text:
Talk:Iron pillar of Delhi

Discrepancy with Welding
Welding currently claims the pillar was erected around 310. --Doradus 17:17, Jun 1, 2005 (UTC)

In the Welding page it was: made in 310 AD and weighs 5.4 metric tons.

On the Iron_pillar_of_Delhi page introduction it is: 22 feet (6.7 m) high and weighing more than six tons.

And in the bottom part of the Iron_pillar_of_Delhi it is: 7.21m (23 feet 8 inches) high.

Any idea which is right? --78.86.133.75 (talk) 15:41, 29 November 2008 (UTC)

clarification required
The link given for Udayagiri in the introduction is wrong, it refers to a place in Andhra Pradesh while we are concerned about Udayagiri in Madhya Pradesh in this context. Also another link given for Udayagiri Caves in the "Original Location" section refers to the caves by the same name in Odisha, while correct reference should have been made to the Udayagiri Caves of M.P. near Vidisha. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Pranavnlu (talk • contribs) 09:26, 10 September 2015 (UTC)

can somebody clarify why does it mention kumargupta to have erected the pillar in introduction part while the article says it was erected by vikramaditya in the description part. nids 16:17, 9 August 2006 (UTC)
 * According to this, it was probably erected by Chandragupta II.--RF 17:23, 9 August 2006 (UTC)

I seem to remember reading somewhere (in the 80’s) that the pillar was manufactured in Sheffield at around the turn of the last centaury, for the life of me I cannot remember where (some book attacking Von Daniken or other). (SS 8/18/07)

delete false claims
listen, can we delete the part wherein it is claimed that the composition and art of making this steel is verified and similar steel is made. i know of various such claims throughout 90s which later proved nothing. high phosphorous just helps the steel in rusting early, when used via contemporary methods.

also it has been a topic of my deep interest. germany has spent millions in order to find a replica of this steel. moreover IIT Bombay set up its own team in 1992 with the sole purpose of deciphering the art. they claimed that several times. even BHU set up its own committee.

i know about the Indian engineering institutes and their skyhigh claims, for i am presently a part of it. we shall restrict ourselves to not mention that the art of making this steel is decoded till it is perfectly found that the claims are right. and how can they explain about the size of pillar which no furnace can still manufacture.

let us provide them as alternate theories and not claim them to be true here. waiting for criticism, but hope that none criticizes. nids 18:32, 9 August 2006 (UTC)

 * If the claims are wrong, then that should be marked as such. Please include also some references in the article which support your position. (Some of the stuff in the scientific section is already poorly sourced.) Regards. --RF 18:58, 9 August 2006 (UTC)

for what shall i include some references. you already pointed out that the stuff in the scientific section is poorly sources. i just said that we can put them as alternate theories instead of saying that we are SUCCESSFUL in making the same steel. nids 19:22, 9 August 2006 (UTC)

 * It would be nice if some references could be included in the article about the current status of the research. Just edit the article, with accordance to the usual wikipedia standards for neutrality etc. --RF 19:38, 9 August 2006 (UTC)

ok. please revert my edits after say 15 minutes, which you do not find NPOV. it is important to change the current version because in other related topics, like Nine Unknown Men, it was said that the secret is now known. nids 19:44, 9 August 2006 (UTC)

 * I removed the disclaimer. It suffices if the text makes it clear that the theories are disputed, which I think it now does. --RF 22:03, 9 August 2006 (UTC)

I dont think that the current version explicitly says that the theories are disputed. may be a disclaimer at the top is must. nids 22:12, 9 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Please look at other wikipedia pages. Can you show me another page where there is such a disclaimer? It should suffice if the point is made in the text itself. Cheers --RF 22:16, 9 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Also, can you find some references that support your point, this would be good for the article. If you think it still not clear enough, just edit the article. But edit the text itself, a "disclaimer" is not a solution. --RF 22:22, 9 August 2006 (UTC)

what i am saying is that a lot of hearsay information has been added to it which the article does not deserve. i have grown up on claims with similar iron being manufactured in technical institutes of india. my simple point is, if you are keeping the sentence that it was claimed that similar iron was manufactured in jamshedpur in 1920s, than in that case, havent we verified that for last 80 years. and if it is true, why were the people still searching for the true way.

i think that the people who claim to have found out the truth need more citations rather than me. i can point out to complete theises wherein they claim the step by step procedure of manufacturing such iron, but it has been proven wrong. and even germany as a nation has spent some good money into it. (i will give you the literary source for this, but this should not be too hard to conceive).

if we want to keep those theories, we should add something of that sort. maybe a bit more clear version to current scientific view is required. nids 22:33, 9 August 2006 (UTC)

current version is better.nids 22:37, 9 August 2006 (UTC)

current version is fine for me. this topic can be closed now. please do watch it as i am going to sleep now. (its 4:30 am in my time zone) ZZzzzzz nids 22:51, 9 August 2006 (UTC)

'''There is a large amount of published literature on the Delhi Iron Pillar by Balasubramaniam and if one really reads this, then a good idea of the state of current research can be understood. Do not believe all the claims and refutations in the internet. Go to serious original ariticles in original journals. 16 Sep 06''' —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Balaiitk (talk • contribs).

 * This is just a theisis by a professor and cannot be trusted as true. This theisis must either be peer-reviewed by notable sources, or he should be able to produce similar metal on his own. You would also like to see some of the ambitious claims made by Zakir Naik, Stephen Knapp or Prof. Purushottam Nagesh Oak. You are free to add a brief discription on what he thinks is a possible process for manufacture.nids(♂) 00:45, 23 September 2006 (UTC)

 * I have reverted a few of your changes Balaiitk. Your username implies that you are yourself bala or close to him. If you want to go for such large scale edits, you will have to provide neutral third party verifiable refrences.nids(♂) 01:01, 23 September 2006 (UTC)

Modern Blast Furnaces
"Modern blast furnaces, on the other hand, use limestone in place of charcoal..." Not really. They use coke instead of charcoal - you'd not get far trying to get calcium carbonate to combine with the oxygen in iron ore. Rather, the limestone acts as a flux, helping separate out the slag. The makers of wootz used glass in a similar way. Moletrouser (talk) 07:22, 23 November 2007 (UTC) Good point, another thing that's bothering me is that it says the high temperatures needed to make the pillar required coal... but, that's crap, it's easy to burn charcoal that hot - iron can not only easily be worked or even melted using charcoal, but using coal in place of charcoal was not even an option for making good steel. Coal is too dirty to use in a system where the steel contacts the fuel; sulfur makes steel brittle at high hardnesses, and that's just one example. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.28.59.242 (talk) 23:01, 17 October 2010 (UTC)

WP:INDIA Banner/Delhi Addition
Note: WP India Project Banner with Delhi workgroup parameters was added to this article talk page because the article falls under Category:Delhi or its subcategories. Should you feel this addition is inappropriate, please undo my changes and update/remove the relavent categories to the article -- Amartyabag   TALK2ME  03:52, 28 June 2008 (UTC)

Pillar or giant dildo?
Hey I don't know if anybody saw this article that ran in the Hindu yesterday, but I think it should definitely be mentioned in the article... http://thehindu.solidwebhost.com/index.html —Preceding unsigned comment added by Harvard math professor (talk • contribs) 22:59, 12 January 2010 (UTC)

 * Phallus, not a dildo, there is a difference. – ukexpat (talk) 01:23, 13 January 2010 (UTC)
 * If you read the whole article you would have noticed that the professor used the word dildo in his quote. I do agree that phallus is a more appropriate term, though. – Harvard math professor (talk) 01:31, 13 January 2010 (UTC)

 * All I see is a pillar. Some folk seem to have their mind perennially in the gutter. —QuicksilverT @ 03:41, 12 July 2010 (UTC)

 * "Lingam" would be a more accurate term. Kortoso (talk) 20:45, 8 September 2011 (UTC)

Uses or something else?
"The present research using non-intrusive technique as proposed by Dr.Baldev Raj who is the Director of the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research and a member of the panel of architects and scientists"- not a sentence.69.72.27.75 (talk) 07:46, 20 February 2011 (UTC)
 * Thanks. I hope I've fixed this. I found a recent article by Raj and replaced the old edit with a sentence on the new research. Dougweller (talk) 08:11, 21 February 2011 (UTC)

Simple Math Error?
Disclaimer: I am not a metallurgist.

