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Southwest High School (Minnesota)

Southwest High School, or simply Southwest, is a four-year comprehensive public high school located in the Linden Hills neighborhood of Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States. It is one of 10 high schools in the Minneapolis Public Schools district. Southwest offers the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme.

History
Construction for Southwest High School began in 1938 and the building opened as a school in 1940, with the main entrance at Beard Avenue South and West 47th Street. The school drew 841 students from Minneapolis, Edina and Richfield its first year. Several additions were made to the original structure. The first - a second gymnasium and several new classrooms in an area later known as the "North" building - opened in 1956; additionally, Southwest became a 7-12 school that same year. The second was an entirely new building that became Southwest Junior High and was connected via a single hallway, opening in 1968; the new building containing another gymnasium, a new library, and a pool. With the new gymnasium in the "East" building, the gymnasium in the original structure was turned into a 700-seat auditorium.

With the reorganization of Minneapolis schools in 1982, Southwest returned to just grades 9–12, with seventh and eighth graders going to Anwatin and Anthony Middle Schools. Most of the students who attended West High School were transferred to Southwest when it was closed the same year.

In 1987, the International Baccalaureate Programme began at Southwest. Currently, all 9th and 10th grade students follow the IB Middle Years Programme curriculum.

Also in 1987, Southwest High School was one of the first high schools in the country to stop using a Native American for its mascot and nickname. The Southwest student body voted to change the nickname of the school from the Indians to the Lakers.

In 1998–1999, the classrooms in the North building were enlarged to become science laboratories. This same renovation included more new classrooms, a new gymnasium floor, and bleachers.

In 2006, a new equipment and weight lifting area was designed in the vocational end of the North building. Over the next few years, the entire interior structure of the auditorium was removed starting with the concrete floor and ending with the new roof. The stage and part of the original gym floor, now the orchestra pit, are all that remain of the previous structure. A new audio-video control booth, catwalks, seating, and acoustic walls were added as well.

In 2016, the Minneapolis school board approved a $47+ million renovation which would add a new building and let the school have space for 450 new students. The expansion was completed for the 2016–17 school year and added 20 new classrooms. The new 60,346 square foot building was constructed between the original east (Southwest Junior High building) and west buildings. As a part of the renovation, 12,400 square feet of the east building was demolished. The main offices of the school were moved to the new structure, and a large part of the 60,346 square foot building was the new 10,000 square foot lunch room. The renovation also included mechanical upgrades like air conditioning that classrooms in the school had never had before.

Controversies and incidents
On March 2, 2018, there were several fights between students during the school's lunch period. School officials had known of the possibility of the fight breaking out beforehand and administrators had reached out to the students every hour prior to no avail. The police were not called, but fifteen school resource officers from other schools were brought in for backup.

On March 14, 2018, exactly one month after the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in Parkland, Florida, students at Southwest participated in a nationwide walkout to honor the victims of the shooting and protest gun violence. During the walkout a student across the street from campus waved a "Trump" flag. Eight students confronted him, taking his flag and assaulting him. The student sustained minor injuries and a camera he was holding was damaged. Minneapolis Police stated that a school resource officer stopped the confrontation.

Demographics
The demographic breakdown of the 1,918 students enrolled in 2021-2022 was:
 * Male – 51%
 * Female – 49%
 * Native American/Alaskan – 0.7%
 * Asian/Pacific islanders – 3.7%
 * Black – 26.7%
 * Hispanic – 10.2%
 * White – 56.2%
 * Multiracial – 2.5%

33% of the students were eligible for free or reduced cost lunch. This is a Title I school.

Notable alumni

 * Chuck Aoki - Paralympic wheelchair rugby player
 * Dorothy Benham – Miss America 1977
 * Tom Chorske – professional ice hockey player
 * Dessa Darling – hip hop artist, poet, writer
 * Peter Graves – actor
 * Dylan Keefe – bass guitarist of Marcy Playground
 * Libby Larsen - Grammy Award-winning composer
 * Greg Murtha - former NFL tackle
 * Dave Peterson (1955–1984), business teacher, high school hockey coach, and coach of the United States men's national ice hockey team
 * Ken Rizer – Iowa state representative
 * Marion Ross – actress
 * Matthew Santos – musician
 * Palbasha Siddique – singer
 * Matt Smaby – professional ice hockey player
 * Jake Sullivan – National Security Advisor for President Joe Biden
 * John Taft – professional ice hockey player
 * Lizz Winstead – comedian, Daily Show co-creator

title: Southwest High School (Minnesota)


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Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever

Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever (VHF) is a zoonotic human illness first identified in 1989. The disease is most prevalent in several rural areas of central Venezuela and is caused by Guanarito mammarenavirus (GTOV) which belongs to the Arenaviridae family. The short-tailed cane mouse (Zygodontomys brevicauda) is the main host for GTOV which is spread mostly by inhalation of aerosolized droplets of saliva, respiratory secretions, urine, or blood from infected rodents. Person-to-person spread is possible, but uncommon.

Presentation
VHF has many similarities to Lassa fever and to the arenavirus hemorrhagic fevers that occur in Argentina and Bolivia. It causes fever and malaise followed by hemorrhagic manifestations and convulsions. Some presentations of the virus are also characterized by vascular damage, bleeding diathesis, fever, and multiple organ involvement. Clinical diagnosis of VHF has proven to be difficult based on the nonspecific symptoms. The disease is fatal in 30% of cases and is endemic to Portuguesa state and Barinas state in Venezuela.

Treatment and prevention for the VHF virus are limited and there are currently no licensed vaccines available that can act to prevent the disease. However, once infected, ribavirin, an anti-viral drug given intravenously, is one way to treat VHF.

Virus
Arenaviruses are enveloped, single-stranded, bisegmented RNA viruses with antisense genomes. Based on their antigenic properties, arenaviruses have been classified into two major groups: the Old World arenaviruses, and the New World arenaviruses. Old World arenaviruses include lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus and Lassa virus. New world arena viruses are further broken down into three clades, A, B, and C. The Guanarito arena virus belongs to clade B and is the cause of VHF. On the biosafety level scale of one to four, with four causing the most risk, the viruses causing hemorrhagic fevers have been assigned a four by the CDC.

Host
The short-tailed cane mouse, the main host of GTOV, is native to western Venezuela and resides in large numbers in tall grass, cultivated agricultural fields, human homes, and outbuildings. It is speculated that demographic and ecological changes in the rural areas increased the frequency of contact between humans and infected rodents such that VHF emerged.

History
From September 1989 through December 2006, the State of Portuguesa recorded 618 cases of VHF. Nearly all of the cases were individuals who worked or lived in Guanarito during the time they became infected. The case fatality rate was 23.1%.

Because the virus is contracted by aerosol dissemination, concern arose shortly after the first cases emerged in 1989 due to fear of biological warfare. Potential biological terrorism agents were identified and categorized in 1999 by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) as part of the Congressional initiative to further response capabilities to biological weapons. Arenaviruses causing hemorrhagic fevers, along with a genus of virus called filoviruses, were categorized in Category A; these are pathogens with the highest potential impact on public health safety.

A notable event in the timeline of this virus' scientific knowledge was the unexplained disappearance of a vial of the virus at the University of Texas Medical Branch Galveston National Laboratory, announced 2013 March 24.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever


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Oregano (disambiguation)

Oregano (Origanum vulgare) is an herb commonly used in cooking.

Oregano may also refer to:

Plants

 * Lippia graveolens, Mexican oregano
 * Lippia micromera (Spanish thyme), a species in the Lippia genus
 * Plectranthus amboinicus, Cuban oregano
 * Poliomintha bustamanta (Mexican oregano), in the Poliomintha genus
 * Poliomintha longiflora (Mexican oregano), in the Poliomintha genus

Other

 * OREGANO 1973 implementation of ALGOL 68 programming language
 * Oregano (software), a program for simulation of electrical circuits
 * Oregano (web browser), a web browser
 * Oregano oil, an oil extracted from the herb Oregano

title: Oregano (disambiguation)


text:
User:AlanR

= Alan Robertson = Alan founded the Linux-HA project, related to high-availability Computer clusters and led it from led it from 1997-2007.

More recently, he founded the Assimilation Project for System Management. He maintains a bio on the Assimilation Systems Limited web site.

title: User:AlanR


text:
2 Enoch

The Second Book of Enoch (abbreviated as 2 Enoch and also known as Slavonic Enoch, Slavic Enoch, or the Secrets of Enoch) is a pseudepigraphic text in the apocalyptic genre. It describes the ascent of the patriarch Enoch, ancestor of Noah, through ten heavens of an Earth-centered cosmos. The Slavonic edition and translation of 2 Enoch is of Christian origin in the 8th century but is based on an earlier work. 2 Enoch is distinct from the Book of Enoch, known as 1 Enoch, and there is also an unrelated 3 Enoch, although none of the three books are considered canonical scripture by the majority of Jewish or Christian bodies. The numbering of these texts has been applied by scholars to distinguish each from the others.

The cosmology of 2 Enoch corresponds closely with beliefs of the Early Middle Ages about the metaphysical structure of the universe. It may have been influential in shaping them. The text was lost for several centuries, then recovered and published at the end of the nineteenth century. The full text is extant only in Church Slavonic, but Coptic fragments have been known since 2009. The Church Slavonic version itself represents a translation from an earlier Greek version.

