was replaced by longtime drum tech and stage manager Cody Watkins.

In 2019, still without a label, the band released its fifth album, Armageddon.

In 2020, Thorny Bleeder Records released the 11-track Art of Dying Compilation album, Demos & Rarities (2003-2007).

Band members

 * Jonny Hetherington – lead vocals (2004–present)
 * Cody Watkins – drums, backing vocals (2016–present)
 * Cale Gontier – bass, backing vocals (2008–present)
 * Tavis Stanley – rhythm guitar, backing vocals (2008–present), lead guitar (2015–present)

Former members
 * Chris Witoski – rhythm guitar (2004–2008)
 * Matt Rhode – bass (2004–2008)
 * Flavio Cirillo – drums (2004–2008)
 * Greg Bradley – lead guitar (2004–2015)
 * Jeff Brown – drums (2008–2016)

 * Timeline

Discography
Studio albums
 * Art of Dying (2006), Thorny Bleeder Records
 * Vices and Virtues (2011), Reprise Records
 * Let the Fire Burn (2012), Thorny Bleeder Records
 * Rise Up (2015), Better Noise Records, Eleven Seven Music
 * Armageddon (2019), Vices and Virtues Music

EPs
 * Get Through This (2007), Revolver Records
 * Rise Up (2015), Better Noise Records
 * Nevermore (2016), Vices and Virtues Music
 * Nevermore Acoustic (2017), Vices and Virtues Music
 * Ready For a Good Time (2022), Vices and Virtues Music

Compilations
 * Demos & Rarities (2003-2007) (2020), Thorny Bleeder Records

title: Art of Dying (band)


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Chowk.com

Chowk.com was a website with a focus on the current affairs, politics and cultural aspects of India and Pakistan. Its stated goal is to provoke readers go beyond soundbites and uncover the truth, however uncomfortable. It was also a magazine that aimed to promote discourse between people of the subcontinent on various issues which affected their lives. The site appeared to become stale in March 2012.

History
Chowk was launched in 1997 on the 50th independence anniversary of India and Pakistan with the mission to promote and nurture independent voices that question, dissect and examine the social, political, religious and cultural moorings of that region. Chowk's founding team included Safwan Shah, Umair Khan, Saima Shah, Ginni Dhindsa and Radhika Nagpal, who came together in the mid-1990s with the idea of a South Asian political and literary online magazine.

The site appeared to become stale in March 2012, with archives from 1 September 2012 showing no updates since March 2012. Subsequent archives of the homepage saw the site become unfunctional before showing a controlled site closed message from about 2014.

Format
Chowk was updated daily with original articles, opinions, and commentary on current affairs, politics and cultural trends. In addition, Chowk publishes reviews, short stories, and poetry by new, upcoming writers of South Asian origin. Chowk also features services like blogs, photo galleries and discussion forums. Almost all of Chowk content was contributed by its members. Chowk published commentary, analysis and reviews alongside fiction and poetry. Chowk content was regularly republished by news websites, popular South Asian blogs and discussion groups.

Columnists
Columnists at Chowk included:

 * Pervez Hoodbhoy
 * Beena Sarwar
 * Veeresh Malik
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Michael Pinnella

Michael Pinnella (born August 29, 1969) is an American keyboard player, most notably for the band Symphony X. Michael is one of two Symphony X members to appear on all nine of the band's albums (the other being Michael Romeo).

He has released two solo albums, titled Enter By the Twelfth Gate (2004) and Ascension (2014), mostly composed of instrumental, classical-styled progressive metal.

In 2016, Pinnella ranked #11 in Loudwire's Top 25 Rock + Metal Keyboardists of All Time, praised for being an "essential component of Symphony X’s overarching epic nature".

Biography
Pinnella was born in Point Pleasant Beach, New Jersey and was encouraged since childhood to follow music. When he was four years old, he started taking piano lessons. He was heavily influenced by classic composers like Mozart, Beethoven, Chopin, and Bach.

When he was about 11 years old, he started to practice more seriously. Later in his youth, he was impressed by Yngwie Malmsteen and asked his parents to buy him a keyboard. When he got into college, he studied piano performance, theory and composition, and other musical courses. Other influences came from progressive/metal bands from the 1970s (Emerson, Lake & Palmer, Deep Purple, Black Sabbath) and from the 1980s (DIO, Ozzy Osbourne).

When Pinnella finished college, he started teaching piano in a music store. One of the fellow teachers at the store was friends with Michael Romeo from Symphony X. In 1994, he was hired by the band as a keyboardist.

Pinnella's nephew, Chris Pinnella, is a vocalist who worked with Trans-Siberian Orchestra.

Equipment
Pinnella uses the following equipment:
 * Yamaha Motif ES7
 * Roland V-Synth GT

With Michael Romeo

 * The Dark Chapter (1994)

Solo

 * Enter by the Twelfth Gate (2004)
 * Ascension (2014)

With Mike LePond's Silent Assassins

 * Mike LePond's Silent Assassins (2014)
 * Pawn And Prophecy (2018)
 * Whore of Babylon (2020)

As a guest

 * Various (Cult of One) – Whiplash (1996)
 * "Strike Me Blind" (Thrashback) – Whiplash (1998)
 * Various (Gone Forever) – God Forbid (2004)
 * "We Will Fly" (Atomic Soul) – Russell Allen (2005)
 * Various (Earthsblood) – God Forbid (2009)
 * "A Vision of You" (Sonic Stomp II) – Mike Orlando (2010)
 * "Sirius" (A Spoonful of Time) – Nektar (2012)

title: Michael Pinnella