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James Cash Penney

James Cash Penney Jr. (September 16, 1875 – February 12, 1971) was an American businessman and entrepreneur who founded the JCPenney stores in 1902.

Early life and education
Penney was born on September 16, 1875, on a farm outside of Hamilton, Missouri, the seventh of twelve children, only six of whom lived to adulthood, born to James Cash Penney and Mary Frances (born Paxton) Penney. Penney's father was a Baptist preacher and farmer whose strict discipline included making his son pay for his own clothing once he reached eight years of age.

After graduation from Hamilton High School, Penney intended to attend college with hopes of becoming a lawyer. His father's untimely death, however, forced a change in plans, and Penney was forced to work as a store clerk to help support the family. Penney's tuberculosis caused him to venture west to Longmont, Colorado.

J. C. Penney stores
In 1898, Penney began working for a small chain of stores in the Western United States, called the Golden Rule stores. In 1902, owners Guy Johnson and Thomas Callahan, impressed by his work ethic and salesmanship, offered him a one-third partnership in a new store he would open. Penney invested $2,000 and moved to Kemmerer, Wyoming, to open a store there. He participated in opening two more stores, and when Callahan and Johnson dissolved their partnership in 1907 he purchased full interest in all three stores.

By 1912, there were 34 stores in the Rocky Mountain States. In 1913, he moved the company to the Kearns Building in downtown Salt Lake City, Utah. The company was incorprated under the new name, J. C. Penney Company.

In 1916, he began to expand the chain east of the Mississippi River, and during the 1920s, the Penney company expanded nationwide, with 120 stores in 1920, most of which were still in the west. By 1924, Penney reported income of more than $1 million annually. The number of stores reached 1,400 by 1929.

The large income allowed him to be heavily involved in many philanthropic causes during the 1920s. By 1921, he had a home on Belle Isle in Miami Beach, Florida. Penney and partner Ralph W. Gwinn invested heavily in Florida real estate, including 120000 acre in Clay County. Some of this land became Penney Farms. This was also the start of Foremost Dairy Products Inc. Penney later recruited Paul E. Reinhold to run the dairy. Most of this work was halted with the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the Great Depression left Penney in financial ruin.

After the crash, Penney lost virtually all his personal wealth and borrowed against his life insurance policies to help the company meet its payroll. The financial setbacks took a toll on his health, and he checked himself into the Battle Creek Sanitarium in Battle Creek, Michigan, for treatment.

After hearing the hymn "God Will Take Care of You", written by Civilla D. Martin, sung at a service in the hospital's chapel, he became a born again Christian.

Even after relinquishing daily operating management of the company, Penney continued his active involvement in managing the company and its stores. In 1940, during a visit to a store in Des Moines, Iowa, he trained a young Sam Walton on how to wrap packages with a minimal amount of paper and ribbon. He remained chairman of the board until 1946, and after that, as honorary chairman until his death in 1971. Until the end of his life, he continued to go to his offices. Penney directed his stores to be closed on Sunday so employees could attend church.

Personal life
Penney was married three times. His first marriage, to Bertha Alva Hess (1869–1910) in 1899, produced two sons before her death from pneumonia:

 * Roswell Kemper Penney (1901–1971), who married Willa Graff.
 * James Cash Penney III (1903–1938), who married Louise Ducoudray in 1927.

After Bertha died in 1910, he married Mary Hortense Kimball (d. 1923) in July 1919. Mary gave birth to their son before her death of unspecified medical issues:

 * Kimball Penney (1920–1979)

In 1926, Penney married Caroline Marie Autenrieth (1895–1992). She was badly hurt in 1928 when she fell from a horse at their estate in White Plains, New York. They had two daughters:

 * Mary Frances Penney (b. 1927–2020), a professor of chemistry who obtained a PhD from the University of Oxford and a bachelor's degree from MIT, was married to Dr. Philip Franklin Wagley, son of Everitt F. Wagley, in 1953.
 * Carol Marie Penney (1930–2002), who earned a degree in international relations from Stanford University, and was married to David Guyer, attaché of the United Nations Technical Mission at Delhi.

Death
Penney lived in New York City at 888 Park Avenue, though he spent the winters in Palm Springs, California.

On December 26, 1970, Penney fell and fractured his hip. A few weeks later, he suffered a heart attack and neverfully recovered. He died on February 12, 1971, in New York City.

The Reverend Dr. Norman Vincent Peale delivered the eulogy at the funeral. Penney was buried in Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx, New York City, not far from the grave of fellow retail entrepreneur, F. W. Woolworth. His estate was valued at approximately $35 million.

Freemason
Penney was a Freemason most of his adult life, initiated into Wasatch Lodge No. 1 Free and Accepted Masons of Utah, on April 18, 1911. A member of both the Scottish and York Rites, Penney was coroneted a 33rd Degree on October 16, 1945, and received the Gold Distinguished Service Award by the General Grand Chapter, Royal Arch Masons, in Kansas City, Missouri, in 1958. He typically wore a large ring showing his Masonic degree.

Professional fraternities
Penney was a member of two professional collegiate fraternities: Alpha Gamma Rho for agriculture and Alpha Kappa Psi for business.

University of Miami
Penney was involved with the founding of the University of Miami, and served on its Board of Trustees from 1926 to 1930.

40Plus
At the end of the Great Depression in 1939, Penney teamed with Thomas J. Watson, president and founder of IBM, Arthur Godfrey, the radio and TV personality; and Norman Vincent Peale, a minister, inspirational speaker, and author of The Power of Positive Thinking, to help Henry Simler, an executive with Remington Rand form the first board of 40Plus, an organization that helps unemployed managers and executives.

Awards and philanthropy
In 1953, the Springfield, Missouri Chamber of Commerce presented Penney with a "Ozark Hillbilly Medallion" and a certificate proclaiming him a "hillbilly of the Ozarks."

Penney founded the James C. Penney Foundation in 1954. The foundation was restructured in 1999, with half the proceeds going to the Penney Family Fund, which is not affiliated with J. C. Penney Co., Inc., or its corporate giving program. The Penney Family Fund supports national organizations and state-based ones in Georgia, North Carolina, Arizona, and New Mexico that work to advance racial and environmental justice.

In 1960, Penney teamed up with the University of Missouri to establish the Penney-Missouri Awards to recognize excellence in Women's Page journalism, hoping to improve the sections where his stores most often advertised.

Commemoration

 * The J. C. Penney Conference Center at the University of Missouri-St. Louis was dedicated in his honor on January 23, 1972. The building was made possible through financial donations by Mr. Penney and his company.
 * Mr. Penney was inducted into the Junior Achievement U.S. Business Hall of Fame in 1976.
 * In 1926, Penney founded a retirement community in Northeast Florida for retired ministers in honor of his father. Today that community is still in existence, bearing his name, and is located in the town that also bears his name, Penney Farms, Florida.
 * The J. C. Penney Historic District in Kemmerer, Wyoming, was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1978.
 * In 1994, Penney was inducted into the Hall of Famous Missourians, and a bronze bust depicting him is on permanent display in the rotunda of the Missouri State Capitol in Jefferson City.
 * James Cash Penney was inducted into the 4-H Hall of Fame in 2002
 * James Cash Penney Hall at the National 4-H Center
 * Hamilton High School in Hamilton, Missouri, was renamed Penney High School.

title: James Cash Penney


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Talk:Marie of France, Countess of Champagne

Untitled
This article should be moved under Marie of France, since she was not born a Champagne, only became it by marriage. Check the Wiki naning conventions. 62.78.106.199 16:49, 19 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Marie de France
Of course, this is a debatable issue, since so little is known of Marie de France, the poet. However, I have seen some literature which identifies her as Eleanor's daughter, = this countess Mary. Besides, the countess factually was "Marie de France". Marie Capet is apparently an artificial naming. Some sources are making a temptative identification, some are direct in their allegation. 62.78.106.213 16:05, 31 May 2005 (UTC)

 * Seems unlikely to me. The poetess Marie de France wrote in Norman-French, the language of the English court, not the langue d'oil of continental France. Secondly, the last record of Marie de France is from 1215, while Marie of Champagne died in 1198. Marie of Champagne spent her life in Champagne and Blois, not in England or Normandy. Another identification I've seen is Marie, Abbess of Shaftsbury, the illegitimate half-sister of Henry II of England. Missi 00:29, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Influence
The following assertion in the main article is a bit of a cliffhanger. "Marie is remembered today mainly for her role in the heresy that was the target of the Albigensian Crusade. " This surely deserves to be expanded.--DStanB (talk) 12:18, 29 January 2013 (UTC) Agree with DStanB, this is unsourced but was part of the original creation of this article. The phrase has been replicated throughout the Internet and searches don't turn up much more. Can we get a verification from someone who has access to the listed source materials? Albigensian Crusade has no mention of her. --altjira (talk) 18:38, 10 March 2013 (UTC)

Not only does the Albigensian Crusade article not mention her, but she died almost a decade before the first military action against the Cathars. Raymond of Toulouse is mentioned in the Albigensian article and he must be a relation of sorts through her grandmother Philippa of Toulouse, but there's no indication that they were friends--or enemies. I think she's remembered mainly today for being the daughter of Eleanor of Aquitaine and the mother of Henri II, king of Jerusalem, who died in that nasty fall from his balcony. That event certainly hastened her retirement to a convent and maybe her death. I agree with DStanB and altjira: delete that unsourced sentence. Dee Fraser 23:15, 21 June 2013 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Dee Fraser (talk • contribs)

Edits
I have made a little change to King Richard's name. Maymichael2 (talk) 18:30, 1 June 2015 (UTC)

 * Am just starting the Women in Red project and looking forward to improving this article in the near future *Yseut229* (talk) 17:50, 13 April 2020 (UTC)

Removal of historical fiction section
I've removed the section about the subject's portrayal in historical fiction, since it seemed to me to be WP:COATRACKy - it's getting into a tangential subject that is not necessary to understand the article's subject (and is basically a small summary of the book stuck into this article). If the book is sufficiently notable to be mentioned here, it should have its own article and be linked from here. If the book is not sufficiently notable to have its own article, it probably isn't notable enough to be mentioned here either. Since the section's sources consisted of citations of the mentioned books and one book review, I'm leaning toward the "not sufficiently notable" side. The removed section briefly mentioned that one of the seminal biographies of the subject was written by that same author - if that were properly cited, that might be worth a (brief!) mention alongside other similar works. GeneralNotability (talk) 23:05, 16 June 2020 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Edison Illuminating Company

The Edison Illuminating Company was established by Thomas Edison on December 17, 1880, to construct electrical generating stations, initially in New York City. The company was the prototype for other local illuminating companies that were established in the United States during the 1880s.