Some scholars attribute 2 Enoch to an unidentified Jewish sect, while others regard it as the work of first-century Christians. Some consider it a later Christian work. It is not included in either the Jewish or the Christian canon, except that it was heavily utilized by the Bogomils.

Manuscript tradition
2 Enoch has survived in more than twenty Old Bulgarian manuscripts and fragments, dated from the 14th to 18th centuries AD. These Old Bulgarian materials did not circulate independently but were included in collections that often rearranged, abbreviated, or expanded them. Typically, Jewish pseudepigraphic texts in Slavic milieux were transmitted as part of larger historiographical, moral, and liturgical codexes and compendiums, where ideologically marginal and mainstream materials were mixed.

2 Enoch exists in longer and shorter recensions. The first editors  considered the longer version to be the original. Since 1921, Schmidt and many authors challenged this theory, and considered the shorter recension to be more ancient. Vaillant showed in 1952 that the additional parts found only in the longer version use more recent terms. Other scholars suggest that both of them preserve original material, and posit the existence of three or even four recensions.

Two different ways of numbering verses and chapters are used for 2 Enoch: the more widely accepted is Popov's of 73 chapters, while De Santos Otero proposed division into 24 chapters.

The best family of manuscripts are copies of the compilation of rearranged materials from Chapters 40–65 found in a 14th-century judicial codex titled The Just Balance (Merilo Pravednoe). It is the oldest of all the manuscripts. The main manuscripts of the longer version are designated R, J, and P. The main manuscripts of the shorter version are designated U, B, V, and N. Several other manuscripts exist.

There is one fragment of 2 Enoch in Glagolitic in the Croatian dialect. It dates to the 17th century.

Most scholars believe that the Old Bulgarian version was translated from one or more lost Greek versions, since the text attests to some traditions that make sense only in the Greek language. For example, a tradition found in 2 Enoch 30 that derives Adam’s name from the Greek designations of the four corners of the world. Semitisms found in various parts of the text, such as the words Ophanim and Raqia Arabot, point to the possibility of a Semitic original behind the Greek version.

In 2009, four fragments in Coptic from Chapters 36–42 were identified. They follow the short recension and are related to Manuscript U.

Date
Dates ranging from the 1st century BCE to the 10th century CE have been proposed, with the late 1st century CE often preferred. The date of the text can be deduced solely on the basis of the internal evidence, since the book has survived only in the medieval manuscripts (even if a reference to 2 Enoch could be found in Origen's On the First Principles i, 3:3). 2 Enoch's composition must be later than that of the Book of the Watchers in 1 Enoch, around the 3rd century BCE. The crucial arguments for the early dating of the text have very largely been linked to the themes of the Temple in Jerusalem and its ongoing practices and customs. Scholarly efforts have been, in this respect, mostly directed toward finding hints that the Sanctuary was still standing when the original text was composed. Scholars note that the text gives no indication that the destruction of the Temple had already occurred at the time of the book's composition. Critical readers of pseudepigraphic texts would have difficulty finding any explicit expression of feelings of sadness or mourning about the loss of the sanctuary.

Affirmations of the value of animal sacrifice and Enoch's halakhic instructions, found in 2 Enoch 59, also appear to be fashioned not in the "preservationist", mishnaic-like style, but rather as if they reflected sacrificial practices that still existed when the author was writing his book. The author tries to legitimize the central place of worship, through reference to the place Ahuzan, which is a cryptic name for a Jewish temple.

Scholars have also previously noted in the text some indications of the ongoing practice of pilgrimage to the central place of worship. These indications could be expected in a text written in the Alexandrian diaspora. In his instructions to the children, Enoch repeatedly encourages them to bring the gifts before the face of God for the remission of sins, a practice which appears to recall well-known sacrificial customs widespread in the Second Temple period. Further, the Old Bulgarian apocalypse also contains a direct command to visit the Temple three times a day, an inconsistency if the sanctuary had been already destroyed.

Divisions
The book can be divided into four sections:
 * In the first section (chapters 1–22), Enoch, at the age of 365, is taken by two angels through the ten heavens, one by one.
 * In the second section (chapters 23–37), Enoch, now guided by Gabriel, speaks with God in the tenth heaven face to face. Afterwards, he is anointed by Michael, and becomes similar in appearance to the angels. God creates orders (ranks/groups) of angels, but one angel among them backed by his order (group), tries to establish his own throne above God's throne. God thus throws him and his order down, so that they remain above the bottomless pit. (This story seems similar to that of the War in Heaven between God and Satan. ) The group of angels, identified as the angels of Satanail, later seduce (tempt) Eve in the Garden of Eden. The Lord asks the angel Vereviel to dictate to Enoch 360 books containing all that is knowable. Later, the Lord himself tells Enoch the secrets, unknown even to the angels, of the Creation until the Flood. Enoch is then sent back to Earth for thirty days.
 * The third section (chapters 38–68) is a list of doctrinal and ethical instructions given by Enoch to his sons. The main moral principle is to have love for all living beings (similar to the ethics found in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs). Particularly noticeable is a lack of interest in the sin of fornication, and not once is the Law of Moses referred to. Enoch teaches the uselessness of intercessions. At the end of the thirty days, Enoch is taken into heaven forever.
 * The last section (sometimes referred to as the Exaltation of Melchizedek) outlines the priestly succession of Enoch. Enoch's son, Methuselah, is asked by the people to act as an interim priest. The priesthood of Nir, grandson of Methuselah, is also temporary. Then the miraculous birth of Melchizedek and his priesthood are narrated (see Melchizedek for a short summary). In manuscript B and in the long versions, this section ends with a short narrative of the Deluge.

Ten heavens
The Second Book of Enoch, also known as The Book of the Secrets of Enoch, is most noted for its description of multiple heavens and accounts of battles between angels and devils. This account is thought to have been known by and to have influenced the apostle Paul who described his experience of being taken up to the third heaven (2 Corinthians 12:2-4). Enoch describes the ten heavens this way:
 * 1) The first heaven is just above the firmament (Genesis 1:6-7) where the angels control atmospheric phenomena such as the storehouses of snow and rain and the waters above.
 * 2) In the second heaven, Enoch finds darkness: a prison where rebel angels are tortured.
 * 3) In the third heaven, he sees both paradise represented as the Garden of Eden which is also guarded by angels (similar to ) and hell where bad men are tortured.
 * 4) The fourth heaven is the place of the movements of the Sun and of the Moon, which are described in detail. Around the Sun he sees angelic creatures known as phoenixes (which also reside in the sixth heaven) and chalkydri. There is also on this level a heavenly choir comprising soldier angels whose singing is wonderful and marvelous.
 * 5) In the fifth heaven, Enoch finds some Grigori: soldiers of Satan that look like human beings but were giants. They were in a state of limbo, having not yet been condemned, and Enoch convinced them to repent.
 * 6) In the sixth heaven, he sees the angels in charge of governing the cosmos and people. These are the archangels who are above angels, measure all life in heaven and on earth, and the angels who are (appointed) over seasons and years, the angels who are over rivers and sea, and who are over the fruits of the earth, and the angels who are over every grass, giving food to all, to every living thing, and the angels who write all the souls of men, and all their deeds, and their lives before the Lord's face.
 * 7) In the seventh heaven, Enoch, now guided by Gabriel, is allowed to enter and sees the Lord on his throne face to face but only from a distance. This is where the legions of God's angels live in beautiful light.
 * 8) The eighth heaven is just below the upper firmament in which are stuck the constellations; here resides Muzaloth, changer of the seasons and mover of the constellations.
 * 9) The ninth heaven is the upper firmament in which are fixed the constellations and the changer of the seasons.
 * 10) The tenth and final heaven is where God's throne resides and God's face may be seen up close. Here he holds court.

Exaltation of Melchizedek
Chapters 69–73 of 2 Enoch (sometimes referred as the Exaltation of Melchizedek or 2EM) outline the priestly succession of Enoch. There is not unanimous consensus whether this section belongs to the main body of the text or it is an early addition. Considering the not-fragmentary main manuscripts, 2EM is not included in P V N, it is included partially in J, while it is fully included in R U B, which anyway represent the best traditions of all versions. So we have both shorter and a longer versions of 2EM. Some early authors, as Charles, have not included this section mainly because they based their edition on manuscripts P and N. The lack of this section in recent manuscripts is explained by others because of the scandalous content (the virgin birth of Melchisedek) for Christian copyists. According to Vaillant, who edited the first critical edition of 2 Enoch, there is no evidence that 2EM ever existed separately. Modern editions usually include also these chapters.

The recent discoveries of Melchisedek 11Q13 text at Qumran and of a related text at Nag Hammadi, have made possible to have an idea about the Melchisedek controversy, involving also 2EM and the Letter to the Hebrews, that developed in non-mainstream Jewish communities and in early Christians communities from the 1st century BCE to the 3rd century CE against the traditional Jewish identification of Melchisedek with Shem.

A growing number of scholars recognize the antiquity of 2 Enoch, including also 2EM, and support a pre-70 CE dating for its original composition. Sacchi suggests that 2EM is actually an addition to the main body of the text (the style is slightly different), but a very early addition by someone of the same sect that wrote 2 Enoch (it uses the same language and same typical names as Ahuzan for temple), dating 2EM after the 70 CE but before or about the Letter to the Hebrews. The differences between 2EM with the Letter to the Hebrews (in the Letter to the Hebrews, Melchisedek is primarily a heavenly figure, while 2EM depicts him as an earthly one) don't allow to prove the dependence of 2EM from Hebrews.

