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Altruism (biology)

In biology, altruism refers to behaviour by an individual that increases the fitness of another individual while decreasing their own. Altruism in this sense is different from the philosophical concept of altruism, in which an action would only be called "altruistic" if it was done with the conscious intention of helping another. In the behavioural sense, there is no such requirement. As such, it is not evaluated in moral terms—it is the consequences of an action for reproductive fitness that determine whether the action is considered altruistic, not the intentions, if any, with which the action is performed.

The term altruism was coined by the French philosopher Auguste Comte in French, as altruisme, for an antonym of egoism. He derived it from the Italian altrui, which in turn was derived from Latin alteri, meaning "other people" or "somebody else".

Altruistic behaviours appear most obviously in kin relationships, such as in parenting, but may also be evident among wider social groups, such as in social insects. They allow an individual to increase the success of its genes by helping relatives that share those genes. Obligate altruism is the permanent loss of direct fitness (with potential for indirect fitness gain). For example, honey bee workers may forage for the colony. Facultative altruism is temporary loss of direct fitness (with potential for indirect fitness gain followed by personal reproduction). For example, a Florida scrub jay may help at the nest, then gain parental territory.

Overview
In ethology (the study of behavior), and more generally in the study of social evolution, on occasion, some animals do behave in ways that reduce their individual fitness but increase the fitness of other individuals in the population; this is a functional definition of altruism. Research in evolutionary theory has been applied to social behaviour, including altruism. Cases of animals helping individuals to whom they are closely related can be explained by kin selection, and are not considered true altruism. Beyond the physical exertions that in some species mothers and in some species fathers undertake to protect their young, extreme examples of sacrifice may occur. One example is matriphagy (the consumption of the mother by her offspring) in the spider Stegodyphus; another example is a male spider allowing a female fertilized by him to eat him. Hamilton's rule describes the benefit of such altruism in terms of Wright's coefficient of relationship to the beneficiary and the benefit granted to the beneficiary minus the cost to the sacrificer. Should this sum be greater than zero a fitness gain will result from the sacrifice.

When apparent altruism is not between kin, it may be based on reciprocity. A monkey will present its back to another monkey, who will pick out parasites; after a time the roles will be reversed. Such reciprocity will pay off, in evolutionary terms, as long as the costs of helping are less than the benefits of being helped and as long as animals will not gain in the long run by "cheating"—that is to say, by receiving favours without returning them. This is elaborated on in evolutionary game theory and specifically the prisoner's dilemma as social theory.

Implications in evolutionary theory
The existence of altruism in nature is at first sight puzzling, because altruistic behaviour reduces the likelihood that an individual will reproduce. The idea that group selection might explain the evolution of altruism was first broached by Darwin himself in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, (1871). The concept of group selection has had a chequered and controversial history in evolutionary biology but the uncritical 'good of the species' tradition came to an abrupt halt in the 1960s, due largely to the work of George C. Williams, and John Maynard Smith as well as Richard Dawkins. These evolutionary theorists pointed out that natural selection acts on the individual, and that it is the individual's fitness (number of offspring and grand-offspring produced compared to the rest of the population) that drives evolution. A group advantage (e.g. hunting in a pack) that is disadvantageous to the individual (who might be harmed during the hunt, when it could avoid injury by hanging back from the pack but still share in the spoils) cannot evolve, because the selfish individual will leave, on average, more offspring than those who join the pack and suffer injuries as a result. If the selfishness is hereditary, this will ultimately result in the population consisting entirely of selfish individuals. However, in the 1960s and 1970s an alternative to the "group selection" theory emerged. This was the kin selection theory, due originally to W. D. Hamilton. Kin selection is an instance of inclusive fitness, which is based on the notion that an individual shares only half its genes with each offspring, but also with each full sibling (See footnote). From an evolutionary genetic point of view it is therefore as advantageous to help with the upbringing of full sibs as it is to produce and raise one's own offspring. The two activities are evolutionarily entirely equivalent. Co-operative breeding (i.e. helping one's parents raise sibs—provided they are full sibs) could thus evolve without the need for group-level selection. This quickly gained prominence among biologists interested in the evolution of social behaviour. In 1971 Robert Trivers introduced his reciprocal altruism theory to explain the evolution of helping at the nest of an unrelated breeding pair of birds. He argued that an individual might act as a helper if there was a high probabilistic expectation of being helped by the recipients at some later date. If, however, the recipients did not reciprocate when it was possible to do so, the altruistic interaction with these recipients would be permanently terminated. But if the recipients did not cheat then the reciprocal altruism would continue indefinitely to both parties' advantage. This model was considered by many (e.g. West-Eberhard and Dawkins ) to be evolutionarily unstable because it is prone to invasion by cheats for the same reason that cooperative hunting can be invaded and replaced by cheats. However, Trivers did make reference to the Prisoner's Dilemma Game which, 10 years later, would restore interest in Trivers' reciprocal altruism theory, but under the title of "tit-for-tat".

In its original form the Prisoner's Dilemma Game (PDG) described two awaiting trial prisoners, A and B, each faced with the choice of betraying the other or remaining silent. The "game" has four possible outcomes: (a) they both betray each other, and are both sentenced to two years in prison; (b) A betrays B, which sets A free and B is sentenced to four years in prison; (c) B betrays A, with the same result as (b) except that it is B who is set free and the other spends four years in jail; (d) both remain silent, resulting in a six-month sentence each. Clearly (d) ("cooperation") is the best mutual strategy, but from the point of view of the individual betrayal is unbeatable (resulting in being set free, or getting only a two-year sentence). Remaining silent results in a four-year or six-month sentence. This is exemplified by a further example of the PDG: two strangers attend a restaurant together and decide to split the bill. The mutually best ploy would be for both parties to order the cheapest items on the menu (mutual cooperation). But if one member of the party exploits the situation by ordering the most expensive items, then it is best for the other member to do likewise. In fact, if the fellow diner's personality is completely unknown, and the two diners are unlikely ever to meet again, it is always in one's own best interests to eat as expensively as possible. Situations in nature that are subject to the same dynamics (rewards and penalties) as the PDG define cooperative behaviour: it is never in the individual's fitness interests to cooperate, even though mutual cooperation rewards the two contestants (together) more highly than any other strategy. Cooperation cannot evolve under these circumstances.

However, in 1981 Axelrod and Hamilton noted that if the same contestants in the PDG meet repeatedly (the so-called Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma game, IPD) then tit-for-tat (foreshadowed by Robert Triver's reciprocal altruism theory) is a robust strategy which promotes altruism. In "tit-for-tat" both players' opening moves are cooperation. Thereafter each contestant repeats the other player's last move, resulting in a seemingly endless sequence of mutually cooperative moves. However, mistakes severely undermine tit-for-tat's effectiveness, giving rise to prolonged sequences of betrayal, which can only be rectified by another mistake. Since these initial discoveries, all the other possible IPD game strategies have been identified (16 possibilities in all, including, for instance, "generous tit-for-tat", which behaves like "tit-for-tat", except that it cooperates with a small probability when the opponent's last move was "betray". ), but all can be outperformed by at least one of the other strategies, should one of the players switch to such a strategy. The result is that none is evolutionarily stable, and any prolonged series of the iterated prisoner's dilemma game, in which alternative strategies arise at random, gives rise to a chaotic sequence of strategy changes that never ends.

In the light of the Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma Game failing to provide a full answer to the evolution of cooperation or altruism, several alternative explanations have been proposed.

There are striking parallels between altruistic acts and exaggerated sexual ornaments displayed by some animals, particularly certain bird species, such as, amongst others, the peacock. Both are costly in fitness terms, and both are generally conspicuous to other members of the population or species. This led Amotz Zahavi to suggest that both might be fitness signals rendered evolutionarily stable by his handicap principle. If a signal is to remain reliable, and generally resistant to falsification, the signal has to be evolutionarily costly. Thus, if a (low fitness) liar were to use the highly costly signal, which seriously eroded its real fitness, it would find it difficult to maintain a semblance of normality. Zahavi borrowed the term "handicap principle" from sports handicapping systems. These systems are aimed at reducing disparities in performance, thereby making the outcome of contests less predictable. In a horse handicap race, provenly faster horses are given heavier weights to carry under their saddles than inherently slower horses. Similarly, in amateur golf, better golfers have fewer strokes subtracted from their raw scores than the less talented players. The handicap therefore correlates with unhandicapped performance, making it possible, if one knows nothing about the horses, to predict which unhandicapped horse would win an open race. It would be the one handicapped with the greatest weight in the saddle. The handicaps in nature are highly visible, and therefore a peahen, for instance, would be able to deduce the health of a potential mate by comparing its handicap (the size of the peacock's tail) with those of the other males. The loss of the male's fitness caused by the handicap is offset by its increased access to females, which is as much of a fitness concern as is its health. An altruistic act is, by definition, similarly costly. It would therefore also signal fitness, and is probably as attractive to females as a physical handicap. If this is the case altruism is evolutionarily stabilized by sexual selection.