Pearl Street Station
On September 4, 1882, Edison's first central station, the Pearl Street Station, opened at 257 Pearl Street in Manhattan. The station was the first commercial power plant in the United States, and was the world's first cogeneration plant. The plant burned down on January 2 1890. Only 1 dynamo (or generator) survived; it is currently displayed at the Henry Ford Museum. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers designated it as a milestone in 2011.

Other stations
In November 1882, the Edison Electric Illuminating Company of Shamokin, Pennsylvania was established. In 1883, it became only the second three-wire electrical station in the world. The first was Edison's plant in Sunbury, Pennsylvania, which opened on July 4, 1883. The opening ceremony was attended by Edison himself. Even today, Edison's presence is remembered throughout the town, with the Edison Hotel and a monument just outside Sunbury. On October 1, 1883, the Brockton Edison Electric Illuminating Company Power Station, another three-wire plant, opened in Brockton, Massachusetts and was capable of supplying about 1600 lamps. The Brockton station is listed in the National Register of Historic Places. On November 17, 1883, the Edison Electric Illuminating Company of Mount Carmel, Pennsylvania was founded. This was the first isolated electrical plant in the world, meaning that the entirety of Mount Carmel was powered by electricity. 38 arc lamps and 50 incandescent light bulbs were erected in the downtown business district. Edison also opened plants in Fall River, Massachusetts (1883), Cumberland, Maryland (1884), Tamaqua, Pennsylvania (1885), and Boston (1886).

Fate
The Edison Illuminating Company was purchased by Consolidated Gas in 1901. In 1936, with electricity sales far outpacing gas sales, the company changed its name to Consolidated Edison. Today, Con Ed is a multi-billion dollar company that provides power to around 3.3 million people. Occasionally, it is misreported that the Edison Illuminating Company later became General Electric; however, they were never related aside from their common founder.

Notable employees
In 1891, Henry Ford became an engineer with the Edison Illuminating Company, and was promoted to Chief Engineer in 1893. He left the company on August 15, 1899 to focus on automobile manufacturing. James Hood Wright was a board member of the company.

title: Edison Illuminating Company


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2000 French Open

The 2000 French Open was a tennis tournament that took place on the outdoor clay courts at the Stade Roland Garros in Paris, France. The tournament was held from 29 May until 11 June. It was the 104th staging of the French Open, and the second Grand Slam tennis event of 2000.

Men's singles
🇧🇷 Gustavo Kuerten defeated 🇸🇪 Magnus Norman, 6–2, 6–3, 2–6, 7–6(8–6)
 * • It was Kuerten's 2nd career Grand Slam singles title and his 2nd title at the French Open. It was Kuerten's 3rd title of the year, and his 8th overall.

Women's singles
🇫🇷 Mary Pierce defeated 🇪🇸 Conchita Martínez, 6–2, 7–5
 * • It was Pierce's 2nd and last career Grand Slam singles title and her 1st title at the French Open. It was Pierce's 2nd title of the year, and her 15th overall.

Men's doubles
🇦🇺 Todd Woodbridge / 🇦🇺 Mark Woodforde defeated Paul Haarhuis / 🇦🇺 Sandon Stolle, 7–6(9–7), 6–4
 * • It was Woodbridge's 10th career Grand Slam doubles title and his 1st and only title at the French Open.
 * • It was Woodforde's 11th career Grand Slam doubles title and his 1st and only title at the French Open.

Women's doubles
Martina Hingis / 🇫🇷 Mary Pierce defeated 🇪🇸 Virginia Ruano / 🇦🇷 Paola Suárez, 6–2, 6–4
 * • It was Hingis' 8th career Grand Slam doubles title and her 2nd and last title at the French Open.
 * • It was Pierce's 1st and only career Grand Slam doubles title.

Mixed doubles
Mariaan de Swardt / David Adams defeated 🇦🇺 Rennae Stubbs / 🇦🇺 Todd Woodbridge, 6–3, 3–6, 6–3
 * • It was de Swardt's 2nd and last career Grand Slam mixed doubles title and her 1st title at the French Open.
 * • It was Adams's 2nd and last career Grand Slam mixed doubles title and his 1st title at the French Open.

Boys' singles
🇫🇷 Paul-Henri Mathieu defeated 🇪🇸 Tommy Robredo, 3–6, 7–6(7–3), 6–2

Girls' singles
🇫🇷 Virginie Razzano defeated 🇦🇷 María Emilia Salerni, 5–7, 6–4, 8–6

Boys' doubles
🇪🇸 Marc López / 🇪🇸 Tommy Robredo defeated 🇸🇪 Joachim Johansson / 🇺🇸 Andy Roddick, 7–6(7–2), 6–0

Girls' doubles
🇪🇸 Maria José Martinez / 🇪🇸 Anabel Medina Garrigues defeated Matea Mezak / 🇷🇺 Dinara Safina, 6–0, 6–1

Prize money
Total prize money for the event was FF69,163,000.

title: 2000 French Open


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User:Ronsnyderjr

Ron Snyder, Jr, freelance scriptwriter and language instructor in Tacloban City, Philippines.

Articles created/contributed

 * Waray-waray language
 * Lyceum of the Philippines
 * Tagalog language
 * Tacloban City
 * Korean language

fr:Utilisateur:Ronsnyderjr ja:%E5%88%A9%E7%94%A8%E8%80%85:Ronsnyderjr pt:Usu%C3%A1rio:Ronsnyderjr

title: User:Ronsnyderjr


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AMD CrossFire

AMD CrossFire (also known as CrossFireX) is a brand name for the multi-GPU technology by Advanced Micro Devices, originally developed by ATI Technologies. The technology allows up to four GPUs to be used in a single computer to improve graphics performance.

Associated technology used in mobile computers with external graphics cards, such as in laptops or notebooks, is called AMD Hybrid Graphics.

The CrossFire brand name was retired by AMD in September 2017, however the company continues to develop and support the technology for DirectX 11 applications. For DirectX 12 applications, AMD has the mGPU (also known as multi-GPU) branding, with the difference being that software developers must create mGPU compatible profiles for their applications where before AMD created the profiles for DirectX 11 applications.

First-generation
CrossFire was first made available to the public on September 27, 2005. The system required a CrossFire-compliant motherboard with a pair of ATI Radeon PCI Express (PCIe) graphics cards. Radeon x800s, x850s, x1800s and x1900s came in a regular edition, and a "CrossFire Edition" which has "master" capability built into the hardware. "Master" capability is a term used for 5 extra image compositing chips, which combine the output of both cards. One had to buy a Master card, and pair it with a regular card from the same series. The Master card shipped with a proprietary DVI Y-dongle, which plugged into the primary DVI ports on both cards, and into the monitor cable. This dongle serves as the main link between both cards, sending incomplete images between them, and complete images to the monitor. Low-end Radeon x1300 and x1600 cards have no "CrossFire Edition" but are enabled via software, with communication forwarded via the standard PCI Express slots on the motherboard. ATI currently has not created the infrastructure to allow FireGL cards to be set up in a CrossFire configuration. The "slave" graphics card needed to be from the same family as the "master".

An example of a limitation in regard to a Master-card configuration would be the first-generation CrossFire implementation in the Radeon X850 XT Master Card. Because it used a compositing chip from Silicon Image (SiI 163B TMDS), the maximum resolution on an X850 CrossFire setup was limited to 1600×1200 at 60 Hz, or 1920×1440 at 52 Hz. This was considered a problem for CRT owners wishing to use CrossFire to play games at high resolutions, or owners of Widescreen LCD monitors. As many people found a 60 Hz refresh rate with a CRT to strain one's eyes, the practical resolution limit became 1280×1024, which did not push CrossFire enough to justify the cost. The next generation of CrossFire, as employed by the X1800 Master cards, used two sets of compositing chips and a custom double density dual-link DVI Y-dongle to double the bandwidth between cards, raising the maximum resolution and refresh rate to far higher levels.

Second-generation (Software CrossFire)
When used with ATI's "CrossFire Xpress 3200" motherboard chipset, the "master" card is no longer required for every "CrossFire Ready" card (with the exception of the Radeon X1900 series). With the CrossFire Xpress 3200, two normal cards can be run in a Crossfire setup, using the PCI Express bus for communications. This is similar to X1300 CrossFire, which also uses PCI Express, except that the Xpress 3200 had been built for low-latency and high-speed communication between graphics cards. While performance was impacted, this move was viewed as an overall improvement in market strategy, because Crossfire Master cards were expensive, in high demand, and largely unavailable at the retail level.

Although the CrossFire Xpress 3200 chipset is indeed capable of CrossFire through the PCI Express bus for every Radeon series below the X1900s, the driver accommodations for this CrossFire method have not yet materialized for the X1800 series. ATI has said that future revisions of the Catalyst driver suite will contain what is required for X1800 dongleless CrossFire, but has not yet mentioned a specific date.

Third-generation (CrossFireX)

With the release of the Radeon X1950 Pro (RV570 GPU), ATI has completely revised CrossFire's connection infrastructure to further eliminate the need for past Y-dongle/Master card and slave card configurations for CrossFire to operate. ATI's CrossFire connector (CrossFire Bridge Interconnect, or CFBI link) is now a ribbon-like connector attached to the top of each graphics adapter, similar to nVidia's SLI bridges, but different in physical and logical natures. As such, Master Cards no longer exist, and are not required for maximum performance. Two dongles can be used per card; these were put to full use with the release of CrossFireX. Radeon HD 2900 and HD 3000 series cards use the same ribbon connectors, but the HD 3800 series of cards only require one ribbon connector, to facilitate CrossFireX. Unlike older series of Radeon cards, different HD 3800 series cards can be combined in CrossFireX, each with separate clock control.

Since the release of the codenamed Spider desktop platform from AMD on November 19, 2007, the CrossFire setup has been updated with support for a maximum of four video cards with the 790FX chipset; the CrossFire branding was then changed to "ATI CrossFireX". The setup, which, according to internal testing by AMD, will bring at least 3.2x performance increase in several games and applications which required massive graphics capabilities of the computer system, is targeted to the enthusiast market.

A later development to the CrossFire infrastructure includes a dual GPUs with on-board PCI Express bridge that was released in early 2008, the Radeon HD 3870 X2 and later in Radeon HD 4870 X2 graphics cards, featuring only one CrossFire connector for dual card, four GPU scalability. When using two GPUs on board the same system, the HDMI ports on the GPUs cannot both work at the same time.

An earlier CrossFireX and chipset compatibility chart is shown here: The latest compatibility charts, as of April 2014, shows AMD 890, 990 and A75 chipsets—and many Intel chipsets including Z68 and X79 chipsets—as being compatible with CrossFireX; they also show which GPU cards may be paired with an external bridge (HD 7750, HD 5750, HD 4350, HD 4550, HD 4650, HD 4670 cards may be paired without an external bridge, though the charts also indicate that some models manufactured by other than AMD may still require the bridge).

