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Judiciary of Texas

The structure of the judiciary of Texas is laid out in Article 5 of the Constitution of Texas and is further defined by statute, in particular the Texas Government Code and Texas Probate Code. The structure is complex, featuring many layers of courts, numerous instances of overlapping jurisdiction (in terms of territory), several differences between counties, as well as an unusual bifurcated appellate system at the top level found in only one other state: Oklahoma. Municipal Courts are the most active courts, with County Courts and District Courts handling most other cases and often sharing the same courthouse.

Administration is the responsibility of the Supreme Court of Texas, which is aided by the Texas Office of Court Administration, Texas Judicial Council and the State Bar of Texas, which it oversees.

History and perception
In the 19th century, Texas had a reputation for arbitrary "frontier justice"; in one notorious example highlighted by Stanford legal historian Lawrence M. Friedman, its appellate courts upheld a conviction of "guily" [sic] (where the t was omitted) in 1879 but reversed a conviction of "guity" [sic] (where the l was omitted) in 1886. To Friedman, this proved "that a 't' was less crucial than an 'l' in the law of Texas". As late as the 1870s, about a decade after the American Civil War, there was no functioning legal system in West Texas. The poor quality of the state's judicial system has been attributed to the state's shortage of proper law schools and law libraries in that era, as well as the traditional preference of Texans for "'self-help' justice as practiced in the courts of 'Judge Winchester' or 'Judge Lynch.'"

Courts

Texas is the only state besides Oklahoma to have a bifurcated appellate system at the highest level. The Texas Supreme Court hears appeals involving civil matters (which include juvenile cases), and the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals hears appeals involving criminal matters. Sometimes, the dividing line is murky, especially with respect to jurisdiction in mandamus and habeas corpus cases. See, e.g. Justice Willett's dissent in In re Reece, 341 S.W.3d 360 (Tex. 2011) (orig. proceeding). The Texas Supreme Court and the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals are co-equal, unlike in Oklahoma where the Supreme Court is superior to the highest criminal court.

Article V, Section 1, states:

"The judicial power of this State shall be vested in one Supreme Court, in one Court of Criminal Appeals, in Courts of Appeals, in District Courts, in County Courts, in Commissioners Courts, in Courts of Justices of the Peace, and in such other courts as may be provided by law. The Legislature may establish such other courts as it may deem necessary and prescribe the jurisdiction and organization thereof, and may conform the jurisdiction of the district and other inferior courts thereto."

As such, the Texas Legislature has created additional courts to address caseload pressures driven by population growth in different areas of the state. District courts are (usually) consecutively numbered regardless of whether they are specialize to handle criminal, civil, or family matters (though in some counties, Criminal District Courts have separate numbering systems, an example being Dallas County which has seven such courts numbered 1 through 11 ). The highest numbers indicate that the court was created recently, but the number alone provides no clue as to location of the new court and the appellate district within which it is located. As such, a comprehensive list of Dallas courts can be found to include 60 courts in Dallas.

Further sections of Article V spell out the basic requirements for each court's jurisdiction and for its officers.

Supreme Court
The Supreme Court of Texas hears appeals involving civil matters and does not hear any appeals involving criminal matters except when the defendant is a juvenile. Under Texas law, juvenile proceedings (even those which would be criminal if filed against an adult) are considered civil matters under the Texas Family Code; thus, the Texas Supreme Court hears such appeals, but generally defers to the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals (CCA) in matters where Texas criminal statutes have been interpreted. The Supreme Court also maintains responsibility for attorney licensing and discipline, and plays a more prominent role in promulgation and revision of court rules and in administration of the entire judicial system that does the CCA.

Court of Criminal Appeals
The Texas Court of Criminal Appeals hears appeals in criminal cases. Cases in which the death penalty was imposed are directly and automatically appealed to this court, bypassing the intermediate Courts of Appeals, which hear both civil and criminal cases.

Courts of Appeals

Texas has 14 Courts of Appeals, which have intermediate appellate jurisdiction in both civil and criminal cases. Death penalty cases, however, are automatically appealed to the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals and thus skip the intermediate tier in the appellate court hierarchy. The term Court of Appeals (plural) should be capitalized because the generic term would include the two courts of last resorts also.

The total number of intermediate appellate seats is 80, with membership ranging from three to 13 justices per court, as set by statute. All cases are heard by a three-justice panel unless a hearing en banc is ordered (except where a particular court has only three justices assigned to it, in which instance all cases are automatically heard en banc; an example is the 12th Court of Appeals). The en banc process is used to maintain consistency in the court's jurisprudence, to overrule existing precedent that is binding on individual panels, and to set new precedent on an unsettled question of substantive law or procedure.

The Texas Legislature determines which counties are included within a particular court of appeals' district, and has shifted counties between courts to balance the docket. The Texas Supreme Court seeks to even out imbalances in appellate caseloads on an ongoing basis with docket-equalization orders that provide for transfers of batches of cases from the busiest appeals courts to others with spare capacity.

The First and the Fourteenth Courts of Appeal present a peculiarity: both have their seat at the re-purposed historic 1910 Harris County Courthouse in Houston and exercise concurrent jurisdiction over the same ten counties, the largest of which is Harris County. Parties who want to appeal a judgment or other order from a trial court in these counties are required to state in their notice of appeal that they wish to appeal to either the First or the Fourteenth Court of Appeals, and then have to wait for the result of random assignment to one or the other. They also have to disclose any prior appellate history of the same case in either one of the two courts. Both courts are served by the same clerk, currently Christopher Prine, whose office will issue an initial letter with instructions, along with the appellate docket number that will also reveal which court an appellant has drawn. Appeals are governed by the Texas Rules of Appellate Procedure (TRAPs) and the local rules.

An even more bizarre situation occurs in East and North Texas, where the 6th Court has four counties – Gregg, Rusk, Upshur, and Wood – which overlap with the 12th Court, and also has Hunt County overlapping with the 5th Court.

District Courts
The Texas district courts are the trial courts of general jurisdiction.

The district court has exclusive jurisdiction over felony cases, cases involving title to land, and election contest cases. It shares jurisdiction with the county courts, and in some case justice of the peace courts, for civil cases (its lowest limit for hearing a case is a mere $200 in controversy, while JP courts can hear cases up to $10,000). Family law jurisdiction varies depending on the existence of a county court-at-law; in some counties, the district courts share jurisdiction over divorces, child custody and support matters, adoptions and child welfare cases with county courts at law. Probate jurisdiction varies, depending on the existence of a statutory probate court in the county. In some larger counties, such as Harris County, the district courts are specialized, with designated sets of courts hearing criminal cases, juvenile cases, family matters, and non-family civil cases in four different court houses surrounding the square with the underground jury assembly facility, which suffered severe flood damage in Hurricane Harvey. In the smaller counties, a single district court handles all types of cases. In rural areas, as many as five counties share a single district court; urban counties.

One of the most unusual features of Texas trial courts, including district courts, is the tradition of having only one judge per trial court. Single-judge trial courts were the dominant form of American state trial court organization well into the late 19th century. According to Roscoe Pound, 23 of the 34 states in the Union adhered to that model on the eve of the American Civil War. Accordingly, in 1836, this then-commonplace and familiar model was duly written into the Constitution of the Republic of Texas. Section 2 of Article IV provided for "not less than three nor more than eight" judicial districts, and that "a judge" would be appointed for each district. Similar clauses using the indefinite article to imply one judge per court appeared in all subsequent constitutions. For example, Section 7 of Article V of the 1876 state constitution provided for 26 judicial districts (subject to the right of the Legislature to increase or diminish them), and that "a judge" would be elected for each district. This rigid constitutional language was finally fixed by a constitutional amendment in 1985, but by then, the tradition of one judge per court was thoroughly entrenched.

As a result, instead of adding more judges to existing courts in response to population growth, the Texas Legislature adds more courts. In February 1889, the Legislature tried to constitutionally meet the need for two district court judges in both Dallas and Bexar Counties by dividing each county into two districts, running the district boundary through the middle of the county courthouse, and granting each district court concurrent jurisdiction over the entire county. The Dallas County courthouse burned down on January 7, 1890, and both district courts reopened a month later in temporary rented quarters which were entirely inside of the 44th District. This arrangement was immediately challenged, and in response, the Texas Supreme Court ruled on March 12, 1890 that the state constitution did not prohibit both Dallas County district courts from operating from a shared location inside the same district. This is why today, a typical Texas urban courthouse is home to many single-judge trial courts of concurrent jurisdiction over the same county, each of which is legally organized as a separate court with its own unique name and number. In contrast, in virtually all other U.S. states and the federal government, a trial court can have multiple judges sitting in separate departments who all share coequal authority to act in the name of the same trial court.

Each district court is uniquely numbered on a statewide basis according to its sequence of creation by the Legislature (in other words, the numbers do not reflect the courts' geography). The same is not true of county-level courts, which are numbered sequentially in individual counties.

The first Texas state constitution of 1845 tried to ameliorate the inflexibility of a single-judge trial court model by also authorizing judges to "exchange benches or hold court for each other when they deem it expedient." Relying on this language, the Legislature enacted a variety of procedural laws over the years to get as close as possible to a de facto unified district court in the urban counties that needed multiple district judges, while remaining faithful to the constitutionally mandated structure of single-judge trial courts. However, these procedures are still not as flexible as simply merging all judges in a county into a single district court, and purported failures to properly follow such procedures occasionally result in another basis for appeal.