"One analysis gives 0.10% in the slags for 0.18% in the iron itself, for a total phosphorus content of 0.28% in the metal. "

I don't think those are additive. Should be 0.1% * percentage_slag_in_mass + 0.18% * percentage_iron_in_mass, right? This math is precisely duplicated on the Wrought Iron page, so if it gets fixed, someone should fix it in both places. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Riventree (talk • contribs) 07:16, 30 June 2011 (UTC)

 * That does sound questionable. Mangoe (talk) 15:09, 30 June 2011 (UTC)

 * OK, I tweaked the summation and left the original values. If anyone finds a good example of why that should be like it was, I'm interested. Riventree (talk) 04:41, 1 July 2011 (UTC)

No mention of the crafting of the pillar
Could somebody add a section about how it was built? If it is unknown exactly then perhaps shine some light on some possibilities?

-As a side note, it would be good to explain why this article mentions that it is "98%" wrought iron.. Does that have any significance in itself; if so, could someone explain why? — Preceding unsigned comment added by William Aiden (talk • contribs) 19:44, 19 September 2011 (UTC)

 * It's unknown, and we can't discuss the possiblities unless someone can finda reliable source discussing them. Dougweller (talk) 20:08, 19 September 2011 (UTC)
 * If it's unknown, is it not fair to mention that somewhere in this article? — Preceding unsigned comment added by William Aiden (talk • contribs) 13:04, 15 October 2011 (UTC)
 * Wrought iron has a high phosphorous content. Phosphoric irons exhibit a high corrosion resistance. - LuckyLouie (talk) 21:42, 2 October 2011 (UTC)

@William Aiden: The "crafting" is not "unknown". As I said above, the pillar is made from wrought iron and wrought iron exhibits high resistance to corrosion. This is all covered by the article in Iron_pillar_of_Delhi which not only "mentions" the "crafting of the pillar" but goes into detail on the subject. - LuckyLouie (talk) 13:22, 15 October 2011 (UTC)

 * I was just passing by. I know I'm a little late to the party, but I have some experience with )and plenty of sources on) forge welding and ancient blacksmithing techniques, and I believe I can answer the original poster's question about metallurgy. Wrought iron itself is very resistant to corrosion. It tends to form an oxide layer on its surface that protects the metal underneath through passivation. It was a popular metal for making seaside fences for that reason. The higher the carbon content in iron; the faster it will rust. The carbon apparently allows pits to form, causing the metal to rust deeper and unevenly. (The small amounts of steel produced during the smelting of iron was more of an impurity and needed to be removed, or else the sponge iron would be difficult to weld into wrought-iron billets.)

 * Phosphorus is introduced into iron during the smelting process; from the charcoal fires especially. The phosphorus has a tendency to migrate through the hot metal to the grain boundaries, and then to the surface of the metal where it mixes with the oxides, increasing the passivation. The longer the metal is heated; the more phosphorus will reach the surface. For example, it was long known among blacksmiths that when making a hole in bloomery steel or iron, hot-punching it would produce a rust-resistant hole whereas drilling it cold would allow the hole to rust. This is because a drilled hole doesn't have that passive layer whereas a hot-punched hole does. This is not the case with modern steels made with the Bessemer process. Hope that helps. Zaereth (talk) 00:41, 22 June 2016 (UTC)

Edits in lede

 * "modern Scientist claims this structure notable for the composition of the metals used in its construction." -> unsourced and not needed

 * "In spite of the fact that the pillar contains 99.8% of iron, Even with today's technology it would be nearly possible to rebuilt this 100% corrosion resistant iron structure, that our ancestor once did" -> sourced to a blog.

 * "This pillar indicates one of the great technological achievements of the ancient Indians, Which today it is close to impossible to construct such a huge corrossion resistant iron pillar." -> unsourced and somewhat redundant.

I've reverted twice but I'd like other opinions. -- Neil N   talk to me  16:40, 9 May 2012 (UTC)

 * I'd have done the same as you, and for the same reasons. And while I'm sure the additions were well meant, they read as simple peacockery, not encyclopedic material. Haploidavey (talk) 16:49, 9 May 2012 (UTC)

Order, structure and sources
The iron pillar is unique and has attracted a lot of attention. A variety of second-hand information has found its way into the article despite the fact that there are a number of good books on the subject and a number of recent scholarly articles. I've tried to give a little coherence to the structure overall and point to recent scholarship. Let's see if the article can now go forward according to WIKI guidelines. There is still quite a lot more to do here, specifically giving reference to all the hard work that scholars have put to the subject.

Some of the research by Willis which I have cited here, under the inscription, might be moved to Candragupta II. Let me know what you think about that.

Moreover, there is a lot written on the inscription of Candra. This might merit a separate article on that subject alone. Otherwise the present article will become oversize and not help people find the basic information. Views?

Zippymarmalade (talk) 14:44, 13 October 2012 (UTC)Zippymarmalade

Please add a quick info box below the 1st image as we give below cities, countries etc.
Please give,

first made in: weight height above ground height below ground composition current location 121.245.15.117 (talk) 12:01, 11 November 2012 (UTC)

How Old Is It???
So how old is it... or at least how old is it at the minimum. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 121.245.15.117 (talk) 12:04, 11 November 2012 (UTC)

I came to ask the exact same question. Seems the most significant thing about this monument is its age, yet the article only mentions some 'theories' that are apparently not agreed upon. Is there any idea of it's known age? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.19.100.164 (talk) 19:54, 3 December 2012 (UTC)

I reiterate the above comments: info on its age (claimed or proved) is vital info. Shouldn't have to search thru the article to find out. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.113.16.170 (talk) 22:41, 24 October 2013 (UTC)

 * I searched through the article, but all I found about its age is that it "may be" a tribute to some particular king, without the stating the years that king lived (a reader should not have to go to a different article to find the years). And even if it was dedicated to a particular king, it could have been created any number of centuries thereafter. Graffiti or inscriptions could have been added at any time before they were transcribed. So what is the minimum age? In the lede it should say "thought to date back to the year " based on reliable sources. Is it mentioned clearly in old documents? The article says "In 1,600 years, the film has grown just one-twentieth of a millimetre thick." without stating previously that it dates to 400CE. Edison (talk) 23:48, 6 November 2013 (UTC)

Just to reiterate (years later!) that one has to hunt through the article to get any indication of the pillar's age. This seems like something that should be in the lede, even if it's only a statement to the effect that “estimates of the pillar's age range from X to Y” EmmetCaulfield (talk) 19:49, 13 July 2015 (UTC)

 * I've added a bit of additional detail to your addition (and another source), because as you correctly pointed out, it should be summarized in the lede. DoctorJoeE  review transgressions/ talk to me!  21:17, 13 July 2015 (UTC)

,,forge welding" (in ,Scientific analysis") not found in source
the article claims the pillar to be manufactured by ,,forge welding" and cites a source with no mention of that method; remove or get a source. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 31.209.218.137 (talk) 01:47, 25 July 2013 (UTC)

 * Removed citation, which adds nothing to section, but Balasubramaniam (see following citation in article text) supports wrought iron and hammer-welding technique. Can find no scientific basis or support for "98 percent pure", which does seem an unwarranted and rather non-scientific generalisation. Haploidavey (talk) 10:27, 25 July 2013 (UTC)

Cannon shot
I have removed the recently-added section on the cannon shot, because it was plagiarized virtually verbatim -- grammatical errors and all -- from this primary source, citing, as sources, the sources cited in that article. While I agree that this information is appropriate for the article, this is not the way to add it. If it can be properly written, with proper sourcing, feel free to add it back. DoctorJoeE review transgressions/ talk to me!  22:57, 26 January 2015 (UTC)

Images
An editor insists on replacing with   (current at time of sign. stamp below). The original was slightly distorted, but at least suggested the size of the pillar in relation to human beings (per WP:FIDUCIAL). The replacement is way more distorted, and suggests the pillar as even higher than Qutb Minar; imo that makes it misleading and non-encyclopedic. I'm already at 3R over this, and would welcome some kind of consensus here. Haploidavey (talk) 12:06, 20 August 2016 (UTC)

 * I didn't see your post earlier but removed the image as it was in the inscription section but shows no inscriptions. It was also putting a lot of white space between paragraphs. I'm not at all convinced we need more images here anyway.  Doug Weller  talk 12:45, 20 August 2016 (UTC)

 * Good man. I hadn't noticed that the original and its replacement were in the wrong section. Anyhoo, I agree with you on the article already having enough images. Haploidavey (talk) 12:51, 20 August 2016 (UTC)

Merge of Iron pillar inscription of King Chandra
Two articles on aspects of the same topic. Not sure why they were ever split, but they would give a clearer overall article if united. Andy Dingley (talk) 09:21, 19 December 2016 (UTC)

