text:
Talk:Surface-water hydrology

I intend to put something in this article on a very interesting aspect of hydrology. I am working on a basic layout: Possible additions: --Spryom 11:51, 9 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Definition (is already there)
 * Description (is already there)
 * Types of runoff calulations (event-continuous)
 * Applied methods of computing event runoff
 * Applied methods of computing continuous runoff
 * Surface water modelling (rainfall-runoff modelling, types and characteristics)
 * a schematics for a simple conceptual model

Title and Scope
The name of this article should be Surface water hydrology, since the scientific community and common usage rarely use a gyphen. Cuvette 03:39, 16 June 2007 (UTC)

The field of hydrology is large, water literally encompasses nearly three fourths of the earth, and the movement of water on the surface of the earth has far-reaching effects to humanity. The article will have to be expanded to reflect this.Sotuman (talk) 19:08, 11 February 2019 (UTC)

Geology
User:Sotuman is using this source which says "Students who plan to become hydrologists need a strong emphasis in mathematics, statistics, geology, physics, computer science, chemistry and biology. In addition, sufficient background in other subjects--economics, public finance, environmental law, government policy" to support his content which said "The field of hydrology is connected with mathematics, statistics, geology, physics, computer science, chemistry and biology." The source does NOT say that "The field of hydrology is connected to geology" Theroadislong (talk) 19:11, 11 February 2019 (UTC)
 * Thanks, however a basic grasp of the English language will indicate that the field of hydrology is related, and indeed intertwined, with many other fields of study.Sotuman (talk) 19:14, 11 February 2019 (UTC)
 * That sounds a bit rude. In any case, that's what we call original research - your statement needs to be WP:VERIFIED and I'm pretty sure you can do that. Maybe there's something at Hydrogeology that's relevant.  Doug Weller  talk 19:20, 11 February 2019 (UTC)
 * I have reverted the edit because it was copied and pasted from the source. . Theroadislong (talk) 19:26, 11 February 2019 (UTC)
 * Thanks Doug, no intention to be rude, just pointing out the obvious. I will look into getting a more verified citation. Hydrogeology is not relevant because it deals only with groundwater, while I am interested to learn about how flooding on the surface affects geology.Sotuman (talk) 19:29, 11 February 2019 (UTC)
 * Please check the new source for verifiability.Sotuman (talk) 19:54, 11 February 2019 (UTC)
 * Since the source for the list of maybe-related fields is a US government website, its content is in the public domain and could be used verbatim on Wikipedia. That said, the content in question isn't specifically about surface-water hydrology and thus doesn't belong in this article. I rather doubt a laundry list of subjects that prospective hydrologists should know (in one agency's opinion) provides meaningful enough information about hydrology to be added to the main hydrology article either. The new source may verify the statement it's cited for, but the relevance to this article is unclear at best. It's a vague statement about rivers that won't improve our readers' understanding of surface-water hydrology. In fact, the entire paper is about geology and land forms, not about hydrology, which is only mentioned in passing. Surface-water hydrology isn't mentioned at all. It's obvious at this point that the purpose of these changes is not to summarize what reliable sources may have to say about surface-water hydrology but to get the word "geology" mentioned in the article. I don't see a need to do that. Huon (talk) 23:19, 11 February 2019 (UTC)
 * The content was titled "Geological Action of Rivers" which is exactly one of the main things that surface-water hydrology is about. With all due respect, stop obfuscating the discussion. I can read, and I know you can too.Sotuman (talk) 00:30, 12 February 2019 (UTC)
 * If you want to revert my attempt to increase the amount of citations for this article, which sorely lacks them, because there is only one sentence added which is not yet properly woven into the context of the article, that's fine. But don't accuse me of having the ulterior motive of only wanting to force in the term "geology" as if that were even legitimately categorizable as such. That the article was missing the term was brought to my attention by another helpful user, and seeing as hydrology and geology are closely related, it seemed about time someone made the obvious, well, obvious, so that readers could understand more about rivers and sedimentation.Sotuman (talk) 01:40, 12 February 2019 (UTC)
 * Indeed I can read. The source doesn't mention "surface-water hydrology" and doesn't say that the geological action of rivers is one of the main things that surface-water hydrology is about. Rather, as the title says, it's interested in the impact of rivers on geology. It mentions hydrology (surface-water or otherwise) exactly once, in the very last sentence, and that is unrelated to what it's cited for. If you want to increase the amount of citations, I suggest you either try and find sources that back up the article's current content, or you find sources that actually discuss surface-water hydrology in some detail and summarize what those say. Using a source that doesn't even mention the topic of the article to get some word mentioned that you earlier decided was missing is covered by Wikipedia's policy against original research (specifically WP:SYN). Huon (talk) 01:52, 12 February 2019 (UTC)
 * That's fair and thank-you for the conciseness and clarity. Necessity is the mother of invention, so they say.Sotuman (talk) 08:02, 12 February 2019 (UTC)

LOL, who reverts an edit but puts as explanation "content NOT supported by the sources floods aren't mentioned in them?" There is use of capitals for the negation of the source, which indicates strong emotion or confidence, but then there's a question mark, indicating uncertainty.

If you read the source, it is clearly written by a person much smarter than me because of all the big words which I had to look up: "Geomorphological records, particularly alluvial deposits, may also register short-lived climatic events of a few hours or days of duration, whereas vegetation and lake systems usually integrate seasons, years, or decades of paleoclimatic information."

Just search for the text in the mini "search inside" bar, it is there.

One could always do a paraphrase: "Alluvial, or flood deposits, are of particular importance to geology because they lay down so much sediment in such a short time that the resulting strata has a fine resoluton of days or hours, as opposed to tree rings which show much longer time periods such as summers and winters."Sotuman (talk) 06:19, 13 February 2019 (UTC)

I did go ahead and remove the one citation about the hydrology of the Pakistani watershed because you're right, it was not really talking about floods, but seemed to be mostly about the merits of a type of model for regular rainfall and its affects on the watershed. So thank-you for that. I am also sorry for laughing at you before with regards to the question mark, because I also have a lot of difficulty with accessing the relevant part of journalistic sources online. Most of them are locked up with only the abstract visible.

