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Radio X (United Kingdom)

Radio X is a British national commercial radio station focused on alternative music, primarily indie rock, and owned by Global. The station launched in 1989 as a pirate radio station named Q102, before being renamed Xfm in 1992. The station became a legally licensed London-wide station in 1997, and in 2015 began national broadcasting under the name Radio X.

As of December 2023, the station broadcasts to a weekly audience of 2 million, according to RAJAR.

History
In 1989, the pirate radio presenter Sammy Jacob, known as DJ Sammy Jay on London's Horizon Radio and Solar Radio, set up an indie music station called Q102, which started broadcasting rock music on a part-time basis from 1 January 1989, with other hours following the soul format of another local station called CD93.

Jacob was one of the presenters on this forerunner to Xfm alongside Adrian Gibson, Donald Johnson, Steve Lamacq and CD93's Bob Matthews (a DJ also known as Bob Mower), with the format changing to play only indie rock music by 1990. In late 1990, Fiction Records founder, and manager of The Cure, Chris Parry got involved with the London station, even though at that point it still did not have any official authorisation to operate. The Cure's singer Robert Smith used the radio as a platform to promote the release of a Cure remix album Mixed Up during night-time radio shows, broadcast live on the air

By 1991, Q102 was off-air, with Jacob re-organising this rock station as Xfm in Clapton, East London. At this point the station was still a pirate radio station operating out of his parents' flat, though Jacob had plans to get a number of Restricted Service Licences for Xfm, which would make Xfm a legal radio station even though it could only be on the capital's airwaves for short periods of time.

Xfm was officially created in London in 1992 by Jacob and Parry, with the station broadcasting at festivals and legally from Fiction's Charlotte Street headquarters on short-term licences. When the station faced difficulties in 1993, Smith and Parry organised a one-off open air festival titled XFM Great Expectations in London's Finsbury Park on 13 June, with the Cure at the top of the bill. The XFM Great Expectations event was covered by the media including TV channels which talked about the XFM radio in interviews with Smith.

In 1994, Xfm unsuccessfully applied to broadcast full-time across London. However, two years later, Xfm was awarded what was to be the final London-wide FM licence, and the station went on air on a permanent basis on 1 September 1997. During the following year the station played a range of music from its studios in 97 Charlotte Street. Jacob would later go on to co-found NME Radio and CDNX (Camden Experience) in 2008 and 2015 respectively.

In 1998, Xfm was acquired by the Capital Radio Group (now part of Global Radio) and relocated from Charlotte Street to Capital's headquarters at Leicester Square, where it remains today. On 23 August that year, Xfm was closed down for four days, during which a test tape featuring mainstream soft rock acts was looped. The station subsequently relaunched with a more mainstream format, and a new advert featuring a cartoon radio saying "Don't be afraid!", which referred to the perceived inaccessibility of its old format. The soft rock revamp was not a success, culminating in listener-led protests outside the Capital Radio studios. Listeners also lodged objections with the Radio Authority, which found Xfm to be acting in a manner contrary to its licence requirements, and a degree of alternative output was eventually restored, particularly through night-time playlists and specialist shows.

Following the take-over by Capital, the station dropped its wide-ranging music policy, which was replaced by a format based on USA college stations. The first audience figures after this change showed a sharp decline. The DJs were no longer able to select some of their own tracks, and specialist shows were dropped. The station soon became more male-orientated and featured football coverage and "laddish" output. This came to an end after the Radio Authority fined Xfm £50,000 for breakfast presenter Tom Binns' jokes about bestiality on air.

Capital Radio attempted to increase Xfm's listening figures, recruiting DJs such as Zoe Ball, former BBC Radio 1 presenter, and re-recruiting comedians Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant, who took voluntary redundancy when Capital bought the station, after the first airing of The Office. Together with Zane Lowe and Christian O'Connell, this yielded growing listening figures.

In 2012, host John Kennedy was the only member of the presenter lineup that had been with the radio station since its first broadcasts. His new music show, X-Posure is the station's longest running show and is credited as being the first to give radio play to artists including Adele, Florence and the Machine, Razorlight and Mumford & Sons.

Expansion of the Xfm network
Xfm has held 28-day Restricted Service Licence FM broadcasts in a number of British cities, including Manchester, Birmingham, Cardiff and Glasgow.

In 2000, Xfm London was added to a number of DAB multiplexes around the country, and in January 2006 its reach expanded when it replaced The Storm on a number of other local multiplexes, creating near-national coverage. It was at one point reported that this "national" version of Xfm London (known as Xfm UK) would have local content drop-ins within it (e.g. news, travel) over time, but this ultimately never came to pass. Most DAB coverage of Xfm carried the London version of the station, but for a time some multiplexes in the north of England instead received a feed of Xfm Manchester.

In 2001, Xfm rehired Ricky Gervais and Steve Merchant to run the Saturday afternoon show. Karl Pilkington was assigned to them as a producer, to "just push the buttons", but eventually became the focal point of the show.

By 2002, the station had added many specialist shows, such as London Express, The A-X of Alternative Music presented by Steve Taylor and generating a book published in 2004, and The Remix. Although the daytime playlist consisted of forty current releases, these were changed frequently, and the overall playlist contained about ninety records. In time the specialist shows gradually declined in number, and the playlist was again restricted.

On 9 June 2005, the group was awarded a permanent FM broadcasting licence to serve the city of Manchester as Xfm Manchester. This station went on air in March 2006. Also in 2005, Xfm was among the bidders for the regional north east franchise on 97.5 FM, but this licence was ultimately awarded to Smooth Radio by Ofcom.

On 4 January 2006, GCap Media relaunched its Central Scotland regional station Beat 106 as Xfm Scotland.

In 2007, a fourth station joined the network with the launch of a new regional Xfm for south Wales, based at the Cardiff studios of Red Dragon FM (now Capital South Wales).

Output changes
In May 2007, in an attempt to cut costs, the parent company of Xfm, GCap Media, announced that they would be removing all presenters from the daytime (10 am–4 pm) lineup and replacing them with a jukebox based upon listener requests through their websites. On 6 March 2008 an announcement was made reversing the decision to remove daytime presenters. From 25 March 2008 a new schedule restoring daytime schedules was put in place.

On 11 February 2008 GCap Media announced that they would be selling the analogue licence for the Manchester, Scotland and South Wales stations, retaining only XFM London. This decision was made in an attempt to shore up profits and concentrate on 'winning brands', calling the former nationalisation strategy into question. After this announcement, in early 2008, breakfast show host Alex Zane admitted on air that the future of the London station was also being reviewed, even making jokey references to perhaps being out of a job soon. The sale of the South Wales station went ahead, with Town and Country Broadcasting relaunching this as Nation Radio; the sale of the Scotland and Manchester stations was suspended when Global Radio entered into discussions to purchase GCap Media.

The re-appointment of a previous Programme Controller in 2011 led to a number of changes to Xfm's output. Specialist shows such as Music:Response and Mix Master Mike Show returned, as did presenter Danny Wallace. In September 2011 a new Xfm schedule began, and included Mary Anne Hobbs moving to a re-launched evening show, Music:Response. A new "local" slot was introduced. Broadcaster Richard Skinner left the station after two years. The show Import:Export, produced and directed by Redefined Media, was resurrected and linked to KROQ-FM Los Angeles. Further weekend signings included The Sun journalist Gordon Smart starting a three-hour Sunday show. Smart's show ended in October 2013 when he left to join the Scottish Sun as editor. As part of the 2013 schedule Jon Holmes took over the breakfast show. Comedian Josh Widdicombe presented a show on Saturdays between 10 am and 1 pm with Lliana Bird on afternoons. It was announced in March 2015 that Russell Brand would be hosting a new Sunday night show, which was to first air on 15 March.