Large counties typically assign newly filed lawsuits randomly to individual courts to defeat efforts at judge-shopping (a form of forum-shopping), and require re-filed cases involving the same parties to be transferred back to the original randomly-drawn court. Some of these multi-court jurisdictions (e.g., Bexar County/San Antonio) use a centralized docket system, which undercuts the ability to predict which judge will hear a particular motion or try a case, because the assignment of the matter will depend on the availability of judges on a given day. In that system all cases retain their formal assignment to a particular court. The centralized docket system is, at least in principle, more efficient in allocation of judicial resources, and is legally feasible because trial judges in counties with multiple courts are authorized to switch benches and sit for each other. In appeals from such local court systems, the number of the district court provides no clue as to who signed the judgment. The judge must instead be identified by name. Additionally different orders in the same case may have been signed by different judges.

Probate Courts
In another unique twist, the Constitution grants the Legislature the authority to determine which court handles probate matters. Thus, in ten of the 15 largest counties (specifically, the counties of Bexar, Collin, Dallas, Denton, El Paso, Galveston, Harris, Hidalgo, Tarrant, and Travis) the Legislature has established one or more Statutory Probate Courts. These specialized courts handle matters of probate, guardianship, trust, and mental health. In some counties, the statutory probate courts also hear condemnation cases. There are no jurisdictional monetary limits on the types of lawsuits that a statutory probate court may hear. As such, their jurisdiction at times overlaps that of the district court.

Constitutional County Courts

Not to be confused with County Courts at Law, which are created by statute, there is a County Court for each of the 254 counties in Texas. The Texas Constitution states that "[t]here shall be established in each county in this State a County Court ..." Sections 15 through 17 of Article V, as well as Chapters 25 and 26 of the Texas Government Code, outline the duties of these Courts and their officers.

The county court has exclusive jurisdiction over "Class A" and "Class B" misdemeanors (these offenses can involve jail time), concurrent jurisdiction over civil cases where the amount in controversy is moderately sized, and appellate jurisdiction over JP and municipal court cases (for municipal court cases, this may involve a trial de novo if the lower court is not a "court of record").

County court judges are not required to be licensed attorneys. Due to this, defendants in counties which only have the traditional constitutional county court may ask to have their cases transferred to that county's district court for trial if the district judge consents. However, defendants in counties with the county court at law structure do not have this option, as the county court at law judges are required to have law degrees.

Section 15 states that the County Court shall be a "court of record". Section 16 states that the County Court "has jurisdiction as provided by law"; Section 17 states that the County Court shall hold terms as provided by law and that County Court juries shall consist of six persons, but in civil cases a jury shall not be empaneled unless one of the parties demands it and pays a jury fee or files an affidavit stating that it is unable to do so.

Since the county judge is also responsible for presiding over the Commissioners Court (the main executive and legislative body of the county), in 94 counties the Texas Legislature has established county courts at law to relieve the county judge of judicial duties. The first multi-county statutory county court (composed of Fisher, Mitchell, and Nolan counties) was created in 2013. In most counties with courts at law, the civil and criminal jurisdiction of the constitutional county court has been transferred to the county courts at law. Unlike the county judge, judges of the county courts of law are required to be attorneys. The county courts at law may hear both civil and criminal matters, or hear them separately, depending on how the Legislature has structured them (Dallas, Denton, El Paso, Harris, and Tarrant counties have "county criminal courts" or "county criminal courts at law" that hear only criminal cases).

Statutory County Courts at Law
Statutory County Courts at Law, not to be confused with Constitutional County Courts, generally have broader jurisdiction than constitutional county courts. Statutory County Courts can generally entertain lawsuits in which the amount in controversy is over $500 but not over $200,000. However, unlike constitutional county courts, the jurisdiction of Statutory County Courts can vary from county to county. For example, in Dallas County, Statutory County Courts have jurisdiction nearly as broad as that of District Courts. In Harris County, the genera jurisdictional cap is $200,000 but these courts also have exclusive jurisdiction of eminent domain proceedings regardless of the amount in controversy. In Travis County, the amount in controversy for matters the Statutory County Court can entertain ranges from $500 to $250,000. There is no clear policy reason for the varying jurisdictions of the Statutory County Courts.

Municipal Courts

Under the authority granted it by Section 1 of Article V, the Legislature has allowed for the creation of municipal courts in each incorporated city in Texas, by voter approval creating such court. Chapters 29 and 30 of the Texas Government Code outline the duties of these Courts and their officers.

Municipal courts in Texas come into contact with more defendants than all other Texas courts combined. The subject matter of municipal courts relates to crimes relating to public safety and quality of life issues. In recent years, municipal courts and justice court in Texas have become the primary venue  for  acts of misconduct committed by children.

Within the city limits, these courts have shared jurisdiction with the JP courts on Class C criminal misdemeanor cases, and have exclusive jurisdiction on cases involving city ordinances. Municipal courts have limited civil jurisdiction over public matters relating to public safety (e.g., dangerous dog determinations). Confusion surrounding a municipal court's civil jurisdiction is complicated that if a municipal court is a "court of record," the Legislature has authorized municipalities to adopt ordinances that give municipal courts concurrent jurisdiction over substandard building cases with county and/or district courts. The matter of civil jurisdiction has been further confused by the advent of civil penalties for conduct that can be prosecuted as a Class C misdemeanor (e.g. certain parking violations, red light camera violations).

As a general rule, the municipal courts are not "courts of record" (i.e., no court reporter recorded and transcribed the proceedings), and thus an appeal to the county level would require a whole new trial (i.e., a trial de novo). This proved to be a loophole for some defendants in traffic cases, who betted on the officer not being able to attend, and thus having the case dismissed. Furthermore, the de novo trials crowded the dockets of already busy county courts at law. Many major cities—such as those in Austin, El Paso, Houston, Dallas and San Antonio—have chosen to convert their municipal courts to courts of record (this also requires voter approval) to close this loophole.

Municipal court cases are generally appealed to the county court level, but cannot be appealed beyond that level unless the fine is more than $100 or a constitutional matter is asserted.

Justice of the Peace Courts
The lowest court level in Texas is the Justice of the Peace Court (also called Justice Court or JP Court). Each county has at least one JP Court. Sections 18 and 19 of Article V, as well as Chapters 27 and 28 of the Texas Government Code, outline the duties of these Courts and their officers.

Section 19 sets forth the minimum jurisdiction of the JP court:
 * Original jurisdiction in "criminal matters of misdemeanor cases punishable by fine only" (called "Class C" misdemeanor cases under the Texas Penal Code),
 * Exclusive jurisdiction in "civil matters where the amount in controversy is $200 or less", and
 * "Such other jurisdiction as may be provided by law". Under this provision, the Legislature has raised the top limit on civil matters to $20,000 and assigned the JP courts, among others, the right to hear cases involving eviction as well as cases involving foreclosure, liens against personal property where the amount falls within the (revised) JP Court's jurisdiction, and general small claims disputes. In addition, marriage licenses are obtained through JP offices, and JP's are also legally permitted to perform marriage ceremonies.

JP cases are appealed to the county court level where the case results in a trial de novo. The perfection of the appeal vacates the judgment of the JP court, which means that the higher court does not reverse or affirm the JP court when it resolves the appeal. The case is instead retried on appeal, but the jurisdictional limits of the JP court, rather than those of the court of record, apply. Appeals from JP court also differ from appeals to the courts of appeals in that they require the posting of bond. This makes such appeals more onerous to losing defendants than appeals from county courts to the court of appeals unless the defendant qualifies to proceed in forma pauperis.

In criminal cases, cases beginning in justice court cannot be appealed beyond the county level court unless the fine is more than $100 or a constitutional matter is asserted.

Under Section 18, the number of JP's (and associated constables; each county has as many constables as JP's) is dependent on the size of the county:

 * For counties with populations less than 18,000 (as determined by the census), the entire county shall be one JP precinct, unless the Commissioners' Court determines that more are needed, in which case the court can divide the county into no more than four JP precincts.
 * For counties with populations at least 18,000 but less than 50,000, the number of JP precincts shall be no less than two nor more than eight.
 * For counties with populations 50,000 or greater, the number of JP precincts shall be no less than four nor more than eight.
 * In any county with population less than 150,000, if any precinct contains a city with 18,000 or more population, that precinct shall have two JP's.
 * In any county with population 150,000 or greater, each JP precinct may have more than one JP.
 * Special provisions apply to Chambers and Randall counties (must have no fewer than two nor more than six precincts) and to Mills, Reagan, and Roberts (the Constable office is abolished, with the Sheriff's office performing all duties).

Administration

The Texas Supreme Court has constitutional responsibility for the efficient administration of the judicial system and possesses the authority to make rules of administration applicable to the courts in addition to promulgation and amend rules governing procedure in trial and appellate courts, and rules of evidence. The chief justice of the Supreme Court, presiding judge of the Court of Criminal Appeals, chief justices of each of the 14 courts of appeals, and judges of each of the trial courts are generally responsible for the administration of their respective courts.