I added another citation that is more relevant for the same reasons as the first one: it talks about floods and how they move the earth around.Sotuman (talk) 06:43, 13 February 2019 (UTC)
 * This content may be fine for the Flood article but looks completely out of place here, the sources make no mention of surface-water hydrology and "alluvial deposits" does not equate to flooding necessarily. It's just a very clumsy attempt to add your POV to the article. Theroadislong (talk) 10:43, 13 February 2019 (UTC)

 * And the content is back with a new source (available for download here): It still doesn't say what it's cited for. Yes, it mentions hydrology, sediments and floods, but it doesn't draw these conclusions, doesn't comment on the significance of floods within surface-water hydrology, and doesn't say anything about forming or re-forming "the hydrologic and underlying geologic systems" (geology is mentioned only once, on page 7, and those systems don't get changed by any number of floods). I tire of reverting edits that don't say what the sources say. Huon (talk) 18:50, 13 February 2019 (UTC)

 * Okay, well the 29 percent of the earth not covered by water is 73 percent covered by sedimentary rock, which is a strong indicator of widespread flooding, which would be covered by surface-water hydrology. You're right though, I may be reaching a little bit by saying that water can form geologic systems by its sheer force since that has more to do with tectonics. But look at the Grand Canyon, which "record[s] much of the early geologic history of the North American continent." The scientists cited don't know whether it's 5-6 million years old or 70 million years old. The best they can do is make interpretations by looking at the strata, which I can do too. All their papers which get cited are nothing more than suggestions of their original interpretations. Here's a suggestion: The best clue in the article is about how the youngest rocks in the canyon are the volcanic ones that together with ash blocked the Colorado river completely more than once. What happens when a river is dammed? Water piles up. What happens when dams break? Flooding! What happens when there's a big flood? Erosion! That's how it formed, and all those strata that are interpreted as millions of years are just as easily interpreted as hours or days. But, that's like just my opinion, man. Sotuman (talk) 09:48, 14 February 2019 (UTC)
 * And Wikipedia has no interest in your opinion or mine, we only report on what the reliable sources say. Theroadislong (talk) 09:53, 14 February 2019 (UTC)
 * So then why did you feel the need to share yours just now? Wikipedia does have considerable interest in opinions, that's what its talk pages are, a bunch of opinions, even moreso than the little guides you like to refer me to, or the articles themselves, together with all their citations. Every human communication is just a bunch of opinions. I'm not God, are you? If you were God, then everything you said wouldn't be just an opinion, it would be absolute truth. No, we are mortal and highly fallible beings who must walk together on this long road for but a short time, grasping for what scraps of truth we think we or other fellow travelers might offer. Is that what you meant by "reliable"? Sotuman (talk) 10:13, 14 February 2019 (UTC)
 * the least possible.  this is why the sources we select should ideally be secondary or tertiary rather than primary, and that self-published sources are discouraged (there can be exceptions when they are from a relevant expert, sometimes this is acceptable for source parity as well).  — Paleo  Neonate  – 23:21, 14 February 2019 (UTC)
 * Thanks, Clippy.Sotuman (talk) 07:32, 17 February 2019 (UTC)

Rewrite
I've found some textbooks giving introductions to surface-water hydrology. I'll rewrite the article based on those sources. The main points are: So those are the lines that an introduction to surface-water hydrology should follow. Then we can expand on those aspects. Huon (talk) 02:38, 14 February 2019 (UTC)
 * None of the sources I found mention oceans. Those don't seem to be within the scope of surface-water hydrology.
 * The main concern of surface-water hydrology seems to be flow of water, with watersheds and runoff patterns prominent concerns.
 * None of the introductory works I found mentions sedimentation as a significant concern; none noted the impact on geology as a topic of interest.
 * Thanks for working on this, Huon! — Paleo Neonate  – 20:55, 15 February 2019 (UTC)
 * Yes, good job.Sotuman (talk) 20:30, 16 February 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Surface-water hydrology


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Yang Kang

Yang Kang is the fictional antagonist in the wuxia novel The Legend of the Condor Heroes by Jin Yong (Louis Cha). He also serves as a foil to Guo Jing, the protagonist due to their similar backgrounds.

Birth and heritage
Yang Kang's hometown is in Niu Family Village. His father, Yang Tiexin, was originally from Shandong but moved to Lin'an (present-day Hangzhou) after the Jurchen-led Jin Empire conquered the northern part of the predominantly Han Chinese Song Empire. Yang Tiexin met Bao Xiruo in the neighbouring town, Hongmei Village, and married her. Two years after their marriage, Yang Tiexin was apparently killed when soldiers raided the village. Bao Xiruo was heavily pregnant with Yang Kang then, and was rescued by Wanyan Honglie, the sixth prince of the Jin Empire. She gave birth to Yang Kang, who was raised as a Jurchen noble and adopted his foster father's family name, "Wanyan". He was initially known as "Wanyan Kang" before his real identity is revealed.

Yang's given name, "Kang", is the complementary of his sworn brother's "Jing". Together, their given names form "Jingkang". Their fathers and Qiu Chuji named them as such to remind them of the Jingkang Incident and to be loyal to their native land, the Song Empire. Yang Kang is also a descendant of Yang Zaixing, a Song general who participated in the Jin–Song Wars.

