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Resolute desk

The Resolute desk, also known as the Hayes desk, is a nineteenth-century partners desk used by several presidents of the United States in the White House as the Oval Office desk, including the five most recent presidents. The desk was a gift from Queen Victoria to President Rutherford B. Hayes in 1880 and was built from the oak timbers of the British Arctic exploration ship HMS Resolute (1850). The 1,300 lb desk was created by William Evenden, a skilled joiner at Chatham Dockyard in Kent, probably from a design by Morant, Boyd, & Blanford. The desk has been modified twice, with a kneehole panel added in 1945 and a 2 in plinth added to the desk in 1961.

HMS Resolute was abandoned in the Arctic while searching for Sir John Franklin and his lost expedition. The ship was found in 1855 by George Henry, an American whaling ship, repaired, and returned to the United Kingdom as a gesture of goodwill from the United States. The ship was decommissioned in 1879, broken up, and had three desks constructed from its timbers. Queen Victoria sent one of these desks to American President Rutherford B. Hayes. The Resolute desk was received at the White House on November 23, 1880, and was used in the President's Office and President's Study until the White House Reconstruction from 1948 to 1952. After the reconstruction, it was placed in the Broadcast Room where Dwight D. Eisenhower used it during radio and television broadcasts. Jacqueline Kennedy rediscovered the desk and had it brought to the Oval Office in 1961. The desk was removed from the White House after the Assassination of John F. Kennedy, and went on a traveling exhibition with artifacts of the Kennedy Presidential Library. President Jimmy Carter brought the desk back to the White House in 1977, where it has remained since.

Many replicas have been made of the Resolute desk. The first was commissioned in 1978 for a permanent display at the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library in Boston, Massachusetts, and since then five other presidential libraries and many museums, libraries, tourist attractions, and private homes and offices have acquired copies of the desk.

Design and markings
The Resolute desk is built from oak timbers that were once part of the ship HMS Resolute (1850). The double pedestal, partners desk is 32.5 in high with a workspace measuring 72 in wide and 48 in deep. It weighs 1300 lb. The desk was created in 1880 by William Evenden, a skilled joiner at Chatham Dockyard in Kent, probably from a design by Morant, Boyd, & Blanford. The desk is decorated with carved moldings and carved floral swag designs. There are sets of drawers behind the cabinet doors on each side of the desk pedestals, and the desktop is covered with red leather. Built at the same time as the Grinnell desk, the two desks together cost 380 pounds.

A plaque, mounted on the front center drawer, explains the history of the Resolute and the meaning behind the desk. This plaque was originally on the back of the desk but from Ronald Reagan's presidency onwards it has been photographed as being on the front. The underside of all the exterior drawer fronts are stamped "MORANT BOYD & BLANFORD / 91 NEW BOND STREET" and the lock plates are stamped "BY ROYAL / LETTERS PATENT / FOUR LEVERS / SAFETY LOCK / COMYN CHINC & Co."

Modifications
Two significant modifications have been made to the Resolute desk since it was delivered to the White House. A panel was installed in the kneehole of the desk in 1945 and a plinth, or base, was added to raise the height of the desk in 1961.

The panel was designed by White House architect Lorenzo Winslow and constructed and carved out of hard oak in 1945 by Rudolph Bauss, a National Park Service employed model-maker and designer. The kneehole panel is hinged, opens up, and features a carving of the presidential seal. The carved seal depicts the eagle's head facing left, turned towards the arrows in the eagle's talon. In 1945 the design of the presidential seal was changed by Harry S. Truman to have the eagle turned towards the olive branch in the right talon instead. This was to have the bird turn away from the symbol of war and towards the symbol of peace. The carving on the desk was not changed, making the carving on the desk no longer match the official design.

In 1961, during the John F. Kennedy administration, a two-inch-tall plinth was installed under the desk to elevate the kneehole and allow the president to sit more comfortably. The plinth fits the shape of the desk, sitting flush with the molding above it. The original plinth was replaced in 1986 during Ronald Reagan's administration. According to the White House Historical Association multiple bases, or plinths, have been added and removed to the desk over the years.

HMS Resolute

In May 1845 Sir John Franklin, a British explorer, launched an expedition to find the Northwest Passage. Using two of the Royal Navy's best ships, HMS Erebus (1826) and HMS Terror (1813), stocked with enough provisions to last three years, he charted a course through Baffin Bay, located between Baffin Island and the west coast of Greenland. The expedition and all 129 crew members vanished.

The fate of the ship was frequently brought up in British press and grew into a cause célèbre. At least one folk ballad was written about the expedition and Charles Dickens published an article in Household Words downplaying scandalous, unfounded reports that were circulating claiming the crew had resorted to cannibalism. Due to the public desire to know what happened, a five-ship squadron under Sir Edward Belcher set out from Britain in 1852 to search for the missing ships and explorer. HMS Resolute, captained by Sir Henry Kellett, was joined by HMS Intrepid (1850), HMS Pioneer (1850), HMS Assistance (1850), and HMS North Star (1824), all under Belcher's command, on the expedition. The North Star stayed at a supply base on Beechey Island, while the other four ships split up to search for Franklin. The Resolute was constructed expressly as an arctic vessel with a bow covered in iron to cut through ice. It nevertheless became trapped in ice in April 1854, and the other three ships became stuck soon after. Belcher decided to abandon the four ships, and on May 15, 1854, Resolute was abandoned in Tariyunnuaq (what was then called Melville Sound). The ships' crews marched across the ice to the North Star back at Beechey Island and later sailed back to England on it and two auxiliary vessels. Belcher was court-martialed for the loss of his ships and the danger he put his crew through during the expedition. He never again received a naval command.

When the ice thawed in the spring, the unmanned Resolute began drifting south, traveling more than 1,000 mi and roughly 7 degrees latitude, where it was spotted in September 1855 in Davis Strait, off the shores of Baffin Island, by the crew of George Henry, an American whaling ship captained by James Buddington. The whalers tried to signal the ship, and after it failed to respond four sailors boarded it. They found the ship uninhabited but still stocked. The ship was listing badly to its port side and missing its topmast. It took several weeks to pump out the water from the ship and get it back to an even keel, but Buddington knew the ship's story and knew he could likely sell it for a large sum when he returned it to dock. Buddington claimed the right to salvage for HMS Resolute, and sailed it to New London, Connecticut, arriving on Christmas Eve 1855.

This all happened during an especially tense time in United Kingdom–United States relations. Then-President Franklin Pierce was prepared to go to war with Britain for what would be a third time. In his third annual message, in 1855, Pierce discussed disputes over fishing rights and the border between British Columbia and Washington Territory as well as Britain's territorial claims in South America, which the United States claimed violated the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty. Regarding the disagreement about Britain's foothold in South America, Britain's then First Lord of the Admiralty stated that "We are fast drifting into war with the United States."

Wealthy American philanthropist Henry Grinnell, who had financed an earlier expedition to find Franklin's lost ships to no avail, suggested to the US government that the Resolute should be refit and sent back to England as a token of goodwill. As a way to help calm tensions between the two countries, a bill was introduced to Congress on June 24, 1856, to authorize the purchase and restoration of the Resolute. The United States Government bought the ship from Buddington for $40,000 with plans to return it to the United Kingdom as a gift to Queen Victoria.

On September 12, 1856, the Resolute was towed to the Brooklyn Navy Yard, where it underwent a complete refit, repaint, and restock. The ship set sail on November 13, 1856, out of New York Harbor and arrived in Portsmouth on December 12 of the same year, captained by Henry Hartstene. Hartstene, a member of the United States Navy during the American Civil War, had previously taken part in the Wilkes Expedition to study the Pacific Northwest, and captained a voyage to the arctic to successfully save Dr. Elisha Kent Kane who had gone missing on his own search for Franklin. After arriving in England the Resolute was later brought to Cowes Harbour on the Isle of Wight where Queen Victoria and Prince Albert boarded the ship and accepted it on behalf of all of Great Britain. Hartstene, as part of comments about the ship in a speech, expressed his hope "that long after every timber in her sturdy frame shall have perished, the remembrance of the old Resolute will be cherished."

The Resolute continued serving in the Royal Navy for twenty-three years as a supply vessel, but never again left British waters. The ship was decommissioned in 1879 and subsequently broken up in Chatham Dockyard in Chatham, England, in 1880.

Design and construction
On June 11, 1879, the British Admiralty launched a competition to design a piece of furniture made from the timbers of the Resolute which Queen Victoria could gift to the American president. A January 3, 1880, article in The Builder described the desired furniture piece as "a magnificent article of furniture, combining writing table, bookshelves &c., ... made out of the ship's timber and sent as a present to the President of the United States." Six firms, including Morant, Boyd, & Blanford and Jackson & Graham, submitted competing designs. Morant, Boyd, & Blanford was chosen to complete the furniture piece. According to Kelly's London Post Office Directory of 1871, Morant, Boyd, & Blanford were "interior decorators, painters, upholsterers, estate and housing managers, carvers, gilders and cabinet makers." The company was founded by George Morant and had supplied work for Thomas Lawrence, Robert Peel, and the Dukes of Sussex, Cambridge, and Sutherland. The company also exhibited at the Great Exhibition, the Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations, and the 1862 International Exhibition. Queen Victoria granted the company a Royal Warrant of Appointment in 1840. For the rest of the century, they were seen as one of the preeminent cabinet makers in England.

Morant, Boyd, & Blanford had sent in multiple design drawings for the competition late in 1879 for various furniture pieces that could be constructed, including a large combination bookcase and chimneypiece. This design was created to symbolize the circumstances surrounding the gift of the Resolute back to England. A bust of Minerva, the first shipwright in Roman lore, sat in the central broken pediment, and reclining figures representing navigation and astronomy flanked the bust. Niches on either side of the central columns held busts of Edward Belcher and Henry Grinnell, and directly about the fireplace a carving of a personified "America" hands "Britannia" the ship Resolute. The National Maritime Museum holds the plans for two other proposed designs; a secretaire and a library table. This library table design was not built, but a December 11, 1880, issue of Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper incorrectly presented an engraving of this design as the actual desk presented to the president. The engraving was made from drawings by H. Biscoe for an earlier Scientific American article about the proposed design. This early, ornate design for the desk was created on September 9, 1879. It included portraits of both Queen Victoria and then-President Rutherford B. Hayes. These portraits were paired with side panels displaying scenes of the arctic and British and American flags along with other highly ornate details and a Moroccan leather top.