There is a local administrative district judge in each county, as well as a local administrative statutory county court judge in each county that has a statutory county court. In counties with two or more district courts, a local administrative district judge is elected by the district judges in the county for a term not to exceed two years; in counties with two or more statutory county courts, a local administrative statutory county court judge is elected by the statutory county court judges for a term not to exceed two years. The local administrative judge is charged with implementing the local rules of administration, supervising the expeditious movement of court caseloads, and other administrative duties.

eFileTexas.gov is the official electronic court filing (e-filing) system. Each county maintains (or does not maintain) their own docket management and retrieval systems, similar to PACER for the federal government. There is no longer an officially published reporter. West's Texas Cases (a Texas-specific version of the South Western Reporter) includes reported opinions of the Supreme Court, the Court of Criminal Appeals, and the Courts of Appeals. The Texas Reports includes Supreme Court opinions until July 1962, and the Texas Criminal Reports includes Court of Criminal Appeals opinions until November 1962. There is no systematic reporting of decisions of trial courts. Court opinions can generally be freely accessed on the web from the various courts' websites, with appellate opinions generally being available from 1997–2002 onwards.

In 2014 the Texas Court of Appeals's web sites were updated and migrated to new web addresses (with automatic forwarding from the old URLs). Each court's website allows for case and opinion searches using various types of input in addition to cause number, such as party name, attorney name, attorney bar number, file date/date range, and full-text search using key words. All current opinion are now released as pdf documents, rather than html, and thus standardized, although different courts use different templates and citation/footnoting styles, which makes for some degree of variation in appearance. Additionally, courts of appeals are now also making procedural orders, briefs, and motions available online. The record on appeal, consisting of the Clerk's Record and the Reporter's Record, however, is generally not posted online even if the parties' briefs are.

Appellate opinions are also available through Google Scholar. Google Scholar presents them in a format that is more user-friendly for online viewing (compared to the double-spaced PDFs in small font released by the courts), hotlinks cited cases, and provides other functionality, such as identification of subsequent citing cases and ranking of search results by relevancy or time (recency) and time-frame delimited searches. Google Scholar versions now also include attorney information for each decided case, but they do not (as of May 2018) provide a hotlink to the appellate dockets, which would be a very useful additional feature. Google instead uses the hot-linked cause numbers internally to link opinions in a case with the procedural orders issued in the same case that are also included in its database. By clicking the cause number, all documents available for a particular case in the Google Scholar database can be displayed on a search results page, and can be sorted into reverse chronological order if desired.

The Texas Judicial Council is the primary policy-making body for the judiciary. It is responsible for studying and recommending changes to improve the administration of justice. The Administrative Director of the Office of Court Administration serves as Executive Director for the Council.

The Texas Office of Court Administration provides information and research, technology services, budgetary and legal support, and other administrative assistance to a variety of judicial branch entities and courts, under the supervision of the Supreme Court of Texas and the Chief Justice. The office is led by an Administrative Director appointed by the Supreme Court and reporting to the Chief Justice.

The State Bar of Texas (the Texas Bar) is an agency of the judiciary under the administrative control of the Texas Supreme Court. The Texas Bar is responsible for assisting the Texas Supreme Court in overseeing all attorneys licensed to practice law in Texas.

Judges, Judicial Selection, and Judicial Succession
In Texas, state judges are elected in partisan elections. Trial judges are elected for 4 years, and appellate court judges are elected for 6 years. The Governor fills vacancies until the next election, and judges traditionally leave office before their last term is completed.

All state-wide elective positions in the executive and judicial branch are currently controlled by Republicans because the state as a whole is solidly red. Appellate and trial court judges, however, are elected from districts, and some of those districts are more competitive than Texas as a whole, and some even have a clear Democratic majority.

In the November 6, 2018 midterm elections numerous Republican appellate justices lost to Democratic challengers, entailing in a switch from Republican to Democratic majority control effective January 1, 2019 in Dallas and in the two Courts of Appeals in Houston, and major changes in the partisan makeup of other courts, including Austin and San Antonio.

There are other scenarios that can result in turnover on benches, but they are rare. The predominant source of change in the composition of the judiciary involves politics.

Some incumbent judges/justices who seek reelection are defeated in primary elections, others in general elections. The probability of election-driven turnover on district and appellate benches is affected by the nature of the concurrent elections (presidential or mid-term) and by partisan tides, at least in the more competitive counties and appellate districts, e.g. Dallas and Harris County/Houston (county-level) and San Antonio (appellate district level).

In 2006, several dozen Republican incumbents were swept off their benches by Democrats in Dallas County, and in 2008, many incumbents lost in Harris County.

District court judges are required to be licensed attorneys. In addition to judicial powers, district judges also have administrative duties as well. District judges may remove county officials, officials of a general-law municipality , and municipal court judges under certain circumstances. Also, they appoint and supervise the county auditor, oversee the operations of the adult and juvenile probation offices, and are granted "supervisory" jurisdiction over the county commissioners court.

County judges do not need to be lawyers, and most are not. Sections 15 through 17 of Article V, as well as Chapters 25 and 26 of the Texas Government Code, outline the duties of County Court officers. Section 15 states that the county judge shall be "well informed in the law of the State", "a conservator of the peace", and shall be elected for a four-year term. The county judge is also responsible for presiding over the Commissioners Court (the main executive and legislative body of the county). County court at law judges are required to be lawyers.

In one of the odd provisions of the Texas Government Code, there is no requirement that a municipal judge be an attorney if the municipal court is not a court of record (Chapter 29, Section 29.004), but the municipal judge must be a licensed attorney with at least two years experience in practicing Texas law if the municipal court is a court of record (Chapter 30, Section 30.00006). The Code provides for differing requirements for municipal judges in certain cities, such as:

 * Lubbock (five years experience, Section 30.00044)
 * El Paso (provides for a presiding judge to be paid 20% above the other judges, Section 30.00128)
 * San Antonio (must have resided in the city for three years prior to appointment, Section 30.00224)
 * Wichita Falls (need not be a resident of the city when appointed but must be a resident during their tenure, Section 30.00304),
 * Sweetwater (need only be a licensed attorney in good standing, Section 30.00464)
 * Lewisville ("shall devote as much time to the office as it requires", Section 30.01326)
 * Houston ("may only be removed under Article V, Section 1-a, of the Texas Constitution", Section 30.00674)
 * Bullard (the requirement for being a licensed attorney does not apply, Section 30.01482)
 * Westlake and Trophy Club (both cities are located in Tarrant and Denton counties; for Westlake criminal appeals are taken to the Tarrant County Courts at Law, while for Trophy Club criminal appeals are taken to the Denton County Courts at Law, Sections 30.01781 and 30.01811)

The thirteen-member Texas State Commission on Judicial Conduct hears complaints against judges, and may censure, reprimand, or recommend removal by the Supreme Court. It very rarely punishes judges; out of more than 1,110 complaints it resolved in fiscal year 2009, only 70 disciplinary actions were taken.

Justices of the Peace
There is no requirement that the JP be an attorney. However, the Texas Government Code requires a JP to attend an 80-hour course involving the performance of JP duties within one year after initial election, and a 20-hour course every year thereafter. In addition, the JP is an ex officio notary public.

Magistrates
A "magistrate" can be any judge or JP and can set bonds, arraign defendants, issue search and arrest warrants, and conduct criminal bond forfeiture hearings. Five counties (Bexar, Dallas, Lubbock, Tarrant, and Travis) have district court magistrates who are appointed by district court judges and do not conduct trials.

Prosecutors
There are several prosecution offices: district attorneys, county attorneys, criminal district attorneys, and city attorneys. District attorneys prosecute criminal cases in district courts and serve one or more counties in which they are elected for four-year terms. County attorneys prosecute misdemeanor criminal cases and serve a single county in which they are elected for four-year terms. Criminal district attorneys prosecute both felony and misdemeanor criminal cases and serve a single county in which they are elected for four-year terms. City attorneys prosecute criminal cases in municipal courts. If a county has only a district attorney or county attorney, this official prosecutes all criminal cases within the county.

title: Judiciary of Texas


text:
Metropolitan State

Metropolitan state could mean:

 * Metropole
 * Metropolitan State University in Minnesota
 * Metropolitan State University of Denver in Colorado

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Metropolitan State


text:
Jason Sudeikis

Daniel Jason Sudeikis (born September 18, 1975) is an American actor, comedian and screenwriter. In the 1990s, he began his career in improv comedy and performed with ComedySportz, iO Chicago (Improv Olympic), and The Second City. In 2003, Sudeikis was hired as a writer for the NBC sketch comedy series Saturday Night Live, and later spent nine seasons as a cast member from 2005 to 2013, playing Joe Biden and Mitt Romney, among others.

From 2020 to 2023, he co-created and played the title role in the Apple TV+ sports comedy series Ted Lasso, which earned him four Primetime Emmy Awards and two Golden Globe Awards. Sudeikis has also acted in recurring roles in the comedy series 30 Rock (2007–2010), It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia (2010–2011), Portlandia (2011–2014), and The Last Man on Earth (2015–2018).

He had leading film roles in the comedies Horrible Bosses (2011) and its sequel, Horrible Bosses 2 (2014), and We're the Millers (2013), as well as the acclaimed independent films Drinking Buddies (2013), Sleeping with Other People (2015), and Colossal (2016), and supporting roles in Alexander Payne's Downsizing (2017) and Olivia Wilde's Booksmart (2019). He has also provided voice-work for Epic (2013), The Angry Birds Movie (2016) and The Angry Birds Movie 2 (2019), and Next Gen (2018).