Treachery and retribution
Yang Kang discovers his true heritage when Yang Tiexin, who was supposedly killed many years ago, suddenly reappears in front of Bao Xiruo. Bao Xiruo tries to explain to her son that Yang Tiexin is his father. However, Yang Kang refuses to acknowledge Yang Tiexin as his father. To him, Wanyan Honglie is a fatherly figure who showers love and care on him and provides him with everything he wants. In fact, Wanyan Honglie is responsible for the deaths of Yang Kang's parents: Yang Tiexin and Bao Xiruo commit suicide after being cornered by Wanyan Honglie and his men.

When Yang Kang finally meets his sworn brother, Guo Jing, the latter attempts to persuade him to take the Song Empire's side. Although Yang Kang initially agreed to join the Song Empire, he changes his mind later after witnessing how the Han Chinese society of the Song Empire is plagued by problems such as political corruption, internal conflict, and cowardice in the face of Jurchen aggression. Disgusted, Yang Kang succumbs to the temptation of being a Jurchen noble and denounces his ethnicity again. He collaborates with the Jurchens to exploit his own race (the Han Chinese) and pretends to have acknowledged his ethnicity. At one point, he attempts to kill Guo Jing by stabbing him with a dagger when Guo tries to persuade him to revert again. He murders Ouyang Ke so that he can take the latter's place as Ouyang Feng's apprentice. Yang Kang is also responsible for the deaths of five of the "Seven Freaks of Jiangnan", and for framing Guo Jing for the murder of Ouyang Ke.

Yang Kang gets his retribution in the Temple of the Iron Spear in Jiaxing. Huang Rong is about to reveal the truth behind the deaths of Ouyang Ke and the Freaks when Yang Kang attacks her with a palm strike in an attempt to silence her. However, he accidentally hits the spikes on her soft armour, which is stained with venom from a deadly breed of snakes. The poison seeps through the wounds into his body and kills him eventually. Ironically, the venom that killed Yang Kang was used by him to kill one of the Freaks. Ouyang Feng refuses to save Yang Kang when he learns that the latter was the one who murdered Ouyang Ke.

Yang Kang dies a slow and painful death in the temple as the poison works its way through his body. Wanyan Honglie and his men abandon him for fear of being infected. Before dying, Yang Kang finally sees his mistakes after Wanyan Honglie left and blames him for his plight but is too late. When Guo Jing reaches the temple, he is horrified to see that Yang Kang's corpse had been devoured by crows and ravens. He buried whatever that is left of Yang Kang outside the temple. Yang Kang's teacher, Qiu Chuji, arrives later and constructs a tomb for his apprentice after Ke Zhen'e informed him about the incident. Qiu Chuji writes on the headstone: "Yang Kang, an unworthy apprentice. Erected by his untalented master, Qiu Chuji."

Love relationship with Mu Nianci
Yang Kang meets his love interest, Mu Nianci, for the first time in a martial arts contest for a spouse. He defeats her but refuses to marry her after his victory. He is unaware that Mu Nianci's foster father, Mu Yi, is actually his biological father, Yang Tiexin. However, their romance is often strained as they have conflicting views over where their loyalties lie. Yang Kang wants to remain as a Jurchen noble and indulge in wealth, fame and power, while Mu Nianci remains loyal to the Song Empire.

Mu Nianci is disappointed with Yang Kang when she recognises his treachery and stubborn refusal to acknowledge his ethnicity. She sees him as a traitor and decides to leave him for good. She never saw him again. However, she is already pregnant with his child. She gives birth to a boy, who is named "Yang Guo" by Guo Jing.

Quanzhen School
Qiu Chuji of the Quanzhen School finds Yang Kang and accepts him as a student upon learning that the boy is Yang Tiexin's son. He teaches Yang Kang some Quanzhen martial arts to prepare for an upcoming contest with Guo Jing, as well as some skills he created to counter the "Seven Freaks of Jiangnan". Yang Kang also learnt an incomplete set of the Yang Family Spear Movement from Qiu Chuji, whose knowledge of the skill is based on recollections of his encounter with Yang Tiexin.

Nine Yin White Bone Claw
Yang Kang learns from Mei Chaofeng the Nine Yin White Bone Claw, an unorthodox version of the skills in the Nine Yin Manual. He stumbled upon her hiding place and agreed to provide her with food and shelter. In return, she taught him the 'Claw'.

In film and television
Notable actors who have portrayed Yang Kang in films and television series include Bruce Leung (1976), Michael Miu (1983), Gallen Lo (1994), Zhou Jie (2003), Yuan Hong (2008) and Chen Xingxu (2017).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Yang Kang


text:
Immersed tube

An immersed tube (or immersed tunnel) is a kind of undersea tunnel composed of segments, constructed elsewhere and floated to the tunnel site to be sunk into place and then linked together. They are commonly used for road and rail crossings of rivers, estuaries and sea channels/harbours. Immersed tubes are often used in conjunction with other forms of tunnel at their end, such as a cut and cover or bored tunnel, which is usually necessary to continue the tunnel from near the water's edge to the entrance (portal) at the land surface.

Construction
The tunnel is made up of separate elements, each prefabricated in a manageable length, then having the ends sealed with bulkheads so they can be floated. At the same time, the corresponding parts of the path of the tunnel are prepared, with a trench on the bottom of the channel being dredged and graded to fine tolerances to support the elements. The next stage is to place the elements into place, each towed to the final location, in most cases requiring some assistance to remain buoyant. Once in position, additional weight is used to sink the element into the final location, this being a critical stage to ensure each piece is aligned correctly. After being put into place, the joint between the new element and the tunnel is emptied of water then made water tight, this process continuing sequentially along the tunnel.

The trench is then backfilled and any necessary protection, such as rock armour, added over the top. The ground beside each end tunnel element will often be reinforced, to permit a tunnel boring machine to drill the final links to the portals on land. After these stages the tunnel is complete, and the internal fitout can be carried out.