There is an alternate strategy for identifying fit mates which does not rely on one gender having exaggerated sexual ornaments or other handicaps, but is generally applicable to most, if not all sexual creatures. It derives from the concept that the change in appearance and functionality caused by a non-silent mutation will generally stand out in a population. This is because that altered appearance and functionality will be unusual, peculiar, and different from the norm within that population. The norm against which these unusual features are judged is made up of fit attributes that have attained their plurality through natural selection, while less adaptive attributes will be in the minority or frankly rare. Since the overwhelming majority of mutant features are maladaptive, and it is impossible to predict evolution's future direction, sexual creatures would be expected to prefer mates with the fewest unusual or minority features. This will have the effect of a sexual population rapidly shedding peripheral phenotypic features and canalizing the entire outward appearance and behaviour so that all the members of that population will begin to look remarkably similar in every detail, as illustrated in the accompanying photograph of the African pygmy kingfisher, Ispidina picta. Once a population has become as homogeneous in appearance as is typical of most species, its entire repertoire of behaviours will also be rendered evolutionarily stable, including any altruistic, cooperative and social characteristics. Thus, in the example of the selfish individual who hangs back from the rest of the hunting pack, but who nevertheless joins in the spoils, that individual will be recognized as being different from the norm, and will therefore find it difficult to attract a mate. Its genes will therefore have only a very small probability of being passed on to the next generation, thus evolutionarily stabilizing cooperation and social interactions at whatever level of complexity is the norm in that population.

Contrary to the mainstream dogma, a recently published article. using agent-based models demonstrates that several crucial mechanisms, such as kin selection, punishment, multilevel selection, and spatial structure, cannot rescue the evolution of cooperation. The new findings revive a long-standing puzzle in the evolution theory. In addition, the work has potential therapeutic benefits for numerous incurable diseases

Reciprocity mechanisms
Altruism in animals describes a range of behaviors performed by animals that may be to their own disadvantage but which benefit others. The costs and benefits are measured in terms of reproductive fitness, or expected number of offspring. So by behaving altruistically, an organism reduces the number of offspring it is likely to produce itself, but boosts the likelihood that other organisms are to produce offspring. There are other forms of altruism in nature other than risk-taking behavior, such as reciprocal altruism. This biological notion of altruism is not identical to the everyday human concept. For humans, an action would only be called 'altruistic' if it was done with the conscious intention of helping another. Yet in the biological sense there is no such requirement. Instead, until we can communicate directly with other species, an accurate theory to describe altruistic acts between species is Biological Market Theory. Humans and other animals exchange benefits in several ways, known technically as reciprocity mechanism. No matter what the mechanism, the common thread is that benefits find their way back to the original giver.

Symmetry-based
Also known as the "buddy-system", mutual affection between two parties prompts similar behavior in both directions without need to track of daily give-and-take, so long as the overall relationship remains satisfactory. This is one of the most common mechanisms of reciprocity in nature, this kind is present in humans, primates, and many other mammals.

Attitudinal
Also known as, "If you're nice, I'll be nice too." This mechanism of reciprocity is similar to the heuristic of the golden rule, "Treat others how you would like to be treated." Parties mirror one another's attitudes, exchanging favors on the spot. Instant attitudinal reciprocity occurs among monkeys, and people often rely on it with strangers and acquaintances.

Calculated
Also known as, "what have you done for me lately?" Individuals keep track of the benefits they exchange with particular partners, which helps them decide to whom to return favors. This mechanism is typical of chimpanzees and very common among human relationships. Yet some opposing experimental research suggests that calculated or contingent reciprocity does not spontaneously arise in laboratory experimental settings, despite patterns of behavior.

Biological market theory
Biological market theory is an extension of the idea of reciprocal altruism, as a mechanism to explain altruistic acts between unrelated individuals in a more flexible system of exchanging commodities. The term 'biological market' was first used by Ronald Noe and Hammerstein in 1994 to refer to all the interactions between organisms in which different organisms function as 'traders' that exchange goods and services such as food and water, grooming, warning calls, shelter, etc. Biological market theory consists of five formal characteristics which present a basis for altruism.

 * 1) Commodities are exchanged between individuals that differ in the degree of control over those commodities.
 * 2) Trading partners are chosen from a number of potential partners.
 * 3) There is competition among the members of the chosen class to be the most attractive partner. This competition by 'outbidding' causes an increase in the value of the commodity offered.
 * 4) Supply and demand determine the bartering value of commodities exchanged.
 * 5) Commodities on offer can be advertised. As in commercial advertisements there is a potential for false information.

The applicability of biological market theory with its emphasis on partner choice is evident in the interactions between the cleaner wrasse and its "client" reef fish. Cleaners have small territories, which the majority of reef fish species actively visit to invite inspection of their surface, gills, and mouth. Clients benefit from the removal of parasites while cleaners benefit from the access to a food source. Some particularly choosy client species have large home ranges that cover several cleaning stations, whereas other clients have small ranges and have access to one cleaning station only (resident clients). Field observations, field manipulations, and laboratory experiments revealed that whether or not a client has choice options influences several aspects of both cleaner and client behaviour. Cleaners give choosy clients priority of access. Choosy clients switch partners if cheated by a cleaner by taking a bite of out of the cleaner, whereas resident clients punish cheats. Cleaners and resident clients, but not choosy clients, build up relationships before normal cleaning interactions take place. Cleaners are particularly cooperative if choosy clients are bystanders of an interaction but less so when resident clients are bystanders.

Researchers tested whether wild white-handed gibbon males from Khao Yai National Park, Thailand, increased their grooming activity when the female partner was fertile. Adult females and males of our study population are codominant (in terms of aggression), they live in pairs or small multi male groups and mate promiscuously. They found that males groomed females more than vice versa and more grooming was exchanged when females were cycling than during pregnancy or lactation. The number of copulations/day was elevated when females were cycling, and females copulated more frequently with males on days when they received more grooming. When males increased their grooming efforts, females also increased their grooming of males, perhaps to equalize give and take. Although grooming might be reciprocated because of intrinsic benefits of receiving grooming, males also interchange grooming as a commodity for sexual opportunities during a female's fertile period.

Mammals

 * Wolves and wild dogs bring meat back to members of the pack not present at the kill. Though in harsh conditions, the breeding pair of wolves take the greatest share to continue to produce pups.
 * Mongooses support elderly, sick, or injured animals.
 * Meerkats often have one standing guard to warn while the rest feed in case of predator attack.
 * Raccoons inform conspecifics about feeding grounds by droppings left on commonly shared latrines. A similar information system has been observed to be used by common ravens.
 * Male baboons threaten predators and cover the rear as the troop retreats.
 * Gibbons and chimpanzees with food will, in response to a gesture, share their food with others of the group. Chimpanzees will help humans and conspecifics without any reward in return.
 * Bonobos have been observed aiding injured or disabled bonobos.
 * Vampire bats commonly regurgitate blood to share with unlucky or sick roost mates that have been unable to find a meal, often forming a buddy system.
 * Vervet monkeys give alarm calls to warn fellow monkeys of the presence of predators, even though in doing so they attract attention to themselves, increasing their personal chance of being attacked.
 * Lemurs of all ages and of both sexes will take care of infants unrelated to them.
 * Dolphins support sick or injured members of their pod, swimming under them for hours at a time and pushing them to the surface so they can breathe.
 * Walruses have been seen adopting orphans who lost their parents to predators.
 * African buffalo will rescue a member of the herd captured by predators. (See Battle at Kruger.)
 * Humpback whales have been observed protecting other species from killer whales.
 * Male Przewalski's horses have been observed engaging in intervention behaviour when their group members were threatened. They did not distinguish between kin and non-kin members. It has been theorized that they may do this to promote group cohesion and reduce social disruption within the group.

Birds

 * In numerous bird species, a breeding pair receives support in raising its young from other "helper" birds, including help with the feeding of its fledglings. Some will even go as far as protecting an unrelated bird's young from predators.

Fish

 * Harpagifer bispinis, a species of fish, live in social groups in the harsh environment of the Antarctic Peninsula. If the parent guarding the nest of eggs is removed, a usually male replacement unrelated to the parents guards the nest from predators and prevents fungal growth that would kill off the brood. There is no clear benefit to the male so the act may be considered altruistic.

Examples in invertebrates

 * Some termites, such as Globitermes sulphureus and ants, such as Camponotus saundersi release a sticky secretion by fatally rupturing a specialized gland. This autothysis altruistically defends the colony at the expense of the individual insect. This can be attributed to the fact that ants share their genes with the entire colony, and so this behaviour is evolutionarily beneficial (not necessarily for the individual ant but for the continuation of its genetic make-up).
 * Synalpheus regalis is a species of eusocial marine snapping shrimp that lives in sponges in coral reefs. They live in colonies of about 300 individuals with one reproductive female. Other colony members defend the colony against intruders, forage, and care for the young. Eusociality in this system entails an adaptive division of labor which results in enhanced reproductive output of the breeders and inclusive fitness benefits for the nonbreeding helpers. S. regalis are exceptionally tolerant of conspecifics within their colonies due to close genetic relatedness among nestmates. Allozyme data reveals that relatedness within colonies is high, which is an indication that colonies in this species represent close kin groups. The existence of such groups is an important prerequisite of explanations of social evolution based on kin selection.

Examples in protists
An example of altruism is found in the cellular slime moulds, such as Dictyostelium mucoroides. These protists live as individual amoebae until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body.

Examples in plants
When it comes to altruism in kin/non-kin recognition, few studies have focused on this trait in crops. Despite most crops growing in monocultures, there is evidence that they are able to recognize kin and other cultivars. For example, cultivated soybean plants were able to recognize a distant ancestor and unrelated neighbors. In that experiment, plants were grown in combinations of relation to each other (same cultivar or different cultivar) in pots and their biomass of stems, leaves, and roots were measured to see how the plants responded growing next to kin or non-kin. Crops, unlike wild plants, are highly cultivated. The evolution of traits such as altruism can thus be bred into them through the selection of the trait. In agriculture, the importance of yield is stressed, therefore breeding crop cultivars to favor altruism can decrease competitiveness and increase yield. It has been shown that using mass selection early in the breeding process selects against altruism in an individual, but using mixed individual and group selection favors altruism.

title: Altruism (biology)


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Alex Brown (rugby union, born 1979)

Alex Brown (born 17 May 1979 in Bristol) is a former English rugby union player, who played at lock position.