 * They are two different topics. This article is about the iron pillar itself, and contains information about things like its origin, composition etc. The iron pillar has multiple inscriptions: the article Iron pillar inscription of King Chandra is about a specific inscription, which is notable for being the oldest of these inscriptions, and has been discussed in multiple reliable sources. utcursch | talk 10:51, 19 December 2016 (UTC)
 * Thus it would best form a section within the pillar article. There could of course be a redirect from one name to the section. Andy Dingley (talk) 12:44, 19 December 2016 (UTC)

 * I don't mind that, but I'm concerned that some users may find the information on the inscription as excessive detail (e.g. orthography, history of study etc.) This article is already 23 kb in size; the article on the inscription is nearly 15 kb. utcursch | talk 16:19, 19 December 2016 (UTC)
 * So that's a modest article then and there's no size problem. Andy Dingley (talk) 16:29, 19 December 2016 (UTC)
 * OK, I'll merge the two articles then. utcursch | talk 19:03, 19 December 2016 (UTC)

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Galvanic reaction
If the metal is the anode in this reaction, it would corrode even faster — Preceding unsigned comment added by 73.220.75.249 (talk) 01:05, 26 March 2018 (UTC)

Regarding inscription section
You removed the "citation needed" tag that I had added for this statement:

"The pillar carries a number of inscriptions of different dates, some of which have not been studied systematically despite the pillar's prominent location and easy access."

With the edit message: "Inscriptions are all cited adequately in following paragraphs".

I had added the citation needed specifically for this part of the statement: "some of which have not been studied systematically despite the pillar's prominent location and easy access"

If I missed some citation that states this, please let me know, or let me add citation needed / remove "some of which have not been studied systematically despite the pillar's prominent location and easy access" from the article.

Thanks! --ShellPandey (talk) 15:15, 1 July 2021 (UTC)

 * My apologies, I didn't understand that you were referring to the second half of the sentence only. That phrase appears to have been taken (word for word) from here . It's difficult to source a negative, but I will give it try. The point (if true) that some of the graffiti on the pillar has not been studied is significant, and should remain in the article if it can be verified.  DoctorJoeE  review transgressions/ talk to me!  15:37, 1 July 2021 (UTC)

 * Thanks for your reply! If you find a reliable source please let me know. In the meantime shall I add back the citation needed/cite the article you linked, and add need additional citation, or should I remove the statement altogether? LMK what would be the right thing to do in this case. TIA. --ShellPandey (talk) 15:41, 1 July 2021 (UTC)
 * I would vote for adding back the CN. As mentioned, the statement is significant, if true, and should remain in the article if verified. DoctorJoeE  review transgressions/ talk to me!  16:13, 1 July 2021 (UTC)

Regarding the "See also" section
There are so many pages that have been linked in the see also section. Some of them aren't even directly linked to the topic at hand. Suggestions on how to clean that up? --ShellPandey (talk) 13:28, 2 July 2021 (UTC)
 * They mostly have some relation to the subject. Many will, or should, be linked in the main text, and those should go, per WP:SEEALSO. The "related topics" could go, though I'm not too fussed myself. Johnbod (talk) 14:09, 2 July 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Iron pillar of Delhi


text:
Neil deGrasse Tyson

Neil deGrasse Tyson ( or  ; born October 5, 1958) is an American astrophysicist, author, and science communicator. Tyson studied at Harvard University, the University of Texas at Austin, and Columbia University. From 1991 to 1994, he was a postdoctoral research associate at Princeton University. In 1994, he joined the Hayden Planetarium as a staff scientist and the Princeton faculty as a visiting research scientist and lecturer. In 1996, he became director of the planetarium and oversaw its $210 million reconstruction project, which was completed in 2000. Since 1996, he has been the director of the Hayden Planetarium at the Rose Center for Earth and Space in New York City. The center is part of the American Museum of Natural History, where Tyson founded the Department of Astrophysics in 1997 and has been a research associate in the department since 2003.

From 1995 to 2005, Tyson wrote monthly essays in the "Universe" column for Natural History magazine, some of which were later published in his books Death by Black Hole (2007) and Astrophysics for People in a Hurry (2017). During the same period, he wrote a monthly column in StarDate magazine, answering questions about the universe under the pen name "Merlin". Material from the column appeared in his books Merlin's Tour of the Universe (1998) and Just Visiting This Planet (1998). Tyson served on a 2001 government commission on the future of the U.S. aerospace industry and on the 2004 Moon, Mars and Beyond commission. He was awarded the NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal in the same year. From 2006 to 2011, he hosted the television show NOVA ScienceNow on PBS. Since 2009, Tyson has hosted the weekly podcast StarTalk. A spin-off, also called StarTalk, began airing on National Geographic in 2015. In 2014, he hosted the television series Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey, a successor to Carl Sagan's 1980 series Cosmos: A Personal Voyage. The U.S. National Academy of Sciences awarded Tyson the Public Welfare Medal in 2015 for his "extraordinary role in exciting the public about the wonders of science".

Early life and education
Tyson was born in Manhattan as the second of three children, into a Catholic family living in the Bronx. His African-American father, Cyril deGrasse Tyson (1927–2016), was a sociologist and human resource commissioner for New York City mayor John Lindsay, and the first director of Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited. His mother, Sunchita Maria Tyson (née Feliciano; 1928–2023), was a gerontologist for the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare and is of Puerto Rican descent. Neil has two siblings: Stephen Joseph Tyson and Lynn Antipas Tyson. Neil's middle name, deGrasse, is from the maiden name of his paternal grandmother, who was born as Altima de Grasse in the British West Indies island of Nevis.

Neil deGrasse Tyson grew up in the Castle Hill neighborhood of the Bronx and then in Riverdale. From kindergarten throughout high school, Tyson attended public schools in the Bronx: PS 36 Unionport, PS 81 Robert J. Christen, the Riverdale Kingsbridge Academy (MS 141), and graduated from The Bronx High School of Science in 1976 where he was captain of the wrestling team and editor-in-chief of the Physical Science Journal. His interest in astronomy began at the age of nine after visiting the sky theater of the Hayden Planetarium. He recalled that "so strong was that imprint [of the night sky] that I'm certain that I had no choice in the matter, that in fact, the universe called me." During high school, Tyson attended astronomy courses offered by the Hayden Planetarium, which he called "the most formative period" of his life. He credited Mark Chartrand III, director of the planetarium at the time, as his "first intellectual role model" and his enthusiastic teaching style mixed with humor inspired Tyson to communicate the universe to others the way he did.

When he was 14, he received a scholarship from the Explorers Club of New York to view the June 1973 total solar eclipse aboard the SS Canberra. The scientific cruise carried two thousand scientists, engineers, and enthusiasts, including Neil Armstrong, Scott Carpenter, and Isaac Asimov.

Tyson obsessively studied astronomy in his teen years; he eventually even gained some fame in the astronomy community by giving lectures on the subject at the age of fifteen. Astronomer Carl Sagan, who was a faculty member at Cornell University, tried to recruit Tyson to Cornell for undergraduate studies. In his book, The Sky Is Not the Limit, Tyson wrote:

"My letter of application had been dripping with an interest in the universe. The admission office, unbeknownst to me, had forwarded my application to Carl Sagan's attention. Within weeks, I received a personal letter..."

Tyson revisited this moment on his first episode of Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey. Pulling out a 1975 calendar belonging to the famous astronomer, he found the day Sagan invited the 17-year-old to spend a day in Ithaca. Sagan had offered to put him up for the night if his bus back to the Bronx did not come. Tyson said, "I already knew I wanted to become a scientist. But that afternoon, I learned from Carl the kind of person I wanted to become."

Tyson chose to attend Harvard where he majored in physics and lived in Currier House. He was a member of the rowing team during his freshman year, but returned to wrestling, lettering (achieving varsity team rank) in his senior year. He was also active in dance (styles including jazz, ballet, Afro-Caribbean, and Latin Ballroom). Tyson earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in physics at Harvard College in 1980 and then began his graduate work at the University of Texas at Austin, from which he received a Master of Arts degree in astronomy in 1983. By his own account, he did not spend as much time in the research lab as he should have. His professors encouraged him to consider alternative careers and the committee for his doctoral dissertation was dissolved, ending his pursuit of a doctorate from the University of Texas.