Fourth generation (XDMA)
The Radeon R9 290 and R9 290X graphics cards (released on October 24, 2013 and based on Graphics Core Next 1.1 "Volcanic Islands") as well as GPUs using newer versions of GCN no longer have bridging ports. Instead, they use XDMA to open a direct channel of communication between the multiple GPUs in a system, operating over the same PCI Express bus which is used by AMD Radeon graphics cards.

PCI Express 3.0 lanes provide up to 17.5 times higher bandwidth (15.754 GB/s for a ×16 slot) when compared to current external bridges (900 MB/s), rendering the use of a CrossFire bridge unnecessary. Thus, XDMA was selected for greater GPU interconnection bandwidth demands generated by AMD Eyefinity, and more recently by 4K resolution monitors. Bandwidth of the data channel opened by XDMA is fully dynamic, scaling itself together with the demands of the game being played, as well as adapting to advanced user settings such as vertical synchronization (vsync).

Additionally, some newer cards are capable of pairing with 7000-series cards based on the Graphics Core Next 1.0 "Southern Islands" architecture. For example, an R9-280X card can be used in a CrossFireX setup together with a HD 7970 card, largely due to them being the same product at different clock rates.

GPUOpen offers some MIT-licensed source-code for DirectGMA applications with multiple AMD GPUs in conjunction with Direct3D 11, OpenGL and OpenCL: https://github.com/GPUOpen-LibrariesAndSDKs/DirectGMA_P2P

Hybrid CrossFireX (dual graphics)
There is also a "hybrid" mode of CrossFireX that combines on-board graphics using the AMD northbridge architecture with select graphic cards, for increased performance. The current generation is called Hybrid CrossFireX and is available for motherboards with integrated AMD chipsets in the 7 and 8 series GPUs, referred to as Hybrid CrossFireX.

This combination results in power-savings when simple or 2D graphics are used and performance increases of 25% to over 200% in 3D graphics over using a non CrossFire option. As of March 2012, it appears that this is now called "AMD Radeon Dual Graphics" and means using A-series APUs together with video cards.

Similarities
In some cases CrossFire doesn't improve 3D performance – in some extreme cases, it can lower the framerate due to the particulars of an application's coding. This is also true for Nvidia's SLI, as the problem is inherent in multi-GPU systems. This is often witnessed when running an application at low resolutions.

When using CrossFire with AFR, the subjective framerate can often be lower than the framerate reported by benchmarking applications, and may even be poorer than the frame rate of its single-GPU equivalent. This phenomenon is known as micro stuttering and also applies to SLI since it is inherent to multi-GPU configurations. AMD CrossFireX, and NVIDIA SLI setups both require bridges, and a power supply unit (PSU) capable of supplying enough power to the GPUs. 6 pin (75 watt 3+3, becoming rare now), 8 pin (150 watt 4+4), and 16 pin (300 watt 8+8) power plugs are all common in today's graphics cards.

Advantages
CrossFire can be implemented with GPU cards of the same generation, and manufacture (this is compared to Nvidia's SLI, which generally only works if all cards have the same GPU, and brand). This allows buyers who have varying budgets over time to purchase different cards and still get the benefits of increased performance. With the latest generation cards, they will only crossfire with other cards in their sub series. For example, GPU in the same series can be crossfired with each other. So a 5800 series GPU (e.g. a 5830) can run together with another 5800 series GPU (e.g. 5870). However, GPUs not in the same hundred series cannot be crossfired successfully (e.g. a 5770 cannot run with a 5870). The only exception is that the HD 7870 XT cards can be used with a HD 7900 series GPU (e.g., a 7950) in a crossfire configuration because they feature the same GPU.

AMD CrossFire, and SLI configurations can run many monitors of varying size and resolutions. Both SLI, and CrossFire setups only allow up to four 8K (7680x4320) monitors, or eight 4K monitors (3840x2160). Each monitor requires its own dedicated graphics card (except for 4K, and standard HD), in that case up to two monitors can be on one dedicated graphics card.

Disadvantages
Major downside of CrossFire is that it works only in fullscreen mode, requiring extrinsic support for software or games when run in borderless/windowed mode.

The first generation CrossFire implementations (the Radeon X800 to X1900 series) require an external y-cable/dongle to operate in CrossFire mode due to the PCI Express bus not being able to provide enough bandwidth to run CrossFire without losing a significant amount of performance.

title: AMD CrossFire


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Salaak

Salaak is a fictional comic book superhero, an extraterrestrial from the planet Slyggia, and a member of the intergalactic police force known as the Green Lantern Corps, who appears in DC Comics. Physically, he has pinkish orange skin and four arms.

Publication history
Salaak first appears in Green Lantern #149 and was created by Marv Wolfman and Joe Staton.

Fictional character biography
A famous pessimist and loner, Salaak is a creature of protocol and laws. A veteran Green Lantern, he has served in many Corps campaigns over the years. During the Crisis on Infinite Earths he protects multiple sectors, but found the experience depressing. After this, he went to Earth looking for company amongst his fellow Green Lanterns. He served with the contingent of Green Lanterns assigned to Earth and became good friends with Ch'p of H'lven. For a time Salaak lived in the future, filling the identity of Pol Manning as Hal Jordan had before him. While in the future, Salaak was married to a human woman.

Salaak returns to the present day to warn about the destruction of the Corps. He was too late to stop the execution of Sinestro. The Central Power Battery on Oa ends up destroyed, and with it, Salaak's ring is made inoperable. He finds transport to H'lven where he reunites with Ch'p, one of the few Lanterns whose ring still functioned. Salaak remains on H'lven and acts as Ch'p's advisor until they discover that the Guardians have returned and have rebuilt the Corps. The two later petition for reinstatement, but Ch'p is killed in a traffic accident. The Corps is destroyed again when Hal Jordan, crazed with grief at the loss of friends, became the entity known as Parallax. Hal's activities caused the shutdown of the Oan battery again and Salaak, along with all other Green Lanterns, were left powerless.

Salaak ends up captured, along with multiple other Green Lanterns and one Darkstar. They are scheduled to be sold into slavery but former Green Lantern Guy Gardner, with powers underived from a Power Ring, rescues the entire group.

Promotion
Salaak attends Hal's memorial service on Earth. The Corps, reformed again, has Salaak as the senior administrator and the Keeper of the Book of Oa. The Book tells of the adventures of multiple Green Lanterns throughout the history of the universe.

Salaak reinforces the squadron of Lanterns sent to save Mogo from Ranx the Sentient City and other Sinestro Corps members (Sinestro having returned from the dead). He has expressed displeasure at the fact that the Guardians have rewritten the Book of Oa to allow lethal force against members of the Sinestro Corps, but is still committed to serve.

He survived the Sinestro Corps War without major injuries, and he continues to hold on to his position as keeper of the Book of Oa. He is kept out of the loop in some instances by the Guardians who neglected to tell him their plans to create the Alpha Lanterns. He is seen getting into an argument with Guy Gardner over a bar he wishes to open. Salaak quickly disapproves, which leads Guy to use his ring to make a miniaturized version of Salaak mocking him for "hanging out with midgets".

Salaak is seen in Final Crisis #5 as part of the trial of Hal Jordan.

During the Blackest Night, Oa comes under siege from the Black Lantern Corps. With the Guardians missing, Salaak takes command of the Green Lantern Corps as Clarissi and thus the next in succession after the Guardians, preventing the Alpha Lanterns' attempt to take control. As his first command decision, Salaak decrees that all fallen Lantern rings be sent to Mogo, so as not to endanger any new recruits.

After the War of the Green Lanterns, Salaak went along with the Guardians' orders to prepare a space for Krona in the Green Lantern memorial hall despite the other Corps members' anger at such a decision, despite Salaak claiming that the Guardians want to remember the good that Krona did in helping to found the Corps rather than the evil he committed later, with the other Corps members denouncing him for his blind loyalty.

When Kyle Rayner is briefly turned into a ring magnet, Salaak attempts to remove Kyle's Green Lantern ring on the Guardians' orders. Kyle's ring resists Salaak's attempt at removal as Kyle protests the decision and what they did to Ganthet. Later, Salaak assigns the Green Lantern B'dg to find Hal Jordan on Earth and discovers that the green rings are being delayed under the authorization of the Guardians to which he also secretly informs Kilowog of these events. Concerned at recent events, Salaak begins to spy on the Guardians, learning of their plans for the Third Army. He is subsequently caught and locked away despite his protests that their plans are wrong. After the unemotional Guardians are killed off by Sinestro, Salaak is freed from his imprisonment by Kilowog and Guy Gardner, who explain to him the events regarding the villainous First Lantern. Later, Salaak helps Guy search for his old arch-enemy, Xar. Guy slays Xar on Earth.

As with most Lanterns, Salaak is lost in the dying universe proceeding this one. He is fortunate to be one of the few Lanterns on the thriving, living Lantern world Mogo, which has become a center of activity in what is left of said universe.

The Corps have returned, damaged and with many casualties, to their proper place and time. Salaak has returned to active duty, such as assisting against the brainwashing menace Starro.

Other versions

 * An alternate universe incarnation of Salaak makes a cameo appearance in Planetary as one of several Green Lanterns killed by the titular villains.
 * Salaak appears in a Least I Could Do web comic.

Television

 * Salaak makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in the Superman: The Animated Series episode "In Brightest Day...".
 * Salaak makes a non-speaking appearance in the Justice League Unlimited episode "The Return".
 * Salaak makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in the Duck Dodgers episode "The Green Loontern".
 * Salaak makes non-speaking cameo appearances in Batman: The Brave and the Bold.
 * Salaak appears in Green Lantern: The Animated Series, voiced by Tom Kenny.

Live-action
Salaak makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in Green Lantern.

Animation

 * Salaak makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in Green Lantern: First Flight.
 * Salaak appears in Green Lantern: Emerald Knights, voiced by Peter Jessop.
 * Salaak appears in Justice League vs. the Fatal Five, voiced again by Tom Kenny.
 * Salaak makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in Justice League Dark: Apokolips War. He is seen fighting against Darkseid's forces but is killed in battle along with the other Lanterns.

Video games
Salaak appears as a character summon in Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure.

Miscellaneous
Salaak appears in Smallville Season 11.

title: Salaak


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Gian Maria Visconti

Gian Maria Visconti (or Giovanni Maria; 7 September 1388 – 16 May 1412) was the second Visconti Duke of Milan, the son of Gian Galeazzo Visconti and Caterina Visconti. He was known to be cruel and was eventually assassinated. He had no children.

Biography
Visconti was born in Abbiategrasso. Following his father's death, he assumed the title of duke at the age of thirteen, under his mother's regency. The Duchy of Milan soon disintegrated: among the various parties contending its lands, the condottiero Facino Cane prevailed.