He attended Colston's Collegiate School in Bristol.

He started playing rugby at u7s level for Clifton in 1985 and worked his way through the age levels there

After a brief period with Bath and Pontypool, he joined his home city club Bristol and was a key player when they won the first Under 21 Zurich Premiership. Under the tutelage of rugby director Dean Ryan, he was voted the club's player of the year in the 2000–01 season. Brown's father played rugby for Clifton.

Brown signed for Gloucester Rugby in the summer of 2003 rejoining Dean Ryan. The England Saxons international topped the line-out statistics charts during the 2003–04 season and was voted the players' player of the year.

He played for England Saxons in the first Churchill Cup and was called into the England senior squad for the 2005 Autumn Internationals.

Brown was expected to make his international debut against Australia in November, but he suffered a neck injury and was ruled out of the entire Autumn programme.

He made his senior international debut for England during their 2006 summer tour, in a defeat to Australia.

Brown then played in both tests on the 2007 summer tour, England losing both games to South Africa. He picked up the Gillette Power Award for the 2006–07 season. He is widely regarded as one of the most consistent performers in the Premiership and then signed a three-year contract extension with Gloucester until 2011. After proving himself one of the most consistent lock forwards in the premiership, Brown's contract was extended until 2013. Unfortunately, following an shoulder injury sustained during the first match of the 2012–13 season, Brown was forced to announce his retirement on 20 December 2012

He was appointed Rugby Operations Manager at Kingsholm Stadium with Gloucester Rugby in 2013. He became a director in 2019, In 2020 he was further promoted to Chief Operating Officer; a role which would partly replace director of rugby. He was later appointed CEO on an Interim basis following the resignation of Lance Bradley in July 2023.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Alex Brown (rugby union, born 1979)


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Talk:Marksmanship badges (United States)

Removed reference to 300-point system for Marine Corps rifle qualifications, it is now based on a 65-point "hit or miss" system. Added point ranges for particular qualifications. Added information on competition badges for Marine Corps uniforms. Marine competition badges may be good fodder for a future article.

Reference for competition badges: http://www.tecom.usmc.mil/mcub/library/MCUR/URCH5.htm#ur5500.

---Uhlek 10JUN05

Where does the shape of the Weapons Qualification Badge come from? Was the original version an award for shooting down imperial German aircraft? --62.104.218.83 18:42, 7 September 2005 (UTC)

The Marines Corps has now gone back to the 250 pt scoring system. The 65 pt system is no longer used.Bunns USMC 10:27, 12 October 2006 (UTC)

Oops, my mistake, I didn't realize we stopped the KD Course. But multiple badges for marksmanship awards? Sounds like an Army thing, cause I've never seen it.

As for the shape of the badge, I don't recall where it came from, but if you are interested in the shape, look up Iron Cross, a German award.

--Pancho-Villa "A ship in harbor is safe -- but that is not what ships are built for." -John A. Shedd 15:05, 17 October 2006 (UTC) -- I have seen expert,sharpshooter and marksman bars for the US Army badges - are these 2nd or 3rd time qualification bars - they are not listed in wikipedia.

In the US Army earning a marksman badge is considered acceptable in Basic Training but once a servicemember gets to her/his assigned unit, at least infantry and MP (my two MOSs) a marksman badge is seen as substandard. It shows that the individual is not interested in improving their skills at marksmanship which in turn lowers their skill to fight which in turn lowers their unit's success. Sharpshooter has always been (in my 8 years in) to be the standard while almost everyone strives to achieve expert. I really think this should be included in the wiki page covering this topic.

With regard to the above, the US Army has only three badges, and you can qualify on a number of weapons and earn bars under the three badges. For example, a soldier can earn expert in rifle and grenade, sharpshooter in automatic rifle, and marksman in pistol and MK-19 (grenade launcher). —Preceding unsigned comment added by Lionspoint (talk • contribs) 00:53, 6 August 2008 (UTC)

Lacks any historical (Korean/WWII/WWI) references
It appears this was only created with current references. My father was rated "expert with M-1" circa 1943. No mention of the US Army ratings history. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Dr. Dale (talk • contribs) 17:44, 2 April 2012 (UTC)

Correction to Qualifications Bars list

The list of Qualification Bars shown under the Army Qualification Badges information appears to contain a typo. The "TD 57 mm" appears to be incorrect. To my knowledge there was no 57mm anti-tank weapon. There was a 37mm weapon. (Refer to TOE for Tank Destoyer Battalion) I have seen bars referencing this weapon as follows:

"TD 37 mm" "37 mm Anti Tank" "Anti Tank"

According to my father, a Company CO in 803rd Tank Destroyer Battalion during WWII, the Qualification Bar for the 37mm weapon read "Small Bore". This was not to be confused with "small bore rifle" as there was no such bar at that time. The 37mm was considered a small bore as anti tank weapons went. To quote: "...firing a 37mm at a tank was like throwing a peanut at an elephant..." apparently indicating this weapon was ineffective against tanks. It was used with some success for firing at pillboxes, houses, and lightly (or non-) armored vehicles. It had a reputation for being accurate, portable and reliable. My dad's expert badge is sterling silver and has 6 bars including "Small Bore". He would have first qualified in 1939-1940.

Stan Wagenals (talk) 23:05, 8 December 2012 (UTC)

 * Stan, unfortunately, we will need a more official historical reference than the word of an honored veteran. According to the U.S. Army's Institute of Heraldry (TIOH), the historical qualification clasps listed on this page are correct.  The "TD 57 mm" was added in 1944 (after your father qualified) and there is no mention of a "Small Bore" qualification clasp; the only small bores listed are "Small Bore Pistol," "Small Bore Rifle," and "Small Bore MG."  If there is a better historical reference than the TIOH, please provide it and make the appropriate corrections.  Just remember to site all your official references so we don't "undo" your edits. --McChizzle (talk) 00:46, 9 December 2012 (UTC)

Historical USAF EIC Badges
Does anyone have information on when the U.S. Air Force (USAF) Silver and Gold Elementary Excellence-in-Competition (EIC) Badges and Gold EIC Badges stopped being awarded? I have found Air Force Instructions (AFI) on the EIC program dating back to 1997 and none of them mention these badges. However, the National Air and Space Museum website has some Silver Elementary Rifle EIC Badges, Gold Elementary Rifle EIC Badges, Gold Rifle EIC Badges, Silver Elementary Pistol EIC Badges, Gold Elementary Pistol EIC Badges, and Gold Pistol EIC Badges; which were provided by the Air Force Personnel Center. This tells me that these badges were once awarded to USAF competition shooters. I just can't find any documentation discussing when these badges stopped being awarded to Airman (current AFI on EIC Program: AFI34-143). --McChizzle (talk) 21:27, 6 January 2013 (UTC)

Qualification Level
Expert, Sharpshooter, Marksman......all good but the order they are listed makes this seem like Expert is the lesser award. There appears to be no indication of which order these are awarded in. Can someone clarify and edit accordingly? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 178.208.193.12 (talk) 14:03, 23 January 2013 (UTC)

 * Done, thanks for the advise. --McChizzle (talk) 02:37, 24 January 2013 (UTC)

Bolo
Have heard the Marksman grade called the ‘bolo’ badge; seems to be disparaging. On the other hand, have seen ‘bolo’ used to just describe the badge, regardless of grade, no disparagement meant ( I think). Where does this term come from? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2A00:23C7:E284:CF00:A056:C912:67FA:6FAD (talk) 02:10, 6 December 2020 (UTC)
 * When I served in the US Army, "bolo" was used to describe someone who did not qualify—they did not meet the minimum requirements of marksman—and needed to requalify in order to be considered deployable. --McChizzle (talk) 02:31, 6 December 2020 (UTC)

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NRA advertisement?
I couldn't help but notice that this page tries to muddy the waters mixing the NRA badges as much as possible with the official US marksmanship badges. The NRA does not belong on the page anymore than a D.A.R.E. pin is a certificate for drug fighting from the US Marshal's. It's definitely a bit of corporate astroturfing in this article and should probably be fixed. I'm just lazy because it means a huge amount of rewriting. Nothing the NRA gives is an actual US marksmanship badge, it's a badge from the NRA and should be on the NRA's page.65.29.77.61 (talk) 21:55, 3 August 2017 (UTC)

 * Your personal opinion is noted. The NRA use to be involved in many US Government marksmanship events and helped form some of the Government's marksmanship competitions that still exist today, including helping run the President’s Match back in the day.  Take a look at this history paper from the US Government's Civilian Marksmanship Program's (CMP) website: http://thecmp.org/wp-content/uploads/PresidentsMatchHistory1.pdf

 * Just because they're an American nonprofit that only focus on US citizens and US organizations does not mean they have not helped shape and build marksmanship in the US through their development of free classes and awards programs (i.e. marksmanship badges), often in coordination with the CMP; at one point they worked hard not to duplicate one another but tried to cover the different weapons, organizations, and people. In other words, you cannot remove the NRA from US marksmanship history. --McChizzle (talk) 01:01, 4 August 2017 (UTC)

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Citation style/MOS
Hi all, Although this article appears to be consistently and well referenced, all the citations are bundled up at the end of each paragraph. This is confusing when a reader is trying to work out which reference supports a particular statement, and runs counter to MOS:CITEPUNCT which states "All ref tags should immediately follow the text to which the footnote applies".