Tyson was a lecturer in astronomy at the University of Maryland from 1986 to 1987 and in 1988, he was accepted into the astronomy graduate program at Columbia University, where he earned a Master of Philosophy degree in astrophysics in 1989, and a PhD degree in astrophysics in 1991 under the supervision of Professor R. Michael Rich. Rich obtained funding to support Tyson's doctoral research from NASA and the ARCS Foundation, enabling Tyson to attend international meetings in Italy, Switzerland, Chile, and South Africa and to hire students to help him with data reduction. In the course of his thesis work, he observed using the 0.91 m telescope at the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in Chile, where he obtained images for the Calán/Tololo Supernova Survey helping to further their work in establishing Type Ia supernovae as standard candles.

During his thesis research at Columbia University, Tyson became acquainted with Professor David Spergel at Princeton University, who visited Columbia University in the course of collaborating with his thesis advisor on the Galactic bulge  typically found in spiral galaxies.

Career

Tyson's research has focused on observations in cosmology, stellar evolution, galactic astronomy, bulges, and stellar formation. He has held numerous positions at institutions including the University of Maryland, Princeton University, the American Museum of Natural History, and the Hayden Planetarium.

In 1994, Tyson joined the Hayden Planetarium as a staff scientist while he was a research affiliate in Princeton University. He became acting director of the planetarium in June 1995 and was appointed director in 1996. As director, he oversaw the planetarium's $210 million reconstruction project, which was completed in 2000. Upon being asked for his thoughts on becoming director, Tyson said "when I was a kid... there were scientists and educators on the staff at the Hayden Planetarium... who invested their time and energy in my enlightenment... and I've never forgotten that... to end up back there as its director, I feel this deep sense of duty, that I serve in the same capacity for people who come through the facility today, that others served for me".

Tyson has written a number of popular books on astrophysics. In 1995, he began to write the "Universe" column for Natural History magazine. In a column Tyson wrote for a special edition of the magazine, called "City of Stars", in 2002, he popularized the term "Manhattanhenge" to describe the two days annually on which the evening sun aligns with the street grid in Manhattan, making the sunset visible along unobstructed side streets. He had coined the term in 1996, inspired by how the phenomenon recalls the sun's solstice alignment with the Stonehenge monument in England. Tyson's column also influenced his work as a professor with The Great Courses.

In 2001, U.S. President George W. Bush appointed Tyson to serve on the Commission on the Future of the United States Aerospace Industry and in 2004 to serve on the President's Commission on Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy, the latter better known as the "Moon, Mars, and Beyond" commission. Soon afterward, he was awarded the NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal, the highest civilian honor bestowed by NASA.

In 2004, Tyson hosted the four-part Origins miniseries of the PBS Nova series and with Donald Goldsmith, co-authored the companion volume for this series, Origins: Fourteen Billion Years Of Cosmic Evolution. He again collaborated with Goldsmith as the narrator on the documentary 400 Years of the Telescope, which premiered on PBS in April 2009.

As director of the Hayden Planetarium, Tyson bucked traditional thinking in order to keep Pluto from being referred to as the ninth planet in exhibits at the center. He has explained that he wanted to look at commonalities between objects, grouping the terrestrial planets together, the gas giants together, and Pluto with like objects, and to get away from simply counting the planets. He has stated on The Colbert Report, The Daily Show, and BBC Horizon that the decision has resulted in large amounts of hate mail, much of it from children. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) confirmed this assessment by changing Pluto to the dwarf planet classification.

Tyson recounted the heated online debate on the Cambridge Conference Network (CCNet), a "widely read, UK-based Internet chat group", following Benny Peiser's renewed call for reclassification of Pluto's status. Peiser's entry, in which he posted articles from the AP and The Boston Globe, spawned from The New York Times's article entitled "Pluto's Not a Planet? Only in New York".

Tyson has been vice-president, president, and chairman of the board of the Planetary Society. He was also the host of the PBS program Nova ScienceNow until 2011. He attended and was a speaker at the Beyond Belief: Science, Religion, Reason and Survival symposium in November 2006.

In May 2009, Tyson launched a one-hour radio talk show called StarTalk, which he co-hosted with comedian Lynne Koplitz. The show was syndicated on Sunday afternoons on KTLK AM in Los Angeles and WHFS in Washington DC. The show lasted for thirteen weeks, but was resurrected in December 2010 and then, co-hosted with comedians Chuck Nice and Leighann Lord instead of Koplitz. Guests range from colleagues in science to celebrities such as GZA, Wil Wheaton, Sarah Silverman, and Bill Maher. The show is available via the Internet through a live stream or in the form of a podcast.

In April 2011, Tyson was the keynote speaker at the 93rd International Convention of the Phi Theta Kappa International Honor Society of the Two-year School. He and James Randi delivered a lecture entitled Skepticism, which related directly with the convention's theme of The Democratization of Information: Power, Peril, and Promise.

In 2012, Tyson announced that he would appear in a YouTube series based on his radio show StarTalk. A premiere date for the show has not been announced, but it will be distributed on the Nerdist YouTube Channel. On February 28, 2014, Tyson was a celebrity guest at the White House Student Film Festival.

In 2014, Tyson helped revive Carl Sagan's Cosmos: A Personal Voyage television series, presenting Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey on both FOX and the National Geographic Channel. Thirteen episodes were aired in the first season, and Tyson has said that if a second season were produced, he would pass the role of host to someone else in the science world. On March 9, 2020, he returned with a follow-up season of Cosmos titled Cosmos: Possible Worlds.

On April 20, 2015, Tyson began hosting a late-night talk show entitled StarTalk on the National Geographic Channel, where he interviews pop culture celebrities and asks them about their life experiences with science. Around 2016, he was co-developing a sandbox video game with Whatnot Entertainment, Neil deGrasse Tyson Presents: Space Odyssey, which aimed to help provide players with a realistic simulation of developing a space-faring culture, incorporating educational materials about space and technology. The development was abandoned after April 2020.

Spirituality and philosophy
Tyson has written and broadcast extensively about his views of science, spirituality, and the spirituality of science, including the essays "The Perimeter of Ignorance" and "Holy Wars", both appearing in Natural History magazine and the 2006 Beyond Belief workshop. In an interview with comedian Paul Mecurio, Tyson offered his definition of spirituality, "For me, when I say spiritual, I'm referring to a feeling you would have that connects you to the universe in a way that it may defy simple vocabulary. We think about the universe as an intellectual playground, which it surely is, but the moment you learn something that touches an emotion rather than just something intellectual, I would call that a spiritual encounter with the universe." He has argued that many great historical scientists' belief in intelligent design limited their scientific inquiries, to the detriment of the advance of scientific knowledge.

When asked during a question session at the University at Buffalo if he believed in a higher power, Tyson responded: "Every account of a higher power that I've seen described, of all religions that I've seen, include many statements with regard to the benevolence of that power. When I look at the universe and all the ways the universe wants to kill us, I find it hard to reconcile that with statements of beneficence." In an interview with Big Think, he said: "So, what people are really after is what is my stance on religion or spirituality or God, and I would say if I find a word that came closest, it would be 'agnostic'... at the end of the day I'd rather not be any category at all." Additionally, in the same interview with Big Think, Tyson mentioned that he edited Wikipedia's entry on him to include the fact that he is an agnostic:

"I'm constantly claimed by atheists. I find this intriguing. In fact, on my Wiki page –I didn't create the Wiki page. Others did, and I'm flattered that people cared enough about my life to assemble it–and it said, 'Neil deGrasse Tyson is an atheist.' I said, 'Well, that's not really true.' I said, 'Neil deGrasse Tyson is an agnostic.' I went back a week later. It said, 'Neil deGrasse Tyson is an atheist' again–within a week!–and I said, 'What's up with that?' and I said, 'All right, I have to word it a little differently.' So I said, 'Okay, Neil deGrasse Tyson, widely claimed by atheists, is actually an agnostic.'"

During the interview "Called by the Universe: A Conversation with Neil deGrasse Tyson" in 2009, Tyson said: "I can't agree to the claims by atheists that I'm one of that community. I don't have the time, energy, interest of conducting myself that way... I'm not trying to convert people. I don't care."

In March 2014, philosopher and secularism proponent Massimo Pigliucci asked Tyson: "What is it you think about God?" Tyson replied: "I remain unconvinced by any claims anyone has ever made about the existence or the power of a divine force operating in the universe." Pigliucci then asked him why he expressed discomfort with the label "atheist" in his Big Think video. Tyson replied by reiterating his dislike for one-word labels, saying: "That's what adjectives are for. What kind of atheist are you? Are you an ardent atheist? Are you a passive atheist? An apathetic atheist? Do you rally, or do you just not even care? So I'd be on the 'I really don't care' side of that, if you had to find adjectives to put in front of the word 'atheist'."

