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History of chess

The history of chess can be traced back nearly 1,500 years to its earliest known predecessor, called chaturanga, in India; its prehistory is the subject of speculation. From India it spread to Persia, where it was modified in terms of shapes and rules and developed into Shatranj. Following the Arab invasion and conquest of Persia, chess was taken up by the Muslim world and subsequently spread to Europe via Spain (Al Andalus) and Italy (Emirate of Sicily). The game evolved roughly into its current form by about 1500 CE.

"Romantic chess" was the predominant playing style from the late 18th century to the 1880s. Chess games of this period emphasized quick, tactical maneuvers rather than long-term strategic planning. The Romantic era of play was followed by the Scientific, Hypermodern, and New Dynamism eras. In the second half of the 19th century, modern chess tournament play began, and the first official World Chess Championship was held in 1886. The 20th century saw great leaps forward in chess theory and the establishment of the World Chess Federation. In 1997, an IBM supercomputer beat Garry Kasparov, the then world chess champion, in the famous Deep Blue versus Garry Kasparov match, ushering the game into an era of computer domination. Since then, computer analysis – which originated in the 1970s with the first programmed chess games on the market – has contributed to much of the development in chess theory and has become an important part of preparation in professional human chess. Later developments in the 21st century made the use of computer analysis far surpassing the ability of any human player accessible to the public. Online chess, which first appeared in the mid-1990s, also became popular in the 21st century.

Origin
Precursors to chess originated in India. There, its early form in the 7th century CE was known as chaturaṅga (चतुरङ्ग), which translates to "four divisions (of the military)": infantry, cavalry, elephantry, and chariotry. These forms are represented by the pieces that would evolve into the modern pawn, knight, bishop, and rook, respectively.

Chess was introduced to Persia from India and became a part of the princely or courtly education of Persian nobility. Around 600 CE in Sassanid Persia, the name for the game became chatrang, which subsequently evolved to shatranj (شطرنج; ) after the conquest of Persia by the Rashidun Caliphate, due to the lack of native "ch" and "ng" sounds in the Arabic language. The rules were developed further during this time; players started calling "Shāh!" (Persian for "King!") when attacking the opponent's king, and "Shāh Māt!" (Persian for "the king is helpless" – see checkmate) when the king was attacked and could not escape from attack. These exclamations persisted in chess as it traveled to other lands.

The game was taken up by the Muslim world after the early Arab Muslims conquered the Sassanid Empire, with the pieces largely keeping their Persian names. The Moors of North Africa rendered the Persian term "shatranj" as shaṭerej, which gave rise to the Spanish acedrex, axedrez and ajedrez; in Portuguese it became xadrez, and in Greek zatrikion (ζατρίκιον), but in the rest of Europe it was replaced by versions of the Persian shāh ("king"). Thus, the game came to be called lūdus scacc(h)ōrum or scacc(h)ī in Latin, scacchi in Italian, escacs in Catalan, échecs in French (Old French eschecs), schaken in Dutch, Schach in German, szachy in Polish, šahs in Latvian, skak in Danish, sjakk in Norwegian, schack in Swedish, šakki in Finnish, šah in South Slavic languages, sakk in Hungarian and şah in Romanian; there are two theories about why this change happened:
 * 1) From the exclamation "check" or "checkmate" as it was pronounced in various languages.
 * 2) From the first chessmen known of in Western Europe (except Iberia and Greece) being ornamental chess kings brought in as curios by Muslim traders.

The Mongols call the game shatar, and in Ethiopia it is called senterej, both evidently derived from shatranj.

Chess spread directly from the Middle East to Russia, where chess became known as шахматы (shakhmaty, literally "checkmates", a plurale tantum).

The game reached Western Europe and Russia by at least three routes, the earliest being in the 9th century. By the year 1000 it had spread throughout Europe. Introduced into the Iberian Peninsula by the Moors in the 10th century, it was described in a famous 13th-century Spanish manuscript covering shatranj, backgammon and dice named the Libro de los juegos, which is the earliest European treatise on chess as well as being the oldest document on European tables games.

Chess spread throughout the world and many variants of the game soon began taking shape. Buddhist pilgrims, Silk Road traders and others carried it to the Far East where it was transformed and assimilated into a game often played on the intersection of the lines of the board rather than within the squares. Chaturanga reached Europe through Persia, the Byzantine empire and the expanding Arabian empire. Muslims carried chess to North Africa, Sicily, and Iberia by the 10th century.

The game was developed extensively in Europe. By the late 15th century, it had survived a series of prohibitions and Christian Church sanctions to almost take the shape of the modern game. Modern history saw reliable reference works, competitive chess tournaments, and many new variants. These factors added to the game's popularity, further bolstered by reliable timing mechanisms (first introduced in 1861), effective rules, and charismatic players.

India
The earliest precursor of modern chess is a game called chaturanga, which flourished in India by the 6th century, and is the earliest known game to have two essential features found in all later chess variations—different pieces having different powers (which was not the case with checkers and Go), and victory depending on the fate of one piece, the king of modern chess. A common theory is that India's development of the board, and chess, was likely due to India's mathematical enlightenment involving the creation of the 0|number zero. Other game pieces (speculatively called "chess pieces") uncovered in archaeological findings are considered as coming from other, distantly related board games, which may have had boards of 100 squares or more.

Chess was designed for an ashtāpada (Sanskrit for "having eight feet", i.e. an 8×8 squared board), which may have been used earlier for a backgammon-type race game (perhaps related to a dice-driven race game still played in south India where the track starts at the middle of a side and spirals into the center). Ashtāpada, the uncheckered 8×8 board served as the main board for playing chaturanga. Other Indian boards included the 10×10 Dasapada and the 9×9 Saturankam. Traditional Indian chessboards often have X markings on some or all of squares a1 a4 a5 a8 d1 d4 d5 d8 e1 e4 e5 e8 h1 h4 h5 h8: these may have been "safe squares" where capturing was not allowed in a dice-driven backgammon-type race game played on the ashtāpada before chess was invented.

The Cox-Forbes theory, proposed in the late 18th century by Hiram Cox, and later developed by Duncan Forbes, asserted that the four-handed game chaturaji was the original form of chaturanga. The theory is no longer considered tenable.

In Sanskrit, the word chaturaṅga literally means "having four limbs (or parts)" and in epic poetry often means "army" (the four parts are elephants, chariots, horsemen, foot soldiers). The name came from a battle formation mentioned in the Indian epic Mahabharata. The game chaturanga was a battle-simulation game which rendered Indian military strategy of the time.

Some people formerly played chess using a die to decide which piece to move. There was an unproven theory that chess started as this dice-chess and that the gambling and dice aspects of the game were removed because of Hindu religious objections.

Scholars in areas to which the game subsequently spread, for example the Arab Abu al-Hasan 'Alī al-Mas'ūdī, detailed the Indian use of chess as a tool for military strategy, mathematics, gambling and even its vague association with astronomy. Mas'ūdī notes that ivory in India was chiefly used for the production of chess and backgammon pieces, and asserts that the game was introduced to Persia from India, along with the book Kelileh va Demneh, during the reign of emperor Nushirwan.

In some variants, a win was by checkmate, or by stalemate, or by "bare king" (taking all of an opponent's pieces except the king).

In some parts of India the pieces in the places of the rook, knight and bishop were renamed by words meaning (in this order) Boat, Horse, and Elephant, or Elephant, Horse, and Camel, but keeping the same moves. In early chess the moves of the pieces were:

Two Arab travelers each recorded a severe Indian chess rule against stalemate:
 * A stalemated player thereby at once wins.
 * A stalemated king can take one of the enemy pieces that would check the king if the king moves.

Iran (Persia)
The Karnamak-i Ardeshir-i Papakan, a Pahlavi epical treatise about the founder of the Sassanid Persian Empire, mentions the game of chatrang as one of the accomplishments of the legendary hero, Ardashir I, founder of the Empire. The oldest recorded game in chess history is a 10th-century game played between a historian from Baghdad and a pupil.