Is there a particular reason the article has been cited in this fashion?

I propose that references start being moved to the relevant locations for readability per MOS. Since some references are used more than 10-15 times, they could also be moved directly into the reflist (WP:LDR) to reduce inline clutter and make editing easier. Hemmers (talk) 10:51, 18 May 2023 (UTC)


text:
Dabhol Power Company

The Dabhol Power Company (now called RGPPL - Ratnagiri Gas and Power Private Limited) was a company based in Maharashtra, India, formed in 1992 to manage and operate the controversial Dabhol Power Plant. The Dabhol plant was built through the combined effort of Enron as the majority share holder, and GE, and Bechtel as minority share holders. GE provided the generating turbines to Dabhol, Bechtel constructed the physical plant, and Enron was charged with managing the project through Enron International. From 1992 to 2001, the construction and operation of the plant was mired in controversies related to corruption in Enron and at the highest political levels in India and the United States (Clinton administration and Bush administration). The price that the state electricity board would have to pay for electricity produced by DPC (8 Rs/unit) was more than 20 times what it paid for hydroelectricity (Rs. 0.35/unit).

In 1998, MSEB purchased half of Enron's equity stake. In May 1999, the power plant began producing energy. In January 2001 the state of Maharashtra stopped paying DPC and sought to cancel the purchase agreement. In May 2001, the power plant ran into further trouble due to Enron scandal leading to the bankruptcy of Enron and had to stop production.

In 2005, it was taken over and revived by converting it into the RGPPL (Ratnagiri Gas and Power Private Limited), a company owned by the Government of India.

The infrastructure development
Starting in the mid-1990s, Unocal and its partners planned to build a 1,000 mile gas pipeline from Turkmenistan to Multan, in Pakistan at a cost of about $2 billion. Also considered was a route from Iran to Multan which was seen as feasible due to Iran's huge oil and gas reserves. However, In 1996 when the Sanctions against Iran were imposed, the FBI blocked the plan, and it was forcibly cancelled. A proposed 400 mile extension from Multan to New Delhi would bring some of the gas into India's network of gas pipelines at a cost of $600 million.

A sea route from Gwadar, Pakistan, to Dabhol, India, was never considered despite both locations being coastal towns.

Financing
In 1992, Enron approached the government of Maharashtra with the idea of setting up a 2,184 Megawatts LNG powered plant at Dabhol, Ratnagiri. LNG for the project would be imported from Qatar through a 20 year contract with Enron, and the electricity produced would be purchased by the Government of Maharashtra for 20years.

However, the World Bank found issues with the feasibility of the project and hence refused to give a loan for the same. Instead the project was financed by Enron, Bechtel, GE and five major lenders, one of which was located in India:
 * Enron Power Corp. - $223 million
 * Bechtel Enterprises - $28 million
 * General Electric- $28 million
 * Lender - Export–Import Bank of the United States - $298 million
 * Bank of America - $150 million
 * Overseas private investment corp - $100 million
 * Industrial Development Bank of India - $95 million
 * Eurobank guarantors

Dabhol Power Station
The plant was to be constructed in two phases. In March 1995, the ruling Congress Party in Maharashtra lost to a nationalist coalition that had campaigned on an anti-foreign investment platform. In May, hundreds of protesting villagers swarmed over the site to protest the displacement of people that would take place, and a riot broke out. Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International eventually charged the security forces guarding Dabhol for Enron with human-rights abuses; Human Rights Watch blamed Enron for being complicit. On August 3, the Maharashtra state government ordered the project to be halted because of "lack of transparency, alleged padded costs, and environmental hazards." Construction ground to a halt. By then, Enron had invested about $300 million into the project.

Phase One
Phase one was set to burn naphtha, a fuel similar to kerosene and gasoline. Phase one would produce 740 megawatts and help stabilize the local transmission grid. The power plant's phase one project was started in 1992 and finally completed two years behind schedule.

Phase Two
Phase two would burn liquefied natural gas (LNG). The LNG infrastructure associated with the LNG Terminal at Dabhol was going to cost around $1 billion.

In 1996 when India's Congress Party was no longer in power, the Indian government assessed the project as being excessively expensive and refused to pay for the plant and stopped construction. The Maharashtra State Electricity Board (MSEB), the local state-run utility, was required by contract to continue to pay Enron plant maintenance charges, even if no power was purchased from the plant. The MSEB determined that it could not afford to purchase the power (at Rs. 8 per unit kWh) charged by Enron. From 1996 until Enron's bankruptcy in 2001 the company tried to revive the project and spark interest in India's need for the power plant without success. The project was widely criticized for excess costs and deemed a white elephant. Socialist groups cited the project as an example of corporate profiteering over public good. Over the next year Enron reviewed its options. On February 23, 1996, the then government of Maharashtra and Enron announced a new agreement. Enron cut the price of the power by over 20 percent, cut total capital costs from $2.8 billion to $2.5 billion, and increased Dabhol's output from 2,015 megawatts to 2,184 megawatts. Both parties committed formally to develop the second phase. The first phase went online May 1999, almost two years behind schedule, and construction was started on phase two. Costs would now ultimately climb to $3 billion. Then everything came to halt. The MSEB refused to pay for all the power, and it became clear that getting the government to honor the guarantees would not be an easy task. Although Maharashtra still suffers from blackouts, it says it does not need and cannot afford Dabhol's power. India's energy sector still loses roughly $5 billion a year. This plant was taken over by Ratnagiri Gas and Power Private limited in July 2005.

Dabhol Today
The power plant Phase I which was renamed Ratnagiri Gas and Power Pvt Ltd (RGPPL) started operation in May 2006, after a hiatus of over 5 years. However, the Dabhol plant ran into further problems, with RGPPL shutting down the plant on 4 July 2006 due to a lack of naphtha supply. The Qatar based company RasGas Company Ltd. started supplying LNG to the plant in April 2007.

The Dabhol Power plant consists of 3 blocks, each consisting of two GE make frame 9 gas turbines and one GE steam turbine. Block 2 commissioning work and Gas turbine 2A trial runs started on 25 April 2007. The Dabhol Power Plant Project was again made operational in April 2009 with 900 MW RLNG fired running capacity but problems continued due to non-availability of operational insurance. Decisions tend to be largely dependent upon political developments in the country as well as performance of newly repaired rotors. As of 2016, the company continues to operate at a colossal loss, selling expensive electricity to either the state owned MSEDCL or India railways for survival.

In September 2015, the company had a total debt of nearly Rs. 10,500 crore. In a bid to try and revive the loss making plant, the Company owning the power plant RGPPL was split into two separate Power (RGPPL) and LNG entities (Konkan LNG Private Limited (KLPL)), one to manage the power plant and the other to try and manage the import of LNG.

title: Dabhol Power Company


text:
Talk:Blister

Copied/Source
Looks like a lot of the content here is copied from (or they've copied) the NHS direct website. Might be worth using for sources or removing content if the article is in breach of a copyright

http://www.nhsdirect.nhs.uk/articles/article.aspx?articleId=52&sectionId=1 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 194.128.253.254 (talk) 15:15, 10 September 2008 (UTC)

My feet hurt
I now have monster blisters on both my feet. (I walked home from school barefoot on hot pavement to 'get my feet in shape' for Summer.) Should I take pictures and put 'em up? Would it be too gross? Please respond before it goes away! --Colonel panic 19:51, Jun 10, 2005 (UTC)

 * Well, one good blister which has not yet been lanced would be a good and non-gross idea. JFW | T@lk  11:38, 12 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Done. This is my first image upload, please let me know if anything should be changed. Novakreo 17:44, 18 August 2005 (UTC)

Contradiction?
"If the blister is broken, the excess skin should not be removed[1] (unless it is dirty or torn). Removing the excess skin often makes the wound heal any infection quickly - if immediately disinfected."

Is this not a contradiction? The first sentence says not to remove the skin, the second one explains why its good to remove the skin. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.92.57.25 (talk) 18:34, 12 March 2008 (UTC)

Repeated reapperance of blister at the same point
I have developed a blister at the same point on my body for a couple of occassions. None of them involved a burn or even friction, so the current explaination does not answer my curiousity. Does anyone have any idea why I blister would occur repeatedly on the back?(Slightly below the neck). There really isn't any friction there

 * Maybe you have systemic poison ivy? though you'd need more symptoms to reach that conclusion. Narcissus 17:19, 15 September 2006 (UTC)

Time?
How long do blisters typically last for?

Usually about a week or so at most, unless agitated by something, IE hiking, running, et cetera. At least in my experience. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.218.29.57 (talk) 00:01, 18 October 2007 (UTC)

Misc
It is possible to pop a blister with a needle but the needle needs be cleaned. It can be cleaned with alcohol or under a flame, it is important that it is clean to avoid infection. But its not good idea to pop blister, because then you can get infection. The blister protects the wound and is there to prevent dirt and bacteria from entering. Its good wash with soap and water. I am not expert, but it is like this, sorry if im wrong

How does a blister heal?
This article states that a blister is filled with Lymph, but does not mention blisters' attempt to heal chemical infections, issues about causality, nor how any of this is done. What is the mechanism of the blister's supposed healing powers? Narcissus 17:19, 15 September 2006 (UTC)

Bulla?
Who uses this word ? Never heard of it

-Physicians do. Just like they say contusion instead of bruise etc.