The segments of the tube may be constructed in one of two methods. In the United States, the preferred method has been to construct steel or cast iron tubes which are then lined with concrete. This allows use of conventional shipbuilding techniques, with the segments being launched after assembly in dry docks. In Europe, reinforced concrete box tube construction has been the standard; the sections are cast in a basin which is then flooded to allow their removal.

Advantages and disadvantages
The main advantage of an immersed tube is that they can be considerably more cost effective than alternative options – i.e., a bored tunnel beneath the water being crossed (if indeed this is possible at all due to other factors such as the geology and seismic activity) or a bridge. Other advantages relative to these alternatives include:
 * Their speed of construction
 * Minimal disruption to the river/channel, if crossing a shipping route
 * Resistance to seismic activity
 * Safety of construction (for example, work in a dry dock as opposed to boring beneath a river)
 * Flexibility of profile (although this is often partly dictated by what is possible for the connecting tunnel types)

Disadvantages include:
 * Immersed tunnels are often partly exposed (usually with some rock armour and natural siltation) on the river/sea bed, risking a sunken ship/anchor strike
 * Direct contact with water necessitates careful waterproofing design around the joints
 * The segmental approach requires careful design of the connections, where longitudinal effects and forces must be transferred across
 * Environmental impact of tube and underwater embankment on existing channel/sea bed.

Tubes can be round, oval and rectangular. Larger strait crossings have selected wider rectangular shapes as more cost effective for wider tunnels.

Examples
The first tunnel constructed with this method was the Shirley Gut Siphon, a six-foot sewer main laid in Boston, Massachusetts in 1893. The first example built to carry traffic was the Michigan Central Railway Tunnel constructed in 1910 under the Detroit River, and the first to carry road traffic is the Posey Tube, linking the cities of Alameda and Oakland, California in 1928. The oldest immersed tube in Europe is the Maastunnel in Rotterdam, which opened in 1942.

The Marmaray Tunnel, connecting the European and Asian sides of Istanbul, Turkey, is the world's deepest immersed tunnel at 55 m below sea level; it is the first rail link crossing the straits. Construction began in 2004 and revenue service began in 2013. The tunnel is 13.6 km long overall, of which 1.4 km were constructed using the immersed tube technique.

Currently the longest immersed tube tunnel is the 6.7 km tunnel portion of the Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge, completed in 2018. The HZMB tunnel is set at a depth of 30 m below sea level. Its length will be surpassed by 1.2 m with the completion of the Shenzhen–Zhongshan Bridge in 2024. The SZB project includes a 6.7 km immersed tube which also will be the world's widest immersed tube, carrying eight traffic lanes. Prior to the completion of the Marmaray and HZMB tunnels, the Transbay Tube in San Francisco Bay, completed in 1969, was the world's deepest and longest immersed tube, at 41 m below water level and 5.8 km long.

The length of both the HZMB and SZB will be surpassed by the Fehmarn Belt Fixed Link connecting Denmark and Germany when it is completed, at an as-designed 17.6 km long. Construction started on 1 January 2021.

 * Notes

title: Immersed tube


text:
Lympstone

Lympstone is a village and civil parish in East Devon in the English county of Devon. It has a population of 1,754. There is a harbour on the estuary of the River Exe, lying at the outlet of Wotton Brook between cliffs of red breccia. The promontory to the north of the harbour is topped by a flat pasture, Cliff Field, that is managed by the National Trust and used for football matches and other local events.

Lympstone has rail services on the Avocet Line to Exmouth and Exeter from Lympstone Village railway station.

It is known locally for Peter's Tower, an Italianate riverfront brick clock tower built around 1885 by W.H. Peters as a memorial to his wife, and for its tradition of residents drying washing on the foreshore. The riverside houses back directly on to the shore, with no continuous seawall, and the passageways between them to the beach are equipped with metal flood gates that are closed by residents when they are warned of high tides by a local alert network.

Lympstone celebrates the annual tradition of the Furry Dance on the first Saturday of August. The Furry Dance attracts thousands of visitors to the village each year, with various events throughout the day preceding the dance. Dozens of villagers perform the traditional dance in fancy dress, accompanied by a brass band, processing from the centre of the village to The Saddlers Arms and back again.

Lympstone Manor is an historical house which now provides hotel and restaurant accommodation. The parish church is the Church of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary.

Near the village is the Commando Training Centre Royal Marines (CTCRM), the principal military training centre for the Royal Marines. The training centre has its own dedicated railway halt, Lympstone Commando (not in public use), on the Exeter–Exmouth branch line.

Sport and leisure
Lympstone AFC were formed in 1895, they have 2 sides in the Devon & Exeter Football League & 16 youth teams (7-16)in the Exeter & District youth league.

http://www.lympstoneafc.org.uk/

Lympstone has a non-league football club Royal Marines A.F.C. who play at Endurance Park CTCRM. They have since folded in April 2012.

The Exeter–Exmouth cycle route passes through the village. The cycle route is popular for commuters and recreational cyclists. Prior to the opening of the cycle route the only direct route to cycle between Exmouth and Exeter was along the busy A376. The cycle route passes through the centre of the village bringing custom to the shop, cafe and pubs and adds to the vibrancy and sustainability of the village centre and its businesses. Despite this, a minority group is currently campaigning to change the route and are concerned it affects the village centre and could be made safer for users and villagers.

The 1st Lympstone Sea Scouts Group celebrated its centenary in 2012. It currently has flourishing Scout and Cub sections. It meets in the Scout HQ on Cliff Field.