A manuscript explaining the rules of the game, called "Matikan-i-chatrang" (the book of chess) in Middle Persian or Pahlavi, still exists. In the 11th-century Shahnameh, Ferdowsi describes a Raja visiting from India who re-enacts the past battles on the chessboard. A translation in English, based on the manuscripts in the British Museum, is given below:

The Shahnameh goes on to offer an apocryphal account of the origins of the game of chess in the story of Talhand and Gav, two half-brothers who vie for the throne of Hind (India). They meet in battle and Talhand dies on his elephant without a wound. Believing that Gav had killed Talhand, their mother is distraught. Gav tells his mother that Talhand did not die by the hands of him or his men, but she does not understand how this could be. So the sages of the court invent the game of chess, detailing the pieces and how they move, to show the mother of the princes how the battle unfolded and how Talhand died of fatigue when surrounded by his enemies. The poem uses the Persian term "Shāh māt" (check mate) to describe the fate of Talhand.

The philosopher and theologian Al-Ghazali mentions chess in The Alchemy of Happiness (c. 1100). He uses it as a specific example of a habit that may cloud a person's good disposition:

"Indeed, a person who has become habituated to gaming with pigeons, playing chess, or gambling, so that it becomes second-nature to him, will give all the comforts of the world and all that he has for those (pursuits) and cannot keep away from them."

The appearance of the chess pieces had altered greatly since the times of chaturanga, with ornate pieces and chess pieces depicting animals giving way to abstract shapes. This is because of a Muslim ban on the game's lifelike pieces, as they were said to have been too like idols. The Islamic sets of later centuries followed a pattern which assigned names and abstract shapes to the chess pieces, as Islam forbids depiction of animals and human beings in art. These pieces were usually made of simple clay and carved stone.

China
As a strategy board game played in China, chess is believed to have been derived from the Indian chaturanga. Chaturanga was transformed into the game xiangqi where the pieces are placed on the intersection of the lines of the board rather than within the squares. The object of the Chinese variation is similar to chaturanga, i.e. to render helpless the opponent's king, known as "general" on one side and "governor" on the other. Chinese chess also borrows elements from the game of Go, which was played in China since at least the 6th century BC. Owing to the influence of Go, Chinese chess is played on the intersections of the lines on the board, rather than in the squares. The game of Xiangqi is also unique in that the middle rank represents a river, and is not divided into squares. Chinese chess pieces are usually flat and resemble those used in checkers, with pieces differentiated by writing their names on the flat surface.

An alternative origin theory contends that chess arose from xiangqi or a predecessor thereof, existing in China since the 3rd century BC. David H. Li, a translator of ancient Chinese texts, hypothesizes that general Han Xin drew on the earlier game of Liubo to develop an early form of Chinese chess in the winter of 204–203 BC. The German chess historian Peter Banaschak, however, points out that Li's main hypothesis "is based on virtually nothing." He notes that the "Xuanguai lu", authored by the Tang dynasty minister Niu Sengru (779–847), remains the first real source on the Chinese chess variant xiangqi.

Japan
A prominent variant of chess in East Asia is the game of shogi, transmitted from India to China and Korea before finally reaching Japan. The three distinguishing features of shogi are:
 * 1) The captured pieces may be reused by the captor and played as a part of the captor's forces.
 * 2) Pawns capture as they move, one square straight ahead.
 * 3) The board is 9×9, with a second gold general on the other side of the king.

Drops were not originally part of shogi. In the 13th century, shogi underwent an expansion, creating the game of dai shogi, played on a 15×15 board with many new pieces, including the independently invented rook, bishop and queen of modern Western chess, the drunk elephant that promotes to a second king, and also the even more powerful lion, which among other idiosyncrasies has the power to move or capture twice per turn. Around the 14th or 15th centuries, the popularity of dai shogi then waned in favour of the smaller chu shogi, played on a smaller 12×12 board which removed the weakest pieces from dai shogi, similarly to the development of Courier chess in the West. In the meantime, the original 9×9 shogi, now termed sho shogi, continued to be played, but was regarded as less prestigious than chu shogi and dai shogi. Chu shogi was very popular in Japan, and the rook, bishop, and drunk elephant from it were added to sho shogi, where the first two remain today.

In the 15th and 16th centuries, yet more shogi variants were described, on large boards and with many more pieces. The 1694 book Shōgi Zushiki details tenjiku shogi (16×16), dai dai shogi (17×17), maka dai dai shogi (19×19), and tai shogi (25×25); it also mentions wa shogi (11×11), ko shogi (19×19), and taikyoku shogi (36×36). It is not thought that these games were played very much.

Chu shogi declined in popularity after the addition of drops to sho shogi and the removal of the drunk elephant in the 16th century, becoming moribund around the late 20th century. These changes to sho shogi created what is essentially the modern game of shogi.

Thailand
The Thai variant of chess, makruk is a close living relative to chaturanga, retaining the vizier, non-checkered board, limited promotion, offset kings, and elephant-like bishop move.

Mongolia
Chess is recorded from Mongolian-inhabited areas, where the pieces are now called:
 * King: Noyon – Ноён – lord
 * Queen: Bers / Nohoi – Бэрс / Нохой – dog (to guard the livestock)
 * Bishop: Temē – Тэмээ – camel
 * Knight: Morĭ – Морь – horse
 * Rook: Tereg – Тэрэг – cart
 * Pawn: Hū – Хүү – boy (the piece often showed a puppy)

Names recorded from the 1880s by Russian sources, quoted in Murray, among the Soyot people (who at the time spoke the Soyot Turkic language) include: merzé (dog), täbä (camel), ot (horse), ōl (child) and Mongolian names for the other pieces. This game is called shatar; a large 10×10 variant called hiashatar was also played.

The change with the queen is likely due to the Arabic word firzān or Persian word farzīn (= "vizier") being confused with Turkic or Mongolian native words (merzé = "mastiff", bar or bars = "tiger", arslan = "lion").

Western chess is now the prevalent form of the game in Mongolia.

East Siberia
Chess was also recorded from the Yakuts, Tunguses, and Yukaghirs; but only as a children's game among the Chukchi. Chessmen have been collected from the Yakutat people in Alaska, having no resemblance to European chessmen, and thus likely part of a chess tradition coming from Siberia.

Arab world
Chess passed from Persia to the Arab world, where its name changed to Arabic shatranj. From there it passed to Western Europe, probably via Spain. Over the centuries, features of European chess (e.g. the modern moves of queen and bishop, and castling) found their way via trade into Islamic areas. Murray's sources found the old moves of queen and bishop still current in Ethiopia. The game became so popular it was used in writing at that time, played by nobility and regular people. The poet al-Katib once said, "The skilled player places his pieces in such a way as to discover consequences that the ignorant man never sees... thus, he serves the Sultan's interests, by showing how to foresee disaster."

Russia
Chess has 1000 years of history in Russia. Chess was probably brought to Old Russia in 9th century via the Volga-Caspian trade route. From the 10th century cultural connections with the Byzantine Empire and the Vikings also influenced the history of chess in Russia. The vocabulary in Russian chess has various foreign-language elements and testifies to different influences in the evolution of chess in Russia. Chess is mentioned in folk poems as a popular game and is documented in the Old Russian byliny. Numerous archeological finds of the chess game have already been found in the regions of Old Russia. From 1262 on chess was called in Russia shakhmaty. Various foreign travellers commented that in the 16th century, chess was popular among all classes in Russia. Ivan IV the Terrible, who ruled Russia from 1530 to 1584, is said to have died while playing chess. In 1791 the popular chess book Morals of Chess by Benjamin Franklin was translated into Russian and published in the country. Chess enjoys a very high status in Russia and was gradually introduced as a school subject in all primary schools since 2017.

Early history
Shatranj made its way via the expanding Islamic Arabian empire to Europe. It also spread to the Byzantine empire, where it was called. Chess appeared in Southern Europe during the end of the first millennium, often introduced to new lands by conquering armies, such as the Norman Conquest of England. Previously little known, chess became popular in Northern Europe when figure pieces were introduced.

In the 14th century, Timur played an enlarged variation of the game which is commonly referred to as Tamerlane chess. This complex game involved each pawn having a particular purpose, as well as additional pieces.

The sides are conventionally called White and Black. But, in earlier European chess writings, the sides were often called Red and Black because those were the commonly available colours of ink when handwriting drawing a chess game layout. In such layouts, each piece was represented by its name, often abbreviated (e.g. "ch'r" for French "chevalier" = "knight").