Pigliucci contrasted Tyson with scientist Richard Dawkins: "[Dawkins] really does consider, at this point, himself to be an atheist activist. You very clearly made the point that you are not." Tyson replied: "I completely respect that activity. He's fulfilling a really important role out there." Tyson has spoken about philosophy on numerous occasions. In March 2014, during an episode of The Nerdist Podcast, he said that philosophy is "useless" and that a philosophy major "can really mess you up", which was met with disapproval. Pigliucci, a philosopher, later criticized him for "dismiss[ing] philosophy as a useless enterprise".

Race and social justice
In an undated interview at Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Tyson talked about being black and one of the most visible and well-known scientists in the world. He told a story about being interviewed about a plasma burst from the sun on a local Fox affiliate in 1989. "I'd never before in my life seen an interview with a black person on television for expertise that had nothing to do with being black. And at that point, I realized that one of the last stereotypes that prevailed among people who carry stereotypes is that, sort of, black people are somehow dumb. I wondered, maybe... that's a way to undermine this sort of, this stereotype that prevailed about who's smart and who's dumb. I said to myself, 'I just have to be visible, or others like me, in that situation.' That would have a greater force on society than anything else I could imagine."

In 2005, at a conference at the National Academy of Sciences, Tyson responded to a question about whether genetic differences might keep women from working as scientists. He said that his goal to become an astrophysicist was "hands down the path of most resistance through the forces... of society... My life experience tells me, when you don't find blacks in the sciences, when you don't find women in the sciences, I know these forces are real and I had to survive them in order to get where I am today. So before we start talking about genetic differences, you gotta come up with a system where there's equal opportunity. Then we can start having that conversation."

In a 2014 interview with Grantland, Tyson said that he related his experience on that 2005 panel in an effort to make the point that the scientific question about genetic differences can not be answered until the social barriers are dismantled. "I'm saying before you even have that conversation, you have to be really sure that access to opportunity has been level." In the same interview, Tyson said that race is not a part of the point he is trying to make in his career or with his life. According to Tyson, "[T]hat then becomes the point of people's understanding of me, rather than the astrophysics. So it's a failed educational step for that to be the case. If you end up being distracted by that and not [getting] the message." He purposefully no longer speaks publicly about race. "I don't give talks on it. I don't even give Black History Month talks. I decline every single one of them. In fact, since 1993, I've declined every interview that has my being black as a premise of the interview."

Tyson has positively advocated for the freedoms of homosexual and transgender people and argued about the topic repeatedly against right-wing commentators.

NASA

Tyson is an advocate for expanding the operations of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Arguing that "the most powerful agency on the dreams of a nation is currently underfunded to do what it needs to be doing". He has suggested that the general public has a tendency to overestimate how much revenue is allocated to the space agency. At a March 2010 address, referencing the proportion of tax revenue spent on NASA, he stated, "By the way, how much does NASA cost? It's a half a penny on the dollar. Did you know that? The people are saying, 'Why are we spending money up there...' I ask them, 'How much do you think we're spending?' They say 'five cents, ten cents on a dollar.' It's a half a penny."

In March 2012, Tyson testified before the United States Senate Science Committee, stating that:

"Right now, NASA's annual budget is half a penny on your tax dollar. For twice that—a penny on a dollar—we can transform the country from a sullen, dispirited nation, weary of economic struggle, to one where it has reclaimed its 20th century birthright to dream of tomorrow."

Inspired by Tyson's advocacy and remarks, Penny4NASA, a campaign of the Space Advocates nonprofit was founded in 2012 by John Zeller and advocates doubling NASA's budget to one percent of the federal budget.

In his book Space Chronicles: Facing the Ultimate Frontier Tyson argues that large and ambitious space exploration projects, like getting humans to Mars, will probably require some sort of military or economic driver in order to get the appropriate funding from the United States federal government.

Media appearances
As a science communicator, Tyson regularly appears on television, radio, and various other media outlets. He has been a regular guest on The Colbert Report, and host Stephen Colbert refers to him in his comedic book I Am America (And So Can You!), noting in his chapter on scientists that most scientists are "decent, well-intentioned people", but presumably tongue-in-cheek, that "Neil DeGrasse [sic] Tyson is an absolute monster."

He has appeared numerous times on The Daily Show with Jon Stewart. He has made appearances on Late Night with Conan O'Brien, The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Late Night with Jimmy Fallon, and The Rachel Maddow Show. He served as one of the central interviewees on the various episodes of the History Channel science program, The Universe. Tyson participated on the NPR radio quiz program Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me! in 2007 and 2015. He appeared several times on Real Time with Bill Maher and he was also featured on an episode of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? as the ask-the-expert lifeline. He has spoken numerous times on the Philadelphia morning show, Preston and Steve, on 93.3 WMMR, as well as on SiriusXM's Ron and Fez and The Opie and Anthony Show.

Tyson has been featured as a podcast guest interviewee on The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe, Radiolab, Skepticality, and The Joe Rogan Experience, and he has he been in several of the Symphony of Science videos. He lived near the World Trade Center and was an eyewitness to the September 11, 2001, attacks. He wrote a widely circulated letter on what he saw. Footage he filmed on the day was included in the 2008 documentary film 102 Minutes That Changed America.

In 2007, Tyson was the keynote speaker during the dedication ceremony of Deerfield Academy's new science center, the Koch Center in Massachusetts, named for David H. Koch '59. He emphasized the impact science will have on the twenty-first century, as well as explaining that investments into science may be costly, but their returns in the form of knowledge gained and piquing interest is invaluable. He has also appeared as the keynote speaker at The Amazing Meeting, a science and skepticism conference hosted by the James Randi Educational Foundation.

Tyson made a guest appearance as a version of himself in the episode "Brain Storm" of Stargate Atlantis alongside Bill Nye and in the episode "The Apology Insufficiency" of The Big Bang Theory. Archive footage of him is used in the film Europa Report. Tyson also made an appearance in an episode of Martha Speaks as himself.

In a May 2011 StarTalk Radio show, The Political Science of the Daily Show, Tyson said he donates all income earned as a guest speaker. he is a frequent participant in the website Reddit's AMAs (Ask Me Anythings) where he is responsible for three of the top ten most popular AMAs of all time.

In Action Comics #14 (January 2013), which was published November 7, 2012, Tyson appears in the story, in which he determines that Superman's home planet, Krypton, orbited the red dwarf LHS 2520 in the constellation Corvus 27.1 lightyears from Earth. He assisted DC Comics in selecting a real-life star that would be an appropriate parent star to Krypton, and picked Corvus, which is Latin for "Crow", and which is the mascot of Superman's high school, the Smallville Crows. Tyson also had a minor appearance as himself in the 2016 film Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice.

In May 2013, the Science Laureates of the United States Act of 2013 (H.R. 1891; 113th Congress) was introduced into Congress. Neil deGrasse Tyson was listed by at least two commentators as a possible nominee for the position of Science Laureate, if the act were to pass. On March 8, 2014, Tyson made a SXSW Interactive keynote presentation at the Austin Convention Center. On June 3, 2014, he co-reviewed Gravity in a CinemaSins episode. He made two more appearances with CinemaSins, co-reviewing Interstellar on September 29, 2015, and The Martian on March 31, 2016.

In 2016, Tyson narrated and was a script supervisor for the science documentary Food Evolution, directed by Academy Award–nominated director Scott Hamilton Kennedy. In the same year, Tyson made a guest appearance on the Avenged Sevenfold album The Stage, where he delivered a monolog on the track "Exist". In 2017, Tyson appeared on Logic's album Everybody as God, uncredited on various tracks, and credited on the song "AfricAryaN" as well as on "The Moon" on Musiq Soulchild's album Feel the Real.

In 2018, Tyson made a second guest appearance on The Big Bang Theory as himself, together with fellow television personality Bill Nye, in the first episode of the show's final season ("The Conjugal Configuration"). He also had guest appearances in Gravity Falls, Brooklyn Nine-Nine, Zoolander 2, Ice Age: Collision Course, Family Guy, BoJack Horseman, The Simpsons, Salvation and Scooby-Doo and Guess Who?.

Personal life
Tyson lives in the Tribeca neighborhood of Lower Manhattan with his wife, Alice Young. They have two children, Miranda and Travis. Neil met his wife in a physics class at the University of Texas at Austin. They married in 1988 and named their first child Miranda after the smallest of Uranus' five major moons. Neil deGrasseTyson is a wine enthusiast whose collection was featured in the May 2000 issue of the Wine Spectator and the Spring 2005 issue of The World of Fine Wine.