Notable people

 * Ralph Lane, equerry to Queen Elizabeth I, was born in Lympstone. He was a soldier who went with Sir Walter Raleigh on his second expedition to the New World in 1585. He founded a colony on Roanoke Island amidst great hardship and deprivation. He was later present at the defeat of the Spanish Armada.
 * Theophilus Rhys-Jones (d. 1959), headmaster of St Peter's Preparatory School, Harefield, Lympstone, and paternal grandfather of Sophie, Countess of Wessex
 * Singer and lead guitarist of The Kinks, Dave Davies, lived in Lympstone in the 1990s.
 * Former Tottenham Hotspur footballer Steve Perryman currently resides in Lympstone.
 * John Nutt (before 1600 – after 1632) was an English pirate. He was one of the more notorious brigands of his time raiding the coast of southern Canada and western England for over three years before his capture by Sir John Eliot in 1623. His arrest and conviction caused a scandal in the English court, after Nutt paid Eliot £500 in exchange for a pardon, and was eventually released by Secretary of State George Calvert.
 * Francis Augustus Eliott, 2nd Baron Heathfield, British Army officer, and son of the revolutionary general, George Augustus Eliott, inherited the Lord of the Manor of Lympstone from his uncle, alongside the Manor at Nutwell (then in Lympstone). Lord Heathfield spent the next 5 years (1798–1803) rebuilding Nutwell Court to its current appearance, whilst living at nearby Gulliford Farm.

title: Lympstone


text:
Mudanjiang

Mudanjiang (Manchu: Mudan bira), alternately romanized as Mutankiang, is a prefecture-level city in the southeast part of Heilongjiang province, People's Republic of China. It was called Botankou under Japanese occupation. It serves as a regional transport hub with a railway junction and an international airport connecting with several major Chinese cities as well as Incheon International Airport serving Seoul. Mudanjiang is located 248 km from Vladivostok, Russia. In 2011, Mudanjiang had a GDP of RMB 93.48 billion with a 15.1% growth rate. In 2015, Mudanjiang had a GDP of RMB 118.63 billion.

As of the 2020 census Mudanjiang had a population of 2,290,208, of whom 930,051 lived in the 4 urban districts comprising the built-up area of the city. In 2007, the city was listed as one of China's top ten livable cities by Chinese Cities Brand Value Report, which was released at the 2007 Beijing Summit of China Cities Forum.

History
Mudanjiang was originally populated by the Sushen 2,300 years ago. They lived in the valley of the Mudan River, and established the State of Mo. During the Tang dynasty, Balhae established their Upper capital Longquan Fu (Yongcheon bu) near Lake Jingpo south of Mudanjiang around 755 AD. On January 14, 926, Yongcheon fell while Balhae was defeated by the Khitans.

Mudanjiang is named after the eponymous Mudan River (literally, "Peony River") flowing through it. Imperial Russia built a train station for the Chinese Eastern Railway in Mudanjiang in 1903, after which local development started boosting. Both Chinese and Russian settlers established themselves here. Mudanjiang was little more than a large village until the 1920s. By that time, Mudanjiang was strongly overshadowed by the nearby county town of Ningan (Former Ninguta). However, merchants from several countries including France, Russia, Britain and Denmark set up sub-agencies in Mudanjiang during this period, which led the trade area of the city to a rapid expansion.

After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria began on September 19, 1931, the whole Manchuria was seized by Japan following the Mukden Incident. Mudanjiang experienced a substantial growth in the 1930s under the Japanese occupation. Mudanjiang also became a military and administrative center going by the name Botankou, particularly after the railway from Tumen to Jiamusi was constructed in 1933. By that time several light industries including light engineering, lumbering, and food processing was established in the town. On December 1, 1937, Botankou City was established by the Manchukuo government, administering five counties. On October 15, 1938, Japanese Government set up a consulate in Botankou and promoted Botankou as a municipality directly under the Manchukuo Government. As Manchukuo collapsed, Mudanjiang was captured by the Soviet Army on August 16, 1945.

Mudanjiang was controlled by the Communist forces and became the capital of Songjiang Province in 1948. However, after Songjiang Province was merged into Heilongjiang Province on June 19, 1954, Mudanjiang was reduced to a prefecture-level city. The historic Beishan Stadium is located in the city. The 15,000-capacity stadium is used mostly for association football matches.

Geography
Mudanjiang, spanning from 128° 02' to 131° 18' E longitude and 43° 24' to 45° 59' N latitude, is located in southeastern Heilongjiang province. It is also the province's southernmost prefecture. Neighboring prefectures are: It also borders Russia's Primorsky Krai to the east. The average elevation in the prefecture is 230 m, with the terrain primarily consisting of mountains and hills. The east of the prefecture begins to ascend to the Changbai Mountains, while the central parts belong to the Hegu Basin. The lowest part of the prefecture is Suifenhe City, bordering Russia, at a minimum elevation of 86.5 m, while the highest point is Zhangguangcai mountain, at 1686.9 m.
 * Harbin (W)
 * Jixi (NE)
 * Qitaihe (N)
 * Yanbian, Jilin (S)

Climate
Mudanjiang features a monsoon-influenced, humid continental climate (Köppen Dwa) with hot, humid summers and very cold and dry winters; spring and autumn are brief. However, winter temperatures here are far warmer than much of the rest of the province, and the city's basin location helps protect it from biting winds. The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from −16.7 °C in January to 22.3 °C in July; the annual mean is 4.78 °C. Close to three-fifths of the annual rainfall occurs from June to August. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 46% in July to 62% in February and March, the city receives 2,368 hours of bright sunshine annually. Extreme temperatures have ranged from −35.1 °C to 38.4 °C.

Economy
In 2010, the city's GDP rose 18.5% to RMB 78.1 billion, ranked fourth in Heilongjiang Province after Harbin, Daqing and Qiqihar. Tourist industry and light manufacturing are the mainstays of Mudanjiang's economy. Mudanjiang's pillar industries include accessory industry for automobiles, paper making, forest industry, petrochemicals, new materials, pharmacy and energy industry. The foreign trade value increased 71.8% to US$9 billion in 2010, making up three-fourths of Heilongjiang Province's gross.