The social value attached to the game – seen as a prestigious pastime associated with nobility and high culture – is clear from the expensive and exquisitely made chessboards of the medieval era. The popularity of chess in the Western courtly society peaked between the 12th and the 15th centuries. The game found mention in the vernacular and Latin language literature throughout Europe, and many works were written on or about chess between the 12th and the 15th centuries. H. J. R. Murray divides the works into three distinct parts: the didactic works e.g. Alexander of Neckham's De scaccis (c. 1180); works of morality like Liber de moribus hominum et officiis nobilium sive super ludo scacchorum (Book of the customs of men and the duties of nobles or the Book of Chess), written by Jacobus de Cessolis; and the works related to various chess problems, written largely after 1205. Chess terms, like check, were used by authors as a metaphor for various situations. Chess was soon incorporated into the knightly style of life in Europe. Peter Alfonsi, in his work Disciplina Clericalis, listed chess among the seven skills that a good knight must acquire. Chess also became a subject of art during this period, with caskets and pendants decorated in various chess forms. Queen Margaret of England had green and red chess sets made of jasper and crystal. Kings Henry I, Henry II and Richard I of England were chess patrons. King Alfonso X of Castile and Tsar Ivan IV of Russia gained a similar status.

Saint Peter Damian denounced the bishop of Florence in 1061 for playing chess even when aware of its evil effects on the society. The bishop of Florence defended himself by declaring that chess involved skill and was therefore "unlike other games," and similar arguments followed in the coming centuries. Two incidents in 13th-century London, in which men of Essex resorted to violence resulting in death as an outcome of playing chess, caused further sensation and alarm. The growing popularity of the game – now associated with revelry and violence – alarmed the Church.

The practice of playing chess for money became so widespread during the 13th century that Louis IX of France issued an ordinance against gambling in 1254. This ordinance turned out to be unenforceable and was largely neglected by the common public, and even the courtly society, which continued to enjoy the now-prohibited chess tournaments uninterrupted.

Shapes of pieces
The pieces, which had been nonrepresentational in Islamic countries (see piece values in shatranj), changed shape in Christian cultures. Carved images of men and animals reappeared. The shape of the rook, originally a rectangular block with a V-shaped cut in the top, changed; the two top parts separated by the split tended to get long and hang over, and in some old pictures look like horses' heads. The split top of the piece now called the bishop was interpreted as a bishop's mitre or a fool's cap.

By the mid-12th century, the pieces of the chess set were depicted as kings, queens, bishops, knights and men at arms. Chessmen made of ivory began to appear in North-West Europe, and ornate pieces of traditional knight warriors were used as early as the mid 13th century. The initially nondescript pawn had now found association with the pedes, pedinus, or the footman, which symbolized both infantry and loyal domestic service.

Names of pieces
The following table provides a glimpse of the changes in names and character of chess pieces as they crossed from India through Persia to Europe:

The game, as played during the early Middle Ages, was slow, with many games lasting days. Some variations in rules began to change the shape of the game by the year 1300. A notable, but initially unpopular, change was the ability of the pawn to move two places in the first move instead of one.

In Europe some of the pieces gradually received new names:
 * Fers: "queen", because it starts beside the king.
 * Aufin: "bishop", because its two points looked like a bishop's mitre. Its Latin name alfinus was reinterpreted many ways.

Early changes to the rules
Attempts to make the start of the game run faster to get the opposing pieces in contact sooner included:
 * Pawn moving two squares in its first move. This led to the en passant rule: a pawn placed so that it could have captured the enemy pawn if it had moved one square forward was allowed to capture it on the passed square. In Italy, the contrary rule (passar battaglia = "to pass battle") applied: a pawn that moved two squares forward had passed the danger of attack on the intermediate square. It was sometimes not allowed to do this to cover check.
 * King jumping once, to make it quicker to put the king safe in a corner. (This eventually led to castling.)
 * Queen on its first move moving two squares straight or diagonally to a same-coloured square, with jump. (This rule sometimes also applied to a queen made by promoting a pawn.)
 * The short assize. ("assize" = "sitting") Here the pawns started on the third rank; the queens started on d3 and d6 along with the queens' pawns; the players arranged their other pieces as they wished behind their pawns at the start of the game. This idea did not endure.

Other sporadic variations in the rules of chess included:
 * Ignoring check from a piece which was covering check, as some said that in theory (in the diagram on the right), Bxe7 would allow Rxc8 in reply.

Introduction of new rules
The queen and bishop remained relatively weak until between 1475 AD and 1500 AD, in Spain (in the Kingdom of Valencia), the queen's and bishop's modern moves started and spread, making chess close to its modern form. The first document showing the Queen (or Dama) moving this way is the allegorical poem Scachs d'amor, written in Catalan in Valencia in 1475. This form of chess got such names as "Queen's Chess" or "Mad Queen Chess" (Italian alla rabiosa = "with the madwoman"). This led to much more value being attached to the previously minor tactic of pawn promotion. Checkmate became easier and games could now be won in fewer moves. These new rules quickly spread in Spain and throughout the rest of Western Europe, with the exception of the rules about stalemate, which were finalized in the early 19th century. The modern move of the queen may have started as an extension of its older ability to once move two squares with jump, diagonally or straight. Marilyn Yalom says that the new move of the queen started in Spain: see history of the queen.

In some areas (e.g. Russia), the queen could also move like a knight.

A poem Caïssa published in 1527 led to the chess rook being often renamed as "castle", and the modern shape of the rook chess piece; see Vida's poem for more information.

An Italian player, Gioacchino Greco, regarded as one of the first true professionals of the game, authored an analysis of a number of composed games that illustrated two differing approaches to chess. His work was influential in popularizing chess, and demonstrated many theories regarding game play and tactics.

The first full work dealing with the various winning combinations was written by François-André Danican Philidor of France, regarded as the best chess player in the world for nearly 50 years, and published in the 18th century. He wrote and published L'Analyse des échecs (The Analysis of Chess), an influential work which appeared in more than 100 editions.

Writings on the theory of how to play chess began to appear in the 15th century. The oldest surviving printed chess book, Repetición de Amores y Arte de Ajedrez (Repetition of Love and the Art of Playing Chess) by Spanish churchman Luis Ramirez de Lucena was published in Salamanca in 1497. Lucena and later masters like Portuguese Pedro Damiano, Italians Giovanni Leonardo Di Bona, Giulio Cesare Polerio and Gioachino Greco or Spanish bishop Ruy López de Segura developed elements of openings and started to analyze simple endgames. In the 18th century the center of European chess life moved from the Southern European countries to France. The two most important French masters were François-André Danican Philidor, a musician by profession, who discovered the importance of pawns for chess strategy, and later Louis-Charles Mahé de La Bourdonnais who won a famous series of matches with the Irish master Alexander McDonnell in 1834. Centers of chess life in this period were coffee houses in big European cities like Café de la Régence in Paris and Simpson's Divan in London.

As the 19th century progressed, chess organization developed quickly. Many chess clubs, chess books and chess journals appeared. There were correspondence matches between cities; for example the London Chess Club played against the Edinburgh Chess Club in 1824. Chess problems became a regular part of 19th-century newspapers; Bernhard Horwitz, Josef Kling and Samuel Loyd composed some of the most influential problems. In 1843, von der Lasa published his and Bilguer's Handbuch des Schachspiels (Handbook of Chess), the first comprehensive manual of chess theory.

Modern competitive chess

The first recorded chess tournament took place in 1575 in El Escorial, Spain. It was won by the Calabrese Leonardo di Bona.

Competitive chess became visible in 1834 with the La Bourdonnais-McDonnell matches, and the 1851 London Chess tournament raised concerns about the time taken by the players to deliberate their moves. On recording time it was found that players often took hours to analyze moves, and one player took as much as two hours and 20 minutes to think over a single move at the London tournament. The following years saw the development of speed chess, five-minute chess and the most popular variant, a version allowing a bank of time to each player in which to play a previously agreed number of moves, e.g. two hours for 30 moves. In the final variant, the player who made the predetermined number of moves in the agreed time received additional time budget for his next moves. Penalties for exceeding a time limit came in form of fines and forfeiture. Since fines were easy to bear for professional players, forfeiture became the only effective penalty; this added "lost on time" to the traditional means of losing such as checkmate and resigning.

In 1861 the first time limits, using sandglasses, were employed in a tournament match at Bristol, England. The sandglasses were later replaced by pendulums. Modern clocks, consisting of two parallel timers with a small button for a player to press after completing a move, were later employed to aid the players. A tiny latch called a flag further helped settle arguments over players exceeding time limit at the turn of the 19th century.