Theology
The theological universe of 2 Enoch is deeply rooted in the Enochic mold of the Jewish Apocalyptic literature of the Second Temple period. Yet along with appropriations of ancient traditions about the seventh antediluvian hero, the text attempts to reshape them by adding a new mystical dimension to the familiar apocalyptic imagery. The figure of Enoch portrayed in the various sections of 2 Enoch appears more elaborate than in the early Second Temple Enochic treatise of 1 Enoch. The anointing of Enoch, after he saw face to face the Lord, makes him be similar in appearance to a glorious angel and that allows him to sit above other angels on the left of the Lord.

According to Orlov, in this attempt, one may find the origins of another image of Enoch, very different from the early Enochic literature, that was developed much later in rabbinic Merkabah and Hekhalot mysticism: the image of the supreme angel Metatron, "the Prince of the Presence", found in the later 3 Enoch. The titles of the patriarch found in the Old Bulgarian apocalypse appear to be different from those attested in early Enochic writings and demonstrate a close resemblance to the titles of Metatron as they appear in some Hekhalot sources. These developments demonstrate that 2 Enoch represents a bridge between the early apocalyptic Enochic accounts and the later mystical rabbinic and Hekhalot traditions.

Usage
The Bogomils often used and read the Slavonic book of Enoch. Some have even theorized that the book was made by the Bogomils, but this theory is now rejected.

Online English translations

 * The Book of the Secrets of Enoch, edited by R. H. Charles (no preview)
 * The Book of the Secrets of Enoch – without 2EM
 * William Morfill (1896). 2Enoch or The Book of the Secrets of Enoch. Edited by R. H. Charles with the "Melkizedekian Fragment" as an appendix

About 2 Enoch

 * Jewish Encyclopedia: Enoch, Books of (Ethiopic and Slavonic)
 * Enoch Literature
 * Bibliography on 2 Enoch
 * Secrets of Creation in 2 Enoch
 * Melchizedek Legend of 2 (Slavonic) Enoch
 * Titles of Enoch in 2 Enoch
 * Patriarch Noah in 2 Enoch
 * On the Polemical Nature of 2 Enoch

title: 2 Enoch


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The Tao of Zen

The Tao of Zen is a nonfiction book by Canadian religious scholar Ray Grigg. In his reading of Zen, Grigg argues that to attain enlightenment, all that one has to do is "act naturally and spontaneously in accordance with the Tao." The book, which in the early 21st century has been called "influential...but not uncontested", was published by Charles E. Tuttle Company in 1994, and reprinted by Alva Press in 1999.

Summary
The work argues that what we recognize as traditional Chinese Ch’an/Japanese Zen Buddhism is in fact almost entirely grounded in Chinese Taoist philosophy, though this fact is well shrouded by the persistence of Mahayana Buddhist institutional trappings. Utilizing an array of scholarly commentary on the two traditions and historical deduction from what can be considered to be the best primary source material available, the author traces the development of Taoism and Buddhism in China and Japan for two millennia.

The story unfolds in China as Buddhism appears on the scene and is accepted by the Chinese population as a “simplified version of Taoism” that the Western barbarians (subcontinent Indians and Central Asians, e.g. Tibetans, et al.) could understand. They shared many philosophical similarities that made Chinese acclimation to Buddhism much easier – but the more dogmatic ways in which Buddhism was practiced helped it to get the fast track on becoming the predominant religion in China.

Its predisposition to monastic institutionalization throughout the empire allowed it to eventually assimilate and co-opt Taoist perspectives. The dominance of the Ch’an Buddhist tradition was most responsible for this trend. However, when it was eventually exported to Japan, the Taoist strands had the opportunity in a new cultural framework to once again assert themselves.

Grigg is able to trace the submergence and eventual resurgence of Taoism in Japan and the modern West by identifying how its specific tendencies (paradox, nonduality, aversion to institutionalization, emphasis on informal and varied paths to enlightenment, focus on the practical matters of influencing the social world, etc.) clearly manifested themselves in very different times and places.

What he seeks to do in this book is vindicate the importance of Taoist thought in the Chinese religious history and displace the notion of Zen Buddhism as a coherent whole. To him, these are very different spiritual systems that only coexist today because of the almost wholly unacknowledged lingering of the original Buddhist colonization of Taoist China. The popularity of Zen today owes much more to its persistent Taoist origins than to Buddhist doctrine.

Quotations
Grigg, like Shunryū Suzuki, argues that tzu-jan, or spontaneity, is inherent in human beings and is a natural state when they act without ego. He writes:"When people are naturally themselves, when they are unfashioned by any preconception about what they ought or ought not to be, and who they might or might not be, they inadvertently become one with the wholeness of things. This does not make them “perfect” according to some narrow system of idealistic judgment. But it does give them an integrity of being that intuitively and spontaneously follows a wisdom that is greater than themselves."

Reception
English professor John G. Rudy argues that Grigg "tends, perhaps, to overstate the similarities between Taoism and Zen when he says at the head of his text: 'Zen is Taoism disguised as Buddhism'."

title: The Tao of Zen


text:
Betsey Cushing Whitney

Betsey Maria Whitney ( Cushing, formerly Roosevelt; May 18, 1908 – March 25, 1998) was an American philanthropist, a former daughter-in-law of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and later wife of U.S. Ambassador to the Court of St James's, John Hay Whitney.

Early life
She was the middle daughter of prominent neurosurgeon Harvey Williams Cushing and his wife, Katharine Stone Crowell, who hailed from a socially prominent Cleveland family. Dr. Cushing, who was descended from Matthew Cushing, an early settler of Hingham, Massachusetts, served as professor of surgery at Johns Hopkins, Harvard and Yale universities, and established the family in Boston.

Though she had two brothers, she and her two sisters became known in the social world as the "Cushing Sisters", heralded for their charm and beauty and schooled by their social-climbing mother to pursue husbands of wealth and prominence. All three Cushing sisters married into wealth and prominence: Her older sister, Mary "Minnie", married Vincent Astor, the heir of a $200 million fortune, in 1940, and her younger sister Barbara "Babe" was married to Standard Oil heir Stanley Mortimer Jr., and later to CBS founder William S. Paley. Both of her sisters died of cancer within months of each other in 1978.

Philanthropy
She established the Greentree Foundation in 1983 to assist local community groups. She was a benefactor of North Shore University Hospital in Manhasset, built in the early 1950s on 15 acre donated by Whitney. She was also involved with the Museum of Modern Art (MOMA), Yale University and New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center. Among her many public activities over the years were memberships on the boards of the Whitney Museum of American Art, the John Hay Whitney Foundation and the Association for Homemakers Service.

After her husband's death in 1982, she donated $8 million to the Yale Medical School, then the largest gift in the school's history. The National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. acquired nine important American and French paintings, as well as $2 million for future acquisitions. She left $15 million to New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center in her own will.

She also made art auction history in 1990 by putting up for sale, by Sotheby's, one of Renoir's most famous paintings, the sun-dappled cafe scene Bal au moulin de la Galette, Montmartre. It brought $78.1 million, then a record auction price for Impressionist art and the second-highest price for any artwork sold at auction. After her death, her art collection was sold at Sotheby's in 1999 for a then-record $128.3 million, "the second-highest single-owner auction in history."

Personal life
In June 1930, she married James Roosevelt II (1907–1991), the eldest son of then Governor of New York, and eventual President of the United States, Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Anna Eleanor Roosevelt. After her father-in-law became president, her husband served his father as an aide at the White House, and she often stood-in as hostess at the White House when Eleanor was absent. When FDR entertained King George VI and Queen Elizabeth at a picnic at the Roosevelt estate in Hyde Park, New York in 1939, she was present and accompanied FDR as he drove the King and Queen along the Hudson River.

She and James had two daughters:
 * Sara Delano Roosevelt (March 13, 1932 – October 22, 2021), who married Anthony di Bonaventura (1929–2012) in 1953.  They divorced in 1972 and she married Ronald A. Wilford (1927–2015) in 1973.
 * Kate Roosevelt (born 1936), later known as Kate Whitney after her stepfather adopted her. She is the mother of Lulie Haddad.

In 1938, James left for Hollywood to work as an aide to Samuel Goldwyn. Betsey followed him, but they divorced in 1940. She was granted custody of their daughters, along with child support, though by biographers' accounts, James had little to no contact with his children, and eventually married three more times.

On March 1, 1942, she married millionaire John Hay "Jock" Whitney (1904–1982), who had been previously married to socialite Elizabeth Altemus. Whitney adopted both of her daughters. They moved to London in 1957, when President Dwight D. Eisenhower named Whitney Ambassador to the Court of St. James's.

During the 1970s, Whitney was listed as one of the ten wealthiest men in the world. Their residences over the years included the Greentree estate on Long Island; Greenwood Plantation in Georgia; a town house and an elegant apartment in Manhattan; a large summer house on Fishers Island, near New London, Connecticut; a 12-room house in Saratoga Springs, which the Whitneys used when they attended horse races there; a golfing cottage in Augusta, Georgia; and a spacious house, Cherry Hill, in Virginia Water, Surrey, England, near the Ascot racecourse. In addition, the Whitneys shared a Kentucky horse farm with Whitney's sister.

Death
She died on March 25, 1998, at North Shore University Hospital in Manhasset, New York. Her personal fortune was estimated at $700 million in 1990 according to Forbes magazine. Her estate bequeathed eight major paintings to the National Gallery of Art.