Queen Victoria ordered that three desks be made from the timbers of Resolute. The one that is now known as the Resolute desk was announced as "recently manufactured" on November 18, 1880. Built under orders of the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury, William Evenden was tasked with creating the desk at Chatham Dockyard. Evenden was a skilled joiner working in the dockyard's Joiner's Shop, but very little is known about him. June Drake, Evenden's great-great-granddaughter, wrote in a 2012 letter to the Friends of Medway Archives that he was born in 1828 in Rochester, Kent, and worked as a Freeman of Rochester at Chatham Dockyard. Drake said she believed Evenden to be well educated, as his mother was a schoolmistress and his two brothers had gainful employment; his younger brother was a master shipwright and naval architect in Devonport, Plymouth, while the other became a mining pioneer and Magistrate in Thornborough, Queensland, Australia. Drake said she was unsure why Evenden was chosen to build the Resolute desk, but suggested that his brother in Devonport may have suggested Evenden for the job. There is one known photograph of William Evenden which was taken by Royal Appointment in 1882 by J Hawke in Plymouth. Drake postulates that this image may have been taken while he was visiting his brother. According to Drake, Evenden committed suicide in 1896 after "being distraught at the thought of being unemployed and maybe entering the workhouse." She surmised that is likely the reason there is not much information about him. He was buried at Chatham Cemetery, but his grave can no longer be found.

Arrival in America
On August 26, 1880, Victor Drummond, the British ambassador to Washington, wrote a letter to William M. Evarts, Secretary of State for the US, informing him of Queen Victoria's upcoming gift of the new writing table as well as its history. The crate containing the desk arrived in New York on November 15, 1880, by steamship and arrived at the White House on November 23. The first note written on the desk was by Hayes on the day the desk arrived at the White House to George Bancroft where he noted, "It gives me great pleasure to say that I do it in the first note written on the desk made from the timbers of the Resolute sent by Queen Victoria for the President." The desk has since been referred to by the name of the ship it was crafted from, the Resolute desk, or by the name of the president that accepted the gift, the Hayes desk. The December 11, 1880, issue of Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper praised the desk's beauty (albeit with the previous design pictured) and declared how it represented a major step forward in United Kingdom–United States relations.

Early use as a presidential desk

After receiving the desk, President Hayes placed it in the Green Room, one of the three state parlors on the first floor of the White House. It was on view here as an exhibition for tourists and visitors until Hayes ordered the desk be taken upstairs to his office on the second floor. At this time, the second floor of the White House acted both as the first family's living quarters and as the President's Office. What are now the Lincoln Bedroom, Lincoln Sitting Room, and Treaty Room were the president's main working spaces with the Yellow Oval Room used as the president's library or a family parlor. After the desk was moved to these offices by Hayes in 1880, it traveled from room to room, based on presidents' needs, for the next twenty-two years. Grover Cleveland used it in his office and library in what is now the Yellow Oval Room for both of his non-consecutive terms, William McKinley used the desk often in the Presidential Office and had a bouquet of flowers placed upon it every day, and Theodore Roosevelt used it in the President's Room, today's Lincoln Bedroom.

The desk stayed in the President's Office until the office was moved to the newly built West Wing in 1902, during Theodore Roosevelt's presidency. After the McKim, Mead, & White renovations to the White House, Edith Roosevelt moved the Resolute desk to the former cabinet room, now the Treaty Room, to create a Den, or President's Study, for her husband. Woodrow Wilson also used the Resolute desk in this room. Wilson and his wife called the center drawer on one side of the desk "The Drawer" as it was where important communications and papers were placed if something happened between the closing time the day before and that morning.

Franklin D. Roosevelt and the kneehole panel

Franklin D. Roosevelt turned the Yellow Oval Room into his Oval Study, where both he and Harry S. Truman used the Resolute desk. Roosevelt kept the desk covered in personal mementos and, when entertaining visitors, would mix alcoholic drinks atop the desk.

While the desk was in use in the Oval Study, President Roosevelt requested that a panel be installed in the rear kneehole, but it was not installed until 1945 after Roosevelt had died. The earliest documented reasoning for the addition of this panel comes from a 1962 phone call readout with Rudolph Bauss, the National Park Service employee who carved and constructed the panel. while referring to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Bauss stated, “The President requested that a panel be placed in the desk for the following reasons: 1.) to hide the iron braces on his legs; 2.) to conceal a safe which the President wished to place just behind the panel.” Roosevelt wore leg braces and was in a wheelchair most of the time due to polio.

This statement by Bauss has become the official story for this panel and has been repeated in many official channels and well researched articles and books. Sarah Fling, a historian with the White House Historical Association disagrees with this narrative in her article, "A Resolute Myth: Debunking the Resolute Desk Panel," noting that Roosevelt used this desk in a non-public facing room, he did not have panels installed in other public desks he used, and that the designs by Lorenzo Winslow for the panel are dated June 13, 1945, which is two months after Roosevelt's sudden death. Fling believes Bauss' memory was inaccurate and there is no evidence the decision to add the panel was tied to Roosevelt's disability.

White House reconstruction

The White House saw a major reconstruction under Harry S. Truman between 1948 and 1952 where the entire interior of the building was rebuilt. The president moved his family to Blair House during this reconstruction. The move out began on November 9, when the president left for a trip to Key West, with staff being given only two weeks to completely empty the building of furnishings. Blair House was already furnished but some White House elements were installed in the next door Lee House which was connected to Blair house during this move. The rest of the items had to be stored. The Library of Congress stored some books, the National Gallery of Art housed some of the art, and the Smithsonian Institution stored a few additional pieces. Most objects though were shipped up to New York to be stored in the climate controlled vaults owned by B. Altman and Company. Charles T. Haight, who ran the interior design department at Altman, charged the government only the at-cost rate for storage, $85 a month.

Charles T. Haight was awarded for storing the furnishings at such a low cost by being invited to do the interior design for the newly constructed White House rooms. On June 19, 1951, Haight presented a color drawing of his design for the old kitchen, later known as the Broadcast Room and now the Office of the Curator, to Congress' Commission on Renovation of the Executive Mansion. These plans included heavy traverse draperies in dull gold, a chenille rug, a pine table and cabinet removed from the White House after the 1814 Burning of Washington, black leather sofas and chairs, small tables, two new end tables, two new coffee tables and "The large desk which was originally in the President's Study" per minutes from a meeting of the Commission. Here, in the Broadcast Room, the Resolute desk was used during both radio and television broadcasts by Dwight D. Eisenhower.

Kennedy administration

In 1961 John F. Kennedy was the first president to use the desk in the Oval Office. The Theodore Roosevelt desk was used briefly by Kennedy in the presidential office, but Jacqueline Kennedy had it replaced by the Resolute. She was disappointed by the interior design of the White House when she moved in, stating that it "looked like it's been furnished by discount stores", and called it "that dreary Maison Blanche." Her desire to update the interior, however, was not immediately embraced by politicians. This changed with the forming of the Fine Arts Committee for the White House, later replaced by the Committee for the Preservation of the White House, in February 1961 with a stated goal of finding "authentic furniture of the date of the building of the White House and the raising of funds to purchase this furniture as gifts for the White House." Jacqueline Kennedy worked with the committee, including its chair Henry Francis du Pont, first White House Curator Lorraine Waxman Pearce, and interior designer Sister Parish, to find objects that were suitable for the historic building, and physically searched the White House for valuable items hidden away. She discovered that four Cézanne paintings originally intended for the White House were instead on display in the National Gallery of Art; she found 100-year-old busts in a downstairs men's bathroom; and after moving aside electrical equipment in the Broadcast Room, she uncovered the Resolute desk.

When Jacqueline Kennedy discovered the desk, it was covered and obscured by green baize attached to it with Scotch Tape. The desk was being used to prop up camera equipment when films were shown in the Broadcast Room, and the baize was apparently there to protect it from the equipment. The discovery of the desk was announced in a White House press release titled "Discovery of the Table Desk from H.M.S. Resolute" on February 6, 1961, and led to a front-page article about the desk in the New York Times the next day. The article explained the choice to move the desk to the Oval Office as, "Feeling that the desk, with its connection with the sea, would perfectly complement the naval battle scenes and the model of the Constitution which she already had secured at her husband's suggestion, Mrs. Kennedy has given the desk to the president and it was placed in his office on Saturday, Feb. 4." Kennedy also wanted the ornate desk to be the most visible of the desks used by her husband. President Kennedy was said to be "delighted" by the return of the desk to "a place of honor in the White House." It was moved into the Oval Office and, according to the Smithsonian Institution, the desk "gained national prominence when President Kennedy's son, John, was photographed crawling through its trap door."

President Kennedy had a taping system installed in the Oval Office which was designed and installed by Robert Bouck, a Secret Service agent, in July 1962. A microphone was located in the kneehole of the Resolute desk, and a button was installed under the desk for Kennedy to turn it on and off at will. A second microphone was disguised on the coffee table in the same room. Kennedy was the first president to make extensive use of recording as a means to document meetings, selectively recording over 238 hours of conversation between recording systems in both the Oval Office and Cabinet Room. This system was unknown to most of Kennedy's top aides until it was revealed during the Watergate hearings in 1973.

After Kennedy's assassination, Lyndon B. Johnson did not move into the Oval Office for several days, possibly at the request of Robert Kennedy. He finally did begin using the room on November 26, 1963, and had the Resolute desk replaced with the Johnson desk, the desk that he had used throughout his time in the Senate and as vice president.