Following Heart and Galaxy owner Global's takeover of GCap Media, Xfm Scotland became Galaxy (it went on to become Capital Scotland in 2011), leaving just Manchester and London with local Xfm stations.

Following Global's acquisition of Real and Smooth Ltd, the Paisley/Renfrewshire 96.3 FM service previously broadcast as Real Radio XS became a new XFM Scotland in 2014. This service was available across central Scotland over DAB.

Up until the end of the Xfm branding, the London, Manchester and Scotland stations broadcast 43 hours a week of local programming – weekday breakfast and drive, and four hours a day at weekends – with networked programming, primarily from London, at other times. TV platforms followed the London output and all three stations were streamed online.

Rebrand as Radio X
Xfm rebranded as Radio X on 21 September 2015. The rebrand was carried out in partnership with creative agency We Are MBC. The rebranded station launched with new presenters including Chris Moyles, Vernon Kay, Johnny Vaughan and Ricky Wilson joining some existing XFM presenters on a refreshed schedule.

Xfm aired its last day of programming on Sunday 13 September 2015, with Lliana Bird playing out the final song 'Kick Out The Jams' by MC5 and bidding an emotional farewell to the station. Musicians, listeners and Xfm DJs were invited to share their memories of the station using #wewerexfm. Xfm Scotland ceased broadcasting entirely on the same day, with Global handing back the Paisley licence to Ofcom. A "holding" service of music and announcements began transmitting on national DAB under the Radio X title the following day, with this service also taking the place of Xfm on FM, TV and online until the full launch of the new Radio X at 6:30am on Monday 21 September 2015.

The first song played on the rebranded Radio X, by Chris Moyles just before 7am on 21 September, was "Love Machine" by Girls Aloud, an off-format nod to media reports of a male bias by the new station.

Radio X is now available nationally via Digital One national DAB, with all local-layer Xfm carriage dropped (replaced in many cases by Gold). The new national Radio X also replaced Xfm on FM in London and Manchester, and on other platforms including TV and online. There is no longer any local output on the Manchester station, and the only variance between the UK, London and Manchester services is split advertising and top-of-the-hour news intros.

In October 2019, Radio X's DAB station switched to DAB+ using a more efficient 40 kbps AAC+ stream. This enabled it to broadcast nationally in stereo on DAB for the first time; the previous DAB broadcast used the less efficient MP2 coding, so although a higher bitrate (80 kbps), it was broadcast in mono. The change was made to make room for LBC News on the Digital One multiplex.

During the 2010s, the station progressively included more "classic" records in its output. By 2021, except for six hours of John Kennedy's Xposure programme, only about twelve recent releases would be playlisted in any one week.

Radio X Classic Rock
On 16 February 2023, Global launched Radio X Classic Rock to play classic rock music via DAB and online.

Stations
The stations which formerly comprised the Xfm network were:
 * Xfm London, which has been broadcasting on 104.9 FM in the Greater London area full-time since 1997 (and by Restricted Service Licence from 1992).
 * XFM Manchester, which was launched on 97.7 FM on 15 March 2006.

Current and former presenters
Current Presenters on the network include:

 * Chris Moyles
 * Dominic Byrne
 * Toby Tarrant
 * Johnny Vaughan
 * Polly James
 * John Kennedy
 * Ed Gamble
 * Matthew Crosby
 * Danny Wallace

Former presenters on the network include:

 * Ricky Gervais
 * Stephen Merchant
 * Karl Pilkington
 * Russell Brand
 * Zane Lowe
 * Dave Rowntree, whose final show was on 13 September 2015.
 * Dermot O'Leary
 * Adam and Joe
 * Shaun Keaveny
 * Claire Sturgess
 * Zoe Ball
 * Pete Mitchell
 * Eddy Temple-Morris, host of The Remix, whose final show after 15 years on Xfm was on 4 September 2015. He took The Remix to Soho Radio.
 * Josh Widdicombe, who alternated on Saturday and Sunday mornings from February 2013 until July 2015.
 * Iain Baker, who worked at Xfm for seven years presenting a number of different shows
 * Alex Zane
 * Christian O'Connell
 * Dave Berry
 * Lauren Laverne

 * Eoghan McDermott, now on RTÉ Radio.
 * Scroobius Pip, who presented The Beatdown, a late-night spoken-word and hip-hop show, from April 2013 to August 2014
 * Jon Holmes (2013–2016)
 * Phil Clifton
 * Ricky Wilson
 * Vernon Kay (2015–2017)
 * Clint Boon
 * Jo Good
 * Mary Anne Hobbs
 * Janice Long
 * Richard Skinner
 * Kevin Greening
 * Alan Freeman
 * Elis James
 * John Robins
 * Jimmy Hill
 * Gordon Smart
 * Liam Gallagher
 * Noel Gallagher
 * Lliana Bird, the longest standing female DJ on the station (16 years)
 * Steve Taylor, author of The A to X of Alternative Music
 * Robin Banks

Kick Out the Jams: The Story of XFM
In 2022, Signature Entertainment released Kick Out the Jams: The Story of XFM, a documentary by The Wee Man's Ray Burdis co-directed with Ian Jefferies, about the history of Xfm. The film features interviews with former Xfm presenters like Gary Crowley, Ricky Gervais, Steve Lamacq, Stephen Merchant and Claire Sturgess, as well as musicians like The Libertines' Pete Doherty and Carl Barat, Alan McGee and Sonya Madan.

title: Radio X (United Kingdom)


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Florian Geyer

Florian Geyer von Giebelstadt (also spelled Geier; c. 1490 – 10 June 1525) was a German nobleman, diplomat, and knight. He became widely known for leading peasants during the German Peasants' War.

Early life
Florian Geyer was born around 1490 at Geyer Castle in Giebelstadt, Lower Franconia. After the deaths of his father Dietrich (in 1492) and of his two older brothers, Florian Geyer inherited the family castle and fortune. In 1512 and 1513, he was a guest at the court of King Henry VIII in England, where he may have been exposed to the reformist ideas of John Wycliffe and the Lollards. In 1517, after refusing to pay 350-year-old interest claims from Neumünster Collegiate Church, Geyer was excommunicated.

In 1519, Geyer served under Casimir Margrave of Brandeburg-Kulmbach in the army of the Swabian League against Ulrich Duke of Württemberg and Götz von Berlichingen in Möckmühl. Later that year Brandeburg-Kulmbach sent Geyer to his brother Albrecht Duke of Brandenburg-Prussia, then Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, to support him in the Polish-Teutonic War (1519–1521). Geyer negotiated the truce which ended it. He remained in Brandenburg-Prussia's service until 1523, travelling to various European courts on diplomatic missions.

In 1523, Geyer accompanied Martin Luther on a visit to Wittenberg in Brandenburg-Prussia. If not already sympathetic to the Protestant reformation, Geyer was probably won over to Luther's ideals at this meeting.

German Peasants' War
When the German Peasants' War broke out in 1524, Florian Geyer, together with a handful of low-ranking knights and several hundred hastily-trained peasant militiamen, established the Black Company (often called the Black Host or Black Band), which was possibly the only heavy cavalry division in European history to fight on the side of a peasant revolution. By checking Imperial and Protestant knights on the battlefield, the Black Company allowed preacher Thomas Müntzer and his infantry to score a string of victories in Thuringia. Geyer is reputed to have had the words "Nulla crux, nulla corona" (No cross, no crown) scratched on the blade of his sword. All sides credited him with the wanton destruction of cathedrals and castles, and summary executions of the lords and priests contained therein. These destructions played a part in causing Martin Luther to side with the princes, calling on them to slaughter the rebellious peasants.