A Russian composer, Vladimir Korolkov, authored a work entitled "Excelsior" in 1958 in which the White side wins only by making six consecutive captures by a pawn. Position analysis became particularly popular in the 19th century. Many leading players were also accomplished analysts, including Max Euwe, Mikhail Botvinnik, Vasily Smyslov and Jan Timman. Digital clocks appeared in the 1980s.

Another problem that arose in competitive chess was when adjourning a game for a meal break or overnight. The player who moved last before adjournment would be at a disadvantage, as the other player would have a long period to analyze before having to make a reply when the game was resumed. Preventing access to a chess set to work out moves during the adjournment would not stop him from analyzing the position in his head. Various strange ideas were attempted, but the eventual solution was the "sealed move". The final move before adjournment is not made on the board but instead is written on a piece of paper which the referee seals in an envelope and keeps safe. When the game is continued after adjournment, the referee makes the sealed move and the players resume.

Birth of a sport (1850–1945)
The first modern chess tournament was held in London in 1851 and won, surprisingly, by German Adolf Anderssen, who was relatively unknown at the time. Anderssen was hailed as the leading chess master, and his brilliant, energetic attacking style became typical for the time, although it was retrospectively regarded as strategically shallow. Sparkling games like Anderssen's Immortal game and Evergreen Game or Morphy's Opera game were regarded as the highest possible summit of the chess art.

Deeper insight into the nature of chess came with two younger players. American Paul Morphy, an extraordinary chess prodigy, won against all important competitors, including Anderssen, during his short chess career between 1857 and 1863. Morphy's success stemmed from a combination of brilliant attacks and sound strategy; he intuitively knew how to prepare attacks. Prague-born Wilhelm Steinitz later described how to avoid weaknesses in one's own position and how to create and exploit such weaknesses in the opponent's position. In addition to his theoretical achievements, Steinitz founded an important tradition: his triumph over the leading Polish-German master Johannes Zukertort in 1886 is regarded as the first official World Chess Championship. Steinitz lost his crown in 1894 to a much younger German mathematician Emanuel Lasker, who maintained this title for 27 years, the longest tenure of all World Champions.

It took a prodigy from Cuba, José Raúl Capablanca (World champion 1921–27), who loved simple positions and endgames, to end the German-speaking dominance in chess; he was undefeated in tournament play for eight years until 1924. His successor was Russian-French Alexander Alekhine, a strong attacking player, who died as the World champion in 1946, having briefly lost the title to Dutch player Max Euwe in 1935, regaining it two years later.

Between the world wars, chess was revolutionized by the new theoretical school of so-called hypermodernists like Aron Nimzowitsch and Richard Réti. They advocated controlling the center of the board with distant pieces rather than with pawns, inviting opponents to occupy the center with pawns which become objects of attack.

Since the end of 19th century, the number of annually held master tournaments and matches quickly grew. Some sources state that in 1914 the title of chess grandmaster was first formally conferred by Tsar Nicholas II of Russia to Lasker, Capablanca, Alekhine, Tarrasch and Marshall, but this is a disputed claim. The tradition of awarding such titles was continued by the World Chess Federation (FIDE), founded in 1924 in Paris. In 1927, Women's World Chess Championship was established; the first to hold it was Czech-English master Vera Menchik.

During World War II, many prominent chess players died or were killed, including: Isaak Appel, Zoltan Balla, Sergey Belavenets, Henryk Friedman, Achilles Frydman, Eduard Gerstenfeld, Alexander Ilyin-Genevsky, Mikhail Kogan, Jakub Kolski, Leon Kremer, Arvid Kubbel, Leonid Kubbel, Salo Landau, Moishe Lowtzky, Vera Menchik, Vladimir Petrov, David Przepiorka, Ilya Rabinovich, Vsevolod Rauzer, Nikolai Riumin, Endre Steiner, Mark Stolberg, Abram Szpiro, Karel Treybal, Alexey Troitzky, Samuil Vainshtein, Heinrich Wolf, and Lazar Zalkind.

Post-war era (1945 and later)
After the death of Alekhine, a new World Champion was sought in a tournament of elite players ruled by FIDE, who have controlled the title since then, with a sole interruption. The winner of the 1948 tournament, Russian Mikhail Botvinnik, ushered in an era of Soviet dominance in the chess world. Until the end of the Soviet Union, there was only one non-Soviet champion, American Bobby Fischer (champion 1972–75).

In the previous informal system, the World Champion decided which challenger he would play for the title and the challenger was forced to seek sponsors for the match. FIDE set up a new system of qualifying tournaments and matches. The world's strongest players were seeded into "Interzonal tournaments", where they were joined by players who had qualified from "Zonal tournaments". The leading finishers in these Interzonals would go on the "Candidates" stage, which was initially a tournament, later a series of knock-out matches. The winner of the Candidates would then play the reigning champion for the title. A champion defeated in a match had a right to play a rematch a year later. This system worked on a three-year cycle.

Botvinnik participated in championship matches over a period of fifteen years. He won the world championship tournament in 1948 and retained the title in tied matches in 1951 and 1954. In 1957, he lost to Vasily Smyslov, but regained the title in a rematch in 1958. In 1960, he lost the title to the Latvian prodigy Mikhail Tal, an accomplished tactician and attacking player. Botvinnik again regained the title in a rematch in 1961.

Following the 1961 event, FIDE abolished the automatic right of a deposed champion to a rematch, and the next champion, Armenian Tigran Petrosian, a genius of defense and strong positional player, was able to hold the title for two cycles, 1963–69. His successor, Boris Spassky from Russia (1969–72), was a player able to win in both positional and sharp tactical style. The next championship saw the first non-Soviet challenger since World War II, Bobby Fischer, who defeated his Candidates opponents by unheard-of margins and won the world championship match. In 1975, however, Fischer refused to defend his title against Soviet Anatoly Karpov when FIDE refused to meet his demands, and Karpov obtained the title by default. Karpov defended his title twice against Viktor Korchnoi and dominated the 1970s and early 1980s with a string of tournament successes.

Karpov's reign finally ended in 1985 at the hands of another Russian player, Garry Kasparov. Kasparov and Karpov contested five world title matches between 1984 and 1990; Karpov never won his title back.

In 1993, Garry Kasparov and Nigel Short cut ties with FIDE to organize their own match for the title and formed a competing Professional Chess Association (PCA). From then until 2006, there were two simultaneous World Champions and World Championships: the PCA or Classical champion extending the Steinitzian tradition in which the current champion plays a challenger in a series of many games; the other following FIDE's new format of many players competing in a tournament to determine the champion. Kasparov lost his Classical title in 2000 to Vladimir Kramnik of Russia.

Earlier in 1999, Kasparov as the reigning world champion played a game online against the world team composed of more than 50,000 participants from more than 75 countries. The moves of the world team were decided by plurality vote, and after 62 moves played over four months Kasparov won the game.

The FIDE World Chess Championship 2006 reunified the titles, when Kramnik beat the FIDE World Champion Veselin Topalov and became the undisputed World Chess Champion. In September 2007, Viswanathan Anand from India became the next champion by winning a championship tournament. In October 2008, Anand retained his title, decisively winning the rematch against Kramnik. Anand retained his title until 2013, when he lost it to Magnus Carlsen from Norway. Carlsen defended his title four times. However, he declined to defend his title in the 2023 championship, and thus relinquished it to the winner of that match, Ding Liren, the current World Champion. Since 2020, online chess has seen a boom in popularity due in part to internet livestreaming.

Rule changes
Stalemate was originally considered an inferior form of victory; at various times it has been considered a win, a draw, or even a loss for the player delivering it. Since the 18th century, it has been considered a draw.

The convention that White moves first was established in the 19th century; previously either White or Black could move first.

Castling rules have varied, variations persisting in Italy until the late 19th century.

Rules concerning draws by repetition and the fifty-move rule have been refined and now require a formal claim. Perpetual check is no longer included in the rules of chess.

There have been no recent changes to the moves of the pieces, but the wording of some rules has been changed for the purposes of clarity.

The London 1883 chess tournament introduced chess clocks, creating a new rule for loss on time.

In line with the rule against receiving outside assistance, if a player's mobile phone or other electronic device generates sound, the player is immediately forfeited. In amateur tournaments players are asked to hand their phones to the tournament director; in professional tournaments they may be required to go through a metal detector.

title: History of chess


text: Category:Belgian plays

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Category:Belgian plays


text:
Talk:Channel 4 News

Channel 4 news relationship with Sri Lankan Government
"The plight of Tamil children was raised by Unicef spokesman James Elder, who has just been expelled from the country after being accused by the government of spreading Tamil Tiger propaganda," the broadcast said.