Public display
In an 1978 oral history interview with James R. Ketchum, the White House Curator from 1963 to 1970, he claimed that as Johnson was moving into the White House he approached Mrs. Kennedy saying, "Little lady, anything you see in your husband's office, you take. You are welcome to anything." Mrs. Kennedy expressed interest in having the Resolute desk. Under a law passed in 1961, the White House is considered a museum and any donated items are property of the White House but cared for by the Smithsonian Institution when not in use. Ketchum claimed that even though both Johnson and Mrs. Kennedy knew about this law they allowed the desk to be packed up to go on tour to help raise funds for the forthcoming John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. Ketchum states he required the Kennedy Library to sign a loan agreement so the desk "was still not considered an outright gift or whatever that had passed between Mrs. Kennedy and President Johnson." On February 12, 1964, the Resolute desk was transferred, on loan, to the Smithsonian Institution and went on tour around the country between 1964 and 1965. This 32,000 sqft traveling exhibit visited 27 American cities and 15 European ones including Warsaw and Belgrade, both Communist capital cities. On the American leg of the exhibit, it visited Atlantic City during the 1964 Democratic National Convention. When it traveled to Boston, 45,000 visitors were estimated to have viewed the desk in a single day.

Ketchum describes that when the desk returned from this world tour it was considerably damaged "mainly because of the way the exhibit was handled and the shipping problems which they obviously encountered." After going back and forth about ownership of the desk Ketchum was able to get it back into the custody of the White House for repairs. According to Ketchum, the cabinetmaker that carved the panel requested by FDR (this was Rudolph Bauss, but he is not named in the interview) had just retired and was dying of cancer. Ketchum got him out of retirement to complete the repairs to the desk. Shortly after the repairs were complete he died from his illness. Ketchum believes that the length of time needed to complete the repairs reduced the controversy over who owned the desk, with the Smithsonian receiving the repaired desk and putting it on view beginning in 1966. The desk was originally displayed as an exhibit in its own right at the National Museum of History and Technology, now the National Museum of American History, with the independent exhibit opening on November 16, 1967, but it was later displayed as part of one of the five major United States Bicentennial exhibits the museum curated. The "We the People" exhibition, which the desk was displayed in, opened on June 4, 1975, and focused on the American people and American government.

Oval Office desk
Jimmy Carter returned the Resolute desk to the Oval Office in 1977. On the afternoon of his January 20 inauguration, Carter made his first visit as president to the Oval Office. He later said he "...sat down at the President's desk and looked it over. It was a surprise to see that it was not the same one which had been photographed when John Kennedy was there, with his little son peeping out from the door underneath. My first decision: to replace this desk with the one I remembered." The next morning over breakfast he chose the Resolute desk from a set of images of desk options. The Resolute desk has been used by every president since in this room except for George H. W. Bush who used it for five months in the Oval Office before moving it to his Residence Office in the Treaty Room of the White House. Bush used the C&O desk in the Oval Office instead. Bill Clinton returned the Resolute desk to the Oval Office on his first day as president on January 20, 1993.

In 2009, British Prime Minister Gordon Brown visited President Barack Obama and gave him the original framed commissioning papers for HMS Resolute and an ornamental pen holder made from the timbers of the anti-slavery ship HMS Gannet (1878). Gannet began its service the same year that Resolute was broken up and the pen holder was made in the same Joiners Shop as the Resolute desk.

Obama also found himself in a minor controversy in conservative media when in 2013 photographs were released showing him with his foot resting on the Resolute desk. Multiple other presidents have also been photographed with their feet up on the desk.

A failed attempt to switch out the Resolute desk with the Hoover desk was made during the transition to Joe Biden's presidency. Valerie Biden Owens, the sister of President Joe Biden and a member of the team tasked with redecorating the Oval Office for Biden's tenure, wrote in her memoir, "We tried to get FDR's Oval Office desk—I wanted everything Trump had touched out of there—but to this day, the desk resides at FDR's family home in Hyde Park. ... Thus, the desk Trump had sat behind remained."

A button to call aides was noted as being on the Resolute desk since at least the George W. Bush presidency. This button sits in an approximately 9 in long by 3 in wide wooden box marked with a golden presidential seal. Donald Trump stated to one reporter that "everyone thinks it is [the nuclear button]".

Timeline

Below is a table with the location of the desk from 1880, when it arrived in America, to the present day. Each tenant of the desk is noted as well.

Other items made from HMS Resolute

Queen Victoria had a total of three tables built from the timbers of HMS Resolute, of which the desk given to President Hayes was one. According to letters listed in Volume 40 of the Parliamentary Papers, two "memorial tables" made out of timbers from the Resolute were announced as "recently manufactured" by Robert Hall to the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury on November 18, 1880. Hall said that both tables were to be presented by the Queen, with one going to the president of the United States and the other given to the widow of Henry Grinnell. Four days later, on November 22, a second letter described how the Queen has "expressed a desire to have a table manufactured out of the same timbers" and that it was subsequently made by Morant, Boyd, & Blanford for a cost of 62 pounds.

The desk given to Henry Grinnell's widow, in recognition of the large sums of money her husband spent trying to find Sir John Franklin and his ships, is now known as the Grinnell desk. This desk is 42.25 in high, 48 in wide, and 26.75 in deep. Also designed and made by William Evenden in 1880, the desk has a leather-covered surface, fluted legs, and a leather footrest. The desk has an upper cabinet and two cupboards covered by paneled doors. The left door is carved with an anchor, and the right with a lion. A balustrade sits above these cupboards, and between them sits a shelf with a silver plaque. The plaque states, "This table... is presented by the Queen of Great Brittan and Ireland to Mrs. Grinnell as a memorial to the disinterested kindness and great exertions of her late husband Mr. Henry Grinnell in assisting in the search to ascertain the fate of Captain Sir John Franklin, who perished in the Arctic regions." This desk was donated to the New Bedford Whaling Museum in 1983 by Peter S. Grinnell.

Queen Victoria's table was made for use on her steam-powered yacht, HMY Victoria and Albert. This table is now part of the British Royal Collection and stored in Kensington Palace. It is 70 cm high, 120 cm wide, and 60 cm deep. The rectangular side table has a plain top with a chamfered edge. The frieze contains two drawers. Both the frieze and legs have blind fretwork decorations. This table also has a brass plaque stating the Resolute "...was purchased, fitted out and sent as a gift to Her Majesty Queen Victoria by the President and people of the United States as a token of goodwill and friendship. The table was made from her timbers when she was broken up in 1880."

While Parliamentary papers list expenditures for only three tables, Captain Michael Taylor, a docent at the New Bedford Whaling Museum who focuses his studies on the Grinnell desk, stated in a lecture that "it is believed a fourth may also have been made". Martin W. Sandler notes in his book, Resolute: The Epic Search for the Northwest Passage and John Franklin, and the Discovery of the Queen's Ghost Ship that Lady Jane Franklin, the widow of Sir John Franklin, may have also received a desk.

The National Maritime Museum, one of the four-member intuitions of Royal Museums Greenwich, holds a few other objects created from the timbers of the Resolute. These include three picture frames,  a paper knife, and a box bearing a brass plaque. The museum also has a block of wood from the Resolute and the ship's figurehead, which is in the shape of a polar bear. Other parts of the ship are held by various museums, including the ship's clock at the Vancouver Maritime Museum and the ship's spyglass and sextant at the New London County Historical Society. The Resolute's bell was given to President Lyndon Johnson by UK Prime Minister Harold Wilson in 1965.

Replicas

The first mention of creating a replica of the Resolute desk comes from a memo sent from Jacqueline Kennedy on April 2, 1963, only two years into John F. Kennedy's presidency. J. B. West, the White House Chief Usher at the time, included the text from this memo in his memoir Upstairs at the White House; my life with the First Ladies. Jacqueline Kennedy wrote the following to him: "Would Mr. Arata [the White House upholsterer]  know of any wonderful wood carver? The absured [sic] reason I ask this is that I am thinking very far ahead: In his Library, the President (like President Truman) wishes to have a replica of his office—heaven knows, he picked the worst possible desk to duplicate.

I thought if there was a wood carver around, perhaps he could do such a thing by stucco, or wax impressions—would you find this out, perhaps from Smithsonian? You could tell them that some museum wants a duplicate of the desk, the best way this could be done, and let me know when you do." This first attempt at creating a replica fell to the National Park Service but the techniques they chose to use turned out to be too expensive. This attempt to create a replica was abandoned.

The first successful replica of the Resolute desk was commissioned in 1978 for a permanent display at the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library in Boston, Massachusetts. To build the replica, Robert C. Whitley, an American woodworker, spent three days measuring and photographing the original desk. This was done in the Oval Office while President Jimmy Carter was away in Germany. The replica desk took almost a full year to complete and is still found at the Kennedy Library.

Six presidential libraries display replicas of the Resolute desk. Besides the Kennedy Library, the Clinton Presidential Center in Little Rock, Arkansas, the George W. Bush Presidential Center in University Park, Texas, the Jimmy Carter Library and Museum in Atlanta, Georgia, the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library and Museum in Simi Valley, California, and the Rutherford B. Hayes Presidential Center, in Fremont, Ohio, all display a reproduction of the Resolute desk.

Other museums and libraries also display replica Resolute desks. These include the New-York Historical Society's recreation of Reagan's Oval Office in New York City, The Presidents Hall of Fame in Clermont, Florida, the Treehouse Children's Museum in Ogden, Utah, the Star Spangled Center at The Magic House in Kirkwood, Missouri, the American Village Citizenship Trust in Montevallo, Alabama, and the George and Barbara Bush Center at the University of New England in Biddeford, Maine. A replica of the plaque affixed to the Resolute desk is displayed by the Kane Historic Preservation Society in Kane, Pennsylvania.