As the Peasants' War dragged on, many of the rebel peasants returned home, and most of the knights who, alongside Geyer, had joined Müntzer deserted or defected. Müntzer himself was defeated at the Battle of Frankenhausen and executed shortly afterwards.

Death
Conflicting accounts place Geyer with the company, or alone in Rothingen in the aftermath of the Battle of Frankenhausen. The Black Company was falsely informed of victory at Frankenhausen, and ambushed outside of Ingolstadt. They managed to regroup, retreat, and fortify the town's castle and cathedral. The cathedral was burned with no survivors, and the castle was taken after three assaults. A portion of the Black Company broke free, only to be encircled again in nearby woodlands. If Geyer had been leading the Black Company through the Battle of Ingolstadt, he barely escaped with his life. Geyer may, however, have been stranded at Rothingen the entire time while waiting for an escort from the Black Company, which was only to be barred from entering the town. The later attempts to stamp out memory of the uprising have obscured these details.

Whether or not Geyer was at Ingolstadt, he was one of the last survivors. In the night from 9 to 10 June 1525 he was contacted in Würzburg by two servants of his brother-in-law Wilhelm von Grumbach, who had stated their intention of helping him rekindle the Peasants' War. While traveling together, they stabbed Geyer to death in the Gramschatz Forest near Würzburg. The location of his remains is unknown.

Legacy
The family of Florian Geyer died out in the early 18th century and their castle in Giebelstadt passed into other hands, but is still the site of the annual "Florian Geyer Festspiele".Geyer was heralded as a communist revolutionary in Friedrich Engels' The Peasant War in Germany (1850). In this work, Engels asserts that the war was primarily a class struggle over control of farms and mines, which subverted the Biblical language and metaphors commonly understood by peasants. In this spirit, a regiment of the Border Troops of the German Democratic Republic, Grenzregiment 3 Florian Geyer, was named after him. Geyer was also the hero of one of Gerhart Hauptmann's major plays, the historical drama Florian Geyer (1896), and the inspiration for the German folk song, "Wir sind des Geyers schwarzer Haufen" ("We are Geyer's Black Company"), with a strong anti-clerical and anti-noble theme. The song has been popularised as a union-song, and is noted for its inclusion in the official songbooks of both the Nazi Party, and the German Democratic Republic.

Geyer was also considered a heroic figure by Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist Party. The 8th SS Cavalry Division Florian Geyer was named after him in March 1944, during World War II.

Literature

 * Hermann Barge: Florian Geyer. Eine biographische Studie. Gerstenberg Verlag, Hildesheim 1972, ISBN 3-8067-0124-5
 * Christa Dericum: Des Geyers schwarze Haufen. Florian Geyer und der deutsche Bauernkrieg. Bertelsmann, München 1980, ISBN 3-570-07254-1
 * Friedrich Engels: Der deutsche Bauernkrieg. Unrast-Verlag, Münster 2004, ISBN 3-89771-907-X
 * Günther Franz: Der deutsche Bauernkrieg. Wissenschaftliche Buchgemeinschaft, Darmstadt 1987, ISBN 3-534-03424-4
 * Dagobert von Mikusch: Florian Geyer und der Kampf um das Reich. Schlegel, Berlin 1941.
 * Gerhart Hauptmann: Florian Geyer. Die Tragödie des Bauernkrieges. Reclam, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-15-007841-5
 * Jeremiah Pearson: Brethren. Book One of the Villeins Trilogy, Incunabula Press 2013, ISBN 978-0989546706.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Florian Geyer


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Richard Henry Bonnycastle

Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Richard Henry Bonnycastle (30 September 1791 – 3 November 1847) was an officer of the British army active in Upper Canada.

Life
Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Richard Henry Bonnycastle was the son of Professor John Bonnycastle, and was born in 1791. He studied at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, as a cadet, and passed out as a second lieutenant of the royal engineers 28 September 1808, becoming a first lieutenant in the following year. He served at the siege of Flushing in 1809, and in the American campaigns of 1812–14, during which he was present at the capture of Fort Castine, and the occupation of the part of the state of Maine east of the Penobscot, and was commanding engineer at the construction of the extensive works thrown up by the British on the Castine peninsula. He attained the rank of captain in 1814, in which year he married the daughter of Captain W. Johnstone. Subsequently, he served with the army of occupation in France.

As commanding royal engineer in Upper Canada, he rendered very important services during the Canadian rebellion in 1837–39, particularly in February 1838, when, at the head of a force of militia and volunteers, in the absence of regular troops, he defeated the designs of the insurgents at Napanee, and the brigands at Hickory Island, for an attack on the city of Kingston. For these services he was knighted. In his capacity as a military engineer, Bonnycastle oversaw the fortification of Fort Henry in modern Kingston, Ontario. He was afterwards commanding engineer in Newfoundland.

He became a brevet-major in 1837, a regimental lieutenant-colonel in 1840, and retired from the service in 1847. He died in 1848.

Family
Through his son, Henry William John Bonnycastle (1813–1888) would come a prominent Bonnycastle family of Canadian politicians and adventurers and the founder of Harlequin Enterprises, the world's largest publisher of romance novels.

Works

 * Richard Henry Bonnycastle (1849). Canada and the Canadians, Volume I. London.
 * Richard Henry Bonnycastle (1849). Canada and the Canadians, Volume II. London.

title: Richard Henry Bonnycastle


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Psycho-Pirate

The Psycho-Pirate is the name of two supervillains appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics.

Bob Frazer portrayed the character for his live action debut during The CW's 2018 Arrowverse crossover "Elseworlds".

Publication history
The Charles Halstead version of Psycho-Pirate first appears in All-Star Comics #23 and was created by Gardner Fox and Joe Gallagher.

The Roger Hayden version of Psycho-Pirate first appears in Showcase #56 and was created by Fox and Murphy Anderson.

Charles Halstead
Charles Halstead is a minor character who first appears in All-Star Comics #23, created by Gardner Fox and Joe Gallagher. He was originally a linotyper for the Daily Courier who became jealous of his boss's success; later, he becomes a criminal mastermind under the name Psycho-Pirate. He plans crimes based on emotions, hoping to ruin his boss. Nothing is known of the life of Charles Halstead before he became a linotyper at the Daily Courier. A long-time employee, Halstead was a friend and favorite of publisher Rex Morgan. Secretly, however, Halstead was frustrated with his lack of advancement at the paper and, at some point, snapped. He resolved to take what he had never been able to earn. His first target was the newspaper itself. He began to stage a series of crimes based on emotions (hate, greed, etc.), cluing the Courier with leads to his crimes.

As time passed Halstead became bolder. He penned a letter to the Courier, challenging the Justice Society to stop a new wave of crimes based on a variety of emotions. For example, he engendered fear into the inhabitants of a city where he threatened to unleash a deadly plague until his plan was halted by Dr. Mid-Nite. Each JSAer was given an emotion and a task to solve. With the JSA dispersed and only the Atom to guard Halstead, the Psycho-Pirate began a campaign to demoralize the publisher with constant news of despair: business failure, divorce, foreclosure — a series of lies designed to crush the spirit of his employer. To remove the Atom, he convinced the hero that the JSA had been captured and sent the Atom to rescue them. The Atom discovered the ruse and defeated the criminal's henchmen disguised as JSAers. In doing so, the Atom discovered the true identity of the Psycho-Pirate, who shot him to preserve his secrecy. Wounded, the Atom made it to the Courier just as the JSA returned and exposed Halstead as the Psycho-Pirate. Halstead was subsequently sentenced to a lengthy prison term after the Justice Society of America captured and put him in jail. He escaped by playing on the emotions of a guard, but the JSA heard of his plans from his cellmate and were able to recapture him. He continued to research the mysticism of emotions until his death sometime in the 1960s.