Development zones

 * Mudanjiang to Russia Economic and Technological Development Zone
 * Sino-Russian Information Industrial Garden
 * Mudanjiang Jiangnan Economic and Technological Development Area
 * Mudanjiang Bioindustry Development Zone
 * Heilongjiang Northern Pharmaceutical Technological Development Zone

Railway
Mudanjiang is a railway hub in eastern Heilongjiang Province. Binsui (Harbin-Suifenhe) Railway and Tujia (Tumen-Jiamusi) Railway meet here. Trains from Mudanjiang Railway Station connect the city with Beijing, Jinan, Dalian, Harbin, Changchun and several other cities in China.

Air
Mudanjiang Hailang International Airport is the second largest international airport in Heilongjiang Province. It operates daily flights to Beijing, Dalian and several other major cities in China. In addition there are also scheduled international flights between Mudanjiang and Seoul and Incheon in South Korea.

Highway
Mudanjiang is linked to the national highway network through the G11 Hegang–Dalian Expressway and G10 Suifenhe-Manzhouli Expressway.

Education
Mudanjiang Normal University is a provincial higher education institution in Heilongjiang Province. The predecessor of the college is the Nenjiang Branch of Northeast Agricultural College. It was founded in September 1958 and was closed in 1964. The Bei'an Teachers' College was established on the basis of the closed Nenjiang branch. The State Council approved in January 1965. In 1964, Bei'an Normal College moved to the original Ning'an County Breeding Farm, renamed Ning'an Teachers' College of Heilongjiang Province. It was approved by the Heilongjiang Provincial Revolutionary Committee in December 1970 and expanded into Mudanjiang Teachers College. The school has now developed into a master's degree. Full-time undergraduate students, international students, adult education, and other comprehensive teachers' colleges with more than 22,000 students. The school covers an area of 1.05 million square meters, and the school building area is nearly 390,000 square meters. It is a provincial-level garden-style unit. The school recruits students nationwide and now has 15 secondary colleges. In 2015, Mudanjiang Teachers College will be renamed Normal University. On February 26, 2018, Soft Science 2018 "China's Best University Ranking" was released, and Mudanjiang Teachers College ranked 551.[12]

Mudanjiang University was founded in 1983 and is the first batch of 100 local universities in the country. The school consists of three parts: the school headquarters, the Hailin campus and the industrial park training base. It covers an area of 500,000 square meters and a building area of 186,000 square meters. The total value of fixed assets is 450 million yuan, the total value of teaching equipment is 90 million yuan, and the library has 644,800 books. At present, there are more than 10,000 students in the school, 10 secondary schools and 43 majors. Among them, there are 2 key construction majors supported by the central government and 6 key construction majors supported by the provincial finance. The school is well equipped and the school conditions are good. There are 104 on-campus laboratories and training bases, and 125 off-campus training bases. The major in mechatronics, animation design and production, and computer information security storage was identified by the Ministry of Education as a national backbone teacher training base.[13]

Mudanjiang No. 1 High School, referred to as Mudanjiang Yizhong, is located in Mudanjiang City, southeast of Heilongjiang Province, and is the first demonstration high school in Heilongjiang Province. Founded in September 1945, it was originally named Mudanjiang Municipal High School; in 2001, it was renamed Mudanjiang No. 1 High School; in September 2007, the school moved to the new campus as a whole. The new campus covers an area of 218,000 square meters and the construction area is 9.3. 10,000 square meters, green area of 73,000 square meters, sports area of 70,000 square meters. In 2009, it was awarded the National 100 High School Construction Project Experimental School; in 2011, it was identified as a pilot school for provincial science projects. As of February 2015, there were 359 faculty members, 123 teachers with master's degree, 8 special teachers, 144 senior teachers, 107 national, provincial and municipal academic leaders and backbone teachers, and more than 5,200 students.[14]

International relations
Mudanjiang is twinned with:
 * 🇷🇺 Ussuriysk, Primorsky Krai, Russia
 * 🇦🇺 Municipality of Mosman, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
 * 🇰🇷, Paju, Gyeonggi-do, South Korea
 * 🇯🇵 Ōtsu, Shiga, Japan
 * 🇫🇮 Jyväskylä, Finland
 * 🇩🇪 Potsdam, Brandenburg, Germany

title: Mudanjiang


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European Structural and Investment Funds

The European Structural and Investment Funds (ESI Funds, ESIFs) are financial tools governed by a common rulebook, set up to implement the regional policy of the European Union, as well as the structural policy pillars of the Common Agricultural Policy and the Common Fisheries Policy. They aim to reduce regional disparities in income, wealth and opportunities. Europe's poorer regions receive most of the support, but all European regions are eligible for funding under the policy's various funds and programmes. The current framework is set for a period of seven years, from 2021 to 2027.

Overview
Five ESIFs currently exist, they are:
 * under the Cohesion Policy:
 * the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF)
 * the Cohesion Fund (CF)
 * the European Social Fund Plus (ESF+)
 * under the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP):
 * the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD)
 * under the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP):
 * the European Maritime, Fisheries and Aquaculture Fund (EMFAF)

ESIFs constitute the great bulk of EU funding, the majority of total EU spending (nearly half of all ESIF allocations are realised as expenditure in the "real economy" through third party purchases), and are among the largest items of the budget of the European Union. Apart from them, there are also other EU funds that have the potential to contribute to the regional development, in particular the European Agricultural Guarantee Fund (EAGF), the Connecting Europe Facility, the InvestEU Programme, the Horizon Europe, or the Erasmus+.

It is up to the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union to define the tasks, priority objectives and the organisation of the Structural Funds (the Regional Policy framework), through the ordinary legislative procedure and consulting the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions (leading to the publication of Regulations).

The key indicator for the division of regions under singular objectives is the Gross National Product per capita (GNP p.c.) level. This is subject to criticism based on the fact that GDP p.c. is unable to reflect the real socio-economic reality of regions. Some groups (e.g. Beyond GDP) and organisations propose the creation of a set of alternative indicators that could substitute the GDP and its derivates.