Prof. Rajiva Wijesinghe, secretary of the Ministry of Disaster Management and Human Rights blames Channel-4 of "ridiculous behavior" and that Colombo would not invite Channel-4 to Sri Lanka to tour the camps.'''  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.33.178.14 (talk) 22:54, 9 September 2009 (UTC)

"Following the broadcast of shocking video footage showing Sri Lanka Government soldiers executing Tamils stripped naked and hands tied behind their backs, British Television Channel-4 Monday Sept,7,2009 revealed a new film that showed Tamil "victims of Sri Lanka's war suffering poor conditions in UN-funded camps." The new footage, allegedly taken by a mobile phone, was sent to Channel-4 from the group War Without Witness, and was reportedly shot two weeks ago in Vavuniyaa, in northern Sri Lanka, where more than 300,000 Tamils are being interned in Sri Lanka military supervised camps. Sri Lanka's spokesperson, while insisting that United Nations is active inside there [the camps], responded that the malnutrition statistics reflect "Western standards," indeed malnutrition is present in other parts of Sri Lanka, and also that the situation was worse under the Liberation Tigers.

"The plight of Tamil children was raised by Unicef spokesman James Elder, who has just been expelled from the country after being accused by the government of spreading Tamil Tiger propaganda," the broadcast said.

Prof. Rajiva Wijesinghe, secretary of the Ministry of Disaster Management and Human Rights blames Channel-4 of "ridiculous behavior" and that Colombo would not invite Channel-4 to Sri Lanka to tour the camps .Two members of Channel 4 Media was also deported by the Sri Lankan Govenment." Source: TamilNet

Sri Lankan Government claims Channel 4 News is a ally of the LTTE "Though not much information on this is permitted to be revealed at this stage, it can be said with great responsibility that LTTE had made Channel 4 one of its propaganda allies" Source: Defence.LK ( Sri Lankan Government run website )''' —Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.33.178.14 (talk) 23:07, 9 September 2009 (UTC)

Disambiguation needed
A disambiguation page is needed, since this name has been used for newscasts in two major American cities, New York and Los Angeles. Spotteddogsdotorg 04:52, 28 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Both of which combined are smaller than Channel 4's service area and each of which indivdiually are far smaller than Channel 4's service area. And both are on channels not legally called Channel 4. --Kiand 19:55, 1 April 2006 (UTC)

Alleged bias
Channel 4 is in a gang together with the Guardian/Independent/Observer! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 90.194.3.214 (talk) 18:38, 27 April 2011 (UTC)

Channel 4 "News" is Britain's left-wing version of Fox News. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2.123.120.28 (talk) 19:16, 11 June 2013 (UTC)

Name of theme tune for Channel 4 News (UK)?
What is name of Channel 4's (U.K.) excellent news theme tune, anyone please ? - Dirk Diggler Jnr
 * See Pale Rider Jooler 18:13, 19 March 2006 (UTC)

Not widescreen
Why is this still shown is 4:3? I have to keep adjusting the aspect ratio when this comes on otherwise Krishnan Guru-Murthy ends up looking a bit too chunky. Jooler 01:40, 14 June 2006 (UTC)

Independents Fund
It would be interesting to have some details of their Independents Fund mentioned here. -- John (Daytona2 · Talk ·  Contribs) 21:23, 25 February 2008 (UTC)

Anchor
Jon Snow and the rest are listed on the credits as presenters not anchors. Anchor is an American term, why is it used for Channel 4?--Alchemist Jack (talk) 11:12, 24 September 2009 (UTC)

1 Direction Controversy
I am going to remove the whole section on the current 'Crazy about One Direction' controversy. As it stands, it's entirely unsourced, somewhat rambling and confused, and appears to be written with a distinct POV. It may be that in the next day or two some mainstream news sources cover this, and a useful couple of line summary can be added with decent tertiary sources, but for now this is too far from being encyclopaedic. K orr u ski Talk 08:19, 16 August 2013 (UTC)

Jackie Long
Can someone create an article of Jackie Long (presenter of Channel 4 News)?

Here's the link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackie_Long_(journalist) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.69.56.206 (talk) 07:50, 14 June 2019 (UTC)

Head of news and current affairs at Channel 4
I think that this article should mention the management team. Last time I heard, Dorothy Byrne was head of news and current affairs at Channel 4. The article doesn't mention her. TraceyR (talk) 16:15, 12 January 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Channel 4 News


text:
Template talk:Infobox Olympic games

Parameters
In our enthusiasm for all things infoboxed I think we went overboard in this case. I would suggest the following parameters are truly trivial and should be dropped from the template: Who was chosen to be the final torch bearer can be more than trivial in some cases, but I would think those cases are best served with a paragraph in the article itself, explaining the significance of the choice.
 * Officially opened by
 * Athlete's Oath
 * Judge's Oath
 * Olympic Torch

Missing from the infobox, and significant enough to warrant inclusion, is how much it cost to host the Olympics. 66.167.139.210 20:15, 14 February 2006 (UTC).

Slogan
I was wondering if there's a good reason why the infobox doesn't include a slogan. -Solid Reign (talk) 14:57, 13 August 2008 (UTC)
 * Because when this template was created in 2005, none of the Olympics articles mentioned any of their respective slogans. And the 2006 Winter Olympics never had one listed in the text either. I myself would only be willing to add it to the template if and only if you can add the other slogans to the other olympics articles. Cheers. Zzyzx11 (Talk) 15:06, 13 August 2008 (UTC)
 * I think that would be a reasonable addition to the template. Jared   (t)    16:19, 13 August 2008 (UTC)

Opening date, venue and hCalendar microformat
I just added the hCalendar microformat (to make the event's date parsable by computers, including specialist search engines and time-line compilers), but have temporarily disabled it (by removing the class "vevent" from the template wrapping table). The only way for an hCalendar microformat to work is for the start date (the opening ceremony, in this case) to use start date. This renders as, for example, August 26, 2008. I have two questions: are people happy for the year to be displayed; and, if so, how can the date sub-template be modified accordingly?

I'd also like to change the venue details, so that, instead of, the output is. How can that be done? Andy Mabbett | Talk to Andy Mabbett 11:38, 26 August 2008 (UTC)
 * Done the one related to include microformat to location, but I have no idea how to include start date without showing the year. Locos epraix ~ Beastepraix 16:21, 22 August 2009 (UTC)
 * Thank you. Perhaps someone else can help with the date? Andy Mabbett (User:Pigsonthewing); Andy's talk; Andy's edits 16:32, 22 August 2009 (UTC)

This is still an issue. Andy Mabbett (User: Pigsonthewing ); Andy's talk; Andy's edits 19:30, 27 February 2010 (UTC)

...still. Andy Mabbett (User: Pigsonthewing ); Andy's talk; Andy's edits 14:53, 28 March 2011 (UTC)

Start dates and End dates
It seems that the template defaults its date formats for opening and closing ceremonies to mdy. However, I cannot see from whence the data is obtained, for it isn't in the template proper. As the article is in dmy format, the date in the infobox also needs to be changed to dmy to comply with WP:MOSNUM. Can someone help, please? -- Ohconfucius ¡digame! 05:03, 6 July 2011 (UTC)

 * Some of the data is generated by subtemplates, which I believe was implemented to curb excessive vandalism on the Olympic articles. Looks like you already found the one listing Host city. There is also Opening ceremony and Closing ceremony. Zzyzx11 (talk) 05:39, 6 July 2011 (UTC)
 * Thanks for your pointers. I just stumbled upon host city by accident. none of these transclusions are transparent, and the docs make no mention of it. -- Ohconfucius ¡digame! 01:56, 7 July 2011 (UTC)
 * This isn't good at all. We don't combat vandalism by making it near impossible for editors to make bona fide changes. Andy Mabbett ( Pigsonthewing ); Talk to Andy; Andy's edits 22:09, 31 December 2011 (UTC)
 * Rather late to the party, but I agree with Andy. If I wanted to edit the host city (finding "London, England, United Kingdom" a truly appalling formulation) well fine, maybe I shouldn't just go in and hack it but right now I can't even see where I could discuss it! :( DBaK (talk) 23:55, 2 August 2012 (UTC)