Roger Hayden
Roger Hayden first appeared as the second Psycho-Pirate in Showcase #56, created by Gardner Fox and Murphy Anderson.

Roger Hayden is a jailed gangster (later retconned into a young 20-year-old who was sentenced to a year in prison for attacking his emotionally abusive psychiatrist father) who is a cellmate to Halstead on Earth-Two. Halstead's dying wish, to have a legacy, prompts him to tell Hayden of a secret which he has divined in his jail years: the existence of the Medusa Masks. These golden masks bestow upon the wearer the power to project emotions onto others. Hayden finds these masks, merges them into a single faceplate and uses its powers to become a supervillain. It becomes increasingly apparent that he is addicted to absorbing others' emotions, though it causes him pain, possibly brought on by the combination of all of the masks into one. He is eventually imprisoned after a battle with Doctor Fate and Hourman.

Hayden returns to prominence when he insidiously begins influencing prominent Gotham City citizens Bruce Wayne and Alan Scott; Wayne is a former wealthy businessman and now commissioner of Gotham's police force and Scott is the president of the television station WXYZ. Initially, Scott is the most affected by Psycho-Pirate as he, in his Green Lantern persona, begins exercising his frustrations upon humanity for the failures of his private life, such as the impending bankruptcy of his station. After creating a disturbance at Gotham International Airport, he is subdued by his Justice Society comrades, who assist both Scott and teammate Flash, who had also been under Hayden's control. The Society has to next battle a civil war within their membership instigated by Wayne, still under Hayden's control and determined to rid Gotham of all superheroes.

Hayden later joins the Secret Society of Super Villains, having been recruited by the Ultra-Humanite to defeat Hayden's old foe Hourman. While he is initially successful thanks to a device the Ultra-Humanite devises that amplifies and projects Hayden's face and hence his control, ultimately both the Justice Society and the Justice League defeat Hayden and his teammates after their betrayal of fellow Secret Society members. The villains are deposited into an interdimensional rift known as Limbo.

While in Limbo, the Ultra-Humanite gains mental contact with his younger self from the 1940s and the two Ultra-Human are able to pull the Secret Society, including Hayden, back to that era, where they confront and are defeated by the All-Star Squadron and the time-lost Infinity Inc.

Crisis on Infinite Earths
In the Crisis on Infinite Earths limited series, the Monitor recruits Hayden—who goes on to help Firestorm recruit his enemy Killer Frost to the Monitor's team by making her fall in love with Firestorm—but Hayden is quickly abducted by the Anti-Monitor. In exchange for an entire world and all of its inhabitants' emotions to play with, Psycho-Pirate becomes an accomplice to the Anti-Monitor, manipulating a captive Barry Allen. The Flash's powers are briefly enhanced so that Hayden can control the remaining three alternate Earths at the time (Earth-4, Earth-S, and Earth-X) so that their heroes are provoked into attacking teams sent to rescue them. Psycho-Pirate's use of his powers on this scale causes him to "burn out" so that he cannot use his powers again afterward. Although the Anti-Monitor constantly belittles the Psycho-Pirate, he keeps him around in case his emotion-manipulating abilities prove useful later on and because he lacks the time to find or create someone else with the same powers. After the resolution of the Crisis, Psycho-Pirate is one of very few individuals to have full memories of the event. Driven mad by these memories, the Psycho-Pirate is shown in the last few panels of 'Crisis' in a straitjacket.

Post-Crisis
Following the events of Crisis on Infinite Earths, Hayden escapes Arkham Asylum and encounters a renegade Fifth Dimension Thunderbolt genie who has merged with private investigator Jonnie Thunder. In the pages of Infinity, Inc. #30–34, the two bedevil the members of Infinity, Inc. in a bid to destroy Jonnie's mind so that the Thunderbolt can seize total control over her body. During the arc, it is shown that the renegade Thunderbolt repeatedly electroshocked Psycho-Pirate upon recruiting him. Although this was done to "cure" Hayden of the madness he was suffering from, the electroshock had the side effect of making Psycho-Pirate lose all memories of the Crisis and the existence of parallel Earths.

Defeated, Hayden relocates to Markovia and impersonates the villain Baron Bedlam to gain power in the nation. In a story spanning two specials (Outsiders Special and Infinity, Inc. Special), the Outsiders and Infinity, Inc. defeat and imprison Psycho-Pirate.

Hayden shows up again in Grant Morrison's run on Animal Man, imprisoned in Arkham Asylum. The effects of the electroshocks given to him by the renegade Thunderbolt have worn off and Hayden's memories of the Crisis and of the prior existence of multiple Earths are restored. Psycho-Pirate ends up releasing characters destroyed during the Crisis back into the world, although many of these characters later come to realize they are just characters in a comic book. After an intervention by Animal Man, Hayden, seemingly happy, fades away into nothingness. Psycho-Pirate's happiness is due to a relief of the strain from releasing all of the forgotten characters, but he is consequently removed from reality and placed back in Limbo. James Highwater, one of the Asylum staff, is left to wear the Medusa Mask and keep the forgotten Earths contained. The other staff members come to accept Highwater as a patient, not realizing his knowledge of the missing worlds.

At some point, the Medusa Mask is held by the Force of July. Abraham Lincoln Carlyle, who shelters the Force, claims to have gotten the mask from Hayden and to have learned how to use it by watching him. He tries to use the mask, unsuccessfully, against Shade, the Changing Man as his team falls under attack from the Suicide Squad; Carlyle's heart fails him, however, and he dies.

Psycho-Pirate does not appear again until 1995 when he became part of the Underworld Unleashed crossover event. In this story, Psycho-Pirate, along with several other villains, sells his soul to the demon Neron in exchange for more power. The process results in a costume change for the character as well, with Hayden now wearing a black leather jacket and with the metal of his mask morphing into an eyepatch and replacing about half of his brain. Once again sane, and making no allusion to the events of Crisis on Infinite Earths and the existence of the Multiverse, Psycho-Pirate goes on to fight the Chase Lawler version of Manhunter before being arrested and sent to jail.

After his appearance in the Fate series, Psycho-Pirate makes two brief appearances during the Joker: Last Laugh crossover event. He is first seen locked up in the maximum security prison called the "Slab", where he is again insane and rambling of the existence of the Multiverse and is seen in his original costume. All but one eye of the Pirate's face is covered and his eyebrows have been shaved off to reduce his ability to express emotion. The Joker initiates a breakout and infection of the inmates, causing them to follow his orders and commit dangerous pranks. Because of this control, Psycho-Pirate is seen shouting "Fire!" in a crowded theatre during the breakout.

Infinite Crisis
Psycho-Pirate reappears in the JSA Classified #1–4 story arc, in which he reveals that he and Power Girl are refugees from Earth-Two. Along with several other individuals (such as Donna Troy and her evil alter ego Dark Angel), both Psycho-Pirate and Power Girl were "missed" in the restructuring of the Multiverse into a single universe following the events of Crisis on Infinite Earths. This revelation restores the original origin story of Power Girl as well.

Psycho-Pirate hopes to weaken Power Girl mentally so that she can be captured as part of Alexander Luthor, Jr.'s plot to unite and control characters who had originally been from universes destroyed during Crisis on Infinite Earths. Failing at this, Psycho-Pirate flees and vows to make Power Girl his love slave once Luthor is finished with her.

When Nightwing, Superboy, and Wonder Girl attack Luthor's base, they free all the captive heroes, including Power Girl and Black Adam, who are then confronted by the Psycho-Pirate. A coldly furious Black Adam proceeds to battle him head on. Although Hayden desperately attempts to use his powers on Adam, he simply ignores him and proceeds to gouge out the Psycho-Pirate's eyes and pushes the Medusa Mask straight through his head, killing him instantly.