Other tourist attractions across the United States exhibit replica Resolute desks. These include Madame Tussauds museums in Washington, D.C., Hollywood, Las Vegas, and New York. The Rogue Valley International–Medford Airport has an Oval Office meeting facility featuring a smaller replica of the Resolute desk, and Conservative Grounds, a Donald Trump-themed coffee shop in Largo, Florida, has a replica Oval Office and Resolute desk in the back of the store.

Several private houses and replica Oval Offices display copies of the Resolute desk, including the Ron Wade House in Longview, Texas, a 10,000-square-foot home in Kirtland Hills, Ohio, and Norton Manor, the Potomac, Maryland home of Frank Islam.

There are multiple permanent Oval Office sets in Hollywood, all with a replica Resolute desk. The Castle Rock set was built in 1995 for The American President and the films Nixon (1995) and Independence Day (1996) used it. The set built for the 1993 film Dave subsequently hosted over 25 films, including The Pelican Brief (1993), Clear and Present Danger (1994), and Absolute Power (1997). The replica Resolute desk from The West Wing is in the Warner Bros. Prop House where it can be seen on studio tours. A replica of the desk was used in the 2007 film National Treasure: Book of Secrets, in which a secret compartment in the desk contained pieces of a clue to the location of treasure.

Jim Warlick, the owner of American Presidential Experience, owns five Oval Office replicas, each with its own Resolute desk. The most recent of his replica rooms cost $60,000 to build. These replicas are rented out for approximately $30,000 a week and have been used for book cover images, the television show Little People, Big World, the San Diego County Fair, television ads, and other media. The replicas are stored across the country including in Los Angeles, in Virginia, and near Atlanta.

A replica of the desk was on display during the 58th Venice Biennale as a part of Kenneth Goldsmith's exhibition HILLARY: The Hillary Clinton Emails. Hillary Clinton sat at the replica for nearly an hour, leafing through over 60,000 of her emails that were printed out.

The commercial sale of presidential furniture reproductions is a small but growing business. Companies such as New York First Co. and Victorian Replicas build or distribute replicas of the Resolute desk for commercial buyers. In a 2009 article in Woodshop News, David Newton from Victorian Replicas said that he had sold more than fifty replica Resolute desks. According to him, "Some people use them in their homes, and a large number of people who are lawyers like to have them." Replicas were also on sale in 2015 through SkyMall for $5,499, through the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library's online store for $6,999.99, and in 2020, a full-scale replica of the Oval Office was put up for auction as part of Bonhams American Presidential Experience Auction for $40,000–$60,000.

title: Resolute desk


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Temple of Vesta

The Temple of Vesta, or the aedes (Latin Aedes Vestae; Italian: Tempio di Vesta), is an ancient edifice in Rome, Italy. It is located in the Roman Forum near the Regia and the House of the Vestal Virgins. The Temple of Vesta housed Vesta's holy fire, which was a symbol of Rome's safety and prosperity. The temple has a circular footprint, making it a tholos.

Since the worship of Vesta began in private homes, the architecture seems to pay homage to the architecture of early Roman homes. The temple's current, ruinous form employs elements of Greek architecture with Corinthian columns and marble. The sacred hearth was housed in a central cella. The surviving structure indicates that there were twenty Corinthian columns built on a podium fifteen meters in diameter. The roof probably had a vent at the apex to allow smoke to release.

Origins
The first Temple of Vesta was built by Numa Pompilius, the second king of the Roman Kingdom. He also built the original Regia ("king's house") and the House of the Vestal Virgins, and founded the priestly order of Vestal Virgins. At first there were just two Vestals, but by the end of the Republic, there were six. Vesta was the goddess of Rome's hearths. The Romans believed that her sacred fire was closely tied to the fortunes of the city, and that its extinction signified imminent disaster for Rome. Although it is known as a temple in modern times, its site, orientation and floor plan were not determined through augury. It was therefore known as a shrine (in Latin, aedes).

The aedes and the Vestals
The Temple of Vesta was tended by the six Vestal Virgins, drawn between the ages of 6 and 10 from freeborn, or traditionally, aristocratic families. They surrendered all legal connections with their birth family, and came under the authority of the pontifex maximus, Rome's chief priest. The Vestal oath of virginity during their 30-year tenure set them apart from other Roman women. While chastity until marriage was considered proper in Rome, long-term celibacy was not, as women were generally expected to marry, and give birth to heirs for their husbands. A Vestal who broke her vow of chastity during her priestly tenure disrupted the relationship between Rome and its gods. The Romans believed that this would lead to disaster, such as pestilence, social breakdown or military defeats.

For minor failures of duty, Vestals could be whipped. For breaking their vow of chastity, a Vestal could be condemned to a living burial in a subterranean cell within the city boundary, with a little food and water, and left to die. If disasters struck, in any form, Vestals who seemed less than perfect in attitude, morals or behaviour might be accused of secretly breaking their vows and thus causing the disaster. For example, in 114 BC, a virgin girl of equestrian family, named Helvia, was killed by lightning while on horseback. Her death was interpreted as a prodigy, proof of potentially disastrous oath-breaking by one or more Vestals; after investigations three Vestal Virgins were sentenced to death for inchastity, on the flimsiest of evidence. Vestals were required to show a near supernatural level of moral superiority. Failures, and their punishment, were extremely rare. The respect and social privileges that came from their position, a generous pension, and a complete lack of personal experience of the duties attached to Roman marriage, seems to have encouraged many to remain in the priesthood after their term of service had officially ended.

Building
The temple of Vesta was unique in its design, as it was round as opposed to rectangular like many other temples. The circular shape of the Vesta temples were based on the primitive round hut. Some researchers argue that the circular footprint of the Temple of Vesta was meant to symbolize the earth and the domed roof symbolized the heavens. All temples to Vesta were round, and had entrances facing east to enhance the connection between Vesta's fire and the sun as sources of life. The Temple of Vesta represents the site of ancient religious activity as far back as the 7th century BCE.

Archaeologists have found that the Temple of Vesta was built on a circular foundation. Circling the exterior of the temple were twenty fluted columns. Each column was 0.52 meters in diameter, with a base 1.6 meters in circumference. The columns were topped with a Corinthian capital. The radius of the temple was about 6.19 meters. This measured from the outer line of the architrave to the middle of the temple. The interior wall is 0.60 meters thick and the diameter of the inside of the temple is 8.6 meters. The Temple was on a high platform and wide steps lead up to the entrance.

Location
It was one of the earliest structures in the Roman Forum, although its final form was the result of subsequent rebuilding. While most Roman temples held a cult statue, Vesta's had a hearth and flame that burned continuously, day and night. The temple was the storehouse for the legal wills and documents of Roman Senators and cult objects such as the Palladium, a statue of Athena (Roman Minerva) believed to have been brought by Aeneas from Troy; the statue was felt to be one of the Pignora Imperii, or pledges of imperium, of Ancient Rome. The temple was closed during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire in the 4th-century. The Temple of Vesta, the Atrium of the Vestal Virgins (House of the Vestal Virgins), and the Regia are the earliest evidence of the Cult of Vesta. The original Temple of Vesta stood on the east end of the forum near the house of the Vestal Virgins and the Regia. Beyond that cluster of buildings is the Via Sacra (Sacred Way) which ran uphill. This cluster of buildings was destroyed in the great fire of 64 AD; the temple was rebuilt by Trajan over several years. Another rebuilding was sponsored by Julia Domna, wife of Septimius Severus.

Building history
The temple was destroyed and rebuilt many times. The first destruction of the temple was by the Gauls in 390 BC. Livy records that after the Gauls burned down the temple, they soon returned to find that the Vestals had rekindled their sacred fire among the ruins of the temple. According to Ovid, the second destruction in 241 BC may have started because of the fire in the temple itself. During the fire, the Vestals were unable to collect the cult objects, and they were destroyed along with the Temple of Vesta. Lucius Caecilius Metellus, the Pontifex Maximus at the time, went into the burning temple to save the palladium. Lucius Caecilius was blinded by the flames, and it was believed that this was the result of him breaking the tradition of the temple which barres men from entering. Fires also occurred again in 210 BC and again in the early first century BC. The temple was rebuilt again during the reigns of Augustus and Nero. Finally, it burned down in 191 AD and was rebuilt for the last time during the reign of Septimius Severus by his wife, Julia Domna.

Fate of the Sacred Flame
The sacred flame was finally extinguished in 394 AD by Theodosius I, on account of the rise of Christianity in the empire.

Modern reconstruction
The Temple of Vesta remained reasonably intact until the Renaissance. However, in 1549 AD, the temple was demolished, and its marble was repurposed to build churches and papal palaces. Most of our knowledge about what the original Temple of Vesta looked like come from its depictions on coins and art. One piece of art that depicts the Temple of Vesta is a marble relief in the Uffizi in Florence, Italy. These depictions and others like it allow us to understand what the temple looked like in antiquity.

Modern archaeological investigation began on the site of the Temple of Vesta in the late nineteenth century. The exploration began in 1877 with archaeologist R. Lanciani's excavation of the Temple of Vesta and the publishing of his findings. During his exploration he was able to uncover many parts of the Temple of Vesta, including parts of the entablature and ceiling. Exploration continued from 1898 to 1900 when Giaccomo Boni, director of the Roman Forum, embarked on a new round of excavations. His works were published in 1900 and included measurements and sections of the temple's foundation, photos and drawings of the principal architectural elements, and a restored plan of the building. Finally, in 1930-1931 Alfonso Bartoli reconstructed two and a half of the Temple of Vesta's bays, which can still be seen in the forum today.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Temple of Vesta


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Side Effects (TV series)

Side Effects is a Canadian television series, which aired from 1994 to 1996 on CBC Television.

A medical drama created by Brenda Greenberg and Guy Mullally, the series was set in an inner city clinic in the Parkdale district of Toronto. The show's cast included Nadia Capone, Elizabeth Shepherd, Albert Schultz, Joseph Ziegler, Jovanni Sy, Janne Mortil, Anna Pappas, Barbara Eve Harris, Jennifer Dale, Lawrence Dane and Arsinée Khanjian.