Taking advantage of Gian Maria's cruelty, he managed to create in him doubts about Caterina, who was imprisoned in Monza, where she died on 17 October 1404, probably murdered. The duke was famous for his dogs, which were trained to slaughter men.

In 1408, Gian Maria married Antonia Malatesta of Cesena, daughter of Carlo I, lord of Rimini. They had no issue.

A plot by a party of Milanese Ghibellines was raised against the Duke when Facino Cane was terminally ill in Pavia, and Gian Maria was assassinated in front of the church of San Gottardo in Milan. The dying Facino had his officers swear to support Filippo Maria, Gian Maria's brother, who in fact succeeded him.

In literature

 * Bellarion, by Raphael Sabatini

title: Gian Maria Visconti


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International Male

International Male was a mail-order clothing brand and, at one point in the brand's history, carried brick-and-mortar stores of the same name. The company that created and owns the brand, originally Brawn of California, started in 1974–1975, has since been sold in its entirety in 1987 to Hanover Direct, based in New Jersey.

International Male was a vendor of men's casual, office-casual, and some gallant clothing items which were generally geared to the dandy. Brawn of California, and all brands in its portfolio, is now owned by New Jersey-based group Hanover Direct, which purchased the company in 1987 when founder Gene Burkard retired. Burkard died on December 11, 2020.

The catalog originally carried a wide variety of men's underwear, but this was once spun off into a separate catalog, Undergear, which focused exclusively on men's underwear, swimwear, and some casual wear. The last mailed catalog of International Male was published in 2007. The brands are both available via their own websites, but the International Male site is now defunct and redirects to the Undergear site.

As of 2009, Hanover Direct consolidated these two product platforms under the Undergear label. Undergear is now the sole catalog and web site and incorporates the non-underwear items that would earlier have been in the International Male catalog-website. The selection of non-underwear clothing is quite limited in comparison to the former years (when International Male was its own separate catalog and website containing many items of clothing besides underwear and swimwear). Over the years, many famous models and actors have posed for the catalog, such as Shemar Moore, Cameron Mathison, Charles Dera, Christian Boeving, David Chokachi, Gregg Avedon, Reichen Lehmkuhl, Rusty Joiner, Brandon Marcel and Scott King.

At one point, Brawn of California partnered with World Financial Network Bank (WFNNB) to offer their customers a credit card. The card is no longer available.

title: International Male


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Lord of Milan

The Lord of Milan was a medieval noble title for the dynastic head of state of the city of Milan and surrounding countryside in northern Italy. From 1277 to 1395, the Visconti family held the title, after which they were elevated to Duke of Milan.

Until 1259, Milan was a free commune that elected its own podestà. The Torriani family gained sustained power in 1240, when Pagano della Torre (podestà) was elected podestà. After Pagano's death, Baldo Ghiringhelli was elected podestà in 1259, but at the end of his tenure Martino della Torre, Pagano's nephew, perpetrated a coup d'état, seizing power for his family and establishing the first Signoria ('Lordship') of Milan.

During their tenure, the Torriani family, aligned with the French Charles of Anjou (the Guelph faction), began a strong rivalry with the Visconti family, who were aligned with the German Hohenstaufen (the Ghibelline faction). In 1262, Pope Urban IV appointed Ottone Visconti as Archbishop of Milan, to Martino della Torre's disappointment. In 1273, a civil war started between the two families, ending with the Torriani's defeat in the Battle of Desio of 1277, which the Visconti subsequently commemorated with frescoes in the Castle of Angera.

In June 1302, Guido della Torre forged a coalition with anti-Visconti cities and marched on Milan, deposing the Visconti. However, in 1308 Guido quarrelled with his cousin, the Archbishop Cassone della Torre. After an assault on Milan Cathedral, Cassone fled to Bologna and solicited an imperial intervention. Taking advantage of a chaotic situation in Northern Italy, King Henry VII of Germany invaded Italy, and in Autumn 1310 he marched on Milan to restore both Cassone and the Visconti. After the fall of Milan, he was crowned King of Italy in the city's Cathedral.

title: Lord of Milan


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Frank Denyer

Frank Denyer (born April 12, 1943, in London) is a composer. His music uses a combination of conventional instruments and new, unusual, and structurally modified instruments. Partly due to his studies of non-Western music, much of Denyer's music is microtonal.

Biography
Denyer was a chorister at Canterbury Cathedral and later studied at the Guildhall in London. In 1966 he co-founded, and was director of, the Society of Hermes, an arts club for new music, painting, poetry and theatre in Shepherds Bush, London. He formed and directed Mouth of Hermes. a professional instrumental ensemble devoted to new and experimental forms of music. He toured widely with the ensemble in Europe, Scandinavia and the U.K. in the years up to 1974, presenting new compositions. During this time he was lecturer in Composition and 20th Century Studies at Hornsey College of Art. This early period culminated in his being a featured composer/performer at the Festival d’Orleans, France, in 1973.

Denyer left the UK for a time in 1974 to begin what he calls his "musical travels", and to undertake his first attempts at ethnomusicological fieldwork (in west Asia and the Kulu Valley in north India). In the summer of 1974 he was a Visiting lecturer at the National Institute of Design, Ahmedabad, India. Between 1974 and 1977 he was a PhD student in ethnomusicology at Wesleyan University in Connecticut. Thereafter he was Research Fellow in African Music at the Institute of African Studies, University of Nairobi, Kenya, and then Lecturer in Ethnomusicology at Kenyatta University College in Nairobi. The impact of these studies on his subsequent musical output is profound, but Denyer has never been interested in hybridization or "crossover". Upon his return to England in 1981 he began teaching at Dartington College of Arts in Devon, where he was a professor of Composition until the college merged with University College Falmouth in 2010. Together with James Fulkerson co-founded the Barton Workshop in Amsterdam in 1990 to perform American experimental music and his own compositions; his recordings of the solo piano music and ensemble works of Morton Feldman, Galina Ustvolskaya, Christian Wolff, John Cage, Jerry Hunt, James Tenney, Alvin Lucier and others have met with wide acclaim.

Denyer's music has remained resolutely independent of musical fashion. An early interest in melody in the 1970s has remained a feature of his work (as seen perhaps in its most extreme form in his works for shakuhachi, collected on the 2007 CD Music for shakuhachi [see Discography]). His music shows an extraordinary ear for timbre, and for novel combinations of acoustic sounds. The first of his large-scale works, A Monkey's Paw (premiered at Darmstadt in 1990; see Discography) displays this clearly. More recently an interest in extremely quiet sounds has characterised several works, including Prison Song, Faint Traces and Tentative Thoughts, Silenced Voices (collectively forming his Prison Trilogy (1999–2003)).

Compositions for shakuhachi
Though not a shakuhachi player himself, Denyer has collaborated with Yoshikazu Iwamoto to write pieces for the instrument, including:
 * After the Rain
 * Wheat
 * The Tender Sadness of Tyrants as They Dance
 * Stalks
 * Winged Play
 * Unnamed

Discography

 * Silenced Voices. Mode, 2008 (includes Woman, Viola and Crow; Two Beacons; Ghosts Again; Tentative Thoughts, Silenced Voices )
 * Music for Shakuhachi. Another Timbre, 2007 (includes On, on - it must be so; Quite White; Wheat; Unnamed)
 * Faint Traces. Mode, 2005 (includes Out of the Shattered Shadows 1; Out of the Shattered Shadows 2; Faint Traces; Music for Two Performers; Play; Passages)
 * Fired City. Tzadik, 2002 (includes Towards the Darkness; Beneath the Fired City; Quick, Quick, the Tamberan is Coming; The Hanged Fiddler; Resonances of Ancient Sins; Prison Song)
 * Finding Refuge in the Remains. Etcetera, 1998 (includes Finding Refuge in the Remains; Quartet; Frog; Archeology; Contained in a Strange Garden; The Tender Sadness of Tyrants as They Dance)
 * The Contrabass Saxophone. Earup, 1996 (includes Resonances of Ancient Sins)
 * Konink & Andriessen: Notes 94. Walpurgis, 1994 (includes Beneath the Fired City)
 * A Monkey's Paw. Continuum, 1991 (includes Stalks; After the Rain; A Fragile Thread; A Monkey's Paw; Winged Play)
 * Wheat: The Music of Frank Denyer. Orchid Records, 1984 (includes On, On, it must be so; I Await the Sea’s Red Hibiscus; Wheat; Quick, Quick, the Tamberan is Coming; Quite White; Voices)

Writings and interviews

 * Interview with Frank Denyer (2007) by Dan Warburton in Paris Transatlantic Magazine
 * Denyer, Frank (ed.) & Landy, Leigh (ed.). Leaving the Twentieth Century: Ideas & Visions of New Musics. Harwood Academic Pub., 1997. ISBN 90-5702-104-8.
 * Denyer, Frank. Finding a Voice in an Age of Migration (1994) in Contemporary Music Review, 1996, vol. 15, nos 3–4.
 * Denyer, Frank. The Shakuhachi and the Contemporary Music Instrumentarium: a Personal View (1991) in Contemporary Music Review, 1994, vol. 6, no. 2.

title: Frank Denyer


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Mark Felt

William Mark Felt Sr. (August 17, 1913 – December 18, 2008) was an American law enforcement officer who worked for the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) from 1942 to 1973 and was known for his role in the Watergate scandal. Felt was an FBI special agent who eventually rose to the position of Deputy Director, the Bureau's second-highest-ranking post. Felt worked in several FBI field offices prior to his promotion to the Bureau's headquarters. In 1980, he was convicted of having violated the civil rights of people thought to be associated with members of the Weather Underground, by ordering FBI agents to break into their homes and search the premises as part of an attempt to prevent bombings. He was ordered to pay a fine, but was pardoned by President Ronald Reagan during his appeal.

In 2005, at age 91, Felt revealed to Vanity Fair magazine that during his tenure as Deputy Director of the FBI he had been the anonymous source known as "Deep Throat", who provided The Washington Post reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein with critical information about the Watergate scandal, which ultimately led to the resignation of President Richard Nixon in 1974. Woodward, who had long vowed not to reveal Deep Throat's identity while the source was still alive, quickly confirmed Felt's claim. Though Felt's identity as Deep Throat was suspected, including by Nixon himself, it had generally remained a secret for 30 years. Felt finally acknowledged that he was Deep Throat after being persuaded by his daughter to reveal his identity before his death.

Felt published two memoirs: The FBI Pyramid in 1979 (updated in 2006) and A G-Man's Life, written with John O'Connor in 2006. In 2012, the FBI released Felt's personnel file covering the period from 1941 to 1978. The agency also released files pertaining to an extortion threat made against Felt in 1956.