Psycho-Pirate is mentioned in Justice League of America (vol. 2) #1 as selling emotional states, such as "happy" and "ecstatic", much like a drug dealer. Among his reported clients are Signalman and Silver Ghost. Psycho-Pirate's Medusa Mask is also featured in the 2008 Raven miniseries. In the story's conclusion, Raven destroyed the mask but its power still affected scientists who studied its schematics on a computer.

Blackest Night
In the Blackest Night storyline, Psycho-Pirate has been identified as one of the deceased who are entombed below the Hall of Justice. Psycho-Pirate's corpse is revived as a Black Lantern during the event. He attacks Smallville, using his powers to manipulate the inhabitants and sway Conner Kent into attacking Superman. Psycho-Pirate murders several Smallville citizens after using his powers to enhance their emotions, as Black Lanterns enjoy attacking the emotionally overwrought.

Conner attacks Superman and aids the Black Lantern Superman from Earth 2; however, the effect of the mask wears off and Conner once more regains his senses. Clark and Conner decide to separate, with Conner confronting Psycho-Pirate. Conner manages to withstand his emotional manipulation attempts and steals the Medusa Mask, which has been reconstructed via the black ring. Using the artifact, Conner inspires hope, will, and compassion, ending the riots in Smallville. Psycho-Pirate is last seen retreating into a dark alley, followed by Conner. Conner then uses the Medusa Mask on Earth-2 Superman (Kal-L), causing the black rings to malfunction and turning both Psycho-Pirate and Kal-L back into inanimate corpses.

The New 52
In September 2011, The New 52 rebooted DC's continuity. In this new timeline, a new depiction of Psycho-Pirate first appears in Superboy (vol. 6) #23 as a member of the Twenty, a group of people who are infected by Brainiac with a psionic virus, thus giving them all psionic abilities. He was captured by the H.I.V.E. Queen, another member of the Twenty who had become a zealous devotee of Brainiac. Psycho-Pirate managed to escape and sought out the Medusa Mask, an artifact that he believed would protect him against other people with psychic powers. He then spent the next four years hiding other psychics from H.I.V.E., who were using the people they captured to power their operations in Metropolis.

During the Psi-War storyline, the Psycho-Pirate appears and takes out Hector Hammond and the H.I.V.E. Queen, who were both fighting for control of the city. When Superman arrives at H.I.V.E.'s headquarters, Hayden confronts him and drains his mind too. Hayden is then surprised by Lois Lane, who was infected with the same psionic virus by Senator Hume, yet another member of the Twenty. The two fight, with Hayden getting the upper hand. He then proceeds to make Metropolis' citizens act on pure emotion, creating riots and chaos throughout the streets. A recovered Superman, Lois Lane, Hector Hammond, and the H.I.V.E. Queen then team up to fight the Pirate and a fierce battle ensues, during which the Queen and Hammond are beaten. Superman manages to pull the Medusa Mask off of Hayden's face and incinerates it with his heat vision, defeating the Psycho-Pirate. Hayden, however, disappears in the aftermath of the battle. At the same time as he was clashing with Superman, Roger Hayden also sent an astral projection to confront Superboy and Doctor Psycho who are in New York City looking for a psychic called Shift. Shift reveals that Psycho was only manipulating Superboy to get his power. A three-way battle ensues between the three characters, which ends with Doctor Psycho being defeated and Superboy falling unconscious, only to wake up in a cell powerless.

DC Rebirth
In DC Rebirth, Psycho-Pirate and Hugo Strange are sent to Gotham as part of Amanda Waller's Task Force X. As soon as they arrive, Hugo Strange deviates from their mission and uses Psycho-Pirate to infect Gotham City's newest heroes, Gotham and Gotham Girl, with overwhelming rage and fear, respectively, causing Gotham to go on a murderous rampage. With this accomplished, Strange trades the Psycho-Pirate to Bane, who wants the Pirate to help him overcome the horrors of his childhood and his addiction to Venom. When Batman learns of this, he forms his own Suicide Squad with the Bronze Tiger, the Ventriloquist, Catwoman, and Punch and Jewelee. Together, they infiltrate Bane's prison fortress on the island of Santa Prisca and retrieve the Psycho-Pirate. Batman returns the Pirate to Gotham City and uses him to reverse the emotional damage that he did to Gotham Girl.

The Medusa Mask is taken into Batman's custody. When Batman accidentally puts the blood-stained smiley face button from the corpse of Edward Blake (the Comedian) left in Batman's Batcave by Dr. Manhattan, next to the Medusa Mask, both artifacts create an energy reaction that attracts the attention of Professor Zoom the Reverse-Flash (Eobard Thawne). The Reverse-Flash is then killed by Dr. Manhattan, but not before the Medusa Mask manifests the erased-from-existence Jay Garrick, who frantically attempts to warn Batman and the Flash of Manhattan's evil scheme to alter the timeline so as to eliminate the Justice League and a create a darker, more cynical Superman, and a version of the Flashpoint Universe Thomas Wayne, who begs Batman to give up his costumed identity for a normal existence.

Shortly after those events, Hayden has the Medusa Mask returned to him by agents of Bane. From there, it is revealed in the wake of the aborted Batman and Catwoman wedding that Hugo Strange, Psycho-Pirate and Gotham Girl were actually working together in secret with Bane, and that Psycho-Pirate has resurrected the Flashpoint Batman from the dead to aid in Bane's scheme.

In the pages of "Flashpoint Beyond", a sequel to "Flashpoint", Psycho-Pirate appeared in a cell at Arkham Asylum within the Flashpoint reality as Commissioner Gigante tells Thomas Wayne about it. When Thomas becomes Batman, he finds Psycho-Pirate hanged in his cell. The culprit behind Psycho-Pirate's death would turn out to be the Martha Wayne version of Joker.

Powers and abilities
Charles Halstead has no superhuman powers; however, he is a brilliant criminal mind with an excellent grasp of human psychology and emotions.

With the Medusa Mask, Roger Hayden is able to project emotions onto other people. Often it seems to intensify emotions that a person already feels, no matter how small. Hayden later shows the power to manifest any DC Multiverse characters that had been destroyed during the Crisis on Infinite Earths or any living character, period. The Psycho-Pirate has also shown some sort of regeneration of body control, as he is able to reform after being crushed by Power Girl, and also disguises himself as a Legion flight ring.

During his 1990s revamp, the Psycho-Pirate was a psychic vampire, able to drain emotions from other people.

Following The New 52 reboot, Roger Hayden is depicted as a psychic who specializes in telepathically manipulating other people's emotions. Examples include: calming a person to make them more reasonable or amplifying negative emotions such as fear or anger to the point of sending people into a murderous frenzy. While wearing the Medusa Mask, Hayden's emotion-manipulating powers were increased to the point where he could control all of Metropolis without straining himself. The mask also provided him with a number of other abilities, including shielding his mind against intrusion from other telepaths, levitation, draining other psi-powered individuals of their mental energies to increase his own, projecting psionic constructs in the form of giant orange snakes which he uses to attack enemies, forming a psychic link with another person, projecting his mind over tremendous distances (essentially granting him omnipresence), deflecting psionic attacks, projecting bolts of psionic energy and creating illusions.

Other versions
In the four-part Elseworlds story JSA: The Golden Age, the Charles Halstead version of Psycho Pirate is seen as a member of the Injustice Society.