The series premiered on October 14, 1994. The show's executive producer was Brenda Greenberg, who had also been executive producer of Street Legal.

Schultz garnered a Gemini Award nomination for Best Actor in a Drama Series at the 10th Gemini Awards for the show's first season, and Harris garnered a nomination for Best Actress in a Drama Series at the 11th Gemini Awards for the second season.

All "clinic" and "hospital" scenes were filmed at Toronto's Hospital for Sick Children, in the semi-mothballed Emergency room wing and on the "5G","6F" and "6G" old ward floors, soon after the hospital moved large portions of patient care and the ER into the adjoining new building.

The show's cancellation was announced in February 1996, following the end of its second season.

title: Side Effects (TV series)


text: User talk:80.58.44.44

title: User talk:80.58.44.44


text: File:Getacluedvd.jpg

title: File:Getacluedvd.jpg


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Talk:Jedi Temple

I thought I read somewhere once that the Imperial Palace was built on the site of the Jedi Temple, or that the temple had become part of the palace complex. JesseG 21:06, May 31, 2005 (UTC)

Hi, just a brief question with regard to the Jedi Temple. My sense is that the text of the Wikipedia entry is misleading as the High Council Tower is separate and distinct from the Temple Spire. The "HCT" is one of the four smaller spires, whereas the Temple Spire is the central and tallest spire. The "HCT" is, clearly, the home of the High Council, whereas the Temple Spire has three functions - functions which are not altogether compatible;

1. Place of Contemplation 2. Near the base of the spire - site of flight deck for Jedi Starfighters/ Gunships 3. From ROTS - Site of Jedi War Room - either mid-spire or higher.

My sources for this distinction are Inside the Worlds of Star Wars: Episode I, Star Wars:  AOTC, I am a Jedi Apprentice, and The Making of Revenge of the Sith

Any thoughts?? --JohnSW 15:26, 31 July 2005 (UTC)

Dark side energy
Unless I'm totally forgetting, I thought the New Jedi Order books had something about the temple being built on a wellspring of dark side energy. I looked it up here to refresh my memory, and there was nothing!

Request: someone who's recently read the book, could you add this/what its implications are? —Preceding unsigned comment added by DomenicDenicola (talk • contribs)

 * Sounds like you are referring to the rebuilt Jedi Temple, and the death of Irek Ismaren. Unfortunately, I can't help you beyond naming names.

Archives
I recommend merging the archives into this article, since the archives are a part of the temple. It would make for a fine section. I'll go ahead and be bold (since it's pretty straightforward). — Deckill e r 04:44, 21 July 2006 (UTC)

The temple is about to have a restoration
This article needs serious clean-up work - I'll be sending in the construction droids later...--Allemandtando (talk) 11:22, 25 June 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Jedi Temple


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Race Wong

Race Wong is a Singaporean actress, singer and businesswoman. She was one of the former Hong Kong cantopop duo singer group 2R alongside her elder sister Rosanne Wong.

Professional background
Born in Malaysia, raised in Singapore, she pursued her career in the entertainment industry in Hong Kong with her sister Rosanne Wong which won her various awards for her singing career as the cantopop group 2R, including Most Promising Newcomer and Most Popular Group Award in the Annual Top 10 Song of the Year Awards (2003), Metro Broadcasting Music awards (2004), TVB Top 10 Songs of the Year (2004) and Hong Kong Commercial Radio Music Awards’ (2003).

Wong became a spotlight when she was chosen to star alongside Stephen Chow in his famous annual San Miguel TV advertisement. Following that, she rose to fame for her leading role in a TVB youth series Hearts of Fencing. Which jumpstarted both her singing and acting career.

Wong hoped to focus her acting on roles beyond her youthful and sweet appearance. Her outstanding performance in her first leading role in the movie Abnormal Beauty won her a nomination for the Best New Actor in the 24th Annual Hong Kong Film Awards (2005) and the 42nd Golden Horse Film Awards' (2005) in Taiwan. Wong continued to experiment with different roles both on-screen and off-screen. In 2006, together with her sister Rosanne Wong, they took on groundbreaking leading roles in a musical adaption of The Smiling Proud Wanderer stage performance by the Hong Kong Dance Company (2006) where Rosanne famously shaved bald for the role. The musical enjoyed a success which brought them to perform in Shanghai the following year.

Later in 2008, Wong's starring role as a pregnant new immigrant from China was a break away from her usual youthful image in the movie True Women for Sale which earned her a nomination for Best Supporting Actress in the 28th Hong Kong Film Awards in 2009.

Over the years as 2R, Wong has been a product spokesperson for various products such as Modern Beauty, Microworks Technology, Citicall, Biotherm, SAFA Mp3, 2R Online, 花花瘦身茶 (Fruity Flower Tea) and Polaroid & Cool-iCam.

In 2010, Wong took a Masters of Business course and graduated with a Masters of Business majoring in Marketing from the University of Newcastle (Australia) in 2013. Concurrently in 2011, she made an unexpected career change into finance, taking on the role of Marketing Manager at Maybank Kim Eng Securities (Hong Kong). She was licensed with the Securities and Futures Commission to conduct equities trading.

The year she turned 30, Wong relocated back to Singapore where her family is based. Together with her younger sister, Rhonda, she set up Anthill Realtors Pte. Ltd in 2013. She then co-founded Ohmyhome Pte Ltd in 2016, a tech company focused on connecting buyers to sellers, landlords to tenants in real estate. When asked about her career move, Wong said that she wanted to focus her attention on something that will provide more value to people, something on the opposite spectrum of her celebrity lifestyle.

Personal life
Wong had a daughter, Cara Loh, born in 2017. She birthed her second child, Damon in 2021.

Music videos

 * 2007 張棟樑 – "錯了再錯"
 * 2003 Joakim – "Come into My Kitchen" MV (法國)/
 * Joakim – "Come into My Kitchen" MV (France)
 * 2003 黃凱芹 – 《易愛難收》/ Chris Wong – 《易愛難收》
 * 2003/3 郭富城 – "愛的動力"/"原動力" MV (中國) /
 * Aaron Kwok – "愛的動力" / "原動力" MV (China)
 * 2002 余文樂 -《還你門匙》/ Shawn Yue -《還你門匙》

Awards

 * 2003
 * Most Promising Newcomer (Group) – 26th Annual Top 10 Song of the Year Awards
 * Most Explosive Newcomer (Group) – 2003 Metro Broadcasting Music Awards
 * Best New Group Bronze Award – 2003 Hong Kong Commercial Radio Music Awards
 * 2004
 * Most Popular Group Gold Award – 2003 TVB Top 10 Songs of the Year Awards
 * Most Popular Group – 2004 Metro Broadcasting Music Awards
 * 2005
 * Best New Actor (Race Wong – nominated) – 24th Annual Hong Kong Film Awards
 * Best New Actor (Race Wong – nominated) – 42nd Golden Horse Film Awards
 * 新城勁爆跳舞歌曲 新世界 – 2005 Metro Broadcasting Music Awards
 * 2006
 * 新城勁爆創意表現大獎 – 2006 Metro Broadcasting Music Awards
 * 2009
 * Best Supporting Actress (Race Wong – nominated) – 28th Hong Kong Film Awards

title: Race Wong


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User talk:ParisHilton

Welcome, ! I noticed that you placed a vote on Brennan Reilly. Participation in the community is encouraged, of course, but your status as a brand new user means that your vote might not be counted. Please understand that this is a common practice on Wikipedia, and that it is necessary to prevent deliberate misuse of our voting systems. Straw polls on Wikipedia are meant to measure community consensus, and should not necessarily be taken as literal one-member one-vote voting. However, please do make further contributions to Wikipedia, and express your opinion on policy matters.

title: User talk:ParisHilton


text:
User talk:Picapica/archive0505

Royal Assent, 1914
Don't sweat it. I thought that the Home Rule Bill hadn't received Royal Assent until I read it in ''The Green Flag: A History of Irish nationalism', which my (Irish) flatmate bought me for Christmas. Very good book, worth a read: ISBN 0140291652. — OwenBlacker 13:27, Mar 3, 2005 (UTC)

Oïl languages
I'd agree thatlangues d'Oïl is probably more commonly used by English-speakers than Oïl languages, but to state that Oïl languages is "meaningless" in English is not accurate. The term is used by some English-speakers at least, and also by European networks such as EBLUL and Mercator. We've certainly got both forms throughout Wikipedia (e.g. List of Oïl languages). I intended my edit in Brittany, re Gallo language, provided a more stylish balance in terms of contrasting "Celtic language family" and "Oïl language family", but your Romance language certainly serves equally readably! Man vyi 06:44, 10 Mar 2005 (UTC)

British Rail Class 185
The reason the title British Rail Class 185 was used is simply to make all articles consistent. If, for example the title was TransPennine Express Class 185 there is a strong possibility this would have to be changed if the franchise is renamed in the future. One argument for using "British Rail Class xxx" is because the BR numbering system is still used, even if BR did not build the classes. (Our Phellap 15:32, 20 Mar 2005 (UTC))

Discussion continued at Talk:British Rail Class 185 -- Picapica 17:05, 20 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Discussion moved to Wikipedia talk:Naming conventions (British railway locomotive and multiple unit classes)

Irish Ministers
I have left a reply on Talk:Irish Minister for Arts, Sport and Tourism regarding your query, hope it is clear. Djegan 13:30, 31 Mar 2005 (UTC)

t:tld phrasing
It was a really subtle distinction, but luckily for you I had recalled previously seeing such an issue, so in the interest of peace, I've chosen to modify it to be that much more straightforward. :) --Joy [shallot]   09:24, 5 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Il Canto/La Canzone degli Italiani
Your moving proposal was rejected, yet you moved the page. Whatever reasons you might have, you should behave well and according to a common struggle towards a betterWikipedia. --Panairjdde 14:42, 11 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Panairjdde, my friend, you should examine the evidence more carefully.
 * My renaming proposal of 28.IV.05 was opposed, on the grounds that the official name of the anthem is the name of the poem. I therefore effected a different renaming – to what you call the official name [*]: "Il Canto degli Italiani" (even though it is normal Wikipedia practice to use the most commonly encountered terms when several exist).
 * It is not "behaving well" to foster errors. Long may the struggle for truth continue! -- Picapica 17:13, 11 May 2005 (UTC)
 * [*] Even though the Italian government uses the name "Fratelli d'Italia" on its official site:

Governo Italiano -- Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri -- Dipartimento del cerimoniale di Stato -- Ufficio del cerimoniale Inno nazionale: FRATELLI d'ITALIA di Goffredo Mameli musicata da Michele Novaro
 * Source: http://www.governo.it/Presidenza/cerimoniale/inno.html

title: User talk:Picapica/archive0505


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IP traceback

IP traceback is any method for reliably determining the origin of a packet on the Internet. The IP protocol does not provide for the authentication of the source IP address of an IP packet, enabling the source address to be falsified in a strategy called IP address spoofing, and creating potential internet security and stability problems.