Art owned

 * Self-Portrait (1889) by Vincent van Gogh
 * Marcelle Lender Dancing the Bolero in Chilpéric (1895/1896) by Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
 * Open Window, Collioure (1905) by Henri Matisse
 * The Harbor of La Ciotat (1907) by Georges Braque
 * The Beach at Sainte-Adresse (1906) by Raoul Dufy
 * Bal du moulin de la Galette (1876) by Pierre-Auguste Renoir, the fifth most expensive painting ever sold, when adjusted for inflation.

title: Betsey Cushing Whitney


text:
Plastic recycling

Plastic recycling is the processing of plastic waste into other products. Recycling can reduce dependence on landfill, conserve resources and protect the environment from plastic pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Recycling rates lag behind those of other recoverable materials, such as aluminium, glass and paper. From the start of plastic production through to 2015, the world produced around 6.3 billion tonnes of plastic waste, only 9% of which has been recycled and only ~1% has been recycled more than once. Of the remaining waste, 12% was incinerated and 79% either sent to landfill or lost into the environment as pollution.

Almost all plastic is non-biodegradable and without recycling, spreads across the environment where it causes plastic pollution. For example, as of 2015, approximately 8 million tonnes of waste plastic enters the oceans annually, damaging oceanic ecosystem and forming ocean garbage patches.

Almost all recycling is mechanical and involves the melting and reforming of plastic into other items. This can cause polymer degradation at the molecular level, and requires that waste be sorted by colour and polymer type before processing, which is often complicated and expensive. Errors can lead to material with inconsistent properties, rendering it unappealing to industry. Though filtration in mechanical recycling reduces microplastic release, even the most efficient filtration systems cannot prevent the release of microplastics into wastewater.

In feedstock recycling, waste plastic is converted into its starting chemicals, which can then become fresh plastic. This involves higher energy and capital costs. Alternatively, plastic can be burned in place of fossil fuels in energy recovery facilities, or biochemically converted into other useful chemicals for industry. In some countries, burning is the dominant form of plastic waste disposal, particularly where landfill diversion policies are in place.

Plastic recycling is low in the waste hierarchy, meaning that reduction and reuse are more favourable and long-term solutions for sustainability.

It has been advocated since the early 1970s, but due to economic and technical challenges, did not impact the management of plastic waste to any significant extent until the late 1980s. The plastics industry has been criticised for lobbying for expansion of recycling programmes, even while research showed that most plastic could not be economically recycled. This has resulted in occasions where plastic waste dropped into recycling bins has not been recycled, and been treated as general waste.

History
Although plastics were discovered before the 20th century, large-scale production was not realised until World War II. Nylon replaced silk in parachutes, while Perspex was a light-weight alternative to glass in aeroplanes. After the war these materials were commercialized. The plastic age began around 1950, part of the post-war economic boom.

Global environmental movements in the 1960s and 1970s led to the formation of environmental agencies. (EPA, 1970), EU (DG ENV, 1973) Australia (EPA, 1971) and Japan (JEA 1971). Environmental awareness put plastic waste under scrutiny. The earliest effort to abate plastic pollution was arguably the 1973 and 1978 MARPOL agreements, whose Annex V banned dumping plastics in the oceans.

Industry lobbying

As regulations expanded, the plastics industry responded with lobbying to preserve their business interests. In the U.S., the 1970 Resource Recovery Act directed the nation towards recycling and energy recovery. More than a thousand attempts to pass legislation to ban or tax packaging, including plastics, came by 1976. The plastics industry responded by lobbying for plastic to be recycled. A $50 million per year campaign was run by organisations such as Keep America Beautiful with the message that plastic could and would be recycled, as well as lobbying for the establishment of curbside recycling.

However, plastic could not be economically recycled using the technology of the time. For example, an April 1973 report written by industry scientists stated that, "There is no recovery from obsolete products" and that, "A degradation of resin properties and performance occurs during the initial fabrication, through aging, and in any reclamation process." The report concluded that sorting the plastic is "infeasible". Contemporary scientific reports highlighted numerous technical barriers.

Globally, plastic waste was almost entirely disposed of via landfill until the 1980s when rates of incineration increased. Although better technology was known, these early incinerators often lacked advanced combustors or emission-control systems, leading to the release of dioxins and dioxin-like compounds.

In the late 1980s plastic recycling began in earnest. In 1988 the U.S. Society of the Plastics Industry created the Council for Solid Waste Solutions as a trade association to promote the idea of plastic recycling to the public. The association lobbied American municipalities to launch or expand plastic waste collection programmes and lobbied U.S. states to require the labelling of plastic containers and products with recycling symbols.

The industry introduced resin identification codes in 1988, which provided a standard system for the identification of various polymer types at materials recovery facilities.

Global recycling trade
Globalisation during the 1990s included the export of plastic waste from advanced economies to developing and middle-income ones, where it could be sorted and recycled less expensively. The annual trade in plastic waste increased rapidly from 1993 onwards as part of the global waste trade.

Many governments count items as recycled if they have been exported for that purpose, regardless of the actual outcome. The practice has been labeled environmental dumping, as environmental laws and enforcement are generally weaker in less developed economies. By 2016 about 14 Mt of plastic waste was exported, with China taking 7.35 Mt. Much of this was low quality mixed plastic that ended up in landfills. However, recycled plastic is used extensively in manufacturing in China, and imported plastic waste was predominantly processed using low-technology processing. High-income countries such as Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States were the top exporters.

In 2017, China began restricting waste plastics imports via Operation National Sword. Exporters eventually exported to other countries mostly in Southeast Asia, such as Vietnam and Malaysia, but also Turkey and India. Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand reacted to illegal plastic waste imports by reinforcing border controls. Illegally imported containers were repatriated or refused entry. Consequently, plastic waste containers accumulated in ports.

Given limited export options, attention turned to local solutions. Proposed extended producer responsibility would tax plastic producers to subsidise recyclers.

In 2019, international trade in plastic waste became regulated under the Basel Convention. Under the convention, any Party can decide to prohibit imports of hazardous plastic waste and, since 1 January 2021, of some mixed plastic wastes. Parties to the convention are required to ensure environmentally sound management of their refuse either through alternative importers or by increasing capacity.

The COVID-19 pandemic temporarily reduced trade in plastic waste, due in part to reduced activity at waste management facilities, shipping disruptions, and low oil prices that reduced the cost of virgin plastic and made recycling less profitable.

European Union strategic developments
The European Commission's "Action Plan" for a circular economy, adopted in December 2015, saw plastics as a strategic priority for developing circular economy actions. In 2017, the Commission further adopted a focus on plastic production and use, targeting the achievement of all plastic packaging being recyclable by 2030. The Commission then issued a strategic document in January 2018 which set out an "ambitious vision" and an opportunity for global action on plastic recycling.

Production and recycling rates

The total amount of plastic ever produced worldwide, until 2015, is estimated to be 8.3 billion tonnes (Bt). Approximately 6.3 Bt of this was discarded as waste, of which around 79% accumulated in landfills or the natural environment, 12% was incinerated, and 9% was recycled - only ~1% of all plastic has been recycled more than once. More recently, as of 2017, still only 9% of the 9 Bt of plastic produced was recycled.

By 2015 global production had reached some 381 million tonnes (Mt) per year. The recycling rate that year was 19.5%, while 25.5% was incinerated and the remaining 55% disposed of, largely to landfill. These rates lag behind those of other recyclables, such as paper, metal and glass. Although the percentage of recycled or incinerated material is increasing each year, the tonnage of waste left-over also continues to rise. Production could reach ~800 Mt per year by 2040, although implementing all feasible interventions could reduce plastic pollution by 40% from 2016 rates.

Recycling rates vary among types of plastic. Several types are in common use, each with distinct chemical and physical properties. This affects sorting and reprocessing costs; which affects the value and market size for recovered materials. PET and HDPE have the highest recycling rates, whereas polystyrene and polyurethane are rarely recycled.

One of the reasons for low levels of plastic recycling is weak demand, given the materials' poor/inconsistent properties. The percentage of plastic that can be fully recycled, rather than downcycled or go to waste, can be increased when manufacturers minimise mixing of packaging materials and eliminate contaminants. The Association of Plastics Recyclers has issued a "Design Guide for Recyclability".

The most commonly produced plastic consumer products include packaging made from LDPE (e.g. bags, containers, food packaging film), containers made from HDPE (e.g. milk bottles, shampoo bottles, ice cream tubs), and PET (e.g. bottles for water and other drinks). Together these products account for around 36% of plastic production. The use of plastics in building and construction, textiles, transportation and electrical equipment accounts for another substantial share of the plastics market.

Regional data
Plastic consumption differs among countries and communities, although it is found almost everywhere. As of 2022 North American countries (NAFTA) accounted for 21% of global plastic consumption, closely followed by China (20%) and Western Europe (18%). In North America and Europe per capita plastic consumption was 94 kg and 85 kg/capita/year, respectively. China reached 58 kg/capita/year.

In 2012, 25.2 Mt of post-consumer plastic waste was collected in the European Union. Of this, more than 60% (15.6 Mt) was recovered and 40% (9.6 Mt) was disposed of as municipal solid waste (MSW). Of the 15.6 Mt of recovered plastic waste, about 6.6 Mt was recycled, while the remainder was likely used as refuse-derived fuel (RDF) or incinerated in MSW incinerators with energy recovery (about 9 Mt). Europe leads in plastics recycling, reusing about 26%.