Early life
Daniel Jason Sudeikis was born on September 18, 1975, in Fairfax, Virginia, to Kathryn Sudeikis (née Wendt), a travel agent at Brennco and president of the American Society of Travel Agents, and Daniel Joseph Sudeikis, a vice president of business development, both originally from Illinois. He has two sisters, Kristin and Lindsay. His father is of Irish and Lithuanian descent, while his mother has German and Irish ancestry. His maternal uncle is actor George Wendt, known for his role as Norm Peterson on Cheers, and his matrilineal great-grandfather was photographer Tom Howard.

Sudeikis was born with anosmia, leaving him with no sense of smell.

Sudeikis moved with his family to Overland Park within Johnson County, Kansas, which he has described as his hometown. He graduated from Shawnee Mission West High School and attended Fort Scott Community College on a basketball scholarship, but left before finishing.

Career beginnings
In the 1990s, Sudeikis began his career in improv comedy. He began performing at ComedySportz (now called Comedy City) in Kansas City, Missouri. He moved to Chicago, Illinois, where he studied at the Annoyance Theatre and IO Theater (formerly known as ImprovOlympic) and was one of the founding members of the long form team, J.T.S. Brown. He performed with Boom Chicago in Amsterdam, Netherlands.

Sudeikis was later cast in The Second City Touring Company. In the early 2000s, he became a founding member of The Second City Las Vegas, where he performed at the Flamingo.

Saturday Night Live
In 2003, while a regular performer at The Second City Las Vegas, Sudeikis was hired as a sketch writer for Saturday Night Live (SNL), and would occasionally make bit appearances as audience members or extras. In May 2005, he became a featured player on the show, and was upgraded to repertory status at the beginning of the show's 32nd season on September 30, 2006. In July 2013, Sudeikis announced that he was leaving SNL. In 2015, 2016, and 2019 he made occasional appearances on the show. On October 23, 2021, Sudeikis made his hosting debut with musical guest Brandi Carlile.

Recurring characters

 * George W. Bush, 43rd president of the United States.
 * Joe Biden, 47th vice president of the United States and 46th president of the United States.
 * Mitt Romney, 70th governor of Massachusetts and 2012 Republican Party nominee for president of the United States
 * Male A-hole of the Two A-Holes with actress Kristen Wiig
 * Ocean Billy, a parody of the 1980s singer Billy Ocean and his hit "Get Outta My Dreams, Get Into My Car"
 * One half of the Bon Jovi "opposite band" Jon Bovi, appearing on Weekend Update (with Will Forte)
 * Gil, a news anchor who treats his field correspondent Michelle Dison's (Kristen Wiig) misfortunes as amusement
 * One of the guys from the "Song Memories" sketches who is the first to tell strange stories about where he was when he first heard a song
 * Ed Mahoney, a brash man who often makes a fool of himself in public
 * Officer Sikorsky, a police officer who brings in convict Lorenzo McIntosh (Kenan Thompson) in an attempt to "scare straight" the three delinquent teens (Bill Hader, Bobby Moynihan, Andy Samberg, and occasionally the week's guest host) that he often arrests
 * Vance on "What Up with That?", an overzealous background dancer often dressed in an Adidas tracksuit with a 1980s perm
 * DJ Supersoak, spoof on DJ Clay
 * Pete Twinkle, ESPN Classic host of obscure women's sports with dim-witted Greg Stink (Will Forte) as his co-host
 * Jeff, a disgruntled film and theatre technician who starts unprovoked arguments with the star of the piece
 * The Devil, who often comes on Weekend Update to point out religious and moral hypocrisy on Earth
 * Jack Rizzoli, an anchor at WXPD News who always tells veteran reporter Herb Welch (Bill Hader) to do his job
 * Tommy, a strip club M.C. for Bongo's Clown Room
 * Sensei Mark Hoffman, the faculty adviser and Japanese Studies teacher to Jonathan Cavanaugh-san and Rebecca Stern-Markowitz-san (Taran Killam and Vanessa Bayer, respectively), hosts of "J-Pop America Fun Time Now"
 * Marshall T. Boudreaux, host of the courtroom reality show Maine Justice

Early work
Sudeikis had a recurring role on the series 30 Rock (2007–2010), appearing in a total of 12 episodes. He played Floyd DeBarber, a love interest of Tina Fey's character Liz Lemon. Sudeikis last appeared in four episodes towards the end of the show's fourth season in 2010.

He began his film career with supporting roles in Watching the Detectives (2007), The Ten (2007), Meet Bill (2007), What Happens in Vegas (2008) and The Rocker (2008). He did voice work for the videogame Grand Theft Auto IV (2008), playing the role of right-wing radio host Richard Bastion.

In July 2008, Sudeikis co-starred with Bill Hader and Joe Lo Truglio in the web series The Line on Crackle.

He had supporting roles in the movies The Bounty Hunter (2010) and Going the Distance (2010). On August 16, 2010, Sudeikis co-hosted WWE Raw with Going the Distance co-stars Charlie Day and Justin Long at the Staples Center in Los Angeles.

Sudeikis was a voice actor on the animated-comedy series The Cleveland Show (2009–2013). He provided the voices for Holt Richter, Cleveland's wannabe hipster neighbor, and Terry Kimple, Cleveland's hard-partying high school buddy, who now works with Cleveland at the cable company. After being credited as a recurring guest in season one, Sudeikis was bumped up to a series regular beginning in season two.

Film breakthrough
In May 2010, Sudeikis joined the cast of the Seth Gordon comedy film Horrible Bosses (2011). He had worked with Day when he played the role of Schmitty on It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia and reprised the role on that show's seventh season finale. Sudeikis played his first lead film role in the Farrelly brothers comedy Hall Pass (2011). He hosted the 2011 MTV Movie Awards on June 5, 2011, at the Gibson Amphitheatre in Los Angeles

Sudeikis became the voice for a line of advertisements of Applebee's that began running in 2012. Sudeikis made appearances in six episodes on the series Eastbound & Down (2012–2013). He starred as David Clark, a drug dealer, in We're the Millers (2013), alongside Jennifer Aniston, Emma Roberts and Will Poulter. He reprised his role of Kurt Buckman in Horrible Bosses 2 (2014).

2015–present
Sudeikis starred as Jake in the romantic-comedy film Sleeping with Other People (2015). He starred alongside Rebecca Hall in the romantic-drama film Tumbledown (2015).

Sudeikis voices the character of Red in the animated-comedy film The Angry Birds Movie (2016), based on the video game series of the same name. He starred alongside Anne Hathaway in Colossal (2016). He starred in Masterminds (2016). He portrayed Larry Snyder in Race (2016), Henry in The Book of Love (2016), and Bradley in Mother's Day (2016).

From November to December 2016, Sudeikis played the lead role of John Keating in the Classic Stage Company Off-Broadway production of Dead Poets Society.

In 2017, Sudeikis executive produced the comedy series Detroiters, and appeared in two episodes.

Sudeikis starred in Kodachrome (2017), alongside Ed Harris and Elizabeth Olsen. He made appearances as Glenn in Permission (2017) and as Dave Johnson in Downsizing (2017). Sudeikis starred as a side-role/reference in the Derren Brown shows Derren Brown: Secret and Derren Brown Underground, where he performed on a screen during the credits, and his name was used as a reference during the show in 2017 and 2018.

Sudeikis starred in the thriller Driven. Sudeikis voices the character of Justin Pin in the animated action comedy film Next Gen. He played Red again in the 2019 animated-comedy The Angry Birds Movie 2.

In 2019, Sudeikis appeared on the Star Wars series The Mandalorian as a Speeder Bike trooper.

Sudeikis had portrayed Ted Lasso, a hapless American football coach brought to England to coach Tottenham Hotspur as part of two promotional videos for NBC Sports in 2013 and 2014. In late 2019, Sudeikis co-wrote and starred in Ted Lasso about an American football coach who is hired to coach a fictional English football club, AFC Richmond. The series was released in August 2020 on Apple TV+ to a positive reception with the series finale in May 2023, combining three seasons. It has earned him a Golden Globe Award and a Screen Actors Guild Award. At the 73rd Primetime Emmy Awards, he was nominated for and won Outstanding Comedy Series and Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series, and was nominated for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series. In 2021, he appeared on the Time 100 (Time's annual list of the 100 most influential people in the world) and Bloomberg's 50 Most Influential list. In 2023, Sudeikis said in an interview with The Guardian that the personality of the original main character was revised to be kinder because of the culture surrounding Donald Trump's presidency.

Charity work
Sudeikis played on basketball teams at the 2011 and 2016 NBA All-Star Celebrity Game. He and other Kansas City celebrities have hosted the Big Slick for 10 years. The event raises money for the Cancer Center at Children's Mercy Hospital. As of 2023, the event has raised more than $21 million for the cause.

He hosted the benefit concert Thundergong! at the Uptown Theater in Kansas City, Missouri on November 3, 2018, for the charity foundation Steps of Faith which helps provide prosthetic legs and arms.

Personal life
In June 2004, Sudeikis married American screenwriter Kay Cannon after five years together. The two were on The Second City Las Vegas cast together. They separated in 2008 and divorced in February 2010.

Sudeikis dated actress January Jones in 2010 and People reported in January 2011 that they had split.