Make all parameters customizable
Host city, Events, Opening ceremony and Closing ceremony display a default value from subtemplates. There is some discussion above that this was done to curb vandalism, but this is not how we combat vandalism. They should be customizable in the article where they are used.--SaskatchewanSenator (talk) 20:08, 25 April 2014 (UTC)
 * the only reason that I see for keeping this information in subtemplates is for consistency when the data is used in more than one article. I agree that this information should be moved to the articles if this is not the case. Frietjes (talk) 16:21, 26 April 2014 (UTC)
 * From WhatLinksHere it doesn't look like the data is used more than once.--SaskatchewanSenator (talk) 17:34, 26 April 2014 (UTC)
 * I added host_city, events, opening_ceremony, closing_ceremony, and stadium. Frietjes (talk) 14:37, 27 April 2014 (UTC)

Closed by
Unless I am confused, it appears that the parameter "officially closed by" was added to the documentation subpage in this, but not included in the coding of the template itself. If this is so, the discrepancy needs resolving. I could remove it from the documentation, if that were the consensus, but I wouldn't feel brave enough to code the template (though presumably it would be similar to the "officially opened by"). I'm also a little confused by the syntax for the latter in that the documentation seems to talk of a lower case "o" for "officially", but at least some places where the template is used have an upper case "Officially". I thought that parameter names were case sensitive? --David Biddulph (talk) 08:57, 28 August 2015 (UTC)
 * Odd situation - thanks for doing the research to discover the discrepancy . As the field does not currently exist in the infobox it should be removed from the documentation to avoid confusion. However, if a consensus is reached to add it to the infobox then I would think a capital "O" would be proper. MarnetteD|Talk 14:24, 8 September 2015 (UTC)

Proposed changes, August 2018
Recently, I made some broad design changes to this template in order to bring it up to speed with the state of Infobox usage today. This included shorter parameter names, shaving off unneeded alternative parameters, and completely redesigning the succession links to achieve the same rendered output with a lesser amount of parameters that are more intelligible, among other things. Template:Infobox Olympic games/doc has also finally been updated to resolve issues of confusion and lack of information that the previous documentation page had. These changes were made with the midset that they wouldn't be controversial, as they vastly improved how the template is used, making it more efficient and easier to understand. However, there are three more major changes that believe would be somewhat controversial if they were implemented without consensus, and those are what I want to bring up here. Please indicate your support/opposition to these changes under each proposal. Pinging recently active users in WikiProject Olympics:, , , , , , and. – PhilipTerryGraham (talk · articles · reviews) 09:59, 20 August 2018 (UTC)

Removing templates for infobox data cells
Currently in the infobox data cells, there are five  templates that automatically dictate what inputs go into those cells based on the input of the   and   parameter. These are Infobox Olympic games/host city for the "Host city" parameter, Infobox Olympic games/events for "Events", Infobox Olympic games/opening ceremony for "Opening", Infobox Olympic games/closing ceremony for "Closing", and Infobox Olympic games/stadium for "Stadium". Both and  raised an issue with this setup years ago that these fixed parameters for what is otherwise simple, basic information, cannot be reasonably accessed by editors to make bona fide changes. This issue seems to have not been dealt with since then, and I am now proposing that we retire these five templates and replace them with everyday customisable parameters exactly like the rest of the infobox, such as the case is currently for parameters such as "Athletes" and "Nations". The templates would then be put up for deletion at Templates for discussion. – PhilipTerryGraham (talk · articles · reviews) 09:59, 20 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose I like the fact that the templates effectively hide the information so it cannot be inadvertantly edited. This fixed information should not need to be edited, unless an error is identified at a later date, in which case a knowledgable editor would know where to look to find it. I would therefore support including more  templates, not fewer, for example the 'nations' and 'athletes' parameters are fixed values that never need to be changed (other than for future olympics where there might need to be a mechanism for editing them on the hoof). Even the 'image' parameter is pretty much fixed. So I would actually propose creating additional templates: ,  and  . This would further simplify the infobox data. Rodney Baggins (talk) 11:13, 21 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Hiding information so it can't be edited is kind of the opposite of what we're going for here, isn't it? -- Jonel (Speak to me) 13:52, 21 August 2018 (UTC)
 * I concur with Jonel here. – PhilipTerryGraham (talk · articles · reviews) 03:13, 22 August 2018 (UTC)
 * This issue was raised seven years ago - it should have been fixed then; there is certainly no good reason not to do so now. Andy Mabbett ( Pigsonthewing ); Talk to Andy; Andy's edits 14:02, 1 September 2018 (UTC)

Removing oaths parameters
All three of the people who read the Olympic Oaths at each games have their own parameters in the infobox. I don't see why this is, as they are hardly notable enough to occupy three cells in the infobox, which is an expensive amount in the context of making the infobox as short as reasonably possible. The reading of the oathes may be important for the person(s) involved, but at the end of the day are they a) memorable parts of the games? and b) really that important to the games overall? They, in my opinion, are nowhere near as notable as the people who have lit the Olympic cauldron, a class of people that have their own article, and the people who have opened the games, who are almost always people of notability in many scopes, usually international politics (Adolf Hitler and Leonid Brezhnev, anyone?). I am proposing that the parameters,   and   be removed entirely. – PhilipTerryGraham (talk · articles · reviews) 09:59, 20 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Support I agree there's no reason to give these such prominence, but it would be a shame to lose the information altogether, so I would suggest it should be retained in the articles, under the Ceremonies section (where such a section exists), or worked in elsewhere as appropriate. Rodney Baggins (talk) 11:14, 21 August 2018 (UTC)

Converting the infobox for use for the Youth Olympics and Paralympics
Infobox games is currently used on articles for the Youth Olympic Games and Paralympic Games. However, I believe the articles would benefit greatly from the automated parameters, automatic wikilinks of certain data headers, truncated and simplified parameter names and the much more efficient and easy-to-understand succession links system currently present in Infobox Olympic games. I am proposing to change the scope of the template to be used for articles on not only the Summer Olympics and Winter Olympics, but also the Summer Youth Olympics, Winter Youth Olympics, Summer Paralympics, and Winter Paralympics. This would be mostly enabled by minor changes to certain  parser functions that currently exist in the template and the introduction of a   parameter that will accept an input of either ,  , or. For reference, an entire working version of this proposed template currently exists at Template:Infobox Olympic games/sandbox, with tests currently active on the 2000 Summer Paralympics and 2010 Summer Youth Olympics articles. – PhilipTerryGraham (talk · articles · reviews) 09:59, 20 August 2018 (UTC)

 * Support Nice work, and thanks for looking into these issues. I don't see any obvious issues with making these changes (certainly the second one), so unless anyone with more technical know-how on templates has any concerns, these should be good to implement.  Lugnuts  Fire Walk with Me 11:07, 20 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Support I am okay with all changes. Sportsfan 1234 (talk) 13:37, 20 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Support Those all seem fine to me. -- Jonel (Speak to me) 09:12, 21 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Support I strongly agree with this. The Paralympic Games in particular tend to get overlooked far too often. Rodney Baggins (talk) 11:15, 21 August 2018 (UTC)

alt parameter
Infoboxes that use an image parameter generally allow an alt parameter to be defined as a summary of the image's appearance for those who cannot see the image. Does this need to be mentioned somewhere? In the Header and image section of the documentation, it states that there are three parameters used in the Infobox syntax in this template (image, image_size, caption). Should we not say there are four parameters and also include alt? Rodney Baggins (talk) 11:40, 21 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Yes, that would be good. -- Jonel (Speak to me) 13:53, 21 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Indeed, there is an  parameter, I simply forgot about it when writing up the documentation. Sorry about that! I'll add it in right away! – PhilipTerryGraham (talk · articles · reviews) 03:14, 22 August 2018 (UTC)

Website parameter
by introduced a   parameter to Infobox Olympic games. However, this doesn't seem necessary. The purpose of an infobox is to summarize key facts in an article. A link to an external site does not help serve this purpose at all, especially as it would only appear once in an "External links" section and doesn't illustrate anything in the article. Pelmeen10's rationale for this change was that the  parameter was a common feature of most infoboxes. This is an "other stuff exists" argument that doesn't attempt to rationalise how useful the parameter would be in this specific infobox. It should be noted that a recent overhaul of Infobox Olympic games was made not too long ago that cut down on parameters such as these that unnecessarily bloat the infobox while failing to add much value to the infobox as a summary of key information. – PhilipTerryGraham (talk · articles · reviews) 03:34, 18 November 2018 (UTC)
 * every parameter is optional, which means they don't have to be included. I added this parameter to be included in Youth Olympics articles. Pelmeen10 (talk) 11:16, 1 December 2018 (UTC)
 * How will its use on Youth Olympics articles differ from Olympics and Paralympics articles? – PhilipTerryGraham (talk · articles · reviews) 02:44, 2 December 2018 (UTC)