Use of false source IP addresses allows denial-of-service attacks (DoS) or one-way attacks (where the response from the victim host is so well known that return packets need not be received to continue the attack). IP traceback is critical for identifying sources of attacks and instituting protection measures for the Internet. Most existing approaches to this problem have been tailored toward DoS attack detection. Such solutions require high numbers of packets to converge on the attack path(s).

Probabilistic packet marking
Savage et al. suggested probabilistically marking packets as they traverse routers through the Internet. They propose that the router mark the packet with either the router’s IP address or the edges of the path that the packet traversed to reach the router.

For the first alternative, marking packets with the router's IP address, analysis shows that in order to gain the correct attack path with 95% accuracy as many as 294,000 packets are required. The second approach, edge marking, requires that the two nodes that make up an edge mark the path with their IP addresses along with the distance between them. This approach would require more state information in each packet than simple node marking but would converge much faster. They suggest three ways to reduce the state information of these approaches into something more manageable.

The first approach is to XOR each node forming an edge in the path with each other. Node a inserts its IP address into the packet and sends it to b. Upon being detected at b (by detecting a 0 in the distance), b XORs its address with the address of a. This new data entity is called an edge id and reduces the required state for edge sampling by half. Their next approach is to further take this edge id and fragment it into k smaller fragments. Then, randomly select a fragment and encode it, along with the fragment offset so that the correct corresponding fragment is selected from a downstream router for processing. When enough packets are received, the victim can reconstruct all of the edges the series of packets traversed (even in the presence of multiple attackers).

Due to the high number of combinations required to rebuild a fragmented edge id, the reconstruction of such an attack graph is computationally intensive according to research by Song and Perrig. Furthermore, the approach results in a large number of false positives. As an example, with only 25 attacking hosts in a DDoS attack the reconstruction process takes days to build and results in thousands of false positives.

Accordingly, Song and Perrig propose the following traceback scheme: instead of encoding the IP address interleaved with a hash, they suggest encoding the IP address into an 11 bit hash and maintain a 5 bit hop count, both stored in the 16-bit fragment ID field. This is based on the observation that a 5-bit hop count (32 max hops) is sufficient for almost all Internet routes. Further, they suggest that two different hashing functions be used so that the order of the routers in the markings can be determined. Next, if any given hop decides to mark it first checks the distance field for a 0, which implies that a previous router has already marked it. If this is the case, it generates an 11-bit hash of its own IP address and then XORs it with the previous hop. If it finds a non-zero hop count it inserts its IP hash, sets the hop count to zero and forwards the packet on. If a router decides not to mark the packet it merely increments the hop count in the overloaded fragment id field.

Song and Perrig identify that this is not robust enough against collisions and thus suggest using a set of independent hash functions, randomly selecting one, and then hashing the IP along with a FID or function id and then encoding this. They state that this approach essentially reduces the probability of collision to (1/(211)m). For further details see Song and Perrig.

Deterministic packet marking
Belenky and Ansari, outline a deterministic packet marking scheme. They describe a more realistic topology for the Internet – that is composed of LANs and ASs with a connective boundary – and attempt to put a single mark on inbound packets at the point of network ingress. Their idea is to put, with random probability of .5, the upper or lower half of the IP address of the ingress interface into the fragment id field of the packet, and then set a reserve bit indicating which portion of the address is contained in the fragment field. By using this approach they claim to be able to obtain 0 false positives with .99 probability after only 7 packets.

Rayanchu and Barua provide another spin on this approach (called DERM). Their approach is similar in that they wish to use and encoded IP address of the input interface in the fragment id field of the packet. Where they differ from Belenky and Ansari is that they wish to encode the IP address as a 16-bit hash of that IP address. Initially they choose a known hashing function. They state that there would be some collisions if there were greater than 2^16 edge routers doing the marking.

They attempt to mitigate the collision problem by introducing a random distributed selection of a hash function from the universal set, and then applying it to the IP address. In either hashing scenario, the source address and the hash are mapped together in a table for later look-up along with a bit indicating which portion of the address they have received. Through a complicated procedure and a random hash selection, they are capable of reducing address collision. By using a deterministic approach they reduce the time for their reconstruction procedure for their mark (the 16-bit hash). However, by encoding that mark through hashing they introduce the probability of collisions, and thus false-positives.

Shokri and Varshovi introduced the concepts of Dynamic Marking and Mark-based Detection with "Dynamic Deterministic Packet Marking," (DDPM). In dynamic marking it is possible to find the attack agents in a large scale DDoS network. In the case of a DRDoS it enables the victim to trace the attack one step further back to the source, to find a master machine or the real attacker with only a few numbers of packets. The proposed marking procedure increases the possibility of DRDoS attack detection at the victim through mark-based detection. In the mark-based method, the detection engine takes into account the marks of the packets to identify varying sources of a single site involved in a DDoS attack. This significantly increases the probability of detection. In order to satisfy the end-to-end arguments approach, fate-sharing and also respect to the need for scalable and applicable schemes, only edge routers implement a simple marking procedure. The fairly negligible amount of delay and bandwidth overhead added to the edge routers make the DDPM implementable.

S. Majumdar, D. Kulkarni and C. Ravishankar proposes a new method to traceback the origin of DHCP packets in ICDCN 2011. Their method adds a new DHCP option that contains the MAC address and the ingress port of the edge switch which had received the DHCP packet. This new option will be added to the DHCP packet by the edge switch. This solution follows DHCP RFCs. Previous IP traceback mechanisms have overloaded IP header fields with traceback information and thus are violating IP RFCs. Like other mechanisms, this paper also assumes that the network is trusted. The paper presents various performance issues in routers/switches that were considered while designing this practical approach. However, this approach is not applicable to any general IP packet.

Router-based approach
With router-based approaches, the router is charged with maintaining information regarding packets that pass through it. For example, Sager proposes to log packets and then data mine them later. This has the benefit of being out of band and thus not hindering the fast path.

Snoeren et al. propose marking within the router. The idea proposed in their paper is to generate a fingerprint of the packet, based upon the invariant portions of the packet (source, destination, etc.) and the first 8 bytes of payload (which is unique enough to have a low probability of collision). More specifically, m independent simple hash functions each generate an output in the range of 2n-1. A bit is then set at the index generated to create a fingerprint when combined with the output of all other hash functions. All fingerprints are stored in a 2n bit table for later retrieval. The paper shows a simple family of hash functions suitable for this purpose and present a hardware implementation of it.

The space needed at each router is limited and controllable (2n bits). A small n makes the probability of collision of packet hashes (and false identification) higher. When a packet is to be traced back, it is forwarded to originating routers where fingerprint matches are checked. As time passes, the fingerprint information is “clobbered” by hashes generated by other packets. Thus, the selectivity of this approach degrades with the time that has passed between the passage of the packet and the traceback interrogation.

Another known take on the router-based schemes comes from Hazeyama et al. In their approach, they wish to integrate the SPIE approach as outlined by Snoeren, with their approach of recording the layer 2 link-id along with the network ID (VLAN or true ID), the MAC address of the layer 2 switch that received the packet and the link id it came in on. This information is then put into two look-up tables – both containing the switch (layer 2 router) MAC id for look-up. They rely on the MAC:port tuple as a method of tracing a packet back (even if the MAC address has been spoofed).

To help mitigate the problem of storage limitations they use Snoeren’s hashing approach and implementation (SPIE) – modifying it to accept their information for hashing. They admit their algorithm is slow (O(N2)) and with only 3.3 million packet hashes being stored the approximate time before the digest tables are invalid is 1 minute. This dictates that any attack response must be real-time – a possibility only on single-administrative LAN domains.

Out-of-band approaches
The ICMP traceback scheme Steven M. Bellovin proposes probabilistically sending an ICMP traceback packet forward to the destination host of an IP packet with some low probability. Thus, the need to maintain state in either the packet or the router is obviated. Furthermore, the low probability keeps the processing overhead as well as the bandwidth requirement low. Bellovin suggests that the selection also be based on pseudo-random numbers to help block attempts to time attack bursts. The problem with this approach is that routers commonly block ICMP messages because of security issues associated with them.

Trace-back of active attack flows
In this type of solution, an observer tracks an existing attack flow by examining incoming and outgoing ports on routers starting from the host under attack. Thus, such a solution requires having privileged access to routers along the attack path.

To bypass this restriction and automate this process, Stone proposes routing suspicious packets on an overlay network using ISP edge routers. By simplifying the topology, suspicious packets can easily be re-routed to a specialized network for further analysis.

By nature of DoS, any such attack will be sufficiently long lived for tracking in such a fashion to be possible. Layer-three topology changes, while hard to mask to a determined attacker, have the possibility of alleviating the DoS until the routing change is discovered and subsequently adapted to. Once the attacker has adapted, the re-routing scheme can once again adapt and re-route; causing an oscillation in the DoS attack; granting some ability to absorb the impact of such an attack.