Encyclopediaic content
As it is, this article reads more like a WebMD-type of entry than it does an encyclopedia article. Where's the biology/medical approach to this? I find it odd that articles like Sulfur mustard and (to a lesser extent) Vesicant are so well fleshed-out while the article on what they're ultimately about is not. RobertM525 08:38, 5 November 2006 (UTC)
 * I agree. Rather than remove some of the content in this article, however, I think it would be best to try and expand this article from a medical perspective.67.162.10.185 23:05, 23 December 2006 (UTC)
 * This article is almost a word-for-word copy of http://sportsmedicine.about.com/cs/foot_facts/a/aa031400a.htm. I have cited this article under the Treatment section; that's the best I can do right now, since I'm at work. 63.172.193.57 16:31, 11 June 2007 (UTC)

transudate vs exudate
should be added to the article.

The "Ouch" Factor and Treatment
I added the fact that if someone is foolish enough to pop a blister, it will hurt like...well just trust me it hurts. I also added that looser bandages are usually better than tight bandages against the blister. This article needs more about how to treat and what not to use on a blister. Some of the information about burn blisters could be incorporated. --Problematik 01:37, 11 July 2007 (UTC)

 * @ Problematik: I really don't think this article needs information on 'how to treat blisters' - it already reads like a health advice page, not an encyclopedia article. 87.192.246.247 (talk) 14:45, 1 January 2010 (UTC)

-Obviously not a fact since I just popped my blister and not only did it not hurt, I didn't even feel it.

-Correction, *new* blisters hurt when popped. Or maybe you're tough :). I think it also depends on how you pop it etc etc, but I really don't feel like getting into a long chat about the art of blister-popping, so I think a fair compromise is it MAY hurt severely when popping a blister.--Problematik 22:50, 15 July 2007 (UTC)

The liquid inside
What is the liquid inside a friction blister composed of?-=Worloq=- 07:08, 7 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Mostly blood plasma, with the occasional blood cell, I believe. Perhaps there's something under exudate.  WhatamIdoing (talk) 14:53, 1 May 2008 (UTC)

 * Ah, yes, I see it there in exudate. "Clear blister fluid is an example of an exudate that contains water (and solutes) together with some plasma proteins, but not many blood cells." I'm not surprised I don't recall the term from biology. How often do you point at a cut and say, "Hey, you've got some exudate leaking there." Thanks. -=Worloq=- (talk) 03:18, 18 May 2008 (UTC)

Sportspeople: beyond "surviving" a blister
The blister section seems to focus on how to survive a blister. It assumes that the person with a blister will do whatever necessary to maximise the chances of not getting an infection. Given the 21st century's low mortality rate for blisters, this seems a disproportionate way to look at blisters.

Sportspeople are common sufferers of blisters. When a jogger gets a blister on their foot, they often don't want to stop jogging for 10 days and will instead burst the blister (and possibly disinfect it). This is more "living with a blister" or "coping with a blister" than the current angle of "surviving a blister".

Could someone add info on what sportspeople do to make a hand/foot usable again in the shortest or most reliable way? I don't have info on this, but maybe another reader will. Thanks. --Gronky (talk) 08:28, 18 February 2008 (UTC)

In my opinion, using a disinfected needle (dipped in alcohol for example) to puncture the blister enables the liquid to drain without loosing the skin. The tiny hole created will re-close easily, so the new skin is protected by the old skin. Removing the liquid makes the blister less bulging, and reduces the chance of it bursting by accident, as there is less pressure inside. Once the blister is deflated, a bandage gives some protection. As with all wounds, regular disinfecting is the key. I don't have any references on this, so someone else could find some and add it to the article. Another approach, mostly used in treks where hygiene is harder to maintain, is just to bandage it, and wait to come back to civilisation to treat it. The most important rule is to remember that the skin above the blister is the best protection against infection and for the new skin underneath, so it's important not to break it/tear it. Anybody know why blisters appears in 2nd degree burns? There doesn't seem to be any cause of friction, and the articles does not mention anything about blisters from burns.

 * For those who get repeat blisters (myself a guitar player), it would be beneficial to clarify what method is best for toughening the skin to prevent future blisters... to lance or to leave? I don't actually know the answer myself; google results seem to be awful conflicting, but a better googler than I might be able to find something reliable. AlhazredUB (talk) 11:32, 17 February 2009 (UTC)

Blister on my balls?
some one should fix it its in the little box under the picture —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.61.117.150 (talk) 20:51, 11 October 2008 (UTC)

fixed —Preceding unsigned comment added by 209.226.247.112 (talk) 12:15, 12 October 2008 (UTC)

Spitting in hands.
Does spitting in the hands before using an axe or shovel etc. prevent blisters? See also the spitting discussion page. 195.35.160.133 (talk) 11:12, 4 December 2009 (UTC) Martin.

try lotion — Preceding unsigned comment added by 96.254.42.168 (talk) 03:52, 24 December 2012 (UTC)

Mechanisms and Treatment
added" Friction blisters are caused by excess shear stress between the surface of the skin and the body. The strata of skin around the Stratum lucidum is most susceptible to shear. As the Stratum lucidum tears away from the connecting tissues below, plasma from the cells diffuses out. This plasma solution helps new cells divide and grow into new connective tissues and epidermal layers.

The plasma solution will promote growth of new cells and expedite proper healing and should not be drained. The clear fluid will be reabsorbed as new cells develop and the swollen appearance will subside.

The time for blisters to heal depends on the location and the size of the area damaged.

Protecting the blister from abrasion or additional shearing will help keep the blister in tact.

Painful blisters located on hands and feet (plantar surface) is due to tissue shearing deeper in the epidermis, near nerve endings. These especially should be be kept intact if possible. Lower tissues are more susceptible to infection. "

to treatment section. This really needs to be worked into the explanation of what a blister is. Check www.pubmed.gov for papers on blister treatment for more info. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.17.184.148 (talk) 18:37, 6 July 2010 (UTC)

Contradictions with "Burn" page
From Blister: "First and second degree burns may result in blistered skin; however, it is characteristic of second degree burns to blister immediately, whereas first degree burns can have blisters after a couple of days.".

However Burn lists a clinical finding of first degree burns to be a lack of blisters, and states "Second-degree burns manifest as erythema with superficial blistering of the skin".

Which is correct?

— Will Boyce (talk) 13:15, 6 August 2010 (UTC)

piercing
in the section "treatment" someone wrote that you should not pierce(destroy) the blister. but in the german wiki they wrote that you should do this so the blister can heal faster. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 84.159.243.69 (talk) 16:56, 9 May 2011 (UTC)

Mechanism of Formation
An important topic which is not discussed in the article is the mechanism by which blisters are forming. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Keyman86 (talk • contribs) 18:26, 13 May 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
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Blisters from time?
"A blister is a small pocket of body fluid (lymph, serum, plasma, blood, or pus) within the upper layers of the skin, typically caused by forceful rubbing (friction), burning, freezing, chemical exposure or infection or even excessive amount of time"

What is that even supposed to mean? An excess of time can cause a blister? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 201.167.5.2 (talk) 22:16, 18 September 2018 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 07:52, 3 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Second degree burn after 2 days.JPG

There should be a section on treatment.
Apokrif (talk) 12:21, 22 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Blister


text:
Roubanis

Roubanis (in Greek: Ρουμπάνης) is a last name from Peloponnese. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Aristidis Roubanis (1932–2018), basketball player
 * Georgios Roubanis (born 1929), Pole Vaulter who won a bronze medal at the Melbourne Olympics
 * Nick Roubanis, a Greek American music instructor, sometimes credited as the composer of "Misirlou"

title: Roubanis


text:
John Carmichael, 1st Earl of Hyndford

John Carmichael, 1st Earl of Carmichael (28 February 1638 – 20 September 1710), known as Lord Carmichael between 1672 and 1701, when he was created the 1st Earl of Hyndford, was a Scottish nobleman and politician.

He succeeded his grandfather, James Carmichael, 1st Lord Carmichael (1579–1672), as second Lord Carmichael in 1672. He was Keeper of the Privy Seal of Scotland from 1689 to 1690, Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1690, 1694, and 1699, and Chancellor of the University of Glasgow from 1692 to 1713. He was Secretary of State from 1699 to 1702, and supported the Union with England. He was a colonel of Dragoons from 1693 to 1697. His wife was Beatrix. Their daughter Beatrix married John Cockburn of Ormiston.

title: John Carmichael, 1st Earl of Hyndford


text:
WSTW

WSTW (93.7 FM, "93.7 WSTW") is a commercial radio station licensed to serve Wilmington, Delaware. The station is owned by Forever Media and broadcasts a Contemporary hit radio format.

WSTW's studios and offices are on Shipley Road in Wilmington. Its broadcast tower is also located there, north of Downtown Wilmington at (39.81592°N, -75.52922°W). In addition to Wilmington and Northern Delaware, the station's 47,100 watt signal covers Philadelphia and other parts of Pennsylvania as well as sections of New Jersey and Maryland.

History
In 1950, the station signed on as WDEL-FM. At first it simulcast the programming of sister station WDEL (1150 AM), airing middle of the road music, talk, news and sports. But by the late 1960s, it was separately programmed, switching the call sign to WSTW. The call sign stood for "We're Stereo to Wilmington", as the first stereo FM in Wilmington, Delaware - its city of license. Steinman Enterprises is a family-owned broadcasting, newspaper and mining company based in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. For more than a decade, WSTW carried an easy listening and middle of the road music format that was largely automated.