The recycling activities of the largest producers of plastic waste have the greatest effect on global averages. These are a mix of advanced economies and large developing nations. Some publish official statistics on their plastic recycling rates. Others may release partial data, usually limited to population centres. This makes it difficult to draw accurate comparisons, especially as the published recycling rates vary.

* Although not formally a country, legislation affecting recycling is often made at the EU level

Identification codes
[[File:Primary plastic waste generation by polymer, OWID.svg|thumb|260px|alt=See caption|Global plastic waste generation by polymer type. Colours indicate recyclability:• Blue is widely recycled

• Yellow is sometimes recycled

• Red is usually not recycled]]

Many plastic items bear symbols identifying the type of polymer from which they are made. These resin identification codes (RIC), are used internationally. They were developed in 1988 by the Society of the Plastics Industry (now the Plastics Industry Association) in the United States, but since 2008 have been administered by standards organisation ASTM International.

RICs are not mandatory in all countries, but many producers voluntarily mark their products. More than half of U.S. states have enacted laws that require plastic products be identifiable. The seven codes include six for the most common commodity plastics and one as a catch-all. The EU maintains a similar nine-code list that also includes ABS and polyamides. RICs are based on the recycling symbol, but have drawn criticism, as they imply that marked items are always recyclable when this may not be true.

RICs are not particularly important for single-stream recycling, as these operations are increasingly automated. However, in some countries citizens are required to separate their plastic waste according to polymer type before collection. For instance, in Japan PET bottles are collected separately for recycling.

Waste composition
Plastic waste consists of various polymer types. Polyolefins make up nearly 50% of all plastic waste and more than 90% of waste is made of thermosoftening polymers, which can be remelted

Collecting and sorting

Recycling begins with the collection and sorting of waste. Curbside collection operates in many countries. Waste is sent to a materials recovery facility or MBT plant where the plastic is separated, cleaned and sorted for sale. Unsuitable materials are sent to a landfill or incinerator. These operations account for a large proportion of the financial and energy costs associated with recycling.

Sorting plastic is more complicated than other recyclable materials because it comes in a greater range of forms. For example, glass is separated into three streams (clear, green and amber), metals are usually either steel or aluminum and can be separated using magnets or eddy current separators, and paper is usually sorted into a single stream.

Six types of commodity polymer account for about 75% of plastics waste, with the rest comprising a myriad of polymer types, including polyurethanes and synthetic fibers with a range of chemical structures. Items made from the same type of polymer may be incompatible with each other depending on the additives they contain. Additives are compounds blended into plastics to enhance performance and include stabilisers, fillers and, most significantly, dyes. Clear plastics hold the highest value as they may be dyed after recycling, while black or strongly coloured plastic is much less valuable, because they affect the color of the downstream product. Thus, plastic is typically sorted by both polymer type and colour.

Various sorting approaches and technologies have been developed. They can be combined in various ways. In practice no approach is 100% effective. Sorting accuracy varies between recyclers, producing a market where products are poorly standardised. This inconsistency is another barrier to recycling.

Manual separation
Sorting by hand is the oldest and simplest method. In developing countries this may be done by waste pickers, while in a recycling center, workers pick items off a conveyor-belt. It requires low levels of technology and investment, but has high labor costs. Although many plastic items have identification codes workers rarely have time to look for them, so leaving problems of inefficiency and inconsistency. Even advanced facilities retain manual pickers to troubleshoot and correct sorting errors. Working conditions can be unsanitary.

Density separation
Plastics can be separated by exploiting differences in their densities. In this approach the plastic is first ground into flakes of a similar size, washed and subjected to gravity separation. This can be achieved using either an air classifier or hydrocyclone, or via wet float-sink method. These approaches provide partial sorting, as some polymers have similar density. Polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE) are similar as are polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polystyrene (PS), and PVC. In addition, if the plastic contains fillers, this may affect its density. The lighter PP and PE fraction is known as mixed polyolefin (MPO) and can be sold as a low-value product, the heavier mixed plastics fraction is usually unrecyclable.

Electrostatic separation
In electrostatic separators, the triboelectric effect is used to charge plastic particles electrically; with different polymers charged to different extents. They are then blown through an electric field, which deflects them depending on their charge, directing them into appropriate collectors. As with density separation, the particles need to be dry, be uniform in size and shape. Electrostatic separation can be complementary to density separation, allowing full separation of polymers, albeit of mixed colours.

Sensor-based separation

This approach is largely automated and involves various sensors linked to a computer, which analyses items and directs them into appropriate chutes or belts. Near-infrared spectroscopy can be used to distinguish polymer types, although black/strongly-coloured plastics, as well as composite materials like plastic-coated paper and multilayered packaging, which can give misleading readings. Optical sorting such as colour sorters or hyperspectral imaging can then split by colour. Sensor based separation is more expensive to install but has the best recovery rates and produces more high-quality products.

Scrap
Plastic waste is either industrial scrap (sometimes referred to as post industrial resin) or consumer waste. Scrap is generated during production and is usually handled differently. It can include flashings, trimmings, sprues and rejects. As it is collected at the point of manufacture it is clean, and of a known type and grade, and is valuable. As scrap is mostly privately traded, it is often not included in official statistics.

Mechanical recycling

The majority of plastic waste is made of thermosoftening polymers, which can be re-melted and reformed into new items via mechanical recycling. Globally, this is by far the most common form of recycling and in many countries it is the only type practised. It is the simplest and most economical technique. It has a lower carbon footprint than other processes. However, several factors can reduce output quality, which limits its applicability.

Plastics are melted at anywhere between 150-320 C, depending on polymer type. This is sufficient to cause unwanted chemical reactions that degrade the output. This can produce volatile, low-molecular weight compounds, which may impart undesirable taste or odour, as well as discolouration. Additives can accelerate this degradation. For instance, oxo-biodegradable additives, intended to improve the biodegradability of plastic, also increase the degree of thermal degradation. Flame retardants can similarly have unwanted effects. Product quality also depends strongly on how well the plastic was sorted. Many polymers are immiscible with each other when molten and phase separate (like oil and water) during reprocessing. Products made from such blends contain boundaries between the different polymers with weak cohesion across these boundaries, compromising mechanical properties. In more extreme cases the polymers may degrade each other, particularly with PVC, as it can generate hydrogen chloride which strongly affects condensation polymers such as PET.

Many of these problems have technological solutions, though they bear a financial cost. Advanced polymer stabilisers and can be used to protect plastics from the stress of thermal reprocessing. Volatile degradation products can be removed by a range of devolatilisation techniques. Flame retardants can be removed by chemical treatment, while damaging metallic additives can be rendered inert with deactivators. Finally, the properties of mixed plastics can be improved by using compatibilisers. These are compounds that improve miscibility between polymer types to give a more homogeneous product, with better internal cohesion and improved mechanical properties. They are small-molecules possessing two chemical regions, each of which is compatible with a certain polymer. This allows them to act like molecular-nails or screws, anchoring the polymers to one another. As a result, compatibilisers are normally limited to systems dominated by two particular types of plastic and are not cost-effective for heterogeneous mixtures. No compatibiliser solves all plastic combinations. Even with these technologies, it is particularly challenging to recycle plastic so that it can meet food contact standards.

Closed-loop recycling
In closed-loop, or primary recycling, used plastic is endlessly recycled back into new items of the same quality and type. For instance, turning drinks bottles back into drinks bottles. It can be considered an example of a circular economy. The continual mechanical recycling of plastic without reduction in quality is challenging due to cumulative polymer degradation and risk of contaminant build-up. In 2013 only 2% of plastic packaging was recycled in a closed loop. Although closed-loop recycling has been investigated for many polymers, to-date the only industrial success is with PET bottle recycling. This is because polymer degradation in PET is often repairable. PET's polymer chains tend to cleave at their ester groups and the alcohol and carboxyl groups left by this can be joined back together by the use of chemical agents called chain extenders. Pyromellitic dianhydride is one such compound.

Open-loop recycling

In open-loop recycling, also known as secondary recycling, or downcycling, the quality of the plastic is reduced each time it is recycled, so that the material eventually becomes unrecyclable. It is the most common type. Recycling PET bottles into fleece or other fibres is a common example, and accounts for the majority of PET recycling. Life-cycle assessment shows it to be of ecological benefit. Recycling can displace demand for fresh plastic. However, if it is used to produce items that would not otherwise have been made, then it is not displacing production and is of little or no benefit to the environment.

The reduction in polymer quality can be offset by mixing recycled and new materials. Compatibilised plastics can be used as a replacement for virgin material, as it is possible to produce them with the right melt flow index needed for good results. Low quality mixed plastics can be recycled in an open-loop, although demand for such products is limited. When these are mixed during reprocessing the result is usually an unappealing dark-brown. These blends find use as outdoor furniture or plastic lumber. As the material is weak, but of low cost it is produced in thick planks to provide material strength.

Thermosets
Although thermoset polymers do not melt, technologies have been developed for their mechanical recycling. This usually involves breaking the material down to small particles (crumbs), which can then be mixed with a binding agent to form a composite material. For instance, polyurethanes can be recycled as reconstituted crumb foam.