Sexual misconduct allegations
During November and December 2018, Tyson was accused of rape by a woman while a further three women alleged inappropriate sexual advances. Thchiya Amet El Maat accused Tyson of drugging and raping her while both were graduate students at UT Austin in 1984. Katelyn Allers, a professor at Bucknell University, alleged Tyson touched her inappropriately at a 2009 American Astronomical Society gathering. Ashley Watson, Tyson's assistant on Cosmos, alleged Tyson made inappropriate sexual advances to her in 2018 which led her to resign from the position days later. In what Tyson described as a Native American handshake, he held her hand and looked her in the eye for ten seconds. When she left, he told her he wanted to hug her but would rather not in case he wanted more. A fourth anonymous woman alleged Tyson made inappropriate comments to her during a 2010 holiday party at the American Museum of Natural History. Tyson denied El Maat's rape accusation, while corroborating the basic facts around the situation of Allers and Watson's assertions, but claimed his actions were misinterpreted and apologized for any misunderstanding or offense.

Fox, National Geographic, the Museum of Natural History, and the producers of Cosmos announced investigations, which Tyson said that he welcomed. The National Geographic Channel announced on January 3, 2019, that they were putting further episodes of StarTalk on hiatus so as "to allow the investigation to occur unimpeded". The premiere of Cosmos: Possible Worlds, initially scheduled for March 3, 2019, was also delayed while the investigation continued. On March 15, 2019, both National Geographic and Fox announced, "The investigation is complete, and we are moving forward with both StarTalk and Cosmos," and that: "There will be no further comment." The networks affirmed that both StarTalk and Cosmos would resume, but that no date had been set. In July, the American Museum of Natural History said that Neil deGrasse Tyson would keep his job as director of the Hayden Planetarium.

Recognition
List of awards received by Tyson:

Awards

 * 2001 Medal of Excellence, Columbia University, New York City
 * 2004 NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal
 * 2005 Science Writing Award
 * 2007 Klopsteg Memorial Award winner
 * 2009 Douglas S. Morrow Public Outreach Award from the Space Foundation for significant contributions to public awareness of space programs
 * 2009 Isaac Asimov Award from the American Humanist Association
 * 2014 Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Reality Show Host
 * 2014 Dunlap Prize
 * 2015 Public Welfare Medal from the National Academy of Sciences
 * 2015 Cosmos Award, Planetary Society
 * 2017 Hubbard Medal, National Geographic Society
 * 2017 Stephen Hawking Medal for Science Communication, Starmus
 * 2018 Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album nomination for Astrophysics for People in a Hurry
 * 2020 YouTube Gold Creator Award

Honors

 * 2000 Sexiest Astrophysicist Alive, People magazine
 * 2001 asteroid named: 13123 Tyson, renamed from Asteroid 1994KA by the International Astronomical Union
 * 2001 The Tech 100, voted by editors of Crain's Magazine to be among the 100 most influential technology leaders in New York
 * 2004 Fifty Most Important African-Americans in Research Science
 * 2007 Harvard 100: Most Influential, Harvard Alumni magazine, Cambridge, Massachusetts
 * 2007 The Time 100, voted by the editors of Time magazine as one of the 100 most influential persons in the world
 * 2008 Discover Magazine selected him as one of "The 10 Most Influential People in Science"
 * 2010 elected a Fellow of the American Physical Society

Honorary doctorates

 * 1997 York College, City University of New York
 * 2000 Ramapo College, Mahwah, New Jersey
 * 2000 Dominican College, Orangeburg, New York
 * 2001 University of Richmond, Richmond, Virginia
 * 2002 Bloomfield College, Bloomfield, New Jersey
 * 2003 Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts
 * 2004 College of Staten Island, City University of New York
 * 2006 Pace University, New York City
 * 2007 Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts
 * 2007 Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts
 * 2008 University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
 * 2008 Howard University, Washington, DC
 * 2010 University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, Alabama
 * 2010 Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York
 * 2010 Eastern Connecticut State University, Willimantic, Connecticut
 * 2011 Gettysburg College, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania
 * 2012 Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Massachusetts
 * 2012 Western New England University, Springfield, Massachusetts
 * 2015 University of Massachusetts-Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts
 * 2017 Baruch College, New York, New York
 * 2018 Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut

Species

 * 2016 The leaping frog Indirana tysoni was named after him by Neelesh Dahanukar, Nikhil Modak, Keerthi Krutha, P. O. Nameer, Anand D. Padhye, and Sanjay Molur.

Works
List of works by Tyson:

Books

 * Merlin's Tour of the Universe (1st ed. 1989; 2nd ed. 1998). ISBN 0-385-48835-1.
 * Universe Down to Earth (1994). ISBN 0-231-07560-X.
 * Just Visiting This Planet (1998). ISBN 0-385-48837-8.
 * One Universe: At Home in the Cosmos (2000). ISBN 0-309-06488-0.
 * Cosmic Horizons: Astronomy at the Cutting Edge (2000). ISBN 1-56584-602-8.
 * City of Stars: A New Yorker's Guide to the Cosmos (2002)
 * My Favorite Universe (a 12-part lecture series) (2003). ISBN 1-56585-663-5.
 * Origins: Fourteen Billion Years of Cosmic Evolution (co-authored with Donald Goldsmith) (2004). ISBN 0-393-32758-2.
 * The Sky Is Not the Limit: Adventures of an Urban Astrophysicist (2004). ISBN 978-1-59102-188-9.
 * Death by Black Hole: And Other Cosmic Quandaries (2007). ISBN 0-393-33016-8.
 * The Pluto Files: The Rise and Fall of America's Favorite Planet (2009). ISBN 0-393-06520-0.
 * Space Chronicles: Facing the Ultimate Frontier (2012). ISBN 0-393-08210-5.
 * Welcome to the Universe: An Astrophysical Tour (co-authored with Michael A. Strauss and J. Richard Gott) (2016). ISBN 978-0691157245.
 * Astrophysics for People in a Hurry (2017). ISBN 978-0-393-60939-4.
 * Accessory to War: The Unspoken Alliance Between Astrophysics and the Military (2018, with Avis Lang). ISBN 0-393-06444-1.
 * Letters from an Astrophysicist (2019). ISBN 978-1324003311.
 * Cosmic Queries: StarTalk's Guide to Who We Are, How We Got Here, and Where We're Going (2021). ISBN 978-1-426-22177-4.
 * Starry Messenger: Cosmic Perspectives on Civilization (2023). ISBN 978-1-250-86150-4.
 * To Infinity and Beyond: A Journey of Cosmic Discovery (2023). ISBN 978-1-426-22330-3. Coauthored with Lindsey Nyx Walker.

Research publications

 * Twarog, Bruce A.; Tyson, Neil D. (1985). "UVBY Photometry of Blue Stragglers in NGC 7789". Astronomical Journal 90: 1247. 10.1086/113833.
 * Tyson, Neil D.; Scalo, John M. (1988). "Bursting Dwarf Galaxies: Implications for Luminosity Function, Space Density, and Cosmological Mass Density". Astrophysical Journal 329: 618. 10.1086/166408.
 * Tyson, Neil D. (1988). "On the possibility of Gas-Rich Dwarf Galaxies in the Lyman-alpha Forest". Astrophysical Journal (Letters) 329: L57. 10.1086/185176.
 * Tyson, Neil D.; Rich, Michael (1991). "Radial Velocity Distribution and Line Strengths of 33 Carbon Stars in the Galactic Bulge". Astrophysical Journal 367: 547. 10.1086/169651.
 * Tyson, Neil D.; Gal, Roy R. (1993). "An Exposure Guide for Taking Twilight Flatfields with Large Format CCDs". Astronomical Journal 105: 1206. 10.1086/116505.
 * Tyson, Neil D.; Richmond, Michael W.; Woodhams, Michael; Ciotti, Luca (1993). "On the Possibility of a Major Impact on Uranus in the Past Century". Astronomy & Astrophysics (Research Notes) 275: 630.
 * Schmidt, B. P., et al. (1994). "The Expanding Photosphere Method Applied to SN1992am at cz = 14600 km/s". Astronomical Journal 107: 1444.
 * Wells, L. A. et al. (1994). "The Type Ia Supernova 1989B in NGC3627 (M66)". Astronomical Journal 108: 2233. 10.1086/117236.
 * Hamuy, M. et al. (1996). "BVRI Light Curves For 29 Type Ia Supernovae". Astronomical Journal 112: 2408. 10.1086/118192.
 * Lira, P. et al. (1998). "Optical light curves of the Type IA supernovae SN 1990N and 1991T". Astronomical Journal 116: 1006. 10.1086/300175.
 * Scoville, N. et al. (2007). "The Cosmic Evolution Survey (COSMOS): Overview". Astrophysical Journal Supplement 172: 1. 10.1086/516585.
 * Scoville, N. et al. (2007). "COSMOS: Hubble Space Telescope Observations". Astrophysical Journal Supplement 172: 38. 10.1086/516580.
 * Liu, C. T.; Capak, P.; Mobasher, B.; Paglione, T. A. D.; Scoville, N. Z.; Tribiano, S. M.; Tyson, N. D. (2008). "The Faint-End Slopes of Galaxy Luminosity Functions in the COSMOS Field". Astrophysical Journal Letters 672: 198. 10.1086/522361.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Neil deGrasse Tyson


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Wikipedia:WikiProject Poland/PLCOTW/Current

Culture of Poland


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Headhunter (video game)

Headhunter is an action-adventure video game developed by Amuze for Dreamcast and PlayStation 2. A sequel was released in 2004 called Headhunter Redemption and it was released on PlayStation 2 and Xbox.