In 1980, WSTW switched to an automated Top 40 format, using the TM "Stereo Rock" service. By the mid-1980s, station management added disc jockeys and ended the automation. Over the years, the station has made slight changes in programming, switching from Top 40 to Hot AC and back again. In the mid-1990s, the station made the move to Hot AC. Around 2000, it moved back to Top 40.

In May 2005, WSTW created the "Rewards" program for winning and obtaining prizes. The "Choice Rewards" system allows listeners of the station to bid on auctions for WSTW concerts, merchandise, etc., based on how many points the user has. Users obtain these points by typing in "Choice Words", which they hear on WSTW itself, on the "Rewards" website. The "Rewards" program was changed later, with "Choice Words" being solely found on the WSTW webpage, at station appearances, and via online surveys.

In 2006, WSTW was chosen as CHR Station of the Year of the Marconi Award by the National Association of Broadcasters.

WSTW HD2 is a simulcast of news/talk sister station WDEL and WDEL-FM. WSTW HD3 is a simulcast of country sister station WXCY-FM and may be heard in analog at 96.9 MHz.

On February 5, 2019, Forever Media, LLC bought out Delmarva Broadcasting Company for $18.5 million, adding 10 more stations to Forever Media, LLC's group of stations in Pennsylvania and Maryland.

Former air staff
Some notable former air staff members include Alan Price (former morning show personality); Ellis B. "Bruce Ellis" Feaster, now at WPOZ in Orlando, Florida; Dave Fleetwood, recently at WGBG-FM in Seaford, Delaware; and Dave Walls, now an anchor/reporter for WSET-TV in Lynchburg, Virginia.

title: WSTW


text:
Barbara Bielecka

Barbara Bielecka (born 1 January 1931, Chełm) is a Polish Functionalist architect and a member of the Faculty of Architecture at the Gdańsk University of Technology. She designed the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Lichen, Poland's largest church, the sixth largest by area in the world. It was constructed between 1994 and 2004. In May 1985, she joined the Commission of Urban Planning and Architecture at the Polish Academy of Sciences in Kraków.

title: Barbara Bielecka


text:
Alishan Forest Railway

Alishan Forest Railway is an 86 km network of  narrow gauge railways running up to and throughout the popular mountain resort of Alishan in Chiayi County, Taiwan. The railway, originally constructed for logging, has become a tourist attraction with its rare Z-shaped switchbacks, and over 50 tunnels and 77 wooden bridges. Taiwan's Ministry of Culture has listed the forest railway as a potential World Heritage Site.
 * Alishan Forestry Railway and Cultural Assets Management Office AFRCHO

Japanese era
The narrow gauge lines were originally constructed by the Japanese Colonial Government to facilitate the logging of cypress and Taiwania wood. Preliminary surveying was conducted in 1900 and route planning began in 1903, but the project was shelved in 1904 due to the Russo-Japanese War. In 1906, the Japanese Government contracted the Osaka-based Fujita-gumi to build the railroad. The company laid tracks from Kagi (Chiayi) to Rienryō (Liyuanliao) and imported 13-ton Shay locomotives to run on the tracks, but financial troubles and technical difficulties in construction in the mountainous terrain forced them to abandon the project in 1908. In 1910, the Japanese Government took interest in the abandoned railroad and decided to finish it themselves, also importing 18-ton Shays for the job. The tracks were extended to Alisan (Zhaoping) in 1913, marking the completion of the main line.

The Alishan Forest Railway became a major tourist railway when the tracks were extended to Niitakaguchi (新高口) in 1933. The station was located very close to Mount Niitaka (now Yu Shan), the highest mountain in Taiwan and the Japanese Empire, and the hike to the summit could be completed in seven to eleven hours, depending on the health of the individual. To cater to hikers, the railway operated an express service from Kagi to Niitakaguchi that only stopped at Shōhei; hikers would stay overnight at a lodge at Niitakaguchi and summit the next day.

Since 1945
Diesel railcars supplemented the steam engines on the passenger services. In the 1980s, 10 Hitachi-built diesel-hydraulic locomotives were delivered and replaced the railcars and remaining steam engines.

The completion of the Alishan Highway in 1982 led to the loss of many rail passengers to faster and cheaper buses and the rail became primarily a tourist attraction.

Accidents on the line have resulted in a number of fatalities over the years. On 24 April 1981, a collapsed tunnel resulted in nine deaths and 13 injuries. On 1 March 2003, 17 people were killed and 156 injured when a train derailed near Alishan Railway Station. On 27 April 2011, five tourists, including three from mainland China, were killed and 113 people injured in a derailment.

In addition, services have been repeatedly disrupted due to damages from landslides. The main line from Chiayi to Alishan has been partially closed since 2009 due to damages cause by landslides during Typhoon Morakot in 2009 and Typhoon Dujuan (2015). The line underwent repairs and resumed full operation in July 2024, after some delays. In August 2015, the Chiayi-Fenqihu section was briefly closed due to damages during Typhoon Soudelor.

In order to further boost tourism in the region, on 5 December 2018 the Alishan Forest Railway commenced a "sister railway" partnership with Čierny Hron Railway in Slovakia; the Alishan Forest Railway has since partnered with nine other companies across five different countries.

Operation
The railway was privatized through a build-operate-transfer (BOT) in June 2008 and maintained by the Hungtu Alishan International Development Corporation. On 1 May 2013, the management of the railway was taken over by Taiwan Railways Administration. On 1 July 2018, the railway was taken over by the newly established Alishan Forest Railway and Cultural Heritage Office of the Forestry Bureau.

The system is currently operated using diesel locomotives, although there are occasional special public runs using the old steam powered Shay locomotives.

Lines

The main line originally ran from the city of Chiayi (elevation 30 m), to Alishan (elevation 2,216 m), but is currently partially closed past Shizilu. The vegetation along the way changes from tropical to temperate and finally alpine. The line features many switchbacks on the way up the mountain.

 * Main line
 * –Alishan
 * Includes several steep gradients (max. 6.26%), a spiral and four switchbacks, known as the Dulishan Spiral. The longest line with most dramatic climate change.
 * Reopened between Chiayi and Fenqihu (approximately the halfway point) following typhoon damage repairs in January 2014, and to Shizilu in 2017.
 * The full remaining main line between Chiayi and Zhushan will reopen on 6th July 2024, after the completion of Tunnel 42 in April 2024

 * Shenmu line
 * Alishan–Shenmu
 * Runs frequently all day, a short (5-minute) ride downhill to Shenmu station.

 * Chushan line
 * Alishan–Chushan
 * Early morning trains, popular for viewing the sunrise over Jade Mountain

 * Zhaoping line
 * Alishan–Zhaoping
 * Runs frequently all day, a short (5-minute) ride uphill to Zhaoping station

 * Mianyue line
 * Alishan–Shihou
 * Closed due to earthquake damage and typhoon, currently turned to mountain trail, reconstruction plans under discussion.

 * Shuishan line
 * Alishan–Shuishan
 * No passenger service, mountain trail and thinning only

Tribute
On 10 March 2018, Google celebrated the Alishan Forest Railway with a Google Doodle.

title: Alishan Forest Railway


text:
Divine Adoratrice of Amun

The Divine Adoratrice of Amun (Egyptian: dwꜣt nṯr n jmn) was a second title – after God's Wife of Amun – created for the chief priestess of the ancient Egyptian deity Amun. During the first millennium BCE, when the holder of this office exercised her largest measure of influence, her position was an important appointment facilitating the transfer of power from one pharaoh to the next, when his daughter was adopted to fill it by the incumbent office holder. The Divine Adoratrice ruled over the extensive temple duties and domains, controlling a significant part of the ancient Egyptian economy.

History
God's Wife of Amun, a title for a similar office of the high priestess, originated as a title held by a daughter of the High Priest of Amun during the reign of Hatshepsut and continued as an important office while the capital of Egypt remained in Thebes.

Later, the added title Divine Adoratrice of Amun can be seen to accompany a resurgence of the title God's Wife of Amun, which had fallen into disuse. The God's Wife title was revived during the Twentieth Dynasty, when Ramesses VI's daughter Iset held the office, as well as the additional office of Divine Adoratrice. He reigned from 1145 to 1137 BC. She never married and seems to have been the first of the celibate holders of the office of Divine Adoratrice of Amun, as he stipulated along with the new tradition that she would adopt the daughter of the succeeding pharaoh as her successor at the end of his reign in order to facilitate the transition to the next pharaoh. Generally, the tradition was followed and the position was filled by the daughter of the current king, who was adopted as the daughter of the incumbent Divine Adoratrice.

The new office reached the very heights of its political power during the late Third Intermediate Period of Egypt when Shepenupet I, Osorkon III's daughter, was first appointed to this post at Thebes. The Nubian king Kashta, in turn, appointed his daughter, Amenirdis, as her successor. The high status of this office is illustrated by the tomb of Amenirdis at Medinet Habu.[4]

Toward the end of the Third Intermediate Perion the Napatan kings from Kingdom of Kush, who reigned as the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt, spread their realm into Upper Egypt. The reigning God's Wife of Amun, Shepenupet I, was persuaded to adopt Amenirdis, the daughter of Pharaoh Kashta of Kush as her heir. This sequence was followed throughout the 25th Dynasty until Egypt was conquered by the Saite king Psamtik I, who founded the Twenty-sixth Dynasty, who had his daughter, Nitocris I, adopted by Amenirdis II. The Adoption Stela of Nitocris shows the ceremony involved by this event, and the prestige of the role. "I have given to him my daughter to be a god's wife and have endowed her better than those who were before her. Surely he will be gratified with her worship and protect the land who gave her to him."