Feedstock recycling
In feedstock recycling, also called chemical recycling or tertiary recycling, polymers are reduced to their chemical building-blocks (monomers), which can then be polymerised back into fresh plastics. In theory, this allows for near infinite recycling; as impurities, additives, dyes and chemical defects are completely removed with each cycle. In practice, chemical recycling is far less common than mechanical recycling. Implementation is limited because technologies do not yet exist to reliably depolymerise all polymers on an industrial scale and also because the equipment and operating costs are much higher. In 2018 Japan had one of the highest rates in the world at ~4%, compared to 23% mechanical recycling, in the same period Germany, another major recycler, reported a feedstock recycling rate of 0.2%. Depolymerising, purifying and re-polymerising the plastic can also be energy intensive, leading to the carbon footprint of feedstock recycling normally being higher than that of mechanical recycling. PET, PU and PS are depolymerised commercially to varying extents, but the feedstock recycling of polyolefins, which make-up nearly half of all plastics, is much more limited.

Thermal depolymerisation
Certain polymers like PTFE, polystyrene, nylon 6, and polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) undergo thermal depolymerisation when heated to sufficiently high temperatures. The reactions are sensitive to impurities and require clean and well sorted waste to produce a good product. Even then, not all depolymerisation reactions are completely efficient and some competitive pyrolysis is often observed; the monomers, therefore, require purification before reuse. The feedstock recycling of polystyrene has been commercialised, but global capacity remains fairly limited.

Chemical depolymerisation
Condensation polymers bearing cleavable groups such as esters and amides can be completely depolymerised by hydrolysis or solvolysis. This can be a purely chemical process but may also be promoted by enzymes such as PETase. Such technologies have lower energy costs than thermal depolymerisation but are not available for all polymers. Polyethylene terephthalate has been the most heavily studied polymer, and has reached commercial scale.

Energy recovery

Energy recovery, also called energy recycling or quaternary recycling, involves burning waste plastic in place of fossil fuels for energy production. It is included in the recycling data reported by many countries, although it is not considered recycling by the EU. It is distinct from incineration without energy recovery, which is historically more common, but which does not reduce either plastic production or fossil fuel use.

Energy recovery is often the waste management method of last resort, a position previously held by landfill. In urban areas a lack of suitable sites for new landfills can drive this, but it is also driven by regulation, such as the EU's Landfill Directive or other landfill diversion policies. Compared to the other recycling options, its appeal is largely economic. If the correct technologies are used, then the plastics do not need to be separated, or from other municipal solid waste (garbage), which reduces costs. Compared to the sometimes variable market for recyclables, demand for electricity is universal and better understood, reducing the perceived financial risk. As a means of waste management, it is highly effective, reducing the volume of waste by about 90%, with the residues sent to landfill or used to make cinder block. Although its CO2 emissions are high, comparing its overall ecological desirability to other recycling technologies is difficult. For instance, while recycling greatly reduces greenhouse gas emissions compared to incineration, it is an expensive way of achieving these reductions when compared to investing in renewable energy.

Plastic waste may be burnt as refuse-derived fuel (RDF), or it may be chemically converted to a synthetic fuel first. In either approach PVC must be excluded or compensated for by installing dechlorination technologies, as it generates large amounts of hydrogen chloride (HCl) when burnt. This can corrode equipment and cause undesirable chlorination of fuel products. Burning has long been associated with the release of harmful dioxins and dioxin-like compounds, however these hazards can be abated by the use of advanced combustors and emission control systems. Incineration with energy recovery remains the most common method, with more advanced waste-to-fuel technologies such as pyrolysis hindered by technical and cost hurdles.

Waste-to-fuel
Mixed plastic waste can be depolymerised to give a synthetic fuel. This has a higher heating value than the starting plastic and can be burnt more efficiently, although it remains less efficient than fossil fuels. Various conversion technologies have been investigated, of which pyrolysis is the most common. Conversion can take place as part of incineration in an IGC cycle, but often the aim is to collect the fuel to sell it. Pyrolysis of mixed plastics can give a fairly broad mix of chemical products (between 1 and 15 carbon atoms) including gases and aromatic liquids. Catalysts can give a better-defined product with a higher value. Liquid products can be used as synthetic diesel fuel, with commercial production in several countries. Life-cycle analysis shows that plastic-to-fuel can displace fossil fuels and lower net greenhouse gas emissions (~15% reduction).

Compared to the widespread practise of incineration, plastic-to-fuel technologies have struggled to become economically viable.

Coke replacement
Many kinds of plastic can be used as a carbon source (in place of coke) in scrap steel recycling, with roughly 200,000 tonnes of waste plastics processed each year in Japan.

Construction and concrete
The use of recovered plastics in engineering materials is gaining ground. Ground plastic may be used as a construction aggregate or filler material in certain applications. While generally unsuitable in structural concrete, plastic's inclusion in asphalt concrete, (forming rubberised asphalt), subbase and recycled insulation can be beneficial. An example of this is the construction of plastic roads. These may be made entirely of plastic or can incorporate significant amounts of plastic. The practice is popular in India, which by 2021 had constructed some 700 km (435 miles) of highways. It may allow the leaching of plastic additives into the environment. Research is ongoing to use plastics in various forms in cementitious materials such as concrete. Densifying plastic materials such as PET and plastic bags and then using them to partially replace aggregate and depolymerizing PET to use as a polymeric binder to enhance concrete are under study.

title: Plastic recycling


text: File:Princedelores.jpg

title: File:Princedelores.jpg


text:
Chaos and Disorder

Chaos and Disorder is the eighteenth studio album by American recording artist Prince. It was released on July 9, 1996, by Warner Bros. Records. The album reached number 26 in the United States—his poorest performance with an album of new material since his debut album For You—and number 14 in the United Kingdom. Prince refused to promote the album, still engaged in his fight against his Warner Bros. contract, and it was released simply to fulfill his contractual obligations. The inlay sleeve carries the message: "Originally intended 4 private use only, this compilation serves as the last original material recorded by (love symbol) 4 warner brothers records - may you live 2 see the dawn".

The single "Dinner with Delores" was released in the United Kingdom only, and despite the low-key promotion, became a Top 40 hit, albeit a minor one by his previous standards. Despite having been out of print for years, the album was released digitally on Tidal in 2016, and on iTunes in 2018. It was reissued on CD and vinyl in September 2019. The inlay sleeve shows a bloody hypodermic needle with a dollar bill inside it, and a human heart sitting in a toilet bowl.

Production, release and re-appraisal
While Prince insisted that the album "was done very quickly", and that they were "seeing how fast and hard we could thrash it out", more than a third of it dates back to sessions for The Gold Experience and Come. It also marked the return of Rosie Gaines, who sang on five songs, and Michael B. and Sonny T., in what were to be their last sessions as regular New Power Generation members. A re-appraisal of the album after Prince's death lauded it as "a rocker with moments of some of Prince's finest guitar playing." Another described it as a "tightly-focused, grunge-oriented rock-funk collection" where "the grit and punch of the musicianship is what gives the album its overall raw edge". The Village Voice critic Robert Christgau wrote in his review that, "anybody expecting a kissoff or a throwaway radically underestimates his irrepressible musicality. Apropos of nothing, here's a guitar album for your earhole, enhanced by a fresh if not shocking array of voices and trick sounds and cluttered now and then by horns." At the time of its release, Prince told the Los Angeles Times: "I was bitter before, but now I've washed my face. I can just move on. I'm free."

Warner Bros. contract
"'We've come to a point where we feel that if he's happier somewhere else, we don't have any beef with him.'"

After Chaos and Disorder it was 18 years before Prince released another album on Warner Bros., 2014's Plectrumelectrum, under a deal which gave back Prince control of his masters, the absence of which on his original contract had been a source of considerable acrimony.

Track listing
All songs written by Prince.

Singles

 * "Dinner with Delores" (#36 UK)

title: Chaos and Disorder


text:
Thomas Patrick Roger Foley

Thomas Patrick Roger Foley (March 6, 1822 – February 19, 1879) was a bishop of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States. He served as Coadjutor Bishop of Chicago from March 10, 1870, until his death on February 19, 1879.

Life
Born in Baltimore, Maryland, Foley's parents were Irish immigrants. He attended local schools, and at the age of eighteen was graduated from St. Mary's College, Baltimore with a Bachelor of Arts degree. He then attended St. Mary's Seminary and was ordained a priest of the Archdiocese of Baltimore on August 16, 1846. Foley served as pastor at Baltimore Cathedral for 20 years and, in turn, Chancellor, Vicar-General, and Administrator of the Archdiocese of Baltimore.

Chicago
On November 19, 1869, Foley was appointed Coadjutor Bishop and Administrator of Chicago for the incapacitated Bishop James Duggan. On February 27, 1870, Foley was consecrated titular bishop of Pergamum at the Baltimore Cathedral. The principal consecrator was Bishop William G. McCloskey of Louisville. He was installed as coadjutor bishop at St. Mary's Cathedral on March 10.

Foley was in Champaign, Illinois, to administer confirmation when, in October 1871, the diocese lost nearly a million dollars in church property in the Great Chicago Fire. He quickly set about rebuilding. On November 21. 1875, Foley dedicated the new Cathedral of the Holy Name, designed by Patrick Keely.

Bishop Foley invited the Franciscans, Vincentians, Servites, Viatorians, and Resurrectionists to establish parishes and schools. In 1876, disagreements with Mother Mary Alfred Moes of the Sisters of St. Francis of Mary Immaculate of Joliet led to her relocating to Minnesota, where she founded St. Mary's Hospital, which later led to the establishment of the Mayo Clinic.

At his request, the Diocese of Peoria was established in 1877. Also in 1877, Foley named John McMullen as his vicar general. McMullen would manage the diocese as administrator upon Foley's death, and later became the first bishop of the Diocese of Davenport.