Funds management
The way the ESIFs are spent is based on a system of shared responsibility between the European Commission and the member state authorities:

 * The commission negotiates and approves the NSRFs and OPs proposed by the member states, and uses these as a basis for allocating resources.
 * The member states and their regions manage the programmes. This includes implementing the OPs by selecting individual projects, controlling and assessing them.
 * The commission is involved in overall programme monitoring, pays out approved expenditure and verifies the national control systems.

Prior to 1989, funding decisions were taken by the European Commission. This was followed by a period where EU member states tried to maximize control, with little systematic project appraisal and a focus on a small number of large projects. Since 1994 more systematic, co-ordinated and complex methods of allocating resources start to be introduced. For example, most funds within the 2004–06 Integrated Regional Operational Programme (IROP), and its 2007–13 successor (ROP), are allocated through largely need-based project-selection mechanisms. Regions with low GDP receive more funds. However, within these regions, more funds go to relatively rich local areas with the best institutions. It has been argued that part of this can be explained by the frequent need to co-fund projects, and the needed capacity to prepare applications.

The European Regional Development Fund (ERDF)
The ERDF supports programmes addressing regional development, economic change, enhanced competitiveness and territorial co-operation throughout the EU. Funding priorities include modernising economic structures, creating sustainable jobs and economic growth, research and innovation, environmental protection and risk prevention. Investment in infrastructure also retains an important role, especially in the least-developed regions.

The European Social Fund Plus (ESF+)
The ESF+ focuses on four key areas: increasing the adaptability of workers and enterprises, enhancing access to employment and participation in the labour market, reinforcing social inclusion by combating discrimination and facilitating access to the labour market for disadvantaged people, and promoting partnership for reform in the fields of employment and inclusion.

The Cohesion Fund
The Cohesion Fund contributes to interventions in the field of the environment and trans-European transport networks. It applies to member states with a gross national income (GNI) of less than 90% of the EU average. As such, it covers the 13 new member states as well as Greece and Portugal.

Objectives for 2007–2013
Sections below present information about objectives that have been defined for the programming period, which runs from 1 January 2007 to 31 December 2013. The overall budget for this period is €347bn: €201bn for the European Regional Development Fund, €76bn for the European Social Fund, and €70bn for the Cohesion Fund. The objectives setup shapes the main focus of interventions (eligible activities and costs) and the overall allocations of funds from the EU budget.

Convergence objective (formerly Objective 1)
This objective covers regions whose GDP per capita is below 75% of the EU average and aims at accelerating their economic development. It is financed by the ERDF, the ESF and the Cohesion Fund. The priorities under this objective are human and physical capital, innovation, knowledge society, environment and administrative efficiency. The budget allocated to this objective is €283.3bn in current prices.

Regional Competitiveness and Employment objective (formerly Objective 2)
This objective covers all regions of the EU territory, except those already covered by the Convergence objective. It aims at reinforcing competitiveness, employment and attractiveness of these regions. Innovation, the promotion of entrepreneurship and environment protection are the main themes of this objective. The funding – €55bn in current prices – comes from the ERDF and the ESF.

European Territorial Cooperation objective (formerly Objective 3)
European Territorial Cooperation is an objective of the European Union's Cohesion Policy for the period 2007–2013, serving its ultimate goal to strengthen the economic and social cohesion of the Union. Regions and cities from different Member States are encouraged to work together, learning from each other and developing joint projects and networks. With the Convergence Objective and the Regional Competitiveness and Employment Objective it aims at contributing to reduce regional disparities across Union's territory.

The EUR 8.7 billion allocated to the European Territorial Cooperation objective represents 2.5% of the total budget for Cohesion Policy in 2007–2013 and is financed by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF). It supports cross-border, transnational and interregional cooperation programmes, helping Member States to participate in European Union (EU) external border cooperation programmes supported by other instruments (Instrument for Pre-Accession and European Neighbourhood Policy Instrument).

History
The European Territorial Cooperation Objective replaced the previous INTERREG Community Initiative (in the period 2000–2006) and thus many European Territorial Cooperation programmes bear the name INTERREG.

The "objectives" were introduced with the Single European Act as a criterion to make the Structural Funds spending more effective as Regional Policy started to be rationalised in a perspective of economic and social cohesion. The Single European Act, that entered into force in 1987, institutionalised the goal of completing the internal market with a total borders opening, by 31 December 1992. Regional competition would be tighter and a Cohesion Policy was needed to mitigate the negative side effects of market unification.

The "objectives" were then created to discipline the capture of funds in terms of economic and social cohesion across the Union's territory. In the first multiannual financial framework, 1988–1999, there were seven objectives, which have been progressively reduced.

Even though European Territorial Cooperation Objective is the smallest of the three Cohesion Policy objectives (in terms of budget), it gained a critical importance to address the key challenges of the European Union, particularly with some redefinitions of the Treaty of Lisbon ( entered into force on 1 December 2009), and for contributing to achieve the goals of Europe 2020, the EU's growth strategy.

Institutional and legal framework
In its title on Economic, Social and Territorial Cohesion, the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union establishes that 'the Union shall develop and pursue its actions leading to the strengthening of its economic, social and territorial cohesion'. By introducing the concept of territorial cohesion, the Treaty of Lisbon recognised a strong territorial dimension for the cohesion policy. This territorial approach requires a unique and modern governance system, combining different levels of government (European, national, regional and local).

Member States thus conduct their economic policies and coordinate them for the promotion of the 'economic, social and territorial cohesion'. European Territorial Cooperation is a component of the economic policy framework of the Union.