Television

 * The Roger Hayden incarnation of Psycho-Pirate makes non-speaking cameo appearances in Justice League Unlimited. This version lacks the Medusa Mask and is a member of Gorilla Grodd's Secret Society.
 * The Roger Hayden incarnation of Psycho-Pirate appears in Batman: The Brave and the Bold, voiced by Armin Shimerman.
 * The Roger Hayden incarnation of Psycho-Pirate appears in the Arrowverse crossover event "Elseworlds", portrayed by Bob Frazer.
 * The Psycho-Pirate appears in the seventh season of The Flash via Cecile Horton (portrayed by Danielle Nicolet).

Film
Psycho-Pirate appears in films set in the Tomorrowverse, voiced by Geoffrey Arend:

 * An alternate universe incarnation of Charles Halstead called the Advisor appears in Justice Society: World War II. This version is from Earth-2 and possesses mind-control abilities. He brainwashes Aquaman and the Atlanteans into joining forces with the Nazis with the intention of having the former destroy the latter so Halstead can take over the world. While the Justice Society of America and the Flash of Earth-1 confront and defeat him, Halstead kills Steve Trevor in the process.
 * The Charles Halstead incarnation of Psycho-Pirate appears in Justice League: Crisis on Infinite Earths - Part One and Justice League: Crisis on Infinite Earths - Part Two.

Video games
The Roger Hayden incarnation of Psycho-Pirate appears as a playable character in Lego DC Super-Villains, voiced again by Armin Shimerman. This version is a member of the Legion of Doom.

Miscellaneous

 * The Roger Hayden incarnation of Psycho-Pirate appears in Justice League Adventures #20. This version is a former psychiatrist who was suspended for malpractice and lost his wife and son during an alien attack in Metropolis.
 * The Roger Hayden incarnation of Psycho-Pirate appears in a special one-shot Young Justice issue published for Free Comic Book Day.

title: Psycho-Pirate


text:
Jeremy Podeswa

Jeremy Podeswa (born 1962) is a Canadian film and television director. He is best known for directing the films The Five Senses (1999) and Fugitive Pieces (2007). He has also worked as director on the television shows Six Feet Under, Nip/Tuck, The Tudors, Queer as Folk, and the HBO World War II miniseries The Pacific. He has also written several films.

In 2014, he directed episodes five and six of the fifth season of the HBO series Game of Thrones, earning a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for the latter episode. He returned the next season, directing the season premiere and the second episode. He also directed the season premiere as well as the season finale of the seventh season. In 2021, he directed episodes of the TV series adaptation of The Mosquito Coast and the miniseries Station Eleven.

Biography
Jeremy Podeswa was born in 1962 in Toronto, Ontario. He is Jewish, and his Polish Jewish father, a painter, was the only one of his immediate family to make it out of the German Nazi camps alive. He attended the Community Hebrew Academy of Toronto before graduating from Ryerson University's Film Studies program and the American Film Institute's Center for Advanced Film Studies (now the AFI Conservatory). He has recently identified as queer and states that it is only one part of his identity:

"...my sexual orientation is one element among others. I believe that the experience of belonging to a minority, whether tied to sexual orientation, religion or race, changes your perspective you can have on of our environment and things in life. My orientation is only one part of me: I am Jewish, my parents are immigrants, I am North American. All these things and many others make what I am. It would be very restrictive, even a mistake, to say that my work or any other filmmaker’s can be reduced to the dimension of sexual orientation. "

He was part of a loosely affiliated group of filmmakers to emerge in the 1980s from Toronto known as the Toronto New Wave.

In 1983, 21-year-old Podeswa used his student loans to make his first short film, titled David Roche Talks to You About Love —a 22-minute performance about a gay actor and his views on love. The aspiring director then took jobs as a production assistant, assistant editor and a publicist before he started directing his own films. During the eighties and nineties when he just started his career, he made Canadian indie shorts and features such as The Five Senses, Eclipse, and Fugitive Pieces (2008), loosely based on a novel by Anne Michael, which was awarded the opening night slot at the 2007 International Film Festival. The film has since received critical acclaim. Podeswa has recently made a name for himself directing critically acclaimed and commercially successful television shows, such as Boardwalk Empire, Six Feet Under, True Blood, Dexter, Game of Thrones and Queer as Folk.

Awards
Altogether, Jeremy Podeswa has won 20 awards while having 34 nominations for his expert works. Podeswa was given two Genie Awards in 2000 as Best Director of The Five Senses, which was awarded Best Picture.

In addition, he won an award at NewFest: New York's LGBT Film Festival for the Best Short. Podeswa won an award at the Newport Beach Film Festival in 2008 for Best Film, Best Director, and Best Screenplay. In addition he won Best Short at the San Francisco International Lesbian & Gay Film Festival. His most recent accomplishments occurred in 2015 and 2018, where he was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Direction of a Drama Series with Game of Thrones.

title: Jeremy Podeswa


text:
Kamasins

The Kamasins (камасинцы; Kamassian: Kaŋmažə) were a collection of tribes of Samoyedic peoples in the Sayan Mountains who lived along the Kan River and Mana River in the 17th century in the southern part of today's Krasnoyarsk Krai.

In the Russian 2010 and 2021 censuses, two people identified as Kamassian and listed under the subgroup "other nationalities". Also, 21 people, comprising 0.5% of the population of Sayansky District, are declared as Kamasins and their descendants by the district administration in the official tourist guide (2021).

History
The origins of the Kamasins remain obscure but it is believed that they are descended from Proto-Samoyed tribes. Around the 17th century, the Kamasins moved and settled along the Kan and Mana rivers. Later on the Kamasins were partly Turkicized.

The Taiga and Steppe Kamasins
In the late 19th century, the Kamasins were split into two groups: The Taiga and the Steppe Kamasins, each with their own distinct dialect.

The Taiga Kamasins engaged in hunting, reindeer breeding and fishing. The Taiga Kamasins spoke the Kamass dialect of Kamassian until the early 20th century.

The Steppe Kamasins engaged in cattle breeding, horse breeding, farming, and hunting. They spoke the Koibal dialect of Kamassian, a Samoyedic language, until they adopted the Khakas language in the mid-19th century, which is still used today.

Later history
Many of the Kamasins had assimilated into the Russian peasantry by the early 20th century. Other Kamasins were assimilated into the Koibal subgroup of the Khakass and underwent Turkification. The Kamasins are now ethnically classified as Koibal Khakass or Russian.

In 1989, Klavdiya Plotnikova, the last Native speaker of the Kamassian language, died. She was half Kamassian.

Population
Ago Künnap, in an 1999 essay on the Kamassian language, indicates that there are no more than 50 descendants of Kamasins.

In the All-Russian population censuses of 2010 and 2021, 2 people indicated being of Kamasin ethnicity.

The unified tourist passport of the Sayansky district of the Krasnoyarsk Krai (developed by the local administration in 2021) shows the ethnic composition of the district's population. 0.2% of the total population of 10,500 people (=21 people) are attributed to the Kamasins, the indigenous people.

title: Kamasins


text:
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text: User talk:84.65.28.52

title: User talk:84.65.28.52


text:
Elisabeth of the Palatinate

Elisabeth of the Palatinate (Elisabeth von der Pfalz; 26 December 1618 – 11 February 1680), also known as Elisabeth of Bohemia (Elisabeth von Böhmen), Princess Elisabeth of the Palatinate, or Princess-Abbess of Herford Abbey, was the eldest daughter of Frederick V, Elector Palatine (who was briefly King of Bohemia), and Elizabeth Stuart. Elisabeth of the Palatinate was a philosopher best known for her correspondence with René Descartes. She was critical of Descartes' dualistic metaphysics and her work anticipated the metaphysical concerns of later philosophers.