After nine years as Bishop and administrator of Chicago, Foley died in office on February 19, 1879 before he could succeed as Bishop of Chicago. Bishop Duggan resigned the following year.

title: Thomas Patrick Roger Foley


text:
P-Xylene

p-Xylene (para-xylene) is an aromatic hydrocarbon. It is one of the three isomers of dimethylbenzene known collectively as xylenes. The p- stands for para-, indicating that the two methyl groups in p-xylene occupy the diametrically opposite substituent positions 1 and 4. It is in the positions of the two methyl groups, their arene substitution pattern, that it differs from the other isomers, o-xylene and m-xylene. All have the same chemical formula C6H4(CH3)2. All xylene isomers are colorless and highly flammable. The odor threshold of p-xylene is 0.62 parts per million (ppm).

Production
The production of p-xylene is industrially significant, with annual demand estimated at 37 million tons in 2014, and still on the increase. p-Xylene is produced by catalytic reforming of petroleum naphtha as part of the BTX aromatics (benzene, toluene and the xylene isomers) extracted from the catalytic reformate. The p-xylene is then separated out in a series of distillation, adsorption or crystallization and reaction processes from the m-xylene, o-xylene, and ethylbenzene. Its melting point is the highest among this series of isomers, but simple crystallization does not allow easy purification due to the formation of eutectic mixtures.

Such separation procedures are major cost factors in the production of p-xylene, and the search for alternative methods continues. For example, a reverse-osmosis technique has been proposed to improve various aspects of the processes.

Industrial applications
p-Xylene is an important chemical feedstock. Among other industrial applications, it is a raw material in the large scale synthesis of various polymers. In particular it is a component in the production of terephthalic acid for polyesters such as polyethylene terephthalate (generally known as PET). It also may be polymerised directly to produce parylene.
 * [[Image:Oxidation p xylene.svg|200px|Terephthalic acid]]

Toxicity and exposure
Xylenes are not acutely toxic, for example the LD50 (rat, oral) is 4300 mg/kg. Effects vary with animal and xylene isomer.

Concerns with xylenes focus on narcotic effects. Overexposure of p-xylene in humans can cause headache, fatigue, dizziness, listlessness, confusion, irritability, gastrointestinal disturbances including nausea and loss of appetite, flushing of the face, and a feeling of increased body heat. p-Xylene vapor exposure over the recommended exposure limit of 100 parts per million (ppm) can cause irritation to eye, nose, and throat and possible chest tightening and an abnormal gait.

p-Xylene occurs naturally in petroleum and coal tar. It is emitted by most combustion sources, including automobile exhaust and tobacco smoke.

Inhalation
Inhaling p-xylene can cause dizziness, headache, drowsiness, and nausea. If exposure through inhalation occurs, first aid includes fresh air, rest and possible medical attention. Through the use of ventilation or breathing protection, exposure to p-xylene through inhalation can be prevented.

Skin
Exposure of p-xylene through the skin can cause dry skin and redness. If skin exposure occurs, first aid includes rinsing and then washing the affected area with soap and water as well as removing any contaminated clothing and thoroughly cleaning and drying before reuse. Exposure can be prevented through the use of protective gloves.

Eyes
Exposure of p-xylene to eyes can cause redness and pain. If eyes are exposed, first aid includes rinsing of the eyes with water for several minutes, removal of contact lenses if applicable, and medical attention. Eye exposure can be prevented through the use of safety glasses or safety goggles.

Ingestion
Ingestion of p-xylene can result in a burning sensation, abdominal pain, dizziness, drowsiness, headache, and nausea. If p-xylene is ingested one's mouth should be rinsed and vomiting should not be induced. Further medical attention should be sought. Ingestion can be prevented by not eating, drinking, or smoking when working with p-xylene.

Short-term exposure
p-Xylene can cause issues with the central nervous system and if swallowed could cause chemical pneumonitis when breathed into the lungs.

Long-term exposure
Liquid p-xylene exposure to the skin over long periods of time can remove the fat from the skin. The substance may also have effects on the central nervous system. Exposure can enhance hearing loss caused by noise exposure. Animal tests suggest that this substance could cause damage to human development and reproductive systems.

title: P-Xylene


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Cleghorn, Wisconsin

Cleghorn is an unincorporated community in the east central part of the town of Pleasant Valley in Eau Claire County, Wisconsin, United States, about six miles south of Eau Claire. Cleghorn is located one mile east of Wis. 93 along Eau Claire County Highway "HH", at the junction of "HH", "I", and "V". The now-extinct community of Hadleyville lies approximately three miles to the west, along Eau Claire County Highway "HH". Clegorn was once the home of Cleghorn Elementary School. Cleghorn school was a small school located in the center of town. Cleghorn school was shut down in 2003. After the school was torn down, a park pavilion was built, and Cleghorn community park established in 2006. Every year, community members hold a Cleghorn Harvest Festival. This festival has a softball tournament, parade, old fashion car show, craft show, and bike race.

Government
The community is the site of the town's administration.

History
Cleghorn was named after Lewis Cleghorn, one of its early settlers. In 1913 the now-defunct Foster Railroad was extended from Foster through Allen as far as Cleghorn.

title: Cleghorn, Wisconsin


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Daybreak Boys

The Daybreak Boys was a New York City street gang during the mid nineteenth century.

History
Formed in the late 1840s, by 1852 the teenaged Daybreak Boys were suspected by police to have been responsible for 20 to 40 murders between 1850 and 1852 as well as stealing goods estimated at $200,000. The gang was said to have a prospective member kill at least one man as a requirement for joining. Newspapers at the time report, perhaps with some exaggeration, that many gang members may have been as young as 12.

Under the leadership of members such as Nicholas Saul, Bill Howlett, Patsy the Barber, Slobbery Jim, "Cowlegged" Sam McCarthy, and Sow Madden, the gang was known for its reputation of unprovoked murder and sabotaging ships and other property, regardless of value, along the New York waterfront. The gang's actions would soon force police to take action against them. Led by New York police officers Blair, Spratt, and Gilbert, over 12 gang members were killed in several gunfights in 1858. By the end of 1859 the gang, having lost much of its membership, was eventually broken up. Many of its members later became prominent criminals during the next several decades.

Depictions in fiction
The Daybreak Boys, under the leadership of "Nick Saul and Billie Howlett," are brought to life in Chapter XVIII of MacKinlay Kantor's Pulitzer Prize-winning novel Andersonville (1955). The execution by hanging of Saul and Howlett is also depicted.

Resources

 * Sifakis, Carl. Encyclopedia of American Crime, New York, Facts on File Inc., 1982

title: Daybreak Boys


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Talk:Scythian languages

The Harmatta stuff is truly terrible
Guys, the stuff from Harmatta's articles is so, so unbelievably bad. It's so bad that the editors of the volume in which it's published even felt the need to include a warning(!) and apology(!!!) at the end of the (completely ridiculous) article where he claims to have deciphered the Hieroglyphic Luwian text resulting in a 'Scythian' reading... Like, let me just say that again. The editors of that 'article' (taken from a talk Harmatta gave at a conference; it's not even a published, peer-reviewed article, mind you) had to apologise to their readers in a footnote at the end of that article. I have literally never seen that before in an academic text. If that's not already laughably bad and should indicate his interpretation is utter nonsense, at least half of the signs he claims to have interpreted from Hieroglyphic Luwian are not even actual signs! If you consult the Luwian Hieroglyphic sign-lists (Marazzi 1998, Hawkins, Morpurgo-Davies, & Neumann 1973; works that were done by real scholars), you can see that more than half of the ones he uses are false readings, and others had not yet been deciphered at the time of his talk (but have been since then and absolutely reflect different values than those he presents). Also, he (on a whim, because they're logograms) translates UTA, XŠAYAI, and DAHYU. Furthermore, he splits the word 'property' between two lines when it's clearly two separate words in the original inscription. His decipherment of the Issyk kurgan bowl may be even worse, because again, most of the signs are not actual signs, and no respectable linguist who isn't just trying to pull the wool over the eyes of non-specialists would claim to have deciphered the script using Kharoshthi. This is just...the worst kind of linguistics, or science in general. This kind of stuff really shouldn't be presented as evidence for anything aside from the fact that Harmatta simply had no idea how linguistics or philology works. I really wish there were Scythian inscriptions. I really do. I think it would be the coolest thing ever. But the fact is, even if they do exist, they haven't been found or deciphered. Vindafarna (talk) 03:53, 3 September 2022 (UTC)