At this time, the dynastic rulers were based in the Nile Delta region, and the office of the Divine Adoratrice was a means to secure peaceful relations with the Theban area where the cult of Amun was centered. A number of the God's Wives had mortuary shrines constructed on the west bank of the river, mostly alongside the mortuary temple at Medinet Habu of Ramesses III.

Because of the power and prestige of the offices, the ceremony of adoption by the current incumbent of the post was used as a way for the kings of the Delta area to project their power into the south of Egypt. In the same manner, it was used by the Napatan kings to project their power northward into Egypt proper. The power of the Divine Adoratrice of Amun was limited to the area around Thebes in Upper Egypt, which was the center of the cult.

title: Divine Adoratrice of Amun


text:
Electrical tape

Electrical tape (or insulating tape) is a type of pressure-sensitive tape used to insulate electrical wires and other materials that conduct electricity. It can be made of many plastics but PVC (polyvinyl chloride, "vinyl") is the most popular, as it stretches well and gives effective and long-lasting insulation. Electrical tape for class H insulation is made of fiberglass cloth.

Varieties

A wide variety of electrical tapes are available, some for highly specialized purposes. "The primary tapes used in electrical applications are vinyl, rubber, mastic, and varnished cambric." Electricians may use various colors of tape to insulate wire and to indicate the voltage level and phase of the wire (colored tape sometimes is called "phasing tape"). When wires are phased, a ring of tape is placed on each end near the termination so that the purpose of the wire is obvious. The following table(s) describe the use of electrical tape.

Tape that is approved for electrical applications will carry an approval label from an agency such as Underwriters Laboratories.

History
Today, electrical tape is simply "another form of insulation". The original electrical insulating tape was made of cloth tape impregnated with Chatterton's compound, an adhesive material manufactured using gutta-percha. This type of tape was often used to insulate soldered splices on knob and tube wiring. It was commonly referred to as "friction tape", and had the unique property of being sticky on both sides. Because of this, no matter how it was used it stuck to itself very readily.

In the early 1940s, vinyl plastic emerged as a versatile material for a wide range of applications, from shower curtains to cable insulation. A major ingredient in vinyl film was tricresyl phosphate (TCP), which was used as a plasticizer. Unfortunately, TCP tended to migrate, giving the surface of the vinyl film an oily quality and degrading every tape adhesive known. Research chemists and engineers at 3M set out to create a dependable, pressure-sensitive tape made of a vinyl film that would have the required electrical, physical and chemical properties.

Experiments were conducted by combining new plasticizers with the white, flour-like vinyl resin. Finally, in January 1946, inventors Snell, Oace, and Eastwold of 3M applied for a patent for a vinyl electrical tape with a plasticizer system and non-sulfur-based rubber adhesive that were compatible. The first commercially available version of the tape was sold for use as a wire-harness wrapping. This original electrical tape wasn't black. Tapes formulated for high-temperature were yellow, and later versions were white. Electrically insulating tapes are essential for enhancing functionality and reliability in a wide range of applications. Some of the most popular types include electrically insulating adhesive tape and electrically insulating film, both of which provide reliable electronic isolation and ensure that a direct electrical connection is not made between two or more circuits or their adjacent parts. There is also electrically conducting tape for shielding and similar applications. White tape, because of its instability in ultraviolet light, was eventually replaced with black tape, although colored vinyl tapes are still used as identification and marking tapes. Black became the standard industry color for vinyl standard tape, primarily because of its ultraviolet resistance. Thicknesses originally were 4 mil (100 μm), 8 mil (200 μm) and 12 mil (300 μm). These were standardized to 7 mil (180 μm) and 10 mil (250 μm) in 1948.

title: Electrical tape


text:
Veronica Webb

Veronica Webb (born February 25, 1965) is an American model, actress, writer, and television personality. The first African-American to have a major cosmetics contract, Webb has appeared on covers of Vogue, Essence and Elle magazines and on the runway for Victoria's Secret and Chanel.

Early life
Webb was born in Detroit, the daughter of Marion (née Stewart), a retired Army lieutenant colonel in World War II and retired public health RN, and Leonard Douglas Webb, an electrician. Prior to her birth, both her parents spent 20 years in the Army. She grew up in a working class community. One of Webb's sisters became an oncologist and another is a mathematician.

As a youth, Webb identified with magazine models and women who were involved in the fashion industry, who exhibited control over their appearance. She also enjoyed comic books and dreamed of becoming an animator.

Webb graduated in 1983 from the Detroit Waldorf School and moved to New York to study design. After a makeup artist saw her in a housewares boutique, Webb dropped out of school to become a model. She also appeared in the music video for New Order's "Round and Round" off their 1989 album "Technique" and appears briefly in Scritti Politti's Perfect Way video, as well as the 1986 US video for Wood Beez (Pray Like Aretha Franklin), both from their 1985 album Cupid & Psyche 85.

Career
In New York, Webb pursued a modeling career and eventually became a spokesmodel for Revlon. She was the first black supermodel to win an exclusive contract for a major cosmetics company. In 1991 Webb made her feature film debut in Spike Lee's Jungle Fever. Her film credits include Someone Like You..., The Big Tease, and Malcolm X. She also had a recurring role on the television show Damon and appeared on Just Shoot Me!, Becker and Clueless. In 2006, Webb appeared in the independent feature film Dirty Laundry.

As a runway model she has modeled fashions from the collections of Azzedine Alaia, Isaac Mizrahi, Karl Lagerfeld, and Todd Oldham. Webb was named to American Vogue's best dressed list three times.

Webb has written essays and columns for Interview magazine, Paper Magazine ("New York City's style guide to downtown cool"), Panorama (an Italian weekly news magazine), Details, Elle, The Sunday Times, The New York Times Syndicate, Conde Nast's Cookie magazine, and Esquire.

In 1995, she modeled for the first annual show of Victoria's Secret.

In 1998, Miramax Books published Veronica Webb Sight: Adventures In The Big City, a collection of autobiographical essays. Harvey Weinstein, chairman of Miramax, approached her while she was in line at the White House about publishing her essays as a memoir.

Webb was the co-host of the first season of Bravo's Tim Gunn's Guide To Style.

In 2010, Webb was named a member of the Eucerin Skin First Council to promote skin health.

Personal life
Webb learned French from Azzedine Alaia with whom she lived during her stay in Paris.

Webb dedicates her time to several charitable organizations: LIFEBeat, Product Red and the RPM Nautical Foundation. LIFEBeat is close to Webb's heart because she was deeply affected by the AIDS crisis in the '80s as a model living in New York. Webb got involved with RPM because of her ex-husband, George Robb, who works to bring up shipwrecks for museums and governments.

Webb married George Robb in 2002 and had two children Leila Rose Robb (born October 2002) and Orpheus Blue Robb (born May 2004). The couple divorced in 2009. She married Chris Del Gatto on March 23, 2013. Webb's hobby is decorating—colors and textiles, and traveling. She also collects shipwreck artifacts and textiles from around the world.

Webb ran the ING New York City Marathon for the first time in 2009 and ran for Harlem United Community AIDS Center.

Filmography

 * Jungle Fever
 * Just Shoot Me! (Season 1, Episode 2: The Devil and Maya Gallo)
 * In Too Deep
 * The Big Tease
 * The West Wing
 * Dirty Laundry
 * Malcolm X

title: Veronica Webb


text:
Talk:University of the Arctic

What does it mean
what does it mean university according to student — Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.192.65.193 (talk) 19:56, 10 June 2005 (UTC)
 * what does it mean "what does it mean university according to student" —Preceding unsigned comment added by 158.36.137.7 (talk) 14:44, 5 March 2008 (UTC)

"Adoption"
I see that this page has not been edited in quite a while, and that the person who started it has unfortunately left Wikipedia. Because of this, I will keep an eye on it. I have started restructuring it - updating it by getting info from but this will be a somewhat "slo-mo" process due to... well, the fact that I am not 100% employed with full pay as a wiki contributor 8) --Misha bb (talk) 21:37, 4 March 2008 (UTC)

Stub status
I don't know if it deserves stub status, by the way. It's already quite long and elaborate. Maybe that tag is outdated? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Misha bb (talk • contribs) 21:38, 4 March 2008 (UTC)

Portal
Portal is being made at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:University_of_the_Arctic Purpose: To be a gateway for (a) everything to do with the UArctic structure; (b) all UArctic organizations and institutions; (c) biographies, institutions, events, groups etc. relevant to (c1) UArctic itself and/or (c2) Arctic academic activities. --Misha bb (talk) 14:54, 23 January 2009 (UTC)

 * The portal hasn't been worked on in three years and I don't think there is yet enough relevant material relating to UArctic for it to require its own portal. It should probably put to MfD for consideration. Torsti (talk) 19:45, 8 January 2012 (UTC)

Pomot and Ofelas
Has this section been left untranslated from another wiki? Or can it be expanded to explain what it means? twilsonb (talk) 08:09, 7 September 2009 (UTC)

 * UArctic does not use acronyms, but rather terms from Arctic languages. Please see https://app.getguru.com/card/eikb8zpi/Glossary-of-Terms as a source for these and other terms. UArctic Sforrest (talk) 10:16, 4 May 2022 (UTC)

Copied content
At least the Programs section contains parts/sentences that have been copied from the UArctic website. They should probably be deleted or rephrased. Torsti (talk) 20:17, 8 January 2012 (UTC)
 * Better late than never: SO MUCH YES. It struck my eye immediately as I was briefly reading that section: words like "exciting" and "enrich", too detailed information and for one instance even a forgotten "your" when talking about students. The section should be entirely rewritten for copyright and NPOV reasons, but honestly I don't really care about this article and also wouldn't have the time to do it, so for now I only removed or changed phrases that where redundant, not relevant or too heavily violated WP:NPOV. -- Christallkeks (talk) 20:06, 27 June 2016 (UTC)

Merging separate articles
The pages University of the Arctic members and University of the Arctic governance don't seem to be so extensive or notable that they need to stand on their own. The members page is out of date and the article on governance confusing. They should probably be merged or deleted. Also, Category:University of the Arctic seems rather redundant as all articles listed there are linked to from the main article. Torsti (talk) 20:29, 8 January 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
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I have just modified 5 external links on University of the Arctic. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20131016084349/http://www.uarctic.org/singleArticle.aspx?m=75&amid=80 to http://www.uarctic.org/singleArticle.aspx?m=75&amid=80
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120329044119/http://www.uarctic.org/compactArticles.aspx?m=73 to http://www.uarctic.org/compactArticles.aspx?m=73
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Members
This is in part raised in above but I think it deserves its own section.