Life
Elisabeth Simmern van Pallandt was born on December 26, 1618, in Heidelberg. She was the third of thirteen children and eldest daughter of Frederick V, Elector Palatine, and Elizabeth Stuart, daughter of James VI of Scotland and I of England and sister of Charles I.

Much of Elisabeth's early life outside of her familial relations is unknown. After a short, unsuccessful reign in Bohemia, Elisabeth's parents were forced into exile in the Netherlands in 1620. Elisabeth stayed with her grandmother Louise Juliana of Nassau in Heidelberg before moving to the Netherlands at the age of nine.

Elisabeth had a wide ranging education, studying philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, jurisprudence, history, modern and classical languages. Her siblings nicknamed her "La Grecque" ("The Greek") based on her skill with the ancient language.

Elisabeth also studied the fine arts including painting, music and dancing. She may have been tutored by Constantijn Huygens.

In 1633, Elisabeth received a proposal of marriage from Władysław IV Vasa, King of Poland. The marriage would have been beneficial to the Palatine fortunes, but the king was a Catholic, and Elisabeth refused to convert from her Protestant faith in order to facilitate the marriage.

Edward Reynolds dedicated his Treatise on the passions and the faculties of the soule of man (1640) to Elisabeth. Although the exact context of the dedication is unknown, the dedication suggests that Elisabeth had seen a draft of the work.

In 1642, Elisabeth read Descartes' Meditations on First Philosophy.

In 1646, Elisabeth's brother Philip killed a man in a duel. Elisabeth was sent to stay with family in Germany where she tried to interest professors in Descartes' work.

In 1660, Elisabeth entered the Lutheran convent at Herford, and in 1667 she became abbess of the convent. While the convent was Lutheran, Elisabeth was a Calvinist. Although the previous abbess (Elisabeth's cousin) had also been a Calvinist, this difference in faith created some initial distrust.

As abbess, she presided over the convent and also governed the surrounding community of 7,000 people. While Elisabeth was abbess, the convent became a refuge from religious persecution for people and she welcomed more marginal religious sects, including the Labadists. When Robert Barclay's father David was imprisoned, Elisabeth intervened and helped to get him released.

Elisabeth died on February 12, 1680. She was buried in the Abbey Church of Herford.

Correspondence
Throughout her adult years, Elisabeth corresponded with many renowned intellectuals of her time.

By 1639, Elisabeth was corresponding with Anna Maria van Schurman, a learned woman, called the Dutch Minerva. In an early letter van Schurman offered Elisabeth guidance on what subjects to study, arguing for the usefulness of history.

Elisabeth's correspondence with Descartes began in 1643 and continued until his death in early 1650. At her request, Descartes became her teacher in philosophy and morals, and in 1644 he dedicated to her his Principia. Descartes greatly respected Elisabeth's intellect and valued his correspondence with her.

Many of Descartes's letters to Elisabeth were published in the volumes of his correspondence edited by Claude Clerselier, but Elisabeth refused the request to publish her side of the exchange. Elisabeth's side of the correspondence was first published in 1879 by Louis-Alexandre Foucher de Careil, after he was alerted to its existence by an antiquarian bookseller, Frederick Müller, who had found a packet of letters in Rosendael.

Elisabeth also corresponded with a number of prominent Quakers, including Robert Barclay and William Penn.

There are letters written both by and to her concerning political and financial matters in the English Calendar of State Papers.

Family
 Siblings

 * 1) Henry Frederick, Hereditary Prince of the Palatinate (1614–1629); drowned
 * 2) Charles I Louis, Elector Palatine (1617–1680); married Charlotte of Hesse-Kassel, had issue including Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine, Duchess of Orleans; Marie Luise von Degenfeld, had issue; Elisabeth Hollander von Bernau, had issue
 * 3) Elisabeth of the Palatinate (1618–1680), the subject of this article, was the third child.
 * 4) Rupert, Count Palatine of the Rhine (1619–1682); had two illegitimate children
 * 5) Maurice of the Palatinate (1620–1652)
 * 6) Louise Hollandine of the Palatinate (18 April 1622 – 11 February 1709)
 * 7) Louis (21 August 1624 – 24 December 1624)
 * 8) Edward, Count Palatine of Simmern (1625–1663); married Anna Gonzaga, had issue
 * 9) Henriette Marie of the Palatinate (7 July 1626 – 18 September 1651); married Sigismund Rákóczi, brother of the Prince of Transylvania, on 16 June 1651
 * 10) John Philip Frederick of the Palatinate Frederick (26 September 1627 – 16 February 1650 ); also reported to have been born on 15 September 1629
 * 11) Charlotte of the Palatinate (19 December 1628 – 14 January 1631)
 * 12) Sophia, Electress of Hanover (14 October 1630 – 8 June 1714); married Ernest Augustus, Elector of Hanover, had issue, including King George I of Great Britain. Many other royal families are Sophia's descendants. Sophia came close to ascending to the British throne, but died two months before Queen Anne.
 * 13) Gustavus Adolphus of the Palatinate (14 January 1632 – 1641)

Contributions to philosophy: Descartes and other prominent figures
Elisabeth met Descartes on one of his visits to The Hague. Descartes visited The Hague to meet some of the leading intellectual figures in Holland who might support his philosophy. The Hague was often a gathering place to meet other influential, powerful people. As Descartes talked of his ideas, Elisabeth intently listened and became very interested in Descartes' thoughts of the mind and body. After his visit, it was told to him that Elisabeth had been very interested in his work. Descartes was flattered and told others that he would like to get to know the princess better. Descartes made another visit to The Hague, and was intent on having a conversation with Elisabeth, although this conversation for some reason did not happen.

Elisabeth, upon hearing of Descartes' failed attempt to converse with her, wrote to Descartes a letter. In this letter, dated May 16, 1643, Elisabeth writes, "tell me please how the soul of a human being (it being only a thinking substance) can determine the bodily spirits and so bring about voluntary actions". Elisabeth is questioning Descartes' idea of dualism and how the soul and the body could interact. Elisabeth questioned how something immaterial (Descartes' idea of the mind) could move something material (the body). She proposes three ways something can be "moved": through self-propulsion, external propulsion, or movement determined by the properties of something pushing it. The first and second options require physical contact, while the third option requires extension. If the mind is not part of the physical world, then it cannot make physical contact with anything, meaning the mind cannot interact with the body. By Descartes' own view, physical interaction is only possible through extension, but as Descartes thinks the mind lacks this property, it makes interaction impossible, ruling out the third option as well. Descartes replied to Elisabeth's letter with the answer that this interaction should not be thought of as between two bodies and that it is the kind of union that exists between the two qualities of heaviness and bodies.

Elisabeth was not satisfied with this answer, so she wrote to Descartes again. In this letter, dated June 20, 1643, Elisabeth writes that she cannot "understand the idea through which we must judge how the soul (nonextended and immaterial) is able to move the body, that is, by that idea through which you have at another time understood heaviness ... And I admit that it would be easier for me to concede matter and extension to the mind than it would be for me to concede the capacity to move a body and be moved by one to an immaterial thing." Jaegwon Kim cites this as the first causal argument for the doctrine of physicalism in philosophy of mind. In another letter from Elisabeth to Descartes dated July 1, 1643, Elisabeth agrees with Descartes that our senses are evidence that the soul does move the body and the body moves the soul, but that this interaction does not teach us anything about how this happens. In Elisabeth's correspondence with Descartes, we can see that Elisabeth assumes that Descartes does have an account of how the soul and body interact and asks for clarification on how the soul does this. In fact, Descartes did not have an exact account of how this happens, but merely assumed the soul had this capability. This particular correspondence between Descartes and Elisabeth ended with this July 1 letter.