Unexplained change to "title" parameter
Hey there,. You that you simply described as "fix". Can you explain what was the fix here, so that I and other editors can take note? – PhilipTerryGraham (talk · articles · reviews) 07:50, 30 June 2019 (UTC)
 * Hi there, these edits which I made to this template fixed the roman numeral count for the Winter Paralympics. Previously the count was off because it didn't account for the change in the four year cycle in 1994. – Ianblair23 (talk) 09:34, 30 June 2019 (UTC)
 * I see. Thanks for clarifying! – PhilipTerryGraham (talk · articles · reviews)

Adding links to concurrent Olympic/Paralympic Games
I've made an edit in the sandbox that will add a link to the concurrent Olympic or Paralympic Games (starting in 1960 for Summer Games, and 1992 for Winter Games). Any thoughts on the changes, and should the winter linking start in 1976, when the Paralympics started, or 1992, when they were first collocated with the Olympics. Danski454 (talk) 02:31, 30 August 2021 (UTC)
 * I've gone ahead and boldly made the changes. Danski454 (talk) 19:28, 7 September 2021 (UTC)

title: Template talk:Infobox Olympic games


text:
Ion trap

An ion trap is a combination of electric and/or magnetic fields used to capture charged particles — known as ions — often in a system isolated from an external environment. Atomic and molecular ion traps have a number of applications in physics and chemistry such as precision mass spectrometry, improved atomic frequency standards, and quantum computing. In comparison to neutral atom traps, ion traps have deeper trapping potentials (up to several electronvolts) that do not depend on the internal electronic structure of a trapped ion. This makes ion traps more suitable for the study of light interactions with single atomic systems. The two most popular types of ion traps are the Penning trap, which forms a potential via a combination of static electric and magnetic fields, and the Paul trap which forms a potential via a combination of static and oscillating electric fields.

Penning traps can be used for precise magnetic measurements in spectroscopy. Studies of quantum state manipulation most often use the Paul trap. This may lead to a trapped ion quantum computer and has already been used to create the world's most accurate atomic clocks. Electron guns (a device emitting high-speed electrons, used in CRTs) can use an ion trap to prevent degradation of the cathode by positive ions.

History
The physical principles of ion traps were first explored by F. M. Penning (1894–1953), who observed that electrons released by the cathode of an ionization vacuum gauge follow a long cycloidal path to the anode in the presence of a sufficiently strong magnetic field. A scheme for confining charged particles in three dimensions without the use of magnetic fields was developed by W. Paul based on his work with quadrupole mass spectrometers.

Ion traps were used in television receivers prior to the introduction of aluminized CRT faces around 1958, to protect the phosphor screen from ions. The ion trap must be delicately adjusted for maximum brightness.

Theory

Any charged particle, such as an ion, feels a force from an electric or magnetic field. Ion traps work by using this force to confine ions in a small, isolated volume of space so that they can be studied or manipulated. Although any static (constant in time) electromagnetic field produces a force on an ion, it is not possible to confine an ion using only a static electric field. This is a consequence of Earnshaw's theorem. However, physicists have various ways of working around this theorem by using combinations of static magnetic and electric fields (as in a Penning trap) or by an oscillating electric field and a static electric field(Paul trap). Ion motion and confinement in the trap is generally divided into axial and radial components, which are typically addressed separately by different fields. In both Paul and Penning traps, axial ion motion is confined by a static electric field. Paul traps use an oscillating electric field to confine the ion radially and Penning traps generate radial confinement with a static magnetic field.

Paul Trap
A Paul trap that uses an oscillating quadrupole field to trap ions radially and a static potential to confine ions axially. The quadrupole field is realized by four parallel electrodes laying in the $$z$$-axis positioned at the corners of a square in the $$xy$$-plane. Electrodes diagonally opposite each other are connected and an a.c. voltage $$V = V_0\cos(\Omega t)$$ is applied. Using Maxwell's equations, the electric field produced by this potential is electric field $$\mathbf{E} = \mathbf{E}_0\sin(\Omega t)$$. Applying Newton's second law to an ion of charge $$e$$ and mass $$M$$ in this a.c. electric field, we can find the force on the ion using $$\mathbf{F} = e\mathbf{E}$$. We wind up with

 * $$ M\mathbf{\ddot{r}} = e\mathbf{E}_0\sin(\Omega t) \!$$.

Assuming that the ion has zero initial velocity, two successive integrations give the velocity and displacement as

 * $$ \mathbf{\dot{r}} = \frac{e\mathbf{E}_0}{M\Omega}\cos(\Omega t) \!$$ ,

 * $$ \mathbf{r} = \mathbf{r}_0 - \frac{e\mathbf{E}_0}{M\Omega^2}\sin(\Omega t) \!$$ ,

where $$\mathbf{r}_0$$ is a constant of integration. Thus, the ion oscillates with angular frequency $$\Omega$$ and amplitude proportional to the electric field strength and is confined radially.

Working specifically with a linear Paul trap, we can write more specific equations of motion. Along the $$z$$-axis, an analysis of the radial symmetry yields a potential

 * $$ \phi = \alpha + \beta(x^2 - y^2) \!$$.

The constants $$\alpha$$ and $$\beta$$ are determined by boundary conditions on the electrodes and $$\phi$$ satisfies Laplace's equation $$\nabla^2\phi = 0$$. Assuming the length of the electrodes $$r$$ is much greater than their separation $$r_0$$, it can be shown that

 * $$ \phi = \phi_0 + \frac{V_0}{2r_0^2}\cos(\Omega t)(x^2 - y^2) \!$$.

Since the electric field is given by the gradient of the potential, we get that

 * $$ \mathbf{E} = -\frac{V_0}{r_0^2}\cos(\Omega t)(x\mathbf{\hat{e}}_x - y\mathbf{\hat{e}}_y) \!$$.

Defining $$\tau = \Omega t/2$$, the equations of motion in the $$xy$$-plane are a simplified form of the Mathieu equation,

 * $$ \frac{d^2x_i}{d\tau^2} = -\frac{4eV_0}{Mr_0^2\Omega^2}\cos(2\tau)x_i \!$$.

Penning Trap

A standard configuration for a Penning trap consists of a ring electrode and two end caps. A static voltage differential between the ring and end caps confines ions along the axial direction (between end caps). However, as expected from Earnshaw's theorem, the static electric potential is not sufficient to trap an ion in all three dimensions. To provide the radial confinement, a strong axial magnetic field is applied.

For a uniform electric field $$\mathbf{E} = E\mathbf{\hat{e}}_x$$, the force $$\mathbf{F} = e\mathbf{E}$$ accelerates a positively charged ion along the $$x$$-axis. For a uniform magnetic field $$\mathbf{B}= B\mathbf{\hat{e}}_z$$, the Lorentz force causes the ion to move in circular motion with cyclotron frequency

 * $$ \omega_c = \frac{eB}{M} \!$$.

Assuming an ion with zero initial velocity placed in a region with $$\mathbf{E} = E\mathbf{\hat{e}}_x$$ and $$\mathbf{B}= B\mathbf{\hat{e}}_z$$, the equations of motion are

 * $$ x = \frac{E}{\omega_c B}(1-\cos(\omega_c t)) \!$$ ,
 * $$ y = -\frac{E}{\omega_c B}(\omega_c t-\sin(\omega_c t)) \!$$ ,
 * $$ z = 0 \!$$.

The resulting motion is a combination of oscillatory motion around the $$z$$-axis with frequency $$\omega_c$$ and a drift velocity in the $$y$$-direction. The drift velocity is perpendicular to the direction of the electric field.

For the radial electric field produced by the electrodes in a Penning trap, the drift velocity will precess around the axial direction with some frequency $$\omega_m$$, called the magnetron frequency. An ion will also have a third characteristic frequency $$\omega_z$$ between the two end cap electrodes. The frequencies usually have widely different values with $$\omega_z \ll \omega_m< \ll \omega_c$$.