Early life and career
Born on August 17, 1913, in Twin Falls, Idaho, Felt was the son of Rose R. Dygert and Mark Earl Felt, a carpenter and building contractor. His paternal grandfather was a Free Will Baptist minister. His maternal grandparents were born in Canada and Scotland. Through his maternal grandfather, Felt was collaterally descended from Revolutionary War general Nicholas Herkimer of New York.

After graduating from Twin Falls High School in 1931, Felt attended the University of Idaho in Moscow. He was a member and president of the Gamma Gamma chapter of the Beta Theta Pi fraternity, and received a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1935.

Felt then went to Washington, D.C., to work in the office of Democratic U.S. Senator James P. Pope. In 1938, Felt married Audrey Robinson of Gooding, Idaho, whom he had known when they were students at the University of Idaho. She had come to Washington to work at the Bureau of Internal Revenue. Their wedding was officiated by the chaplain of the United States House of Representatives, the Rev. Sheara Montgomery. Audrey died by suicide on July 20, 1984; she and Felt had two children, Joan and Mark.

Felt stayed on with Pope's successor in the Senate, David Worth Clark (D-Idaho). He attended the George Washington University Law School at night, earning his J.D. degree in 1940, and was admitted to the District of Columbia Bar in 1941.

Upon graduation, Felt took a position at the Federal Trade Commission but did not enjoy his work. His workload was very light, and he was assigned to investigate whether a toilet paper brand, called "Red Cross", was misleading consumers into thinking it was endorsed by the American Red Cross. Felt wrote in his memoir:

My research, which required days of travel and hundreds of interviews, produced two definite conclusions:

1. Most people did use toilet tissue.

2. Most people did not appreciate being asked about it.

That was when I started looking for other employment.

He applied for a job with the FBI in November 1941 and was accepted. His first day at the Bureau was January 26, 1942.

Early FBI years
FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover often moved Bureau agents around so they would have wide experience in the field. This was typical of other agencies and corporations of the time. Felt observed that Hoover "wanted every agent to get into any field office at any time. Since he [Hoover] had never been transferred and did not have a family, he had no idea of the financial and personal hardship involved."

After completing 16 weeks of training at the FBI Academy in Quantico, Virginia, and FBI Headquarters in Washington, Felt was assigned to Texas, spending three months each in the field offices in Houston and San Antonio. He returned to FBI Headquarters, where he was assigned to the Espionage Section of the Domestic Intelligence Division, tracking down spies and saboteurs during World War II. He worked on the Major Case Desk. His most notable counterintelligence work was on the "Peasant" case. Helmut Goldschmidt, operating under the codename "Peasant", was a German agent in custody in England. Under Felt's direction, his German masters were led to believe that "Peasant" had made his way to the United States, and thus were fed disinformation on Allied plans.

The Espionage Section was abolished in May 1945 after V-E Day. After the war, Felt was assigned to the Seattle field office. After two years of general work, he spent another two as a firearms instructor and was promoted from agent to supervisor. Upon passage of the Atomic Energy Act and the creation of the United States Atomic Energy Commission, the Seattle office became responsible for completing background checks of workers at the Hanford plutonium plant near Richland, Washington. Felt oversaw those investigations. In 1954 Felt returned briefly to Washington as an inspector's aide. Two months later, he was sent to New Orleans as Assistant Special Agent-in-Charge of the field office. When he was transferred to Los Angeles fifteen months later, he held the same rank there.

Investigates organized crime
In 1956, Felt was transferred to Salt Lake City and promoted to Special Agent-in-Charge. The Salt Lake City office included Nevada within its purview, and Felt oversaw some of the Bureau's earliest investigations into organized crime, assessing the Mob's operations in the Reno and Las Vegas casinos. (It was Hoover's, and therefore the Bureau's, official position at the time that there was no such thing as the Mob. ) In February 1958, Felt was assigned to Kansas City, Missouri (which he dubbed "the Siberia of field offices" in his memoir), where he directed further investigations of organized crime. By this time, Hoover had come to believe in organized crime, in the wake of the infamous conclave of underworld bosses in November 1957 in Apalachin, New York.

Middle career
Felt returned to Washington, D.C., in September 1962. As assistant to the bureau's assistant director in charge of the Training Division, Felt helped oversee the FBI Academy. In November 1964, he was promoted to an Assistant Director of the Bureau, as Chief Inspector of the Bureau and Head of the Inspection Division. This division oversaw compliance with Bureau regulations and conducted internal investigations.

On July 1, 1971, Felt was promoted by Hoover to Deputy Associate Director, assisting Deputy Director Clyde Tolson. Hoover's right-hand man for decades, Tolson was in failing health and unable to fulfill his duties. Richard Gid Powers wrote that Hoover installed Felt to rein in William C. Sullivan's domestic spying operations, as Sullivan had been engaged in secret unofficial work for the White House. In his memoir, Felt quoted Hoover as having said, "I need someone who can control Sullivan. I think you know he has been getting out of hand." In his book, The Bureau, Ronald Kessler said that Felt "managed to please Hoover by being tactful with him and tough on agents". Curt Gentry described Felt as "the director's latest fair-haired boy", who had "no inherent power" in his new post, the real number three being John P. Mohr.

Weather Underground investigations
Among the criminal organizations that the FBI investigated in the early 1970s was the Weather Underground. Their case was dismissed by the court because it concluded that the FBI had conducted illegal activities, including unauthorized wiretaps, break-ins, and mail interceptions. The lead federal prosecutor on the case, William C. Ibershof, claims that Felt and Attorney General John Mitchell initiated these illegal activities that tainted the investigation.

After Hoover's death

Hoover died in his sleep and was found on the morning of May 2, 1972. Tolson was nominally in charge until the next day, when Nixon appointed L. Patrick Gray as Acting FBI Director. Tolson submitted his resignation, which Gray accepted. Felt succeeded to Tolson's post as Deputy Director, the number-two job in the Bureau. Felt served as an honorary pallbearer at Hoover's funeral.

On the day of Hoover's death, Hoover's secretary for five decades, Helen Gandy, began destroying his files. She turned over twelve boxes of the "Official/Confidential" files to Felt on May 4, 1972. These contained 167 files and 17,750 pages, many of them containing derogatory information about individuals whom Hoover had investigated. He used this information as power over them. Felt stored the files in his office.

The existence of such files had long been rumored. Gray told the press that afternoon that "there are no dossiers or secret files. There are just general files and I took steps to preserve their integrity." Felt earlier that day had told Gray, "Mr. Gray, the Bureau doesn't have any secret files", and later accompanied Gray to Hoover's office. They found Gandy boxing up papers. Felt said Gray "looked casually at an open file drawer and approved her work", though Gray would later deny he looked at anything. Gandy retained Hoover's "Personal File" and destroyed it.

When Felt was called to testify in 1975 by the U.S. House about the destruction of Hoover's papers, he said, "There's no serious problems if we lose some papers. I don't see anything wrong and I still don't." At the same hearing, Gandy claimed that she had destroyed Hoover's personal files only after receiving Gray's approval. In a letter submitted to the committee in rebuttal of Gandy's testimony, Gray vehemently denied ever giving such permission. Both Gandy's testimony and Gray's letter were included in the committee's final report.

In his memoir, Felt expressed ambivalence about Gray. Its second director, Gray had no background in the agency, but he had been a submarine captain in the Navy, an Assistant Attorney General in the Justice Department, and was nominated to be Deputy Attorney General, the second highest-ranking position, at the time of Hoover's death. While noting that Gray did work hard, Felt was critical of how often Gray was away from FBI headquarters. Gray lived in Stonington, Connecticut and commuted to Washington. He also visited all of the Bureau's field offices except Honolulu. His frequent absences led to the nickname "Three-Day Gray". These absences, combined with Gray's hospitalization and recuperation from November 20, 1972, to January 2, 1973, meant that Felt was effectively in charge for much of his final year at the Bureau. Bob Woodward wrote "Gray got to be director of the FBI and Felt did the work." Felt wrote in his memoir:

"The record amply demonstrates that President Nixon made Pat Gray the Acting Director of the FBI because he wanted a politician in J. Edgar Hoover's position who would convert the Bureau into an adjunct of the White House machine."

Gray's defenders would later argue that Gray had practiced a management system that differed from Hoover's. Gray's program of field office visits was something that Hoover had not done since his early years as director; some believed that Gray's visits helped raise the morale of the field agents. Gray's form of leadership seemed to continue what he had learned as a captain in the US Navy, in which the executive officer concentrates on the basic operation of the ship while the captain concentrates on its position and heading. Felt believed Gray's methods were an unnecessary distraction from the work of the FBI and showed a lack of leadership. He asserted that he was not the only career manager at the FBI who disapproved of Gray's methods, all of whom had served only under Hoover.

Watergate
As Deputy Director, Felt saw everything compiled on Watergate before it was given to Gray. The Agent in Charge, Charles Nuzum, sent his findings to Investigative Division Head Robert Gebhardt, who passed the information on to Felt. From the day of the burglary, June 17, 1972, until the FBI investigation was mostly completed in June 1973, Felt was the key control point for FBI information. He had been among the first to learn of the investigation, being informed the morning of June 17. Ronald Kessler, who spoke to former Bureau agents, reported that throughout the investigation they "were amazed to see material in Woodward and Bernstein's stories lifted almost verbatim from their reports of interviews a few days or weeks earlier".

"Deep Throat" informant
Bob Woodward first describes his source, nicknamed "Deep Throat", in All the President's Men, as a "source in the Executive Branch who had access to information at CRP (the Committee to Re-elect the President, Nixon's 1972 campaign organization), as well as at the White House." In the book, Deep Throat is described as an "incorrigible gossip" who was "in a unique position to observe the Executive Branch", a man "whose fight had been worn out in too many battles". Woodward had known the source before Watergate and had discussed politics and government with him.

In 2005 Woodward wrote that he first met Felt at the White House in 1969 or 1970. Woodward was working as an aide to Admiral Thomas Hinman Moorer, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and was delivering papers to the White House Situation Room. In his book The Secret Man, Woodward described Felt as a "tall man with perfectly combed gray hair ... distinguished looking" with a "studied air of confidence, even what might be called a command presence". They stayed in contact and spoke on the telephone several times. When Woodward started working at the Washington Post, he phoned Felt on several occasions to ask for information for articles in the paper. Felt's information, taken on a promise that Woodward would never reveal its origin, was a source for a few stories, notably for an article on May 18, 1972, about Arthur Bremer, who shot George Wallace.

When the Watergate story broke, Woodward called on Felt. Felt told Woodward on June 19 that E. Howard Hunt, who had connections to Nixon, was involved: the telephone number of his White House office had been listed in the address book of one of the burglars. Initially, Woodward's source was known at the Post as "My Friend". Post editor Howard Simons tagged him as "Deep Throat", after the widely known pornographic film Deep Throat. According to Woodward, Simons thought of the term because Felt had been providing information on a deep background basis.