The article currently reads in part There are 143 members of UArctic, which includes 174 members. Similarly the article on members currently reads in part ''There are 143 member institutions of UArctic, most of which are educational institutions and most of which are from the Arctic states (listed below). In addition, there are 21 members from non-Arctic states.''

The intent is clear enough... there are two classes of membership. This is backed up by https://www.uarctic.org/member-profiles/non-arctic/ which reads in part UArctic also has members from outside the Arctic states, who nevertheless share the same commitment to promoting higher education and research in the Circumpolar North. So non-arctic members are in fact members, and the claim that there are only 143 members is, strictly speaking, false, and at best confusing. So some rephrasing is indicated IMO. Comments? Andrewa (talk) 21:55, 26 January 2018 (UTC)

In that nobody has replied despite a heads-up at the more specific article talk, it's probably best that I just boldly fix it. Andrewa (talk) 18:57, 30 January 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:University of the Arctic


text:
Federal Arbitration Act

The United States Arbitration Act (, codified at ), more commonly referred to as the Federal Arbitration Act or FAA, is an act of Congress that provides for non-judicial facilitation of private dispute resolution through arbitration. It applies in both state courts and federal courts, as was held in Southland Corp. v. Keating. It applies in all contracts, excluding contracts of seamen, railroad employees, or any other class of workers involved in foreign or interstate commerce, and it is predicated on an exercise of the Commerce Clause powers granted to Congress in the U.S. Constitution.

The FAA provides for contract-based compulsory and binding arbitration, resulting in an arbitration award entered by an arbitrator or arbitration panel as opposed to a judgment entered by a court of law. In an arbitration, the parties give up the right to an appeal on substantive grounds to a court.

Once an award is entered by an arbitrator or arbitration panel, it must be "confirmed" in a court of law; and once confirmed, the award is reduced to an enforceable judgment, which may be enforced by the winning party in court, like any other judgment. Under the FAA, an award must be confirmed within one year, and any objection to an award must be challenged by the losing party within three months. An arbitration agreement may be entered "prospectively" (ie., in advance of any actual dispute), or may be entered into by the disputing parties once a dispute has arisen.

Legal challenges
The Supreme Court ruled in Hall Street Associates, L.L.C. v. Mattel, Inc. that the grounds for judicial review specified in the FAA may not be expanded, even if the parties to the arbitration agreement agree to allow expanded review of the decision.

In 2013, the Court ruled in American Express Co. v. Italian Colors Restaurant that class action waivers contained in mandatory arbitration clauses were valid even if plaintiffs prove that it would not be economically practicable to maintain these actions individually.

In the 2018 decision Epic Systems Corp. v. Lewis, the Supreme Court ruled that the FAA is not overridden by the protection of concerted activity established by the National Labor Relations Act of 1935, effectively making individual arbitration agreements in contracts wholly enforceable.

Within New Prime Inc. v. Oliveira, decided in 2019, the Court decided unanimously that when contracts include mandatory arbitration clauses, employees still have the right to seek court oversight to determine if such employment falls within the exceptions outlined in section 1 of the FAA related to employees involved in interstate commerce, and that these protections apply to both those classified as employees and as independent contractors.

Partial preemption of state law
Section 2 of the FAA declares that arbitration provisions will be subject to invalidation only for the same grounds applicable to contractual provisions generally, such as unconscionability or duress. Consequently, most state law that disfavors the enforcement of arbitration agreements will be preempted by the FAA. State laws that govern the procedures of arbitration, but do not affect its enforcement, are outside the Act's preemptive scope.

Not all state laws regarding arbitration are preempted, for example:
 * NASD rule 12204 of 1992 (now FINRA Rule 2268), which allows investor class actions to proceed in federal court nullifies arbitration agreements when class certification is sought, is not preempted.
 * California H&SC 1363.1 is partially preempted.

However, a recent Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA) Office of Hearing Officers (OHO) decision in a disciplinary action against Charles Schwab & Co. questions the ability of a regulator to enforce arbitration agreement restrictions such as NASD Rule 12204 (FINRA Rule 2268). The dispute arose when Charles Schwab & Co. revised its pre-dispute arbitration agreement to preclude a customer from participating in a class action against the firm, effectively removing the ability for a customer to have a claim heard in court. FINRA rules require arbitration through a FINRA arbitration panel, except in the case of class actions, which are reserved for the court system.

Specifically, the OHO Panel cited the Supreme Court decision in Shearson/American Express Inc. v. McMahon that securities law claims are no exception to the FAA's mandate that parties to an otherwise valid arbitration agreement submit the claim to arbitration. The OHO Panel also applied the Supreme Court decision in AT&T Mobility v. Concepcion where the Court established that class actions also are not an exception to the FAA, stating that a party to an arbitration agreement has no right to participate in a class action instead of an arbitration on an individual basis and that an exception to the FAA's mandate requires clear expression of Congressional intent. FINRA has appealed the OHO decision to the National Adjudicatory Council.

A case-by-case analysis is required to determine whether a specific California law is preempted. In general, where the FAA has no procedural provisions applicable in state court, there is no preemption.

A number of Supreme Court cases have dealt with the preemption of state laws by the Federal Arbitration Act:

Proposed reform
Following on a number of recent Supreme Court decisions that found in favor of employers in arbitration disputes, Democrats in both houses of Congress introduced the Forced Arbitration Injustice Repeal Act (FAIR Act) in February 2019. The proposed bill would modify the FAA to make any contract that requires forced arbitration invalid, outside of limited conditions, making judges the decision-making body in disputes where arbitration may be required, and prevent employment contracts from blocking the employee's engagement with labor unions due to arbitration. The bill was introduced following events at several large tech firms, including Google, that led to the companies eliminating forced arbitration from their employee contracts. While the bill did not pass the Senate during the 116th Congress, it passed the House of Representatives with support from all House Democrats and sole Republican Matt Gaetz, and the FAIR Act has been reintroduced in the 117th Congress.

title: Federal Arbitration Act


text:
The Burning Fiery Furnace

The Burning Fiery Furnace is an English music drama with music composed by Benjamin Britten, his Opus 77, to a libretto by William Plomer. One of Britten's three Parables for Church Performances, this work received its premiere at the St Bartholomew's Church, Orford, Suffolk, England, on 9 June 1966 by the English Opera Group.

Colin Graham was the stage director of this first production. Set designs were by Annena Stubbs. The United States premiere was presented at the Caramoor Summer Music Festival on 25 June 1967 with Andrea Velis as Nebuchadnezzar.

The scale and manner of instrumentation are similar to those in Curlew River, but one notable difference is the use of the alto trombone.

Clifford Hindley has commented on a reading of a subtext sympathetic to homosexuality on the part of both Britten and Plomer in their treatment of the story.

Synopsis
The Burning Fiery Furnace tells the story of Nebuchadnezzar (the historical Nebuchadnezzar II) and the three Israelites, Ananias, Misael and Asarias (corresponding Babylonian names: Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego), who were thrown into a furnace for their refusal to worship Nebuchadnezzar's image of gold. However, God saves them from death, as the voice of an angel joins the Israelites in a 'Benedicite'.

Recording
Britten himself, along with Viola Tunnard, supervised the first commercial recording of this work, for Decca/London, with the following participants: The instrumentalists were Richard Adeney (flute), Neill Sanders (horn), Roger Brenner (trombone), Cecil Aronowitz (viola), Keith Marjoram (double bass), Osian Ellis (harp), James Blades (percussion) and Philip Ledger (organ).
 * Nebuchadnezzar: Peter Pears
 * The Astrologer: Bryan Drake
 * Ananias (Shadrach): John Shirley-Quirk
 * Misael (Meshach): Robert Tear
 * Asarias (Abednego): Stafford Dean
 * The Herald: Peter Leeming
 * Chorus of Courtiers: Graham Allum, Peter Bedford, Carl Duggan, David Hartley, John McKenzie, Clive Molloy, Malcolm Rivers
 * The Acolytes: Robert Alder, Paull Boucher, James Newby, Stephen Price, Christopher Taylor
 * Conductor: Benjamin Britten

title: The Burning Fiery Furnace