Other approaches
Hal Burch and William Cheswick propose a controlled flooding of links to determine how this flooding affects the attack stream. Flooding a link will cause all packets, including packets from the attacker, to be dropped with the same probability. We can conclude from this that if a given link were flooded, and packets from the attacker slowed, then this link must be part of the attack path. Then recursively upstream routers are “coerced” into performing this test until the attack path is discovered.

The traceback problem is complicated because of spoofed packets. Thus, a related effort is targeted towards preventing spoofed packets; known as ingress filtering. Ingress Filtering restricts spoofed packets at ingress points to the network by tracking the set of legitimate source networks that can use this router.

Park and Lee present an extension of Ingress Filtering at layer 3. They present a means of detecting false packets, at least to the subnet, by essentially making use of existing OSPF routing state to have routers make intelligent decisions about whether or not a packet should be routed.

title: IP traceback


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File:Doctor Who Missing Adventures.jpg

Summary
The logo for the Virgin Publishing line of Doctor Who Virgin Missing Adventures novels.

title: File:Doctor Who Missing Adventures.jpg


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Jimmy Wales

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was keep. – Alphax τεχ 11:11, 14 October 2005 (UTC)

Jimbo Wales
AfDs for this article:  Non-notable. Just an ordinary Bob who happened to found a little online encyclopedia. Cchan199206 21:10, 31 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Such ordinary Jims are exactly the sort of people who deserve encyclopedia articles. — Dan | Talk 21:13, May 31, 2005 (UTC)
 * Why would anyone want to delete this? (unsigned comment by 68.237.83.58)
 * Keep. Obviously significant enough to warrant an article, especially when other members of the Board were kept following VfD listings. Angela. 21:40, May 31, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. I'm a Mergist myself, but I can't think of anything that this could be merged with, so let's keep it until something turns up. Mel Etitis  ( Μελ Ετητης ) 22:15, 31 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. 14,000 more Google hits than autofellatio. What more proof of notability could you need? Pcb21| Pete 22:36, 31 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep Actually, this was more in jest. Cchan199206 23:04, 31 May 2005 (UTC)
 * If you read our votes, I think that you'll see that we'd realised that... Mel Etitis ( Μελ Ετητης ) 07:57, 1 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep I just want to know what is written about the guy who founded the little online encyclopedia ;-) --Schwalbe 13:58, 1 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep FoeNyx 18:34, 1 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep Cite precedent: Votes for deletion/Angela Beesley. Delete not, or thou shalt be leavened (yes, I know what that means) in the fiery pits of WP:FARC. smoddy 20:03, 1 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep Pabix + Pabix ܀. 12:50, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Hégésippe | ±Θ± 13:31, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. I have said in another VFD we should "delete or userfy any article in the main namespace created by its subject. If someone is truly notable, let someone else create an article." This article was created by others because the subject is notable. Jonathunder 19:17, 2005 Jun 2 (UTC)
 * But only after the subject finally said it was ok to write about him ;). Pcb21| Pete 23:10, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Seeing that the user who called this vote has admitted it was in jest, I see no reason to go on with it.  Let's close the vote, with a plea to other contributors not to use up everybody else's valuable time with votes that are not meant to be taken seriously. David Cannon 13:03, 3 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


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Jovellar

Jovellar, officially the Municipality of Jovellar (Banwaan kan Jovellar; Bayan ng Jovellar), is a 4th class municipality in the province of Albay, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 17,795 people, making it the least populated town in the province.

The town was named in honor of Spanish governor-general Joaquín Jovellar y Soler.

Main access to the town is via Guinobatan. Jeepneys ply the 16 km distance from Guinobatan to Jovellar daily with the first trip from Guinobatan leaving as early as 5 AM and the last trip to Jovellar usually at around 5 PM.

Jovellar's main industry is agriculture. Primary crops are rice, copra, abaca, and corn.

Quipia River runs through the town and the river leads all the way to Donsol in Sorsogon.

Tourist activities in the area may include a trip to the river just behind the local school or a trip to Pariaan pool. Once at the town center, one can find a statue of the national hero, Jose Rizal, and the town church in front of it.

History
In Year 1572, when the first Spanish Port was established at the western coast of the Bicol Peninsula, Christianization spread-out among the natives and paved the way for the founding of the municipality of Jovellar.

With these developments, the native converts were emboldened to be adventurous and ventured to establish new settlements far out in the region of Bicol Peninsula. Thus, a group from west coast led by a leader popularly known as PIA, sailed upstream of Donsol River and settled in its mouth. There the people in the settlement became economically active by engaging in the gathering of all kinds of forest products like vines, resin, tar, rattan log and wildlife which were sold to dwellers in the west coast. As trade and commerce flourished, more people settled in the place which was later on named as “QUI PIA”. QUI meaning belonging to and PIA as tribute to said adventurous woman.

Succession of political developments saw the evolution of this settlement namely:

1.	By Year 1649, this settlement was formally created as a Municipal District under the Ecclesiastical and Civil Jurisdiction of Nueva Caceres bearing the name “Distrito Municipal De Quipia”;

2.	On Year 1811, the settlement became a full-pledge town known as “Municipio De Quipia” and became part of the newly created Province of Albay by virtue of a decree of the Governor-General. The first elected Gobernadorcillo was Anastacio de la Peña with only one Year term of the office. Succession of other gobernadorcillos followed thereafter from year 1812 for several years. Through the influence of a Spanish Resident name Don Cipriano Anduiza the Governor-General by a Decree, declared the name of the place as Jovellar in honor of an illustrious Spanish Captain-General Joaquin Jovellar Y Soler, more popularly known as the father of the infamous head tax called “Cedula Personal”. The title of Gobernadorcillo was changed to “Capitan Municipal” with additional one year term of office. The following year until the end of Spanish Regime, a total of sixteen Capitanes Municipal took turns in the governance of the municipality during the period year 1863 to 1899;

3.	During the American Regime the title Capitan Municipal was replaced by “Municipal President”. Thirteen (13) Municipal President were swoon in to local leadership from year 1900 to 1941;

4.	The Japanese Occupation proved the resiliency of the people of Jovellar in repulsing this foreign domination through an organized region-wide guerilla unit-Voluntary Army of the United States of America (VAUSA) under the leadership of Mayor Leon Monilla. The Japanese Civil commission appointed Arturo C. Macandog as Town Mayor by way of establishing their own government. Vicente Macandog succeeded as Town Mayor in year 1944 after the untimely demise of Arturo C. Macandog from the hands of a guerilla fanatic;

5.	After the end of World War II, Jovellar economy was in shambles when independence was declared on July 4, 1946, where Leon C. Monilla was appointed as Mayor by the American Liberation Force. President Manuel Roxas instead appointed Jose N. Ortega as Town Mayor when civil affairs were restored in Jovellar;

6.	During the 1946 election of officials for a four year term, Jose N. Ortega was the first Mayor-elect for Jovellar during the period year 1946 to year 1949. The ensuring election of town Officials saw the rise of politics and succession of leadership in Jovellar with the likes of Tomas C. Pales (1960-1963); Jaime P. Clamar (1964-1967); re-election of Tomas C. Pales in year 1968 until year 1975 when he was succumbed to death while in Office; succession of Vice-Mayor Teodoro Mancera for the unexpired term of Mayor Pales until year 1979; and Mancera until year 1986;

7.	The historic People’s Power Revolution n year 1986 gave rise to the appointment of Jose N. Arcangel Jr. as Officer-in-Charge of the municipality. He was elected as Mayor of Jovellar during the year 1988 elections and was re-elected during the year 1992 and 1995 elections;

8.	Mayor Antonio A. Herrera succeeded during the year 1998 election, and Jose N. Arcangel Jr. has re-elected again during the year 2001 election; and

9.	Hon. Jorem L. Arcangel is now the incumbent Municipal Mayor of Jovellar on the year 2010 election by the popular will of the people.

Elected officials

 * Legend
 * A indicates that the official is elected for the first term
 * A indicates that the official is re-elected to a higher position
 * A indicates that the official is re-elected to the same position
 * A indicates that the official is appointed due to vacancy

Geography
Jovellar is located at °N, °W.

According to the Philippine Statistics Authority, the municipality has a land area of 105.40 km2 constituting NaN% of the 2,575.77 km2 total area of Albay.

Barangays
Jovellar is politically subdivided into 23 barangays. Each barangay consists of puroks and some have sitios.

Demographics
In the 2020 census, Jovellar had a population of 17,795. The population density was undefined PD/km2.

title: Jovellar


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Munib Younan

Munib Younan (منيب يونان ; born 18 September 1950 in Jerusalem) is a Palestinian Bishop Emeritus of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Jordan and the Holy Land (ELCJHL).

From January 1998 to January 2018 he was Bishop of the ELCJHL. He retired in January 2018, but continues to serve as Bishop Emeritus, and remains a member of the Church Council of ELCJHL.

He served as President of the Lutheran World Federation from 2010 to 2017.

Early life and education
Munib Younan was born into a native Jerusalemite Palestinian family of Rûm origin that converted to Protestantism.

He studied deaconry and theology in Finland. He began studies in deaconry at Luther Opisto (college) in Järvenpää 1969–1972. Thereafter Younan studied theology at the Helsinki University in 1972–1976, receiving a Master of Arts in Theology in 1976. He also studied theology at the Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago in 1988.

Younan has been married since 1980 to Suad Yacoub from Haifa, whose family originates from Kfar Bir'im. Mrs. Younan is the Director of the Helen Keller School for the Blind in Beit Hanina. They have three children and several grandchildren.

Career and activities
Younan was ordained at the Church of the Redeemer in Jerusalem and served pastorates in Jerusalem, Beit Jala, and Ramallah. Since 1990 Younan served as the president of the ELCJHL synod. In 1998 Younan was consecrated bishop of the ELCJHL.