 * I tend to agree. See my comment, "More information" 2600:8800:7000:162:C587:5220:FDA:2E72 (talk) 01:13, 9 September 2023 (UTC)
 * I don't disagree that Harmatta's attempt at reading the Saqqez inscription is highly dubious. However I would need an academic rebuttal of Harmatta's "decipherment" to be able to remove this section from the page. Antiquistik (talk) 02:34, 27 September 2023 (UTC)
 * I don't think it works like that... I think we're giving the whole WP:UNDUE WEIGHT thing to this guy's alleged readings. I provided at least two sources in my original comment that disagree with his readings of the signs and can find 15 more if you need. If his reading of the signs is wrong, how can his reading of the words be correct? If someone decided to look at Egyptian Hieroglyphic inscriptions and said "oh, these are actually a form of Mandarin Chinese, here's my reading," and some idiot decided to publish it in a journal, would someone need to literally waste their breath (like I'm doing now I feel) to write a specific paper discounting that person's claims? Or would the general community just come to the decision to ignore that work as should be done instead of giving it more publicity? There's a reason there hasn't been an 'academic rebuttal' of Harmatta's work; it's not worth wasting one's breath on because nobody believed it in the first place. If you want, I can find 15 more sources indicating that the signs Harmatta is adducing as evidence don't actually have the phonetic values that he thinks they do, but the two in my original post should suffice!
 * Vindafarna (talk) 00:51, 10 July 2024 (UTC)
 * So, I'm replying to my own comment here, but Harmatta fortunately cited his source where he found the alleged inscription, and that author, in a published article "Notes Iraniennes IV. Le trésor de Sakkez, les origines de l'Art Mède et les bronzes du Luristan," by R. Ghirshman, Artibus Asiae vol XIII, no.3 (1950), includes a photo of the 'inscription' which is simply a pattern and does not, in fact, contain any Hieroglyphic Luwian whatsoever, stating "[s]on décor, finement gravé, est constitué par des rangées de sujets differents disposés en cercles concentriques, et au centre, en guise d'omphalos, figure une rosace à seize pétales en forme de. losanges allongés." It's clear that Harmatta blatantly lied/made up the description of this image as including Hieroglyphic Luwian, and the original article is linked below for everyone to see (see p. 186 for the description, fig. 9 for the image). Since there is an 'academic rebuttal' or rather, an explanation that this piece (which is a tiny shard of a larger item, mind you...so it's unclear to me how Harmatta thought this was a complete text(!)) simply contains little drawings, I have gone ahead and removed that section entirely. If anyone had actually put in the time to look up the item, they would have seen, plain as day, that it is not, in fact, a 'text' in Hieroglyphic Luwian, but rather just a bunch of little images and it is inconceivable that Harmatta did not recognise it as such, which is why I think he intentionally lied about his 'translation'.
 * The JSTOR link for the Ghirshman article that Harmatta references on p. 123 of his ridiculous paper is below:
 * https://www.jstor.org/stable/3248503?origin=crossref
 * Hopefully people will be able to see through any of the ridiculous nonsense Harmatta has written on the subject. The next thing to deal with is the Issyk inscription, which in 2023 was (probably) deciphered and is an Iranian language, which may even be a descendant of Scythian, but Harmatta's 'interpretation' is completely and utterly incorrect.
 * Vindafarna (talk) 05:11, 15 July 2024 (UTC)

Language family vs individual languages
This page currently does not distinguish between:
 * 1) the Scythian language, which was the language spoken by the actual Pontic Scythians proper (and possibly by the historical Cimmerians)
 * 2) the probably misplacedly named "Scythian languages family," which is a language family including several closely related but distinct Eastern Iranic languages, including the Scythian language proper, as well as Sarmatian (from which Alanic, and thus Ossetian, descend) and the Sakan languages.

This amounts to being the language equivalent of the lack of distinction between the narrow use of the name "Scythians" for the people of the Pontic Steppe and the broader use of the same name for all ancient nomadic peoples of the Eurasian Steppe.

As it stands now, this page is a mess and would likely need to be rewritten from scratch, and it might possibly also require splitting and moving content for it to finally be coherent, but I don't know where to start. Antiquistik (talk) 02:50, 27 September 2023 (UTC)

Scythians or esküdtek
Scythian words (etymology in Hungarian)

'The Scythian deities'

Agathyrsos (the Predator) – “Ragadozó” (predator).

Api (the snake-legged goddess, the Mother Earth) – Avi; diminutive of “ó” (old).

Argimpasa or Exampaios (the god of meritorious life history) – “Érdempálya”; “érdem” (merit, worthiness) and “pálya” (life history).

Borysthenes or Porata (the god of the wine) – “Boristen” or “Boratya”; “bor” (wine) and “isten” (divinity) and “atya” (father).

Dithagoia (the goddess of the mystery) – “Titok” (mystery).

Gebeleizis (the god of the afterlife, who gathers the mortals to his breast) – “Kebelező” ([who] clasps somebody to his breast). “Kebel” in Hungarian means breast.

Goitosyros (the god of the Sun) – “Gyújtósúr”; “gyújtós” (inflammatory) ad “úr” (lord, ruler).

Lykos or Lykoorgos (the god of the air) – “Lég” or “Légúr”; “lég” (air) and “úr” (lord, ruler).

Papaios (the Sky Father) – “Babai”; diminutive of “baba” (old father).

Seuthes (the god of the greens) – “Zöld” (green, greens).

Skyles or Skylouros (the god of the wind) – “Szél” and “Szélúr”; “szél” (wind) and “úr” (lord, ruler).

Tanais (the goddess of the watercourses, the Mother of the Rivers) – “Dana” (song, melodious noise).

Tapiti (the goddess of the fire) – “Tapiti”; diminutive of “tapi” (heat, fire).

Targitaos (the god of the ire and war) – “Hargita”; a contraction, the shortened version of the word group “Harag istenatya”, created by omission of internal sounds; “harag” (ire) and “isten” (divinity) and atya (father).

Thagimasadas or Temarunda, Temerinda (the goddess of the sea) – “Tengermása”; “tenger” (sea) and “mása” (grandmother).

'Other Scythian words'

Arimaspoi (Greek monophthalmoi) – “aranyőrző”; “arany” (gold) and “őrző” (guardian); gold-guarding [people].

Arpoxais – “Árpácska”; diminutive of “árpa” (barley).

Enarees (Greek androgynoi) – “anyahere”; “anya” (mother, queen bee) and “here” (drone).

Aukhatai – “eke” (plow); “ekés” (plowman).

Katiaroi – “hajtár” or “hajcsár” (drover).

Kolaxais – “Kalácska”; diminutive of “kalács” (something like milk-loaf).

Lipoxais – “Napocska”; diminutive of “Nap” (Sun).

Oiorpata or Ormatai (androktonoi) – “ölő madai”; “ölő” (slayer) and “madai” ([inhabitant] of Media).

Paralatai – “karály” or “király” (lord, ruler); the literal sense of the word “karály” is: [who] puts the arms around [his people). “Kar” in Hungarian means arm.

Skolotoi – “Esküdött” (sworn)

Skythai and Getai– “Esküdt” (sworn).

Traspies – “Harcfi”; “harc” (fight) and “fi” (boy, lad, son); literally son of fight; fighter).

And so on.

5. Now the Scythians [esküdt] say that their nation is the youngest of all nations, and that this came to pass as follows:--The first man who ever existed in this region, which then was desert, was one named Targitaos [Hargita]: and of this Targitaos they say, though I do not believe it for my part, however they say the parents were Zeus and the daughter of the river Borysthenes [Boristen]. Targitaos, they report, was produced from some such origin as this, and of him were begotten three sons, Lipoxaïs [Napocska] and Arpoxaïs [Árpácska] and the youngest Colaxaïs [Kalácska]. In the reign of these there came down from heaven certain things wrought of gold, a plough, a yoke, a battle-axe, and a cup, and fell in the Scythian land: and first the eldest saw and came near them, desiring to take them, but the gold blazed with fire when he approached it: then when he had gone away from it, the second approached, and again it did the same thing. These then the gold repelled by blazing with fire; but when the third and youngest came up to it, the flame was quenched, and he carried them to his own house. The elder brothers then, acknowledging the significance of this thing, delivered the whole of the kingly power to the youngest.

6. From Lixopaïs [Napocska], they say, are descended those Scythians who are called the race of the Auchatai [eke]; from the middle brother Arpoxaïs [Árpácska] those who are called Catiaroi [hajtár] and Traspians [harcfi], and from the youngest of them the "Royal" tribe, who are called Paralatai [karály]: and the whole together are called, they say, Scolotoi [esküdött], after the name of their king; but the Hellenes gave them the name of Scythians. 188.6.243.216 (talk) 20:35, 5 January 2024 (UTC)

Thetas
Greetings! This article and Scythian religion are showing up on an automated report because they use both the regular and cursive theta forms. If these two forms represent the same letter and the same sound, it seems unnecessarily confusing to readers if the same article alternates between them randomly. I generally recommend using the regular form (θ) because that's what everyone learns in trigonometry, so it's identifiable as a theta, which some people might already associate with a "th" sound. It also seems to be what IPA prefers for phonology. Despite taking advanced math and linguistic courses at MIT, I'd never noticed the cursive form until I started cleaning up Wikipedia typography. So even though it's commonly used in certain subfields, it feels a bit obscure to me. I'd settle for using either one or the other consistently, though. Did you have any particular reason why we should pick one or the other if we did that? Thanks, Beland (talk) 06:42, 25 January 2024 (UTC)
 * . Hello. The non-cursive θ is used to represent the Ancient Greek aspirated voiceless dental plosive, while the cursive ϑ is used for the Old Iranic voiceless dental fricative . Therefore it would be preferable if both signs were used. Antiquistik (talk) 11:52, 30 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Ah, that's extremely helpful to know! I've added a note to the article so other readers won't be as confused as I was. -- Beland (talk) 01:07, 2 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Scythian languages


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File:Ainodai6kan.jpg

Summary
Cover of Morning Musume's 6th album, Ai no Dai 6 Kan

Source: Scan from Wiki.theppn

Author: Up-Front Works Co. Ltd.

Fair use rationale for Ai no Dai 6 Kan

 * Image displays the cover of album in question.
 * Used only in said article for encyclopedic purposes.
 * Does not take away from the copyright holder's ability to profit from the CD album in any way.
 * Image is a lower resolution copy of the original scan.

title: File:Ainodai6kan.jpg