Sudeikis was in a relationship with American actress and filmmaker Olivia Wilde from 2011 to 2020, and became engaged in January 2013 but never married. They have a son, born in April 2014, and a daughter, born in October 2016. Following their breakup, Wilde was publicly served with court documents regarding child custody while she was on stage presenting her film Don't Worry Darling at CinemaCon 2022. Additionally, Sudeikis and Wilde were both sued by their former nanny for wrongful termination.

Sudeikis is a notable fan of the WNBA team Indiana Fever and Caitlin Clark in particular, as he has been seen in attendance at many of her college and professional games, even canceling a scheduled speaking appearance at the 2024 national Society for Human Resources Management conference to attend a game.

title: Jason Sudeikis


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Motherland

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was - kept - SimonP 14:40, Jun 18, 2005 (UTC)

Motherland

 * delete to wiktionary. Dicdef in its best. Also, the definitions seems to be quite suspicious to me. I looked up a couple of dictionaries at hand and didn't see the "metropolitan state" meaning presented in the article as main. Native Englis speakers: please verify. mikka (t) 21:04, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Err, "metropolitan state"? That doesn't appear anywhere in any version of the article that I can see. A и D я 01D  TALK  EMAIL  21:15, Jun 4, 2005 (UTC)
 * metropolitan state redirects to colony. I think that mikkalai is referring to the first definition given, namely a mother country in contrast to its colonies. If that is the case, then, yes, in the sense of an "origin country" motherland does have this meaning. Uncle G 05:55, 2005 Jun 5 (UTC)
 * Are you sure that a son of a British colonel born and brought up in India would call Misty Albion his motherland? (I am not arguing here, I just want to confirm the usage). Of course, Britain is the motherland for the colonel himself; but in most generic meaning, rather than as a term to refer to a state that owns the colony, IMO. Once again, I don't see this usage in the dictionaries on my bookshelf. The same colonel may be recruited to Foreign Legion and fight in Congo, but he will not refer to Belgium as Motherland while sitting in Leopoldville. mikka (t) 18:05, 5 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * It's a good question. I don't know offhand.  Finding quotations to demonstrate exact real-world use is something that Wiktionary will have to do, now that the article has been transwikied.  In the mean time, we have to deal with the article here at Wikipedia. Uncle G 22:32, 2005 Jun 5 (UTC)
 * Move to wikitionary(redirect to Fatherland) or Expand. The article could have potential but isn't import for nowFalphin 17:36, 5 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * I just transwikied it. --Dmcdevit 22:17, 5 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * McBot has kindly transwikied the article to Wiktionary, for the Wiktionarians to use as they see fit. In the mean time, the question becomes what to do with this article.  mikkalai has created a shiny new Motherland (disambiguation) article, with a range of things, from song albums to political parties, to disambiguate between.  The bulk of motherland is translations and synonyms, which Wiktionary will deal with, leaving not very much encyclopaedia content at all.  How about Keep and replace with the current contents of Motherland (disambiguation) to turn motherland into an equal-weight disambiguation? Uncle G 22:32, 2005 Jun 5 (UTC)
 * Keep agree with UncleG. JamesBurns 07:05, 7 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep and exapnd. The concept of a motherland is a historical one. Leanne 10:31, 9 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep and expand, article has potential. Megan1967 06:16, 12 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages.  Please do not edit this page .


text:
User talk:Jamesmgregg

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Hope you like it here, and stick around.

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * To sign your posts (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).
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 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk
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 * Remember Neutral point of view
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Good luck!

Meelar (talk) 21:04, Jun 4, 2005 (UTC)

P.S. You're not really supposed to write about yourself unless you're encyclopedically notable; even then, it's best to not contribute to an article about yourself. I've nominated the article about you for deletion, but no hard feelings.

Deletion Policy
Hey, I'm the person who nominated your original article for deletion. As Meelar said, I'm not doing it because of you, it's simply Wikipedia policy.

Please don't "blank" pages that are up for deletion. I realise that you realised your mistake, however blanking it doesn't do any good.

Hope you understand.

Kel-nage 21:14, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)

User:Jamesmgregg
I've added the "" template to your user page (User:Jamesmgregg), suggesting that it be deleted according to the proposed deletion process. I've explained why in the deletion notice (see also "What Wikipedia is not" and Wikipedia's deletion policy).

Please note that the purpose of a user page is not as personal homepage or used as a general webhosting service, but as way for active editors of Wikipedia to introduce themselves to other editors. If you disagree with the notice, discuss the issues here or on my user talk page. You may remove the deletion notice, and the page will not be deleted for the moment, but note that it may still be sent to Miscellany for Deletion, where it may be deleted if consensus to delete is reached, or if it matches any of the speedy deletion criteria. Calton | Talk 20:50, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jamesmgregg


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/James michael gregg

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was speedy deleted by Lachatdelarue ( content was:  '') --cesarb 02:21, 5 Jun 2005 (UTC)

James michael gregg
Page was created by user with same name. Therefore, should be userfied. Kel-nage 21:06, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Content already exists at userpage, and I've left a friendly note on his talk page. Meelar (talk) 21:11, Jun 4, 2005 (UTC)

 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text: Category:Operas by John Rutter

title: Category:Operas by John Rutter


text:
Talk:Simply typed lambda calculus

I started this page, since STL is a central formalism in Theoretical Computer Science. I hope it didn't get too mathematical. I still have to complete the references, if sb else wants to lend a hand, you are very welcome. --Thorsten 21:07, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)

This is very useful, however, I'm not a mathematician and I don't exactly know what a closed term is and this expression is used twice on the page in places that seem to be important. If I have some time myself I might be able to look it up and fix it but maybe it's easy to be done by someone else. --RiedelCastro 03:45, 1 September 2006 (UTC)

I tried to address this by adding closed terms, i.e. terms typable in the empty context,. I don't know whether this is enough, one could write a whole article about free and bound variables which don't just show up in lambda calculus but also in predicate logic, etc. Maybe there is one already somewhere and we should refer to it? --Thorsten 21:39, 28 September 2006 (UTC)

Shouldn't this page be named "Simply-typed lambda calculus" (hyphen)?

 * I am usually writing it without a hyphen (but actually use a hyphen between lambda and calculus). Who is using a hyphen between simply and typed?
 * --Thorsten 19:36, 8 May 2007 (UTC)

 * According to the Chicago Manual of Style, "simply typed" should not be hyphenated here: "A two-word phrasal adjective that begins with an adverb ending in ‑ly is not hyphenated" (http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/16/ch05/ch05_sec091.html)
 * Enoksrd (talk) 22:23, 7 January 2014 (UTC)

Tait's 1967 paper showed that the equational theory of Gödel's T is a conservative extension of Peano Arithmetic, not the strong normalization of the simply typed lambda calculus, as stated. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 130.226.132.250 (talk) 14:30, 11 September 2008 (UTC)

Type variables -> Base types or Atomic types
Hi. The current presentation talks about "type variables", while in my experience most authors talk about "type constants" or "base types" or "atomic types". I sympathize more with the second terminology — people like Pierce, Girard, Jacobs, Johnstone. The "type variables" terminology seems to be used by Barendregt in his article to clarify the connection with System F, but it is a bit strange because these "variables" don't vary over anything. Any objections if I change "type variables" to "base types"? Also, many of the authors allow some term constants, and product types, in STT. Any objections to mentioning these things? ComputScientist (talk) 13:55, 3 September 2009 (UTC)
 * I even wrote a stub on type variable with that latter meaning, so yeah, terminology here should be changed. Be WP:BOLD. Pcap ping  14:04, 3 September 2009 (UTC)
 * You could mention (or detail if you have time) here the "simple extensions" as B.C. Pierce calls them in chapter 11 of his TaPL book. Pcap  ping  14:23, 3 September 2009 (UTC)

Another suggestion
The relationship with Type_theory should be discussed somewhere in here too. Pcap ping  14:46, 3 September 2009 (UTC)

Typing relation/judgment/derivation
I tried to do a bit of cleaning up of the Semantics section, and also added some description of bidirectional type checking under "Alternative syntaxes". One terminology question/quibble: in Typing rules, I am not sure what distinction you are drawing between "typing relation" and "typing judgment". (I think you are using "relation" where I would use "judgment", and "judgment" where I would use "derivation"...) Could you elaborate? Noamz (talk) 05:46, 26 September 2009 (UTC)

 * Hi Noamz. My impression is that the "typing relation" is the set of all "typing judgements". That's to say, a judgement is a single triple $$(\Gamma, e ,\sigma)$$ whereas the typing relation is a set of judgements. A "judgement" is not a "derivation", but the rules let you derive which "judgements" are in the "relation". Do you agree? I think this is what the article says, but do clarify it if poss. ComputScientist (talk) 08:09, 26 September 2009 (UTC)

 * Okay, I can see how the article says that. I think it would help to add something like, "Instances of the typing relation are called typing judgments.  The validity of a typing judgment is shown by providing a typing derivation, constructed using the following rules,..."  I'm going to go ahead and add that. Noamz (talk) 17:51, 26 September 2009 (UTC)

Decidability of higher-order matching
The article claims that it is not currently known whether higher-order matching is decidable; however, http://homepages.inf.ed.ac.uk/cps/longmatch.pdf from C. Stirling claims that it is. The article claims for Stirling's work that "the complete version of the proof is still unpublished", but the linked-to paper (from 2009) seems fairly thorough to me. Barring any objection, I'll update the article. Neilc (talk) 07:20, 30 March 2010 (UTC)

A mistake about : The syntax of the simply typed lambda calculus ?
Hello, I'm trying to learn simply typed lambda calculus, and it seems to me to be a mistake if we want to be very rigorous:

it is said that:

'''The syntax of the simply typed lambda calculus is essentially that of the lambda calculus itself. The term syntax used in this article is as follows:'''

$$e = x \mid \lambda x:\tau.~e \mid e~e\mid~ c\qquad$$ where $$c$$ is a term constant.