Gameplay
For the majority of the game, the gameplay is that of a third-person shooter as players control protagonist Jack Wade. Jack travels between the main levels of the game on his motorcycle, and these sections take the form of a racing game, with the motorbike's acceleration and braking controlled using the sensitive analogue trigger buttons of the Dreamcast control pad.

Plot
The game takes place in the near future in a city similar to Los Angeles, California. Criminals are punished for their crimes not only by serving time in prison but by having their internal organs surgically removed (if they lost to another prisoner in an underwater arena) and transplanted to benefit the wealthier members of society. Officially responsible for law enforcement are the Anti-Crime Network (ACN) organisation and their employees, the bounty hunter-like Headhunters. In order to prevent damage occurring to the criminals' organs as they are apprehended, conventional firearms have been banned, replaced by Electric Neural Projectile (ENP) guns that fire special bullets which do not damage flesh but instead emit an electrical charge that causes severe pain in victims, paralyses muscles and eventually kills the brain. According to the game, ENP technology was developed by Biotech and the main manufacturer of ENP handguns is Smith & Easton (a reference to the firearms manufacturer Smith & Wesson), although the technology can also be used with grenades, proximity mines, rocket launchers and other explosives.

The game begins with Jack Wade escaping from a secret laboratory, but soon after going outside he faints and falls unconscious. He wakes up in hospital and learns that he is suffering from amnesia and that although he was once the very best Headhunter, his license has now been revoked. In order to investigate the murder of ACN founder Christopher Stern, he must re-earn his Headhunter licence by taking part in virtual-reality tests (called LEILA tests) and capture some of the most dangerous criminals in the city. Throughout the game, Jack is aided by Christopher Stern's daughter Angela and his old boss Chief Hawke; although he also finds that his main rival to the title of best Headhunter is the unpleasant Hank Redwood.

The game's storyline progresses through standard FMV cutscenes, propaganda commercials and satirical news broadcasts (presented by the fictional Bill Waverley and Kate Gloss).

Development
According to John Kroknes, creative director at Amuze, the game was strongly influenced by 1980s action movies and Paul Verhoeven's science fiction films.

Headhunter is the first video game to have its score recorded at Abbey Road Studios.

Reception
The Dreamcast version received "generally favorable reviews", while the PlayStation 2 version received "average" reviews, according to video game review aggregator Metacritic.

The Dreamcast version received a highly favorable review from Eurogamer's Tom Bramwell. Bramwell in his review noted that it had been compared to Metal Gear Solid, but considered the setting and story to be superior in Headhunter. The game was described as "a masterpiece of modern videogame development".

title: Headhunter (video game)


text:
User talk:CannonGod

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title: User talk:CannonGod


text:
Kshana Kshanam

Kshana Kshanam is a 1991 Indian Telugu-language road comedy heist film written and directed by Ram Gopal Varma. The film stars Venkatesh, Sridevi, Paresh Rawal, and Rami Reddy. The plot follows Satya (Sridevi), a young woman who is hounded by a gang of robbers headed by Nayyar (Rawal) and the police. With the help of a pickpocketer Chandu (Venkatesh), she escapes into the forests.

Varma introduced road and film noir to Indian screen with Kshana Kshanam. Varma experimented with close-to-life performances by the lead actors, which bought a rather fictional storyline a sense of authenticity at a time when the industry was being filled with unnecessary commercial fillers.

Featured at the Ann Arbor Film Festival, and the Fribourg Festival, it went on to gather a cult following. It won five state Nandi Awards, including Best Direction, Best Screenplay, and a Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Telugu to Sridevi. Varma later adapted Kshana Kshanam in Hindi as Daud, and produced road films such as Thiruda Thiruda, Anaganaga Oka Roju and Road.

Plot
Narayana and his accomplice, working for gangster Nayar, break into a bank in Hyderabad and rob inr 10000000. Found out by the police, the group engages in a shootout and later a chase, during which one of the gang members and the policemen are killed. Narayana, going rogue, kills his accomplice and betrays Nayar, hoping to keep the loot for himself. With the police watching all routes out of Hyderabad, Nayar and his men track Narayana to his brother's photo studio. Before he gets caught, Narayana hides the clue to where he hid the money in one of the photo envelopes.

Tortured for information, Narayana reveals the clue, but before they can retrieve it, the envelope is taken by Satya, a middle-class working woman. Before dying, Narayana reveals the truth and the clue to his brother. Heading home, Satya is accosted by one of Nayar's men, who demands the envelope. Trying to escape, Satya accidentally stabs him, after which her nosy neighbor calls the police on her. While on the phone, the thug gets up again, only to fall dead, a knife lodged in his back, which later is shown as being thrown by Narayana's brother.

Meanwhile, Chandu is a small-time thief posing as a police officer to con and steal from people. While relaxing at a Dhaba, Satya enters the place and calls her friend to inform her about what happened, unaware that the police were listening in. Chandu inadvertently saves her from being harassed by a gang of hoodlums, and while she is thanking him, the police arrive. Thinking that they are after him, Chandu takes Satya hostage and escapes into the jungle with her. Meanwhile, Nayar and his men also join the pursuit.

Chandu and Satya face a few challenges in avoiding the police, Narayana's brother, and Nayar in the forest, gradually growing closer to each other. They run into Nayar, where he demands to know where the envelope is. Escaping the police led by Inspector Yadav and Narayana's brother, Chandu deduces that the clue to the money is hidden in that envelope. They eventually stumble across Nayar's truck, which they use to escape the jungle and into the city. Knowing that Satya's apartment is a crime scene and will be guarded, Chandu and Satya decide to scale the building from outside through her neighbor's apartment.

They eventually find the envelope, which contains a storage receipt for the cloakroom at the railway station. Evading Nayar's henchmen and the police, Chandu and Satya face off against one of Nayar's henchmen at Chandu's apartment and tie him up. While Chandu goes off to meet his friend and decide what to do with the money they found, Satya is left to guard the henchman, who breaks free and subdues her, then calls Nayar. Chandu decides to keep half the money and return the rest but is ambushed by Nayar's henchmen and brought to his apartment, where he is forced to hand over the receipt.

The police, tipped off to their location by a police informant arrive at the location, and a shootout ensues. Chandu manages to subdue Nayar and get the receipt, and they head for the station with Nayar and the police in pursuit. The duo reaches the station and retrieves the money bag. They then climb the train to escape Nayar. At the next station, Nayar and his men board the train, leading to a fight between Chandu and the goons. Confronted by Nayar and one of his men atop the train, Nayar holds Chandu and Satya at gunpoint, demanding the money.

In response, Chandu hangs the bag over the side, threatening to drop it if he shoots. Left with no options, Nayar decides to have the train stopped so that he can shoot them and retrieve the money, only for his henchman and the train driver to struggle and fall out of the train. Chandu unhooks the engine from the rest of the train, jumping back to grab the bag and jump off, while the engine crashes into several houses and stops. Nayar is arrested by the police, and Chandu returns the money to Yadav after Satya questions his motives. The film ends with Satya asking Chandru to drop her home, offering to introduce him to her mother, and an amused Chandu agreeing.

Production
After the success of Siva (1989), Gopal Reddy approached Varma to make a film with Sridevi. Varma being an ardent fan of her agreed to do and called the film as "a love letter to her". "Takkari Donga Chakkani Chukka" and "36 Gantalu" were initially considered as the film's titles.