When Felt revealed his role in 2005, it was noted that "My Friend" has the same initial letters as "Mark Felt". Woodward's notes from interviewing Felt were marked "M.F.", which Woodward says was "not very good tradecraft".

Code for contacting Woodward
Woodward explained that when he wanted to meet Deep Throat, he would move a flowerpot with a red flag on his apartment balcony; he lived at number 617, Webster House, 1718 P Street, Northwest. On occasions when Deep Throat wanted a meeting, he would circle the page number on page twenty of Woodward's copy of The New York Times (delivered to his building) and draw clock hands to signal the hour.

Adrian Havill questioned these claims in his 1993 biography of Woodward and Bernstein. He said Woodward's balcony faced an interior courtyard and was not visible from the street. Woodward said that the courtyard had been bricked in since he lived there. Havill also said The Times was not delivered in copies marked by apartment, but Woodward and a former neighbor disputed this claim.

Woodward said: "How [Felt] could have made a daily observation of my balcony is still a mystery to me. At the time, the back of my building was not enclosed so anyone could have driven in the back alley to observe my balcony. In addition, my balcony and the back of the apartment complex faced onto a courtyard or back area that was shared with a number of other apartment or office buildings in the area. My balcony could have been seen from dozens of apartments or offices.

There were several embassies in the area. The Iraqi embassy was down the street, and I thought it possible that the FBI had surveillance or listening posts nearby. Could Felt have had the counterintelligence agents regularly report on the status of my flag and flowerpot? That seems unlikely, but not impossible."

Haldeman informs Nixon about Felt's leaks
Days after the burglary, Nixon and White House chief of staff H. R. Haldeman talked about putting pressure on the FBI to slow down the investigation. The District of Columbia police had summoned the FBI because they found the burglars had wiretapping equipment. Wiretapping is a crime investigated by the FBI. Haldeman told President Nixon on June 23, 1972, that Felt would "want to cooperate because he's ambitious". These tapes were not declassified and revealed for some time.

Haldeman later initially suspected lower-level FBI agents, including Angelo Lano, of speaking to the Post. But in a taped conversation on October 19, 1972, Haldeman told the president that sources had said that Felt was speaking to the press.

"You can't say anything about this because it will screw up our source and there's a real concern. Mitchell is the only one who knows about this and he feels strongly that we better not do anything because ... if we move on him, he'll go out and unload everything. He knows everything that's to be known in the FBI. He has access to absolutely everything."

Haldeman also said that he had spoken to White House counsel John W. Dean about punishing Felt, but Dean said Felt had committed no crime and could not be prosecuted.

When Acting FBI Director Gray returned from his sick leave in January 1973, he confronted Felt about being the source for Woodward and Bernstein. Gray said he had defended Felt to Attorney General Richard G. Kleindienst: "You know, Mark, Dick Kleindienst told me I ought to get rid of you. He says White House staff members are concerned that you are the FBI source of leaks to Woodward and Bernstein". Felt replied, "Pat, I haven't leaked anything to anybody." Gray told Felt:

"I told Kleindienst that you've worked with me in a very competent manner and I'm convinced that you are completely loyal. I told him I was not going to move you out. Kleindienst told me, 'Pat, I love you for that.'"

Nixon passes over Felt again
On February 17, 1973, Nixon nominated Gray as Hoover's permanent replacement as Director. Until then, Gray had been in limbo as Acting Director. In another taped conversation on February 28, Nixon spoke to Dean about Felt's acting as an informant and mentioned that he had never met Felt. Gray was forced to resign on April 27 after it was revealed that he had destroyed a file that had been in the White House safe of E. Howard Hunt. Gray recommended Felt as his successor.

The day Gray resigned, Kleindienst spoke to Nixon, urging him to appoint Felt as Director of the FBI. Nixon instead appointed William Ruckelshaus as Acting Director. Stanley Kutler reported that Nixon said, "I don't want him. I can't have him. I just talked to Bill Ruckelshaus and Bill is a Mr. Clean and I want a fellow in there who is not part of the old guard and who is not part of that infighting in there." On another White House tape, from May 11, 1973, Nixon and White House Chief of Staff Alexander Haig spoke of Felt leaking material to The New York Times. Nixon said, "he's a bad guy, you see." He said that William Sullivan had told him of Felt's ambition to be Director of the Bureau.

Clashes with Ruckelshaus and resignation
Felt called his relationship with Ruckelshaus "stormy". In his memoir, Felt describes Ruckelshaus as a "security guard sent to see that the FBI did nothing which would displease Mr. Nixon".

In mid-1973, The New York Times published a series of articles about wiretaps that had been ordered by Hoover during his tenure at the FBI. Ruckelshaus believed that the information must have come from someone at the FBI.

In June 1973, Ruckelshaus received a call from someone claiming to be a New York Times reporter, telling him that Felt was the source of this information. On June 21, Ruckelshaus met privately with Felt and accused him of leaking information to The New York Times, a charge that Felt adamantly denied. Ruckelshaus told Felt to "sleep on it" and let him know the next day what he wanted to do. Felt resigned from the Bureau the next day, June 22, 1973, ending his 31-year career.

In a 2013 interview, Ruckelshaus noted the possibility that the original caller was a hoax. He said that he considered Felt's resignation "an admission of guilt" anyway.

Ruckelshaus, who had served only as Acting Director, was replaced several weeks later by Clarence M. Kelley, who had been nominated by Nixon as FBI Director and confirmed by the Senate.

Trial and conviction
In the early 1970s, Felt had supervised Operation COINTELPRO, initiated by Hoover in the 1950s. This period of FBI history has generated great controversy for its abuses of private citizens' rights. The FBI was spying on, infiltrating, and disrupting the Civil Rights Movement, Anti-War Movement, Black Panthers, and other New Left movements. By 1972, Felt was heading the investigation into the Weather Underground, which had planted bombs at the Capitol, the Pentagon, and the State Department building. Felt, along with Edward S. Miller, ordered FBI agents to break into homes secretly in 1972 and 1973, without a search warrant, on nine separate occasions. These kinds of FBI operations were known as "black bag jobs". The break-ins occurred at five addresses in New York and New Jersey, at the homes of relatives and acquaintances of Weather Underground members. They did not contribute to the capture of any fugitives. The use of "black bag jobs" by the FBI was declared unconstitutional by the United States Supreme Court in the Plamondon case, 407 U.S. 297 (1972).

Many agents were investigated after the Citizens' Commission to Investigate the FBI and the subsequent Church Committee of Congress revealed the FBI's illegal activities. In 1976, Felt publicly stated he had ordered break-ins and recommended against punishment of individual agents who had followed orders. Felt also stated that Gray had also authorized the break-ins, but Gray denied this. Felt said on the CBS television program Face the Nation he would probably be a "scapegoat" for the Bureau's work. "I think this is justified and I'd do it again tomorrow," he said on the program. While admitting the break-ins were "extralegal", he justified them as protecting the "greater good". Felt said:

"To not take action against these people and know of a bombing in advance would simply be to stick your fingers in your ears and protect your eardrums when the explosion went off and then start the investigation."

Griffin Bell, the Attorney General in the Jimmy Carter administration, directed investigation of these cases. On April 10, 1978, a federal grand jury charged Felt, Miller, and Gray with conspiracy to violate the constitutional rights of U.S. citizens by searching their homes without warrants.

The indictment charged violations of Title 18, Section 241 of the United States Code and stated Felt and the others:

"Did unlawfully, willfully, and knowingly combine, conspire, confederate, and agree together and with each other to injure and oppress citizens of the United States who were relatives and acquaintances of the Weatherman fugitives, in the free exercise and enjoyments of certain rights and privileges secured to them by the Constitution and the laws of the United States of America."

Felt told his biographer Ronald Kessler: "I was shocked that I was indicted. You would be too if you did what you thought was in the best interests of the country and someone on technical grounds indicted you."

Felt, Gray, and Miller were arraigned in Washington, D.C., on April 20. Seven hundred current and former FBI agents were outside the courthouse applauding the "Washington Three", as Felt referred to himself and his colleagues in his memoir. Gray's case did not go to trial and was dropped by the government for lack of evidence on December 11, 1980.

Felt and Miller attempted to plea bargain with the government, willing to agree to a misdemeanor guilty plea to conducting searches without warrants—a violation of. The government rejected the offer in 1979. After eight postponements, the case against Felt and Miller went to trial in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia on September 18, 1980. On October 29, former President Nixon appeared as a rebuttal witness for the defense. He testified that in authorizing the Bureau to conduct break-ins to gather foreign intelligence information "he was acting on precedents established by a number of Presidential directives dating to 1939." It was Nixon's first courtroom appearance since before Watergate. He had avoided appearing in any legal proceedings during it and had been pardoned by President Gerald Ford after his resignation. Nixon also contributed money to Felt's defense fund, since Felt's legal expenses were running over $600,000 by then. Also testifying were former Attorneys General Mitchell, Kleindienst, Herbert Brownell Jr., Nicholas Katzenbach, and Ramsey Clark, all of whom said warrantless searches in national security matters were commonplace and understood not to be illegal. Mitchell and Kleindienst denied they had authorized any of the break-ins at issue in the trial. The Bureau used a national security justification for the searches because it alleged the Weather Underground was in the employ of Cuba.

The jury returned guilty verdicts on November 6, 1980, two days after the presidential election. The charge carried a maximum sentence of ten years in prison and a $10,000 fine; on December 15, Judge William B. Bryant fined Felt $5,000 and Miller $3,500, but imposed no jail time for either. Writing an OpEd piece in The New York Times a week after the conviction, attorney Roy Cohn claimed that Felt and Miller were being used as scapegoats by the Carter administration and it was an unfair prosecution. Cohn wrote the break-ins were the "final dirty trick" of the Nixon administration, and there had been no "personal motive" to their actions. The New York Times praised the convictions, saying "the case has established that zeal is no excuse for violating the Constitution."

Felt and Miller appealed their verdicts.

Pardon

In a phone call on January 30, 1981, Edwin Meese encouraged President Ronald Reagan to issue a pardon. After further encouragement from Felt's former colleagues, President Reagan pardoned Felt and Miller. The pardon was signed on March 26, but due to the assassination attempt on March 30, was not announced to the public until April 15, 1981.

In the pardon, Reagan wrote:

"During their long careers, Mark Felt and Edward Miller served the Federal Bureau of Investigation and our nation with great distinction. To punish them further—after 3 years of criminal prosecution proceedings—would not serve the ends of justice.

Their convictions in the U.S. District Court, on appeal at the time I signed the pardons, grew out of their good-faith belief that their actions were necessary to preserve the security interests of our country. The record demonstrates that they acted not with criminal intent, but in the belief that they had grants of authority reaching to the highest levels of government."