But apparently terms like : $$ x:\tau$$ are also used in this syntax whereas it's not written in this syntax definition.

thank you for what you do.

--Nicobzz (talk) 14:20, 25 October 2010 (UTC)

 * Hi Nicobzz. I don't think $$ x:\tau$$ is ever used as syntax for a term (in this article). What is written is things like $$y:\tau\vdash \lambda x:\sigma.y:\sigma\to\tau$$. But this should be bracketed as
 * $$(y:\tau)\vdash (\lambda x:\sigma.y):(\sigma\to\tau)$$. There is a ternary relation, $$\vdash$$, which relates three things: a context, a term, and a type. Does that help? ComputScientist (talk) 20:22, 25 October 2010 (UTC)
 * Ah, yes, indeed, i didn't realize that ":" are also used in $$\Gamma\vdash e : \sigma$$, it's still hard to understand but i'll continue learning, thank you .--Nicobzz (talk) 11:49, 26 October 2010 (UTC)
 * I do not have this fresh, but this is incomplete:
 * $$e ::= x \mid \lambda x\mathbin{:}\tau.e \mid e \, e \mid c$$
 * Should be something like:
 * $$e ::= c : \tau \mid x :\tau \mid \lambda x\mathbin{:}\tau.e:\tau \mid e \, e : \tau $$
 * $$e ::= c : \tau \mid x :\tau \mid (\lambda x\mathbin{:}\tau.e:\sigma) \mid (e : \tau\to\sigma) \, (e : \tau) $$
 * $$e ::= c : \tau \mid x :\tau \mid (\lambda x\mathbin{:}\tau.e:\sigma):(\tau\to\sigma) \mid ((e : \tau\to\sigma) \, (e : \tau)):(\tau\to\sigma) $$
 * $$e ::= c : \tau \mid x :\tau \mid (\lambda x\mathbin{:}\tau.e:\sigma)\vdash (\lambda x.e) :(\tau\to\sigma) \mid ((e : \tau\to\sigma) \, (e : \tau))\vdash (ee):(\tau\to\sigma) $$

 * The last rule includes $$ \vdash $$ which add type inference rules. But mixing inference rules with the syntax of the language seems a dirty way define things. A rule for type generation, and a rule for formula generation is enough for the syntax. the reduction rules: $$\stackrel{\beta}{\rightarrow},\stackrel{\eta}{\rightarrow}$$ and the conversion rules are constrained to types, for example: $$(\lambda x.e):(\sigma\to\tau)(m:\sigma)\stackrel{\beta}{\rightarrow}e\{x\mapsto m\}:\tau$$, observe that the types resemble modus ponens $$p\rightarrow q,p\vdash q$$ because $$(\lambda x.e):(\sigma\to\tau)\equiv(\lambda x:\sigma.e:\tau)$$

— Preceding unsigned comment added by 189.178.42.144 (talk) 22:03, 28 December 2015 (UTC)

Typo
You claim that:

The equation $$(\lambda x:\sigma.t)\,u =_{\beta} t[x:=u]$$ holds in context $$\Gamma$$ whenever $$\Gamma,x:\sigma \vdash t:\sigma \to \tau$$ and $$\Gamma\vdash u:\sigma$$. However, if we look at $$(\lambda x:\sigma.x)\,u$$, we have that the type of $$x$$ a.k.a. $$t$$ in this case is not $$\sigma \to \sigma$$ but only $$\sigma$$. I think a fix should be requiring the type of $$t[x:=u]$$ to be $$\tau$$ instead.

 * I think there was a mistake, and I think I've fixed it... ComputScientist (talk) 16:02, 2 December 2010 (UTC)

Merge with typed lambda calculus
Should this page be merged with typed lambda calculus?

Duplicate variable names with different types in the typing context.
In the presentation of the inference rules, there should be some words towards avoiding duplicate names with different types in the typing context. Specifically, either renaming of variables that would cause duplicates must be done or the typing context must be given a more detailed treatment to avoid such duplicates. Without doing so, it appears the judgment $$\Gamma,x:\tau_1,x:\tau_1\rightarrow\tau_2\vdash x x : \tau_2$$ would be typeable. --Chaosape (talk) 02:08, 2 January 2017 (UTC)

Alpha equivalence?
I think that the syntax should make it clear that terms are defined up to alpha equivalence. Otherwise the typing rules don't work, for example \x\x.x would not type. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Vasiliscul (talk • contribs) 14:05, 10 September 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Simply typed lambda calculus


text:
New Mexico House of Representatives

The New Mexico House of Representatives (Cámara de representantes de Nuevo México) is the lower house of the New Mexico State Legislature.

There are 70 members of the House. Each member represents roughly 25,980 residents of New Mexico.

The most recent elections were held on November 8th, 2022.

Current members

 * † Member was originally appointed.
 * * Member served a previous non-consecutive term.

Past composition of the House of Representatives
(The party control table shows the balance of power after each recent general election. The preceding Makeup table includes results of special elections since the last general election.)

title: New Mexico House of Representatives


text:
A95 road

The A95 road is a major road of north-east Scotland connecting the A9 road in the Highlands to the A98 road near the coast.

Route
It leaves the A9 four miles north of Aviemore.

It then goes:
 * through Drumullie;
 * near to Dulnain Bridge – junction with A938 road;
 * through Craggan
 * near to Grantown-on-Spey – junctions with A939 road;
 * through Cromdale
 * through Mains of Dalvey;
 * over the Bridge of Avon;
 * through Aberlour;
 * through Craigellachie – junctions with A941 road;
 * through Maggieknockater, Mulben, Tauchers and Rosarie;
 * joins the A96 road west of Keith leaving it east of that town;
 * through Farmtown, Drumnagarroch, Glenbarry, Gordonstown and Cornhill

It ends with a junction with the A98 road between Portsoy and Banff.

title: A95 road


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Chair racing

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. If anybody wants to view the content, there is an entry at BJAODN. Sjakkalle (Check!)  11:55, 18 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Chair racing
Non-notable "sport" Denni ☯ 21:08, 2005 Jun 4 (UTC)
 * Delete unless rewritten. Strange as it sounds, this is notable, but the current article isn't worth keeping. Hedley 21:45, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep but rewrite. It's not made up, I've done it before. The current article needs a complete rewrite, but this is a notable enough subject. User:Luigi30 (Ταλκ) 21:54, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep but definitely needs a good rewrite. Also, the distinction needs to be made between wheelchair racing and office chair racing. I have witnessed both, and "chair racing" can be used to describe either of them. WPPWAH 22:04, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete not encyclopedic. JamesBurns 04:13, 5 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Weak delete Even if the two above have done/witnessed it it doesn't seem notable. Howabout1 Talk to me!  04:18, 5 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, non-notable game. Martg76 09:23, 5 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Not notable, unsourced. Jayjg (talk) 21:51, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Not made up but not notable MarkS 19:57, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages.  Please do not edit this page .


text:
User talk:Jlloganiii

Welcome!

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~~~. Four tildes (~~~~) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome! smoddy 21:09, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)
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"Robustness Principle (Temporary Name)" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect Robustness Principle (Temporary Name) and has thus listed it for discussion. This discussion will occur at until a consensus is reached, and anyone, including you, is welcome to contribute to the discussion. 1234qwer1234qwer4 14:24, 22 January 2023 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jlloganiii


text:
Talk:Luna Amară

Do the CAPS make them notable? --Wetman 21:10, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Luna Amară


text:
Henry Cotton (doctor)

Henry Andrews Cotton (May 18, 1876 – May 8, 1933) was an American psychiatrist and the medical director of the New Jersey State Hospital at Trenton (now Trenton Psychiatric Hospital), in Trenton, New Jersey. During his tenure from 1907 to 1930, Cotton and his staff employed experimental surgery and Bacteriology techniques on patients, which included the routine removal of some or all of patients' teeth as well as tonsils, spleens, colons, ovaries, and other organs. These pseudoscientific practices persisted even after statistical reviews disproved Cotton's claims of high cure rates and revealed high mortality rates as a result of these procedures.

Cotton became the medical director of the New Jersey State Hospital at Trenton at the age of 30. As director, Cotton implemented changes to how the hospital operated, such as abolishing mechanical restraints, and requiring daily staff meetings to discuss outpatient care. Cotton was motivated by the new medical research of the 20th century, and held the belief that various mental illnesses were caused by untreated infections in the body. This theory, called biological psychiatry, was introduced to him by Dr. Adolf Meyer, and was in contrast to the eugenic theories of the era that emphasized heredity. At the time, Cotton was a leading practitioner of biological psychiatry in the United States.