Ion trap mass spectrometers
An ion trap mass spectrometer may incorporate a Penning trap (Fourier-transform ion cyclotron resonance), Paul trap or the Kingdon trap. The Orbitrap, introduced in 2005, is based on the Kingdon trap. Other types of mass spectrometers may also use a linear quadrupole ion trap as a selective mass filter.

Penning ion trap
A Penning trap stores charged particles using a strong homogeneous axial magnetic field to confine particles radially and a quadrupole electric field to confine the particles axially. Penning traps are well suited for measurements of the properties of ions and stable charged subatomic particles. Precision studies of the electron magnetic moment by Dehmelt and others are an important topic in modern physics.

Penning traps can be used in quantum computation and quantum information processing and are used at CERN to store antimatter. Penning traps form the basis of Fourier-transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry for determining the mass-to-charge ratio of ions.

The Penning Trap was invented by Frans Michel Penning and Hans Georg Dehmelt, who built the first trap in the 1950s.

Paul ion trap
A Paul trap is a type of quadrupole ion trap that uses static direct current (DC) and radio frequency (RF) oscillating electric fields to trap ions. Paul traps are commonly used as components of a mass spectrometer. The invention of the 3D quadrupole ion trap itself is attributed to Wolfgang Paul who shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1989 for this work. The trap consists of two hyperbolic metal electrodes with their foci facing each other and a hyperbolic ring electrode halfway between the other two electrodes. Ions are trapped in the space between these three electrodes by the oscillating and static electric fields.

Kingdon trap and orbitrap
A Kingdon trap consists of a thin central wire, an outer cylindrical electrode and isolated end cap electrodes at both ends. A static applied voltage results in a radial logarithmic potential between the electrodes. In a Kingdon trap there is no potential minimum to store the ions; however, they are stored with a finite angular momentum about the central wire and the applied electric field in the device allows for the stability of the ion trajectories. In 1981, Knight introduced a modified outer electrode that included an axial quadrupole term that confines the ions on the trap axis. The dynamic Kingdon trap has an additional AC voltage that uses strong defocusing to permanently store charged particles. The dynamic Kingdon trap does not require the trapped ions to have angular momentum with respect to the filament. An Orbitrap is a modified Kingdon trap that is used for mass spectrometry. Though the idea has been suggested and computer simulations performed neither the Kingdon nor the Knight configurations were reported to produce mass spectra, as the simulations indicated mass resolving power would be problematic.

Trapped ion quantum computer
Some experimental work towards developing quantum computers use trapped ions. Units of quantum information called qubits are stored in stable electronic states of each ion, and quantum information can be processed and transferred through the collective quantized motion of the ions, interacting by the Coulomb force. Lasers are applied to induce coupling between the qubit states (for single qubit operations) or between the internal qubit states and external motional states (for entanglement between qubits).

title: Ion trap


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User talk:Akster~enwiki

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4am Friday

4am Friday is the third studio album by Avail. It is named after the day and time the band received news of Bob Baynor's death (of the band Maximillian Colby). The song "F.C.A." was also written about Bob. It was released in 1996 on Lookout! Records and reissued in 2006 by Jade Tree Records. The reissue also includes the Live at the Bottom of the Hill in San Francisco album.

title: 4am Friday


text: User talk:68.63.149.185

title: User talk:68.63.149.185


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Robert Carrier (politician)

Robert Carrier (born June 3, 1941) is a Canadian politician, engineer, political adviser, and a project coordinator. Carrier was a Bloc Québécois member of the House of Commons of Canada from 2004 until 2011.

Born in Montreal, Quebec, Carrier was first elected in the 2004 federal election in the riding of Alfred-Pellan in Laval, Quebec. However, he was defeated in the 2011 election by NDP's Rosane Doré Lefebvre. Carrier stood as a candidate for the Parti Québécois in the Mille-Îles electoral district during the 2012 Quebec election. On election night, he placed second behind the winner, Francine Charbonneau of the Liberals.

title: Robert Carrier (politician)


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Talk:Get out the vote

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Murat39e. Peer reviewers: Lubnasebastian, Jurgen.Prambs.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 22:21, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

Untitled
In my recent changes, I attempt to remove some negative bias, especially since it was better placed in the discussion on negative campaigning.

I also remove the use of the term "partisan" as many campaigns are non-partisan (but trying to elect a specific candidate or support a specific cause.)

World view tag
This article is clearly written with a United States and possibly Canadian bias. Needs to be reviewed to reflect the possibilities for the procedure in other contexts. Which is why I placed the worldview tag. Ans e  ll  05:54, 8 May 2006 (UTC)

Weird turn of phrase
Why use a non-idiomatic phrase like this? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 146.115.146.179 (talk) 00:49, 1 April 2015 (UTC)

"0.5% difference"
I have again removed the statement that "a well-organized effort probably gains a candidate on the order of half a percentage point". I suspect the reference is to a particular type of election in a particular country. Political campaigns take place in all democratic countries and might range from a US presidential election with 100+m voters to a local authority election with maybe 500. So there will be considerable variation in the value of GOTV. As it stands this reference is unclear and potentially misleading, and should certainly not be in the lead of the article. asnac (talk) 12:19, 15 October 2016 (UTC)
 * Find a better reference then. Removal of cited material based on your gut feeling is not how it's done on Wikipedia. Abductive  (reasoning) 03:40, 16 October 2016 (UTC)
 * It's evidently based on an American study - and article has already been tagged for its regional bias - so I've relocated it from the lead to another section. asnac (talk) 08:47, 16 October 2016 (UTC)

Expanding the GOTV in practice section
The "Field Experiments" study cited for the 2-3% turnout increase figure does not, in fact, say 2-3% is the correct increased turnout amount. It says "Analyzing the effects of 71 canvassing treatments reveals a weighted average CACE of 2.536, with a 95% confidence interval of (1.817, 3.255). In some ways this estimate understates the influence of canvassing because many of the studies target low propensity voters. For example, the Michelson (2006) study found that canvassing increased turnout among young Latino voters from 7.0% to 9.4%. Given a contact rate of 50%, the estimated CACE is 4.8 percentage points. This statistically significant increase would be even more impressive in percentage terms given the low base rate of voting."

Note the word "understates". In other words, the weighted average understated the influence of canvassing because many of the studies were not of average voters. If they had been, the canvassing turnout increase would have been higher. The authors then cited the Michelson study as an example: 4.8%. This is in line with the 2016 overview I cited. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Tannline (talk • contribs) 00:33, 14 May 2017 (UTC)

There's more and more info available on GOTV, so I think what I wrote will help bring it up to date. See below.

The guide to grassroots elections Get Out the Vote determined that GOTV efforts yielded one vote every 15 door knocks ($31 dollars per vote), 189 pieces of direct mail ($91 dollars per vote), or 35 phone calls ($35 dollars per vote).

Other studies have found that GOTV methods contribute little to none to voter turnout. One field experiment found that GOTV phone calls were largely ineffective, and that ease of access to polling locations had the largest impact on voter turnout.

There is also the argument that GOTV targets a more affluent demographic, which is already more likely to vote. Less politically engaged demographic and socioeconomic groups are sometimes neglected in GOTV efforts.

GOTV is often most effective when potential voters are told to do so "because others will ask" Voters will then go to the polls as a means of fulfilling perceived societal expectations. Paradoxically, informing voters that turnout is expecting to be high was found to increase actual voter turnout, while predicting lower turnouts actually resulted in less voters. Murat39e (talk) 19:07, 16 December 2016 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Get out the vote


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Rami (musician)

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. Mindspillage (spill yours?) 15:41, 13 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Rami (musician)
Non notable artist, vanity, possible self promotion or close to it (see creator's contribs and this vfd as well). Google search gives all of about 20 websites CryptoDerk 05:00, May 28, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete - non notable --Chill Pill Bill 05:47, 28 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete not notable. Promotion strongly suspected. Tobycat 05:49, 28 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Doesn't appear to cut it according to WP:MUSIC; delete. -- Hoary 05:54, 2005 May 28 (UTC)
 * Delete: Article has a history of outright fabrication in it. "Musician" doesn't make it.  "Recording artist" is closer.  "Significant recording artist" hits the spot. Geogre 11:16, 28 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete No evidence of notability in article. --Lee Hunter 18:44, 28 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, not notable. Megan1967 04:06, 29 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete: Appears to fail all points of WP:MUSIC. The closest possibility of passing is #3. But, they've released only one album (the other, "You Are Not Milk Machines" is a single). --Durin 01:23, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.