The correspondence began again, but two years later. In this correspondence, Elisabeth and Descartes discuss an illness Elisabeth suffered from in the summer of 1645. Descartes writes to Elisabeth that he thinks her symptoms are caused by sadness. This could very well have been true, as Elisabeth's brother Philip had challenged a family suitor and then stabbed the suitor in public, resulting in social backlash. This caused Elisabeth much distress and worry. Elisabeth originally intended the letters to be private and has no extant philosophical works. This makes her place in the history of philosophy complex and the subject of debate. This specific correspondence between Elisabeth and Descartes is often ignored by many historians, as they see it as insignificant, but a few regard it as influential in that Descartes and Elisabeth seem to be talking of the "passions of the soul", as Descartes referred to them. Some historians have remarked that Elisabeth could have been a philosopher in her own right if it had not been for a lack of a systematic presentation of her philosophical position.

In addition to Descartes, Elisabeth held correspondence with many others, including Presbyterian and Puritan Divine Edward Reynolds and various Quakers. Among them most notably were Nicholas Malebranche, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Robert Barclay, and William Penn. While they seemed to have the aim of converting her to their faith, Elisabeth seemed to be focused on the intellectual interest of their ideals and beliefs. She also held a correspondence for a time with the "Dutch Minerva", Anna Maria van Schurman, who encouraged Elisabeth to further her studies in history, physics, and astronomy. While their correspondence was not extensive, Van Schurman was a mentor to Elisabeth and guided her in her scholarly studies. She was respected and revered by Princess Elisabeth to a great degree. Elisabeth asked for her advice on new topics and subjects of study often. Van Schurman took the initiative in giving Elisabeth her opinion on the new discoveries of their time. The area in which they seemed to diverge was in their opinion of Descartes. Elisabeth was intrigued by the new Cartesian philosophy and wanted to learn more about it. Van Schurman, however, emphatically refuted the idea when Elisabeth inquired about it, instead defending the scholastic traditional view. As much as she respected Van Schurman, this did not stop Elisabeth from pursuing her interest in Descartes and his doctrine. It has been speculated that Elisabeth's correspondence and deep connection with Descartes effectively ended her communications with Van Schurman.

Contributions to the feminist history of philosophy
Elisabeth of Bohemia has been a key subject in the feminist history of philosophy. She has garnered attention as a prominent female thinker and for her practical role in the development of 17th century female scholars. Feminist scholars study her correspondences and life to understand the limitations placed on 17th century female thinkers. Some scholars cite Elisabeth as an example of how philosophical conceptions of women as philosophers excluded them from the philosophical canon. For feminist scholars, her correspondence with Descartes presents an example of the value of including women in the canon. Some argue that Elisabeth's correspondence with Descartes helps feminist scholars re-conceptualize how women are to be included in the philosophical canon. Feminist scholars are concerned with how Elisabeth's gender informed her philosophy. Many believe that Elisabeth was keenly aware of the limitations of her sex. One scholar states that Elisabeth's health and femininity informed her interest about the immaterial soul's influence on the material body. Elisabeth's influence also extends to the development of other 17th century female thinkers. She utilized her exile court in The Hague to create a network of female scholars. Her network was a space where women could engage in philosophical inquiry through correspondence. Including Elisabeth, the network consisted of Anna Maria van Schurman, Marie de Gournay, and Lady Ranelagh.

title: Elisabeth of the Palatinate


text:
Sharpen Your Teeth

Sharpen Your Teeth is the only studio album by the indie rock band Ugly Casanova. Brainchild of Modest Mouse lead singer Isaac Brock, Ugly Casanova was his attempt to try new methods and genres outside the realms of Modest Mouse. The album sees Brock performing on more instruments and using a more stripped down method of recording. The story given is that an eccentric character named Edgar Graham met with Modest Mouse while on tour. During their time together, Graham and the band recorded a few songs together, and Graham completely disappeared. In an attempt to get Graham to resurface, Brock took the recordings to Sub Pop Records, redid them in the studio, and had them released as Sharpen Your Teeth. It has since been revealed that Brock fabricated the story himself, using Ugly Casanova as a method of writing music whilst not being recognized instantly as Modest Mouse.

Track listing

 * 1) "Barnacles" (Isaac Brock, John Orth) - 5:05
 * 2) "Spilled Milk Factory" - 4:26
 * 3) "Parasites" - 3:36
 * 4) "Hotcha Girls" - 4:59
 * 5) "(No Song)" - 0:26
 * 6) "Diamonds on the Face of Evil" - 3:16
 * 7) "Cat Faces" - 3:36
 * 8) "Ice on the Sheets" - 6:33
 * 9) "Bee Sting" - 0:48
 * 10) "Pacifico" - 2:31
 * 11) "Smoke Like Ribbons" - 5:15
 * 12) "Things I Don't Remember" - 3:29
 * 13) "So Long to the Holidays" - 5:56
 * 14) "Baby's Clean Conscience" - 3:15 (2015 Reissue - Bonus Track)
 * 15) "Diggin' Holes" - 3:32 (2015 Reissue - Bonus Track)
 * 16) "They Devised a Plan to Fuck Forever" - 4:27 (2015 Reissue - Bonus Track)
 * 17) "Roads To Go To Roads To Go To..." - 3:09 (2015 Reissue - Bonus Track)

Personnel
According to the liner notes:
 * Ugly Casanova (Isaac Brock)
 * Tim Rutili
 * Pall Jenkins
 * John Orth
 * Brian Deck
 * Tyler Reilly

2015 Reissue
In September 2015, it was announced that Sub Pop would reissue the album on black and limited edition yellow/white vinyl on October 30, along with four bonus tracks and an unreleased track from the album's recording sessions known as "They Devised a Plan to Fuck Forever".

title: Sharpen Your Teeth


text:
Dionysos, Greece

Dionysos (Διόνυσος) is a northern suburb of the Athens agglomeration and a municipality in northeastern Attica, Greece. The seat of the municipality is the town Agios Stefanos.

Geography
Dionysos is situated on the northeastern slopes of the forested Penteliko Mountains. It is 5 km south of Agios Stefanos, 9 km west of Nea Makri, on the Aegean Sea coast, and 18 km northeast of Athens city centre. Its built-up area is continuous with those of the neighbouring suburbs Drosia and Rodopoli to the northwest. Even though the town is located only 20 Kilometres away from central Athens, it has a completely different climate, with weather being significantly cooler, including frequent snowfall during the winter. Motorway 1 (Athens – Lamia – Thessaloniki) and the railway from Athens to Thessaloniki pass through the western part of the municipality, near Agios Stefanos. There is a railway station at Agios Stefanos. Dionysos is connected to Kifisia by the 536 Dionysos-Kifisia bus service.

Climate
Dionysos has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa). Thrakomakedones experiences hot, relatively dry summers and cool, wet winters.

History
The town was known by the Arvanitika name Tzamali (Τζαμάλη) up until 1928 when it was renamed Dionysos. The sanctuary of Dionysus of Icaria was rediscovered by archaeology in 1888.

Culture
Dionysos hosts an annual open summer festival usually every July, featuring art exhibitions, theatrical performances, musical shows, sculpture painting and other arts. The public library of Dionysos is located in the town hall, includes over 3500 books available to registered residents to borrow for free. It is run by local volunteers.

Municipality
The municipality Dionysos was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 7 former municipalities, that became municipal units:
 * Agios Stefanos
 * Anoixi
 * Dionysos
 * Drosia
 * Kryoneri
 * Rodopoli
 * Stamata

The municipality has an area of 69.360 km2, the municipal unit 21.410 km2.

Notable people

 * Thespis, (6th century BC) actor
 * Kostas Martakis, singer
 * Aristi Tsipras, mother of the former Greek prime minister Alexis Tsipras

title: Dionysos, Greece