He has also chaired the Board of Directors for the LWF owned Augusta Victoria Hospital in Jerusalem. Younan is the patron of Gospel Riders Jerusalem - a motorcycle club operating in cooperation with Finnish Evangelical Lutheran Mission.

Younan has been actively engaged in the Middle East Council of Churches, in various positions since 1985 including as the president of its Evangelical Family until 2018. Younan served as president of the Fellowship of the Middle East Evangelical Churches (FMEEC) in 2004–2010, which during his presidency unanimously voted if favor of the ordination of women as pastors. Younan is also a founding member of the Ecumenical Accompaniment Programme in Palestine and Israel (EAPPI), serving as the chair of Local Reference Group since 2002.

Younan is a co-founder of the Council of Religious Institutions in the Holy Land, made up of the two chief rabbis of Israel, heads of the local churches, the Chief Judge of the Islamic Court in Palestine and other Muslim leaders. In 2006, Younan was a co-signatory of the Jerusalem Declaration on Christian Zionism. On December 15, 2009, he signed the Kairos Palestine Document along with 12 other Palestinian patriarchs and heads of church from other Christian denominations. The document references the 1985 Kairos South Africa Document and condemns what it calls "the military occupation of our land [...] a sin against God and humanity" and characterises what it perceives as such as "oppression, displacement, suffering and clear apartheid for more than six decades". It calls for international support and "peace with the establishment of an independent Palestinian state with Al-Quds as its capital".

Younan was elected on 24 July 2010 President of the Lutheran World Federation (LWF), an organization that represents 145 churches in 79 countries around the world representing 70 million Christians. In his role as LWF President, Younan has demonstrated untiring leadership speaking to Lutheran Church gatherings in numerous settings on five continents and represented Lutherans in Ecumenical Discussions. Previously he had served as the LWF vice president for the Asian region from 2004 to 2009. He sits on the board of trustees of the Yasser Arafat Foundation.

On 31 October 2016, with Pope Francis and The Lutheran World Federation General Secretary The Rev. Martin Junge, Younan signed a Joint Statement commemorating the Lutheran Reformation and Historical Reconciliation between the Lutheran and Roman Catholic Churches. The co-hosted service was the first of its kind in 500 years.

Achievements
Younan is the author of two books. In Witnessing for Peace: In Jerusalem and in the World, published by Augsburg Fortress Press in 2003, Younan presents the historical and social context of the Palestinian situation, beginning with the not-well-known story of Arab Christianity and his own indigenous Assyrian background. He elaborates his own theology of nonviolence, centered on the call to witness, heeding a call to justice, inclusion, and forgiveness. Our Shared Witness: A Voice for Justice and Reconciliation is a compilation of some of Younan's speeches, sermons, articles and conference presentations that reflect his prophetic voice. He also edited the Augsburg Confession in Arabic (Emerezian Est., Jerusalem, 1993). He is the author of many other articles and a participant at conferences throughout the world.

Younan is also recognized as a leader of interfaith dialogue and an advocate for dialogue, peace, and gender justice issues in Palestine and Israel. After his retirement bishop Younan has been nominated honorary president of Religions for Peace.

Ecclesiastical decorations

 * St. Henrik Cross from the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Finland (2011)

Academic distinctions

 * Honorary doctorate from Wartburg College in Iowa, US (2001)
 * Honorary doctorate from University of Münster, Germany (2014)
 * Honorary doctorate from University of Helsinki, Finland (2023).

Awards and prizes

 * The Sunhak Peace Prize, Korea (2020)
 * The Building Bridges of Understanding Award, Georgetown University, Washington, DC (2018)
 * Niwano Peace Prize, Japan (2017)
 * Mikael Agricola Medallion, Finland (2008)
 * Templar Peace Prize (2007)
 * Bethlehem Star Award from Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas (2005)
 * Holyland Christian Ecumenical Foundation (HCEF) Prize, Washington, DC (2004)
 * Bethanien (Bethany) Prize, Methodist Church, Oslo, Norway (2004)
 * Human Rights Award from the United Nations Association, Washington, DC (2001)
 * The Finnish Peace Prize from the Finnish Christian Peace Movement (2001)

title: Munib Younan


text:
Talk:Shuttleworth (canvassing)

Untitled
I thougth this page would be about Mark Shuttleworth -- elzapp

The information in this page refers to a particular country (the UK?) but the country is not mentioned. Without that information it is ambiguous and largely irrelevant.

title: Talk:Shuttleworth (canvassing)


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Maurice Halperin

Maurice Hyman Halperin (1906–1995) was an American writer, professor, diplomat, and accused Soviet spy (NKVD code name "Hare").

Biography
Maurice Hyman Halperin was born on March 3, 1906, in Boston, Massachusetts. In 1927, he received an A.B. from Harvard College, in 1939 an MA from the University of Oklahoma, and in 1931 a doctorate from the Sorbonne.

Academics
In 1930, Halperin lectured at the Sorbonne while studying there.

In 1935, Halperin traveled to Cuba with the League of American Writers to investigate possible human rights abuses. Sometime during this period, Halperin joined the Communist Party of the USA (CPUSA).

Halperin taught at the University of Oklahoma, with summer 1941 as visiting professor at the University of Florida.

Government
In late summer 1941, Halperin began working for the US federal government as a Latin American specialist. From 1941 to 1945, served as division chief (Latin America) in the Office of the Coordinator of Information, soon the Research Division of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), and served as special assistant to Duncan Chapin Lee.

During this period, he may have become an espionage agent and agreed to provide intelligence for the Joseph Stalin-era Soviet intelligence service, the NKVD. Halperin's alleged NKVD codename was "Hare." He became a member of the Golos spy network (operated by the NKVD's chief of American operations Gaik Ovakimian).

With access to the OSS cable room, Halperin could secure copies of secret U.S. reports from any part of the world. Through the Golos spy network, Halperin provided Soviet intelligence with a large quantity of sensitive U.S. diplomatic dispatches, including reports from Ambassador John Gilbert Winant in London on the position of the Polish government-in-exile towards negotiations with Stalin, Turkey's foreign policy toward Romania, the State Department's instructions to the U.S. Ambassador to Spain, the U.S. embassy in Morocco's reports on that country's government, reports on the U.S. government's relationship with Vichy and Free French factions and persons in exile, reports of peace feelers from dissident Germans passed to the Vatican, U.S. attitudes towards Josip Broz Tito's Communist Front activities in Yugoslavia, and discussions between the Greek government and the United States regarding Soviet ambitions in the Balkans. Halperin also distorted OSS reports with false information in order to reflect the views of Stalin, the Soviet Union, and the Communist Party of the United States.

After the OSS was dissolved in 1945, Halperin transferred to the State Department and worked as an adviser to United States Secretary of State Dean Acheson, again on Latin American affairs. Halperin was an advisor to the United Nations at the first conference in San Francisco (with Alger Hiss serving as acting secretary general). He helped establish a Hebrew language service for the UN, beamed to Palestine.

In 1946 (or 1949 ), Halperin resigned from the State Department to take the position of chair of Latin American studies at Boston University.

HUAC investigation (1948)
On July 31, 1948, ex-Soviet spy Elizabeth Bentley testified under subpoena before the House Un-American Activities Committee and related details which she first shared with the FBI in 1945. In 1945, Bentley, who had inherited the Golos network, defected from the Soviet underground and sought out the Federal Bureau of Investigation. During questioning, Bentley told FBI agents that from 1942 to 1944, Halperin at OSS had delivered "to Mary Price and later to myself mimeographed bulletins and reports prepared by OSS on a variety of topics and also supplied excerpts from State Department cables to which he evidently had access." Bentley added that "some time early in 1945 'JACK', [Soviet agent Joseph Katz] the Russian contact at that time, told me that Halperin had been accused by General William J. Donovan, the head of OSS, of being a Soviet agent..." The next day, the FBI notified Harry S. Truman's White House that "according to a "highly confidential source," among those "employed by the government of the United States" who "have been furnishing data and information to persons outside the Federal government, who are in turn transmitting this information to espionage agents of the Soviet government," was "Maurice Halperin, Office of Strategic Services." Subsequent surveillance of Halperin disclosed that he was in contact with Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, Lauchlin Currie, Philip and Mary Jane Keeney, and others.

SISS investigation (1953)
In 1953, after Soviet cables were secretly decrypted by U.S. counter-intelligence, Maurice Halperin was called before the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee to defend himself on charges of espionage, at which time he lost his teaching position at Boston University. Halperin denied the charges, but nevertheless fled to Mexico and taught at the National University of Mexico. To avoid extradition from Mexico, Halperin moved to the Soviet Union, where he studied and taught. Among the friends he made there was the British defector, Donald Maclean as well as Cuban revolutionary leader Che Guevara.

Remaining years
Disenchanted with communism in the Soviet Union, Halperin accepted Guevara's invitation to come to Havana in 1962. There, he consulted to the Ministry of Trade in the Fidel Castro government for five years and taught at the University of Havana. Political tensions forced him to leave for Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. In Vancouver, he became a political science professor at Simon Fraser University, and wrote several books critical of Castro's government and the socio-political situation in Cuba.

Personal life and death
Halperin married and had two surviving children.

Maurice Halperin died age 88 on February 9, 1995, of a stroke at the Royal Columbia Hospital just outside Vancouver, Canada.

Legacy
After Halperin's death, the release of the Venona project decryptions of coded Soviet cables, as well as information gleaned from Soviet KGB archives, revealed that Halperin was involved in espionage activities on behalf of the Soviet Union while serving in an official capacity with the United States government.

Works
Aside from an early literary study, Halperin published three books critical of Castro:
 * Roman de Tristan et Iseut dans la littérature anglo-américaine au XIXe et au XXe siècles (1931)
 * Rise and Decline of Fidel Castro: An Essay in Contemporary History (1972)
 * The Taming of Fidel Castro (1981)
 * Return to Havana (1994)

title: Maurice Halperin