Education and career
Henry A. Cotton studied in Europe under Emil Kraepelin and Alois Alzheimer, who were considered the pioneers of the day. He also was a student of Dr. Adolf Meyer of Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, who dominated American psychiatry in the early 1900s. He studied medicine at Johns Hopkins University and at University of Maryland. Cotton began to implement the emerging medical theory of infection-based psychological disorders by pulling patients' teeth, as they were suspected of harboring infections. If this failed to cure a patient, he sought sources of infection in tonsils and sinuses and often a tonsillectomy was recommended as an additional treatment. If a cure was not achieved after these procedures, other organs were suspected of harboring infection. Testicles, ovaries, gall bladders, stomachs, spleens, cervixes, and especially colons were suspected as the focus of infection and were removed surgically.

Being before even rudimentary scientific methods such as control groups—and by extension, double-blind experiments—existed, statistical methodology for applications in human behavior and medical research did not emerge during Cottons' lifetime. He could only follow faulty methods to compile data, much of it allowing for projection of anticipated results. He reported wonderful success with his procedures, with cure rates of 85%; this, in conjunction with the feeling at the time that investigating such biological causes was the state of the art of medicine, brought him a great deal of attention and worldwide praise. He was honored at medical institutions and associations in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Europe and asked to make presentations about his work and to share information with others who practiced the same or similar methods. Patients, or their families, sought treatment at Trenton, and those who could not demanded that their own doctors treat them with these new treatments. The state acknowledged the savings in expenses to taxpayers from the new treatments and cures. In June 1922, the New York Times wrote in a review of Cotton's published lectures:

"At the State Hospital at Trenton, N.J., under the brilliant leadership of the medical director, Dr. Henry A. Cotton, there is on foot the most searching, aggressive, and profound scientific investigation that has yet been made of the whole field of mental and nervous disorders... there is hope, high hope... for the future."

In an era before antibiotics, surgery resulted in a very high rate of postoperative morbidity and mortality, largely from postoperative infection. Among his patients at this time was Margaret Fisher, daughter of wealthy and famed Yale economist Irving Fisher, who believed in the hygienic movement of the period. Diagnosed by physicians in Bloomingdale Asylum as schizophrenic, before the modern development of some pharmaceutical agents, Fisher had his daughter transferred to Trenton. However, because Cotton attributed her condition to a "marked retention of fecal matter in the cecal colon with marked enlargement of the colon in this area", she was subjected to a series of colonic surgeries before dying of streptococcal infection in 1919. The danger of surgery was recognized by some patients in the institution, who, despite their mental illness, developed a very rational fear of the surgical procedures, some resisting violently as they were forced into the operating theater in complete contradiction of what are now commonly accepted medical ethics. A paternalistic attitude and the permission of the family of seriously insane patients were the basis of intervention at the time.

Differences of professional opinion existed among psychiatrists regarding focal sepsis as a cause of psychosis, and not all believed in the benefits of surgical intervention to achieve cures. Dr. Meyer, head of the most respected psychiatric clinic and training institution for psychiatrists in the United States, at Johns Hopkins University, accepted the theory. He was encouraged by a like-minded member of the state board of trustees who oversaw Trenton State Hospital to provide an independent professional review of the work of Cotton's staff. Meyer commissioned another of his former students who practised psychiatry on his staff at the Phipps Clinic, Dr. Phyllis Greenacre, to critique Cotton's work. Her study began in the fall of 1924, just after Meyer visited the hospital and privately expressed concern about the statistical methods being applied to provide an assessment of Cotton's work. Cotton's staff made no effort to facilitate the study.

Investigation and controversy
From the outset, Greenacre's reports were critical, with regard to both the hospital, which she felt was as unwholesome as the typical asylum, and Cotton, whom she found "singularly peculiar". She realized that the appearance and behavior of almost all of the psychotic patients were disturbing to her because their teeth had been removed, making it difficult for them to eat or speak. Further reports cast serious doubt on Cotton's reported results; she found the staff records to be chaotic and the data to be internally contradictory. In 1925 criticism of the hospital reached the New Jersey State Senate, which launched an investigation with testimony from unhappy former patients and employees of the hospital. Countering the criticism, the trustees of the hospital confirmed their confidence in the staff and director and presented extensive professional praise of the hospital and the procedures followed under the direction of Cotton, whom they considered a pioneer. On September 24, 1925, The New York Times stated that, "eminent physicians and surgeons testified that the New Jersey State Hospital for the Insane was the most progressive institution in the world for the care of the insane and that the newer method of treating the insane by the removal of focal infection placed the institution in a unique position with respect to hospitals for the mentally ill", and related accolades given in support of Henry A. Cotton by many professionals and politicians.

Soon Cotton opened a private hospital in Trenton that did a hugely lucrative business treating mentally ill members of rich families seeking the most modern treatments for their conditions. Meyer reassigned Greenacre without completing her report and resisted her efforts to complete the report. Admitting a shared belief in the possibility that focal sepsis might be the source of mental illness, Meyer never pressed his protégé to confront the scientific analysis of the erroneous statistics the hospital staff provided to Cotton, his silence guaranteeing the continuance of the practices. Later Cotton would occasionally admit to death rates as high as 30% in his published papers. It appears that the true death rates were closer to 45% and that Cotton never fully recognised the errors his staff made in analyzing his work.

In the early 1930s, Cotton's rate of postoperative mortality began to be a matter of professional debate in the state department of institutions, with some concerned that he intended to press to resume his position at the state hospital. Another report on Cotton's work was begun in 1932 by Emil Frankel. He noted that he had seen Greenacre's report and agreed with it substantially, but his report also failed to be completed.

In October 1930, Cotton was retired from the state hospital and was appointed medical director emeritus. Although this ended the abominable surgeries which were so dangerous before the discovery of antibiotics, the hospital continued to adhere to Cotton's humane treatment guidelines and to carry out his less risky medical procedures until the late 1950s. Henry A. Cotton continued to direct the staff at Charles Hospital until his death.

Henry A. Cotton died suddenly of a heart attack on May 8, 1933, in Trenton, New Jersey and was lauded in The New York Times and the local press, as well as international professional publications, for having been a pioneer seeking a better path for the treatment of the patients in mental hospitals.

In popular culture
A fictionalized Dr. Cotton was portrayed by actor John Hodgman in the Cinemax drama The Knick in 2014.

He is portrayed by Byron Jennings in the fifth season of Boardwalk Empire. The show incorrectly shows him being active in 1931, by which point the real Cotton was already retired.

The story of Dr. Cotton was subjected to comedic treatment on the podcast The Dollop episode 290.

title: Henry Cotton (doctor)


text: Category:Subdivisions of Kenya

title: Category:Subdivisions of Kenya


text:
The Tomorrowpeople

The Tomorrowpeople were a psychedelic rock band based in Dallas, TX, featuring former members of Brutal Juice and Toadies.

They took their name from a cult British science fiction show (The Tomorrow People) that aired on ITV in the early '70s. The Tomorrowpeople played and toured with such groups as Tripping Daisy, Spoon, Centro-matic, Sixteen Deluxe and Third Eye Blind.

History
Gordon Gibson formed The Tomorrowpeople in 1996 with his roommate Erich Scholz in Denton, Texas while on a break from touring with Brutal Juice. Following a move to Dallas, the two hooked up with former New Bohemian guitarist Wes Martin who brought them into Steve Curry's SRC Studios in Garland, Texas. Along with Brutal Juice drummer Ben Burt, the group—with Martin on bass—recorded a clutch of songs that would come to be known as Scuzzy Ports. Although never released, the eight-track demo soon attracted the attention of major labels on the West Coast. Enlisting the aid of recently departed Toadies guitarist Darrel Herbert and Chomsky keyboardist John Norris, Gibson and Scholz—who took the nom de rock "Jody Powerchurch"—quickly wrote enough songs for a set and played their first show at Club Dada in Dallas on November 18, 1996.

Their wildly erratic stage shows featured liberal use of old 16mm films and projections courtesy of Gordon and Jody's neighbor Michael Allen as well as live deployment of electronics and samples.

The group signed with Geffen Records in 1998 and recorded an album's worth of material with former Brave Combo and Tripping Daisy drummer Mitch Marine. However, the group departed Geffen before the album was mastered.

Following the departure of Ben Burt, Bill Shupp officially took over drumming chores. Multi-instrumentalist Don Cento was recruited when Herbert and Norris left in 1999. For the group's 2008 incarnation, musicians Gary Parks and Hayes Smith came aboard on guitar and bass, respectively.

The group released two CDs, 1997's Golden Energy on Last Beat/Slab records and 1999's Marijuana Beach—a mini album of demos and unreleased tracks from their aborted 1998 Geffen set. Several other songs have appeared on compilations and promos. In 2008 they released their catalog on iTunes, Rhapsody, Napster, Yahoo and Amazon and issued a third official album, Bounced and Renounced as a download.

The group's Gordon Gibson, Ben Burt and Jody Powerchurch reformed in 2008 with two new members, Gary Parks and Hayes Smith. Their reunion show was on May 17, 2008 at the Double-Wide in Dallas, TX.

The song "Dying Breed" was used in the documentary about Rick Kirkahm called TV Junkie.