Nixon sent Felt and Miller bottles of champagne with the note "Justice ultimately prevails." The New York Times disapproved in an editorial, saying that the United States "deserved better than a gratuitous revision of the record by the President". Felt and Miller said they would seek repayment of their legal fees from the government.

The prosecutor at the trial, John W. Nields Jr., said, "I would warrant that whoever is responsible for the pardons did not read the record of the trial and did not know the facts of the case." Nields also complained that the White House did not consult with the prosecutors in the case, which was contrary to the usual practice when a pardon was under consideration.

Felt said,

"I feel very excited and just so pleased that I can hardly contain myself. I am most grateful to the President. I don't know how I'm ever going to be able to thank him. It's just like having a heavy burden lifted off your back. This case has been dragging on for five years."

At a press conference the day of the announcement, Miller said, "I certainly owe the Gipper one." Carter Attorney General Griffin Bell said he did not object to the pardons, as the convictions had upheld constitutional principles.

Despite their pardons, Felt and Miller won permission from the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit to appeal their convictions so as to remove it from their record and to prevent it from being used in civil suits by victims of the break-ins they had ordered. Ultimately, the court restored Felt's law license in 1982, based on Reagan's pardon. In June 1982, Felt and Miller testified before the Senate Judiciary Committee's security and terrorism subcommittee. They said that the restrictions placed on the FBI by Attorney General Edward H. Levi were threatening the country's safety.

Family
His daughter, Joan, graduated from high school in 1961 in Kansas City during his assignment there, then attended the University of Kansas for two years, before transferring to Stanford in California to study drama. Felt settled in Alexandria, Virginia while she was an undergraduate, for his post at the FBI Academy. Prior to the Watergate scandal, Felt had become estranged from Joan. They had been close during her childhood, but after she graduated from Stanford, she had gone to Chile under a Fulbright scholarship to continue her studies. While there, she became friends with Marxist revolutionary Andrés Pascal Allende, nephew of future president Salvador Allende. When she returned home, her political views had shifted to the extreme left, putting her in conflict with her conservative father.

She earned her master's degree in Spanish at Stanford, and then joined a hippie community in the Santa Cruz Mountains. Felt and his wife went to visit her once and were appalled at her counterculture lifestyle and use of drugs; he was reminded of members of the militant Weather Underground that the FBI had been prosecuting. Joan's friends were equally shocked that her father was an FBI agent. Following their visit, Joan terminated most contact with her parents. As a result, and combined with the fact that she did not follow the news, she was unaware of her father's legal problems arising from the Watergate scandal.

The stress of following her husband's career as well as the separation of her daughter resulted in Audrey suffering a nervous breakdown in 1954, while Felt was in Seattle. She had developed a dependence on alcohol, had been taking antidepressants for years, and had been hospitalized several times for various ailments. When Felt was put on trial in 1980, she attended the first day, but did not return, as she was unable to bear it. On July 20, 1984, she committed suicide using Felt's revolver. Felt and his son Mark Jr., an officer in the United States Air Force, decided to keep this a secret and told Joan that her mother had died of a heart attack. Joan did not learn the truth about her mother's suicide until 2001.

Meanwhile, Joan had become an adherent of Adi Da, who had founded a new religious movement in San Francisco called Adidam, and she was living in Santa Rosa. She had borne three sons– Ludi (later Will), Rob, and Nick, the latter two from another Adidam devotee whom she never married –but her parents had only met Ludi during their visit in 1974. After Audrey's death, Felt began making yearly visits to see Joan and his grandsons, and they also came to visit him and his new girlfriend, who lived in the same apartment complex. In 1990 Felt permanently moved to Santa Rosa, leaving Alexandria. He bought a house where he lived with Joan, and took care of the boys while she worked, teaching at Sonoma State University and Santa Rosa Junior College. He suffered a stroke before 1999, as reported by Kessler in his book, The Bureau. According to Kessler's book, in the summer of 1999, Woodward showed up unexpectedly at the Santa Rosa home and took Felt to lunch.

Joan, who was caring for her father, told Kessler that her father had greeted Woodward like an old friend. Their meeting appeared to be more of a celebration than an interview. "Woodward just showed up at the door and said he was in the area," Joan Felt was quoted as saying in Kessler's 2002 book: "He came in a white limousine, which parked at a schoolyard about ten blocks away. He walked to the house. He asked if it was okay to have a martini with my father at lunch, and I said it would be fine."

Memoir
Felt published his memoir The FBI Pyramid: From the Inside in 1979. It was co-written with Hoover biographer Ralph de Toledano, though the latter's name appears only in the copyright notice. Toledano in 2005 wrote that the volume was "largely written by me since his original manuscript read like The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table". Toledano said: "Felt swore to me that he was not Deep Throat, and that he had never leaked information to the Woodward-Bernstein team or anyone else. The book was published and bombed."

In his memoir, Felt strongly defended Hoover and his tenure as Director; he condemned the criticisms of the Bureau made in the 1970s by the Church Committee and civil libertarians. He also denounced the treatment of Bureau agents as criminals and said the Freedom of Information Act and Privacy Act of 1974 served only to interfere with government work and helped criminals. (He opens the book with the sentence, "The Bill of Rights is not a suicide pact", Justice Robert H. Jackson's comment in his dissent to Terminiello v. City of Chicago, 337 U.S. 1 (1949)).

Library Journal wrote in its 1980 review that "at one time Felt was assumed to be Watergate's 'Deep Throat'; in this interesting but hardly sensational memoir, he makes it clear that that honor, if honor it be, lies elsewhere." The New York Times Book Review was highly critical of the book in 1980, saying Felt "seeks to perpetuate a view of Hoover and the FBI that is no longer seriously peddled even on the backs of cereal boxes". It said the book contained "a disturbing number of factual errors". Curt Gentry said in 1991 that Felt was "the keeper of the Hoover flame".

Ronald Kessler (a journalist who had worked in The Washington Post alongside Woodward and Bernstein) had thought of Felt as Deep Throat when conducting interviews and research for his 2002 book The Bureau: The Secret History of the FBI, namely due to the measures Woodward took to conceal a meeting with Felt in 1999.

Deep Throat speculation
The identity of Deep Throat was debated for more than three decades, and though Felt was not prominently mentioned as Watergate unfolded, his name was subsequently mentioned often as a possibility. An October 1990 Washingtonian magazine article about "Washington secrets" listed the 15 most prominent Deep Throat candidates, including Felt.

Jack Limpert published evidence as early as 1974 that Felt was the informant. On June 25 of that year, a few weeks after All the President's Men was published, The Wall Street Journal ran an editorial, "If You Drink Scotch, Smoke, Read, Maybe You're Deep Throat". It began "W. Mark Felt says he isn't now, nor has he ever been Deep Throat." The Journal quoted Felt saying the character was a "composite" and "I'm just not that kind of person." In 1975 George V. Higgins wrote: "Mark Felt knows more reporters than most reporters do, and there are some who think he had a Washington Post alias borrowed from a dirty movie." During a grand jury investigation in 1976, Felt was called to testify. The prosecutor, J. Stanley Pottinger, Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights, discovered that Felt was "Deep Throat", but the secrecy of the proceedings protected the information from being public.

In 1992 James Mann, who had been a reporter at The Washington Post in 1972 and worked with Woodward, wrote a piece for The Atlantic Monthly, saying the source had to have been within the FBI. He noted Felt as a possibility, but said he could not confirm this.

Alexander P. Butterfield, the White House aide best known for revealing Nixon's taping system, told the Hartford Courant in 1995, "I think it was a guy named Mark Felt." In July 1999, Felt was identified as Deep Throat by the Hartford Courant, citing Chase Culeman-Beckman, a nineteen-year-old from Port Chester, New York. Culeman-Beckman said Jacob Bernstein, the son of Carl Bernstein and Nora Ephron, had told him the name at summer camp in 1988, and that Jacob claimed he had been told by his father. Felt said to the Courant, "No, it's not me. I would have done better. I would have been more effective. Deep Throat didn't exactly bring the White House crashing down, did he?" Bernstein said his son didn't know. "Bob and I have been wise enough never to tell our wives, and we've certainly never told our children." (Bernstein reiterated on June 2, 2005, on the Today Show that his wife had never known.)

Leonard Garment, President Nixon's former law partner who became White House counsel after John W. Dean's resignation, ruled Felt out as Deep Throat in his 2000 book In Search of Deep Throat. Garment wrote:

"The Felt theory was a strong one ... Felt had a personal motive for acting. After the death of J. Edgar Hoover ... Felt thought he was a leading candidate to succeed Hoover ... The characteristics were a good fit. The trouble with Felt's candidacy was that Deep Throat in All the President's Men simply did not sound to me like a career FBI man."

Garment said the information leaked to Woodward was inside White House information to which Felt would not have had access. "Felt did not fit."

In 2002 the San Francisco Chronicle profiled Felt. Noting his denial in The FBI Pyramid, the paper wrote:

"Curiously, his son—American Airlines pilot Mark Felt—now says that shouldn't be read as a definitive denial, and that he plans to answer the question once-and-for-all in a second memoir. The excerpt of the working draft obtained by the Chronicle has Felt still denying he's Throat but providing a rationale for why Throat did the right thing."

In February 2005 reports surfaced that Woodward had prepared Deep Throat's obituary because he was near death. Chief Justice William Rehnquist was battling cancer at the time (he would die in September 2005), and there was speculation that Rehnquist might have been Deep Throat. Rehnquist was Assistant Attorney General of the Office of Legal Counsel, from 1969 to 1971, and then served on the Supreme Court until his death in 2005.

Deep Throat revealed
Vanity Fair magazine revealed that Felt was Deep Throat on May 31, 2005, when it published an article (eventually appearing in the July issue of the magazine) on its website by John D. O'Connor, an attorney acting in Felt's behalf. Felt said, "I'm the guy they used to call Deep Throat." After the Vanity Fair story broke, Benjamin C. Bradlee on June 1, 2005, the editor of the Washington Post during Watergate, confirmed that Felt was Deep Throat. According to the Vanity Fair article, Felt was persuaded to come out by his family. They hoped to capitalize on the book deals and other lucrative opportunities which Felt would be offered in order to help pay for his grandchildren's education. His family was unaware that he was Deep Throat for many years. Although Felt was suffering from dementia and had previously denied he was Deep Throat, both Woodward and Bernstein confirmed the attorney's claim. Felt's family realized the truth after his retirement, when they became aware of his close friendship with Bob Woodward.

Nixon's Chief Counsel Charles Colson, who served prison time for his actions in the Nixon White House, said Felt had violated "his oath to keep this nation's secrets". A Los Angeles Times editorial argued that this argument was specious, "as if there's no difference between nuclear strategy and rounding up hush money to silence your hired burglars".