The current Regional Policy framework, sustained by Structural Funds, is set for a period of seven years, from 2007 to 2013. For this period, the following regulations (and the changes in detail made to them by means of subsequent regulations) are especially important in defining the organisation of European Territorial Cooperation: The European Territorial Cooperation Objective is financed by the European Regional Development Fund, whereas the remaining two objectives of the Cohesion Policy set for the 2007–2013 period are also financed by the European Social Fund (Regional Competitiveness and Employment Objective), and, in the case with the Convergence Objective, also the Cohesion Fund.
 * Regulation (EC) No 1080/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 July 2006 on the European Regional Development Fund and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1783/1999.
 * Council Regulation (EC) No 1083/2006 of 11 July 2006 laying down general provisions on the European Regional Development Fund, the European Social Fund and the Cohesion Fund and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1260/1999.
 * Commission Regulation (EC) No 1828/2006 of 8 December 2006, setting out rules for the implementation of Council Regulation (EC) No 1083/2006, laying down general provisions on the European Regional Development Fund, the European Social Fund and the Cohesion Fund and of Regulation (EC) No 1080/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council on the European Regional Development Fund.

Organization
As with the remaining two objectives, the European Territorial Cooperation Objective is delivered by means of multi-annual programmes aligned on the Union's objectives and priorities, expressed on the multi-annual financial framework. Each programme has a managing authority and a Joint Technical Secretariat, headquartered within the area it serves. They are responsible for the correct implementation of the programme, both from a financial and from an operational perspective.

Within European Territorial Cooperation, there are three types of programmes: In particular, cross-border actions are encouraged in the fields of entrepreneurship, improving joint management of natural resources, supporting links between urban and rural areas, improving access to transport and communication networks, developing joint use of infrastructure, administrative cooperation and capacity building, employment, community interaction, culture and social affairs. Together and in their specific fields, these programmes provide a framework for exchanging experience between regional and local bodies in different countries. The Instrument for Pre-Accession and the European Neighbourhood Policy Instrument are the two financial instruments dedicated to support territorial cooperation between European Member States border regions and their neighbours in accession countries and in other partner countries of the Union. The former currently finances 10 programmes and the latter 13 programmes.
 * Cross-border cooperation (53 programmes): These programmes help transform regions located on either side of internal or external borders of the European Union into strong economic and social poles. The main goals of these programmes are to face common problems and mitigate the negative effects of administrative, legal and physical barriers of borders. The cooperation process is stressed through joint management of programmes and projects that stimulate mutual trust and understanding.
 * Transnational Cooperation (13 programmes): The transnational programmes promote cooperation among greater European regions, including the ones surrounding sea basins (e.g. Baltic Sea Region, North Sea, Mediterranean and Atlantic Area) or mountain ranges (e.g. Alpine Space), and facilitate coordinated strategic responses to joint challenges, such as flood management, transport and communication corridors, international business and research linkages, urban development and others. Special attention is given to outermost and island regions (e.g. Indian Ocean, Caribbean Area or Northern Periphery).
 * The interregional cooperation programme (INTERREG IVC) and three networking programmes (URBACT II, INTERACT II and ESPON) cover all 27 Member States of the Union (and, in some cases, also the cross-border cooperation programmes within the Instrument for Pre-Accession and the European Neighbourhood Policy Instrument, as well as cross-border cooperation with third countries, such as Norway and Switzerland).

Strategic approach for 2007-2013
This section explains the interplay between different political levels – European, national and regional – in determining the priorities for the Structural Funds and the guidelines for implementing regional projects. In general, the overarching priorities for the Structural Funds are set at the EU level and then transformed into national priorities by the member states and regions.

At the EU level the overarching priorities are established in the Community Strategic Guidelines (CSG). These set the framework for all actions that can be taken using the funds. Within this framework, each member state develops its own National Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF). The NSRF sets out the priorities for the respective member state, taking specific national policies into account. Finally, Operational Programmes for each region within the member state are drawn up in accordance with the respective NSRF, reflecting the needs of individual regions.

 * EU Level: Community Strategic Guidelines,
 * National Level: National Strategic Reference Framework for each member state,
 * Regional Level: Operational Programme for each region.

Community Strategic Guidelines
The Community Strategic Guidelines (CSG) contain the principles and priorities of the EU's cohesion policy and suggest ways the European regions can take full advantage of the funding that has been made available for national and regional aid programmes for the period 2007–2013. There are three priorities:
 * Improving the attractiveness of member states, regions and cities by improving accessibility, ensuring adequate quality and level of services, and preserving their environmental potential;
 * Encouraging innovation, entrepreneurship and the growth of the knowledge economy by supporting research and innovation capacities, including new information and communication technologies;
 * Creating more and better jobs by attracting more people into employment entrepreneurial activity, improving adaptability of workers and enterprises and increasing investment in human capital.

National Strategic Reference Framework
A National Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF) establishes the main priorities for spending the EU structural funding a member state receives between 2007 and 2013. Each member state has its own NSRF. Adopting an NSRF is a new requirement of the Structural Funds regulations for 2007 to 2013. Each NSRF functions as a high-level strategy for the Operational Programmes in the respective member state. The document provides an overview of the economic strengths and weaknesses of the member state's regions, and out the approach to future Structural Funds spending across the member state.

Operational Programmes
An Operational Programme (OP) sets out a region's priorities for delivering the funds. Although there is scope for regional flexibility, a region's priorities must be consistent with the member state's NSRF. There is an Operational Programme for each region in the EU. These OPs, just like the NSRF, have to be approved by the European Commission before any implementation.

New architecture for 2014–2020
The European Commission has adopted a draft legislative package which will frame cohesion policy for 2014–2020. The new proposals are designed to reinforce the strategic dimension of the policy and to ensure that EU investment is targeted on Europe's long-term goals for growth and jobs ("Europe 2020").

Through partnership contracts agreed with the commission, member states will commit to focussing on fewer investment priorities in line with these objectives. The package also harmonises the rules related to different funds, including rural development and maritime and fisheries, to increase the coherence of EU action.


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