Band members

 * Gordon Gibson - lead vocals, guitar, programming
 * Jody Powerchurch (ne Erich Scholz) - guitar, bass
 * Ben Burt - drums
 * Darrel Herbert - bass, guitar
 * John Norris - keyboards, vocals
 * Bill Shupp - drums, vocals
 * Don Cento - guitar, keyboards
 * Michael Allen - lights, visuals

Discography

 * Albums
 * Golden Energy (Last Beat/Slab Recordings, 1997)
 * Marijuana Beach (Olivia Records, 1999)
 * Bounced and Renounced (Olivia Records, 2008)

title: The Tomorrowpeople


text:
Riedesel

The Riedesel family is an ancient German noble family that began to appear in legal documents in the early 13th century. They were of the knightly class, though not all had the official status of Ritter or knight.

History
Its exact geographical and temporal origins are uncertain. However, all of the early references are from the area of Hesse, and many served as vassals of the Landgrave of Hesse in Marburg. In later centuries, the men served a wide variety of higher nobility as men-at-arms, administrators, and counselors.

Lines of the family are known to have had residences and offices throughout Hesse including Frankfurt, Josbach, Camberg, Bellersheim, Melsungen, as well as in Westphalia. The names employed typically used "zu" to designate their main residence, e.g. the Wappen (coat of arms) of Krafft Riedesel zu Josbach dating from 1523 still hang in the church of Saint Elisabeth in Marburg. Following the example of the Margrave of Hesse to whom they were vassals, the Riedesels were early converts to the Lutheran faith.

With one significant exception, the various lines of Riedesel knights either died out in the male line by the early 17th century or disappeared into the ranks of unfree peasants. Without hereditary lands, they were dependent on fiefs from higher nobility in exchange for their services.

The exception was the line of Riedesels based in Melsungen. Hermann II (1407–1463) of this line married Margareta von Röhrenfurth after establishing himself as an able knight and adviser in the service of Landgrave Ludwig. Hermann took possession of Schloss Eisenbach near Lauterbach (Hesse), as well as other lands and rights. He also took over the office of Erbmarschall zu Hessen (hereditary counselor to the Hessian courts). With this achievement, the Riedesels of Melsungen-Eisenbach had a permanent, hereditary financial base. Their holdings were substantial in comparison with those of most free knights, but still quite minor within the patchwork of German states, secular and ecclesiastical.

In 1680, five of the male Riedesels were granted the title of "Freiherr zu Eisenbach" by the German Emperor, with that title passing to all of their male descendants who reached majority. The title is usually translated as "Baron" in English. The common property of the family was governed by complex arrangements that have kept it intact. Nevertheless, few had enough income to support the lifestyle of even minor nobility without entering the service of greater powers in their armies or administration. Some continued to live around Lauterbach, but many others resided elsewhere.

The best-known member of the family, in the English-speaking world at least, is probably General Friedrich Adolph Riedesel, Freiherr zu Eisenbach (1738–1800). Erroneously known to American historians as "von Riedesel", he commanded a regiment of soldiers from the Duchy of Braunschweig as part of the British forces during the American Revolution. The noble Riedesels lost their sovereignty (and feudal rents and services) in the wake of the Napoleonic wars, so pursued other enterprises included brewing and forestry.

Far more numerous in Germany and in America are Riedesels who clearly do not descend from the Riedesel Freiherren zu Eisenbach. Their traceable history begins around 1600 in the former Counties (Grafschaften) of Wittgenstein, immediately west of Hesse. A suggested ancestor was from the Riedesel zu Josbach line and settled in Wittgenstein perhaps a century earlier. No member of the Wittgenstein Riedesels is better known than the master builder Mannus Riedesel (1662–1726). The name and the variant of 'Rietesel' were also known among commoners in Vorpommern/Western Pomerania around Stralsund.

title: Riedesel


text:
User:Gdr/Nomialbot/Report 2005-06-04

This is a list of articles whose binomial sections may have been incorrectly converted by Nomialbot.

 * African Grey Hornbill
 * African Kestrels
 * African Pied Hornbill
 * Alexandrine Parakeet
 * Alston's Woolly Mouse Opossum
 * Ambrosia beetle
 * American Alligator
 * Asian Koel
 * Australian copperhead
 * Barred Buttonquail
 * Black Garden Ant
 * Black-billed Turaco
 * Blossom-headed Parakeet
 * Boreal Chickadee
 * Bradfield's Hornbill
 * Bukidnon Woodcock
 * Calayan Rail
 * Carolina Chickadee
 * Carolina Wren
 * Cerulean Warbler
 * Chestnut-sided Warbler
 * Cinnabar moth
 * Corsican Nuthatch
 * Crested Shrike-tit
 * Crimson-fronted Barbet
 * Crowned Hornbill
 * Dame's Rocket
 * Desert Bandicoot
 * Drill (mammal)
 * Eastern Grey Plantain-eater
 * Echinacea
 * Elephant seal
 * Emiliania huxleyi
 * Eurasian Badger
 * Fine-spotted Woodpecker
 * Fischer's Chameleon
 * Five-lined Skink
 * Foureye butterflyfish
 * Goeldi's Marmoset
 * Great Purple Hairstreak
 * Green-billed Coucal
 * Grey-bellied Cuckoo
 * Haddock
 * Hooded Warbler
 * Indian Ocean Kestrels
 * Israel painted frog
 * Karroo Dwarf Chameleon
 * Long-furred Woolly Mouse Opossum
 * Malabar Pied Hornbill
 * Malabar Trogon
 * Megadyptes
 * Monteiro's Hornbill
 * Murine Mouse Opossum
 * Mus musculus
 * Natal Midlands Dwarf Chameleon
 * Neoseps
 * Ophiocoma wendtii
 * Oriental White-eye
 * Pale-bellied Woolly Mouse Opossum
 * Palm Crow
 * Paper wasp
 * Patagonian toothfish
 * Pink fairy armadillo
 * Red Mouse Opossum
 * Restrepia antennifera
 * Rodrigues day gecko
 * Sharp-nosed Chameleon
 * Short-furred Woolly Mouse Opossum
 * Sitella
 * Solenodontidae
 * Somali Crow
 * Southern Yellow-billed Hornbill
 * Sri Lanka Frogmouth
 * Sri Lanka White-eye
 * Stelgidopteryx
 * Stripe-backed Wren
 * Striped Polecat
 * Takhtajania
 * Tyler's Mouse Opossum
 * Venus Flower Basket
 * Vieillot's Barbet
 * Violet Click Beetle
 * Von der Decken's Hornbill
 * Western Grey Plantain-eater
 * White-billed Crow
 * Yellow-billed Magpie

title: User:Gdr/Nomialbot/Report 2005-06-04


text:
Elephanta Island

Elephanta Island (also called Gharapuri (literally "the city of caves") or Pory Island ) is one of a number of islands in Mumbai Harbour, east of Mumbai, India.

Tourist attractions and accessibility
This island is a popular tourist destination because of the island's cave temples, the Elephanta Caves, that have been carved out of rock.

The island is easily accessible by ferry from Mumbai, being about 10 km from the south east coast of the island city. Boats leave daily from the Gateway of India, taking about an hour each way. The tickets for these can be bought at the Gateway itself. The first ferry leaves at 9 am and the last at 2 pm. From the boat landing stage on the island, a walkway leads to steps that go up to the famous caves.

There is also a narrow-gauge toy train from the boat area on the dock to the base of the steps leading up to the caves (about 600 meters). Along the path, hawkers sell souvenirs like necklaces, anklets, showpieces and keychains. There are also stalls to buy food and drinks. Small monkeys play along the sides of the path, occasionally thieving items from the hawkers, trashcans and tourists.

Mumbai Port Trust (MbPT) has plans to connect the island from Haji Bunder, Mumbai via Ropeway. Once built, it will take only 14 minutes to reach the UNESCO World Heritage Site whereas currently ferry takes about an hour.

History
Known in ancient times as Gharapuri (or, 'place of caves'), the name Elephanta island, was given by 16th-century Portuguese explorers, after seeing a monolithic basalt sculpture of an elephant found near the entrance. They decided to take it home but ended up dropping it into the sea because their chains were not strong enough. Later, this sculpture was moved to the Victoria Gardens and then the Victoria and Albert Museum (now Dr. Bhau Daji Lad Museum) in Mumbai, by the British. This island was once the capital of a powerful local kingdom. In Manuscript F by Leonardo da Vinci (kept at the Bibliothèque nationale de France) there is a note in which he says "Map of Elephanta in India which Antonello the haberdasher has." It is unclear who this Florentine traveller Antonello might have been.

Orientation
The island has an area of 16 km2. It is located at approximately 18.95°N, 72.93°W. The area comes under the jurisdiction of the Raigad district in Maharashtra.

Agricultural makeup
The island is thickly wooded with palm, mango, and tamarind trees.

Inhabitants
It has a population of about 1,200 people. The inhabitants are mainly involved in growing rice, fishing and repairing boats. There are two British-era cannons at the top. Quite recently, a small dam has been built so as to hold rainwater but that part of the island is privately owned and not accessible for tourists.

There are a total of three villages: Shentbandar, Morabandar and Rajbandar, of which Rajbandar is the capital. Caves and stalls can be seen in Shentbandar which is the first village accessed by tourists when they arrive on the island. Morabandar is covered with thick forest. Staying overnight after sunset on the island is not permitted for tourists as they are expected to leave before the departure of the last return ferry. The first return ferry leaves at 12:30 p.m. and the last return ferry leaves at 6:30 p.m. The ferry service is closed in the monsoon season for four months due to torrential rains at the sea.

title: Elephanta Island


text: Category:Provinces of Kenya

title: Category:Provinces of Kenya