Ralph de Toledano, who co-wrote Felt's 1979 memoir, said Mark Felt Jr. had approached him in 2004 to buy Toledano's half of the copyright. Toledano agreed to sell but was never paid. He attempted to rescind the deal, threatening legal action. A few days before the Vanity Fair article was released, Toledano finally received a check. He later said: "I had been gloriously and illegally deceived, and Deep Throat was, in characteristic style, back in business—which given his history of betrayal, was par for the course."

After the revelation, publishers were interested in signing Felt to a book deal. Weeks later, PublicAffairs Books announced that it signed a deal with Felt. Its CEO was a Washington Post reporter and editor during the Watergate era. The new book was to include material from Felt's 1979 memoir, plus an update. The new volume was scheduled for publication in early 2006. Felt sold the movie rights to his story to Universal Pictures for development by Tom Hanks's production company, Playtone. The book and movie deals were valued at US$1 million. A film based on those rights, Mark Felt: The Man Who Brought Down the White House, in which Felt is portrayed by Liam Neeson, was released in 2017.

In mid-2005 Woodward published an account of his contacts with Felt, The Secret Man: The Story of Watergate's Deep Throat (ISBN 0-7432-8715-0).

Appraisal of Watergate role
Public response to Felt and his actions has varied widely since the 2005 revelations. In the immediate aftermath, Felt's family called him an "American hero", suggesting that he leaked information for moral or patriotic reasons. G. Gordon Liddy, an attorney and former FBI agent who was convicted of burglary in the Watergate scandal, said Felt should have gone to the grand jury rather than leak.

Speculation about Felt's motives for leaking has also varied widely. Some suggested that it was revenge for Nixon's choosing Gray over Felt to replace Hoover as FBI Director. Others suggest Felt acted out of institutional loyalty to the FBI.

Political scientist George Friedman argued:

"The Washington Post created a morality play about an out-of-control government brought to heel by two young, enterprising journalists and a courageous newspaper. That simply wasn't what happened. Instead, it was about the FBI using The Washington Post to leak information to destroy the president, and The Washington Post willingly serving as the conduit for that information while withholding an essential dimension of the story by concealing Deep Throat's identity."

In his 2012 book Leak: Why Mark Felt Became Deep Throat, Max Holland argued that Felt leaked the information in an attempt to become head of the FBI. Holland said that Felt wanted to create the perception that Gray "could not control the FBI". This could result in Nixon's firing Gray, leaving Felt as the obvious choice to run the agency. Holland said this plan (if it was one) backfired as Nixon and his team found out that Felt was the leaker.

Death
Felt died at home, in his sleep, on December 18, 2008. He was 95 years old and his death was attributed to heart failure.

General and cited references

 * Anson, Robert Sam. Exile: The Unquiet Oblivion of Richard M. Nixon. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1984. ISBN 0-671-44021-7
 * Benfell, Carol. "A Family Secret: Joan Felt Explains Why Family Members Urged Her Father, Watergate's 'Deep Throat' to Reveal His Identity". The Press Democrat (Santa Rosa, California). June 5, 2005. A1
 * Bernstein, Carl and Bob Woodward. All the President's Men. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1974. ISBN 0-671-21781-X
 * Cannon, Lou and Laura A. Kiernan. "President Pardons 2 Ex-FBI Officials Guilty in Break-Ins". The Washington Post. April 16, 1981. A1.
 * Cohn, Roy. "Stabbing the F.B.I." The New York Times. November 15, 1980. 20
 * Crewdson, John. "Ex-Aide Approved F.B.I. Burglaries". The New York Times. August 18, 1976. A1
 * Crewdson, John. "Ex-F.B.I. Aide Sees 'Scapegoat' Role". The New York Times. August 30, 1976. 21
 * Daley, David. "Deep Throat: 2 boys talking politics at summer camp may have revealed a Watergate secret". Hartford Courant. July 28, 1999. A1
 * "Deep Thoughts" (editorial). Los Angeles Times. June 2, 2005. B10
 * Duke, Lynne. "Deep Throat's Daughter, The Kindred Free Spirit" The Washington Post. June 12, 2005. A1
 * Felt, W. Mark. The FBI Pyramid: From the Inside. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1979. ISBN 0-399-11904-3
 * (First published in 2006 as A G-Man's Life: The FBI, Being 'Deep Throat,' And the Struggle for Honor in Washington.)
 * Garment, Leonard. In Search of Deep Throat: The Greatest Political Mystery of Our Time. New York: Basic Books, 2000. ISBN 0-465-02613-3
 * Gentry, Curt. J. Edgar Hoover: The Man and the Secrets. New York: W.W. Norton, 1991. ISBN 0-393-02404-0
 * Haddock, Vicki. "The Bay Area's 'Deep Throat' candidate". The San Francisco Chronicle. June 16, 2002. D1
 * Havill, Adrian. Deep Truth: The Lives of Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein. New York: Birch Lane Press, 1993. ISBN 1-55972-172-3
 * Higgins, George V. The Friends of Richard Nixon. New York: Ballantine, 1976 reprint [1975]. ISBN 978-0-345-25226-5
 * Holland, Max. Leak: Why Mark Felt Became Deep Throat. Lawrence, Kansas, University Press of Kansas, 2012. ISBN 978-0-7006-1829-3
 * Holt, Thaddeus, "The Deceivers: Allied Military Deception in the Second World War". New York: Scribner, 2004. ISBN 0-7432-5042-7
 * Horrock, Nicholas M. "Gray and 2 Ex-F.B.I Aides Indicted on Conspiracy in Search for Radicals". The New York Times. April 11, 1978. A1
 * Johnston, David, "Behind Deep Throat's Clandestine Ways, a Cloak-and-Dagger Past". The New York Times. June 4, 2005
 * Johnston, Laurie and Robert McG. Thomas. "Congratulations and Champagne from Nixon". The New York Times. April 30, 1981. C18
 * Kamen, Al and Laura A. Kiernan. "Lawyers". The Washington Post. June 28, 1982. B3
 * Kessler, Ronald. The F.B.I.: Inside the World's Most Powerful Law Enforcement Agency. New York: Pocket Books, 1993. ISBN 0-671-78657-1
 * Kutler, Stanley I., editor. Abuse of Power: The New Nixon Tapes. New York: The Free Press, 1997. ISBN 0-684-84127-4
 * Lardner, George. "Attorney General Backs FBI Pardons but Ex-Prosecutor Disagrees". The Washington Post. April 17, 1981. A9
 * Limpert, Jack. "Deeper Into Deep Throat". Washingtonian. August 1974
 * Mann, James. "Deep Throat: An Institutional Analysis" . The Atlantic Monthly. May 1992
 * Marro, Anthony. "Gray and 2 Ex-F.B.I. Aides Deny Guilt as 700 at Court Applaud Them". The New York Times. April 21, 1978. A13
 * "The Right Punishment for F.B.I. Crimes" . (Editorial). The New York Times. December 18, 1980. A30
 * O'Connor, John D. "'I'm the Guy They Called 'Deep Throat . Vanity Fair. July 2005. 86–89, 129–133. Retrieved on November 21, 2008
 * "Pardoning the F.B.I's Past". (Editorial). The New York Times. April 16, 1980. A30
 * Pear, Robert. "Conspiracy Trial for 2 Ex-F.B.I. Officials Accused in Break-ins". The New York Times. September 19, 1980. A14
 * Pear, Robert. "Long Delayed Trial Over F.B.I. Break-ins to Start in Capital Tomorrow". The New York Times. September 14, 1980. 30
 * Pear, Robert. "President Pardons 2 Ex-F.B.I. Officials in 1970's Break-ins". The New York Times. April 16, 1981. A1
 * Pear, Robert. "Prosecutors Rejected Offer of Plea to F.B.I. Break-ins". The New York Times. January 11, 1981. 24
 * Pear, Robert. "Testimony by Nixon Heard in F.B.I. Trial". The New York Times. October 30, 1980. A17
 * Pear, Robert. "2 Ex-F.B.I. Agents Get Light Fines for Authorizing Break-ins in 70's". The New York Times. December 16, 1980. A1
 * Pear, Robert. "2 Pardoned Ex-F.B.I. Officials to Seek U.S. Payment of Some Legal Fees". The New York Times. May 1, 1981. A14
 * Pichirallo, Joe. "Judge Allows Appeals by Ex-Officials Of FBI Despite Pardons by Reagan". The Washington Post. July 24, 1981. C5
 * Raum, Tom. "Turncoat or U.S. hero? Deep Throat casts divide". The Journal–Gazette (Ft. Wayne, Indiana). June 2, 2005. 1A
 * Rizzo, Frank. "Nixon one role will remain nameless". Hartford Courant. December 17, 1995. G1
 * Schram, Martin. "Nixon's henchmen lecture us on ethics ". Newsday. June 6, 2005. A32
 * Steck, Henry. Review of The FBI Pyramid. Library Journal. April 1, 1980. 850
 * Summers, Anthony. Official and Confidential: The Secret Life of J. Edgar Hoover. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1993. ISBN 0-399-13800-5
 * Theoharis, Athan G., Tony G. Poveda, Susan Rosefeld, and Richard Gid Powers. The FBI: A Comprehensive Reference Guide. New York: Checkmark Books, 2000. ISBN 0-8160-4228-4
 * Thompson, Bob. "Dee Throat Family Cuts Publishing, Film Pacts; Tom Hanks to Develop Movie About Secret Watergate Source " The Washington Post. June 16, 2005. C1.
 * Toledano, Ralph de. "Deep Throat's Ghost". The American Conservative. July 4, 2005
 * United Press International. "2 Ex-FBI Aides Urge Relation of Spying Rules". The Miami Herald. June 27, 1982. 24A
 * United States Congress. House of Representatives. Committee on Government Operations. Subcommittee on Government Information and Individual Rights. Inquiry Into the Destruction of Former FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover's Files and FBI Recordkeeping: Hearing Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Government Operations, House of Representatives, 94th Congress, December 1, 1975. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1975.
 * United States. National Archives and Records Administration. Office of the Federal Register. Public Papers of the President: Ronald Reagan, 1981. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1982. Ronald Reagan Presidential Library, National Archives and Records Administration
 * Wise, David. "Apologia by No. 2". The New York Times Book Review. January 27, 1980. 12
 * Woodward, Bob. "How Mark Felt Became 'Deep Throat' . The Washington Post. June 2, 2005. A1.
 * Woodward, Bob. The Secret Man: The Story of Watergate's Deep Throat. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005. ISBN 0-7432-8715-0.

title: Mark Felt


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Talk:Textualis

This page is both linked from and redirects to Blackletter. Personally I'd prefer something was put on this page than that the links are updated / removed, except I know nothing about Textualis. If I have presence of mind I'll do some research when I have more time, but it'd obviously be better if someone with prior knowledge could get things started. sheridan 16:11, 2005 May 31 (UTC)

title: Talk:Textualis


text:
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

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