Filming was done in Hyderabad, Nallamala forests, and Mudumalai National Park. The climax was filmed at Nandyal. Sridevi's character was named after Satya, a woman who Ram Gopal Varma used to love in college who did not love him back. The song "Ko Ante Koti" ("Kingu La Kanipisthunnadu") was shot in The Leela Mumbai.

Soundtrack
Music composed by M. M. Keeravani. The song "Jaamu Raatiri" written by Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry with vocals by S. P. Balasubrahmanyam and K. S. Chithra is considered as an evergreen song. It was released on 13 August 1990. Rekindled version of the song was released on 23 August 2019 through Vel Records. Vedala Hemachandra, Kaala Bhairava, Manisha Eerabathini, Deepu, Damini, Mounima, Shruthi, Noel Sean and Prudhvi Chandhra have performed the vocals of the song. Keeravani revealed he took 12 days to compose score as it was the first 6 track film in Telugu and it was technically new in terms of sound designing.

Release
Kshana Kshanam was released on 9 October 1991. The film was dubbed and released in Tamil as Ennamo Nadakudhu and in Hindi as Hairaan in October 1992.

Reception
Griddaluru Gopalrao of Zamin Ryot wrote his review on 18 October 1991, appreciating the performances of the lead cast and the action sequences. Gopalrao, however, opined that the writing could have been better. He felt that the suspense was diluted because the audience is fed with the details which the characters themselves are not aware of. On 16 October 1992, Malini Mannath of The Indian Express termed the film a "comic-thriller." She wrote that "The climax scene on a train has been superbly directed."

In July 2020, The News Minute Balakrishna Ganeshan opined that the Kshana Kshanam tells the story from a female perspective which is rare in Indian cinema, however, he added that the film still suffers from male saviour complex. On the performance of the lead cast, he wrote: "Sridevi and Venkatesh are understated and subtle in their respective performances." Appreciating the cinematography, he stated: "S Gopal Reddy's cinematography too deserves mention. The film has a lot of top angle shots during the chasing sequences, which establish the chaos and keep the film fast-paced."

The soundtrack and score were composed by M. M. Keeravani received positive reviews. The narrative by Varma and the cinematography by S. Gopala Reddy were appreciated.

Awards

 * Nandi Awards
 * Best Director - Ram Gopal Varma
 * Best Actress - Sridevi
 * Best Screenplay Writer - Ram Gopal Varma
 * Best Cinematographer - S. Gopala Reddy
 * Best Editor - Shankar

 * Filmfare Awards South
 * Best Actress – Telugu - Sridevi
 * Best Music Director - Telugu - M. M. Keeravani

title: Kshana Kshanam


text:
Meanings of minor planet names: 99001–100000

99001–99100

 * -id=070
 * 99070 Strittmatter || || Peter Strittmatter (born 1939) is an American astronomer, involved with the Large Binocular Telescope and Giant Magellan Telescope projects, as well as regent professor, chairman of astronomy and director of the Steward Observatory at the University of Arizona. || ·
 * }

99101–99200

 * -id=193
 * 99193 Obsfabra || || The Fabra Observatory in Barcelona, Spain. It was inaugurated on 7 April 1904 and has been known for its work in astronomy, meteorology and seismology. || ·
 * }

99201–99300

 * 99201 Sattler || || Birgit I. Sattler (born 1969), Austrian limnologist, zoologist, and Antarctic explorer at the department of limnology and zoology at the University of Innsbruck. The two Antarctica expeditions she was a member of were sponsored by the National Science Foundation and the Planetary Studies Foundation, respectively. The name was suggested by H. Windolf. || ·
 * -id=262
 * 99262 Bleustein || || Marcel Bleustein-Blanchet (1906–1996) was a French publicist and founder of the Foundation of the Vocation in 1960. The discoverer of this minor planet, Jean-Claude Merlin, was a laureate of this foundation. || ·
 * }
 * }

99301–99400

 * -id=389
 * 99389 Marconovi || 2002 AN || Marco Novi (1960–2016), an Italian amateur astronomer. || ·
 * }

99401–99500

 * -bgcolor=#f2f2f2
 * colspan=4 align=center | There are no named minor planets in this number range
 * }

99501–99600

 * -id=503
 * 99503 Leewonchul || || Won Chul Lee (David W. Lee; 1896–1963), Korean astronomer, the first Korean to earn a Ph.D. degree, and the first director of the National Observatory in Seoul || ·
 * -id=581
 * 99581 Egal || || Auriane Egal (born 1991 ) is a postdoctoral associate at Western University in London, Canada. Her research focuses on the observation, modeling and prediction of meteor showers. || ·
 * }

99601–99700

 * -bgcolor=#f2f2f2
 * colspan=4 align=center | There are no named minor planets in this number range
 * }

99701–99800

 * -bgcolor=#f2f2f2
 * colspan=4 align=center | There are no named minor planets in this number range
 * }

99801–99900

 * -id=824
 * 99824 Polnareff || || Michel Polnareff (born 1944) is a French singer and a songwriter who has been very popular since his 1966 recording of the song "La poupée qui fait non" || ·
 * -id=861
 * 99861 Tscharnuter || || Werner M. Tscharnuter (born 1945) is an Austrian astrophysicist who has made major contributions to the fields of star formation, protoplanetary disks, stellar dynamics and Saturn's rings. He also has an interest in celestial mechanics, particularly with regard to the evolution of the Koronis family, to which this minor planet probably belongs. || ·
 * -id=862
 * 99862 Kenlevin || || Ken Levin (born 1953) is an American physicist who works in the field of infrared optics and sensors for application in medicine, aerospace and astronomy. He is an avid amateur astronomer, operates two private observatories and is a discoverer of minor planets. || ·
 * -id=863
 * 99863 Winnewisser || || Gisbert Winnewisser (1936–2011) was a German astrophysicist who established the KOSMA sub-mm telescope on Gornergrat and set up successful partnerships between the University of Cologne – of which he was the chairman of the Physics Institute from 1979 to 2001 – and research institutes worldwide. He was a member of three IAU Commissions and was honored with many prizes. || ·
 * -id=891
 * 99891 Donwells || || Don J. Wells (born 1965) is an American production manager of a Houston-area television station and a discoverer of minor planets (working from George Observatory and the Remote Astronomical Society Observatory of New Mexico). || ·
 * }

99901–100000

 * -id=905
 * 99905 Jeffgrossman || || Jeffrey N. Grossman (born 1955), an American chemist and meteoriticist at the U.S. Geological Survey in Reston, Virginia, conducts research in meteoritics and geochemistry. He is best known for his work on the origin of chondrules and chondrites and for studies of metamorphic processes on minor planets in the early Solar System. || ·
 * -id=906
 * 99906 Uofalberta || || The University of Alberta ("Uofalberta") was founded in 1908 in Edmonton and is one of the leading research institutions in Canada. The initials of its motto Quaecumque Vera ("Whatsoever things are true") appropriately appear in the provisional designation for this minor planet. || ·
 * -id=915
 * 99915 Henarejos || || Philippe Henarejos (b. 1967), a French science journalist. || ·
 * -id=928
 * 99928 Brainard || || Bradley J. Brainard (born 1955), American surgeon at the Tucson Orthopedic Institute. He has also held a residency in orthopedic surgery at the University of Arizona School of Medicine and a fellowship in foot-and-ankle surgery at the University of Cincinnati. || ·
 * -id=941
 * 99941 Lonniewege || || Lonnie Wege (born 1958) is a telescope sales manager and a Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope technology specialist. He is also an astronomy outreach volunteer with the Three Rivers Foundation, the Texas Astronomical Society and Celestron. || ·
 * -id=942
 * 99942 Apophis || || Apep the Destroyer (or Apophis in Greek), is the Egyptian god of evil and destruction who dwelled in eternal darkness. As a result of its passage within 40,000 kilometers of the Earth on 13 April 2029, this minor planet will move from the Aten to the Apollo class. || ·
 * -id=949
 * 99949 Miepgies || 1972 FD || Miep Gies (1909–2010), née Hermine Santrouschitz, was one of the Dutch citizens who hid Anne Frank and her family from the Nazis during World War II. She discovered and preserved the Diary of Anne Frank after her arrest and deportation. The name was suggested by Carl Egon Koppeschaar (see ). || ·
 * -id=950
 * 99950 Euchenor || || Euchenor, hero from Corinth in Greek mythology, was killed in the Trojan War by Paris. || ·
 * -id=000
 * 100000 Astronautica || || "Astronautica", on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the Space Age (beginning with the launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957), and because space arbitrarily begins at an altitude of 100,000 meters above Earth's surface (Src) || ·
 * }