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Optical resolution

Optical resolution describes the ability of an imaging system to resolve detail, in the object that is being imaged. An imaging system may have many individual components, including one or more lenses, and/or recording and display components. Each of these contributes (given suitable design, and adequate alignment) to the optical resolution of the system; the environment in which the imaging is done often is a further important factor.

Lateral resolution
Resolution depends on the distance between two distinguishable radiating points. The sections below describe the theoretical estimates of resolution, but the real values may differ. The results below are based on mathematical models of Airy discs, which assumes an adequate level of contrast. In low-contrast systems, the resolution may be much lower than predicted by the theory outlined below. Real optical systems are complex, and practical difficulties often increase the distance between distinguishable point sources.

The resolution of a system is based on the minimum distance $$r$$ at which the points can be distinguished as individuals. Several standards are used to determine, quantitatively, whether or not the points can be distinguished. One of the methods specifies that, on the line between the center of one point and the next, the contrast between the maximum and minimum intensity be at least 26% lower than the maximum. This corresponds to the overlap of one Airy disk on the first dark ring in the other. This standard for separation is also known as the Rayleigh criterion. In symbols, the distance is defined as follows:

$$ r = \frac{1.22 \lambda}{2 n \sin{\theta}} = \frac{0.61 \lambda}{\mathrm{NA}} $$ where
 * $$r$$ is the minimum distance between resolvable points, in the same units as $$\lambda$$ is specified
 * $$\lambda$$ is the wavelength of light, emission wavelength, in the case of fluorescence,
 * $$n$$ is the index of refraction of the media surrounding the radiating points,
 * $$\theta$$ is the half angle of the pencil of light that enters the objective, and
 * $$\mathrm{NA}$$ is the numerical aperture

This formula is suitable for confocal microscopy, but is also used in traditional microscopy. In confocal laser-scanned microscopes, the full-width half-maximum (FWHM) of the point spread function is often used to avoid the difficulty of measuring the Airy disc. This, combined with the rastered illumination pattern, results in better resolution, but it is still proportional to the Rayleigh-based formula given above. $$ r = \frac{0.4 \lambda}{\mathrm{NA}} $$

Also common in the microscopy literature is a formula for resolution that treats the above-mentioned concerns about contrast differently. The resolution predicted by this formula is proportional to the Rayleigh-based formula, differing by about 20%. For estimating theoretical resolution, it may be adequate. $$ r = \frac{\lambda}{2 n \sin{\theta}} = \frac{\lambda}{2 \mathrm{NA}} $$

When a condenser is used to illuminate the sample, the shape of the pencil of light emanating from the condenser must also be included. $$ r = \frac{1.22 \lambda}{\mathrm{NA}_\text{obj} + \mathrm{NA}_\text{cond}} $$

In a properly configured microscope, $$\mathrm{NA}_\text{obj} + \mathrm{NA}_\text{cond} = 2 \mathrm{NA}_\text{obj} $$.

The above estimates of resolution are specific to the case in which two identical very small samples that radiate incoherently in all directions. Other considerations must be taken into account if the sources radiate at different levels of intensity, are coherent, large, or radiate in non-uniform patterns.

Lens resolution
The ability of a lens to resolve detail is usually determined by the quality of the lens, but is ultimately limited by diffraction. Light coming from a point source in the object diffracts through the lens aperture such that it forms a diffraction pattern in the image, which has a central spot and surrounding bright rings, separated by dark nulls; this pattern is known as an Airy pattern, and the central bright lobe as an Airy disk. The angular radius of the Airy disk (measured from the center to the first null) is given by: $$ \theta = 1.22 \frac{\lambda}{D}$$ where
 * θ is the angular resolution in radians,
 * λ is the wavelength of light in meters,
 * and D is the diameter of the lens aperture in meters.

Two adjacent points in the object give rise to two diffraction patterns. If the angular separation of the two points is significantly less than the Airy disk angular radius, then the two points cannot be resolved in the image, but if their angular separation is much greater than this, distinct images of the two points are formed and they can therefore be resolved. Rayleigh defined the somewhat arbitrary "Rayleigh criterion" that two points whose angular separation is equal to the Airy disk radius to first null can be considered to be resolved. It can be seen that the greater the diameter of the lens or its aperture, the greater the resolution. Astronomical telescopes have increasingly large lenses so they can 'see' ever finer detail in the stars.

Only the very highest quality lenses have diffraction-limited resolution, however, and normally the quality of the lens limits its ability to resolve detail. This ability is expressed by the Optical Transfer Function which describes the spatial (angular) variation of the light signal as a function of spatial (angular) frequency. When the image is projected onto a flat plane, such as photographic film or a solid state detector, spatial frequency is the preferred domain, but when the image is referred to the lens alone, angular frequency is preferred. OTF may be broken down into the magnitude and phase components as follows: $$\mathbf{OTF(\xi,\eta)}=\mathbf{MTF(\xi,\eta)}\cdot\mathbf{PTF(\xi,\eta)} $$ where
 * $$\mathbf{MTF(\xi,\eta)} = | \mathbf{OTF(\xi,\eta)} | $$
 * $$\mathbf{PTF(\xi,\eta)} = e^{-i 2\cdot\pi\cdot\lambda (\xi,\eta)} $$
 * and $$(\xi,\eta)$$ are spatial frequency in the x- and y-plane, respectively.

The OTF accounts for aberration, which the limiting frequency expression above does not. The magnitude is known as the Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) and the phase portion is known as the Phase Transfer Function (PTF).

In imaging systems, the phase component is typically not captured by the sensor. Thus, the important measure with respect to imaging systems is the MTF.

Phase is critically important to adaptive optics and holographic systems.

Sensor resolution (spatial)
Some optical sensors are designed to detect spatial differences in electromagnetic energy. These include photographic film, solid-state devices (CCD, CMOS detectors, and infrared detectors like PtSi and InSb), tube detectors (vidicon, plumbicon, and photomultiplier tubes used in night-vision devices), scanning detectors (mainly used for IR), pyroelectric detectors, and microbolometer detectors. The ability of such a detector to resolve those differences depends mostly on the size of the detecting elements.

Spatial resolution is typically expressed in line pairs per millimeter (lppmm), lines (of resolution, mostly for analog video), contrast vs. cycles/mm, or MTF (the modulus of OTF). The MTF may be found by taking the two-dimensional Fourier transform of the spatial sampling function. Smaller pixels result in wider MTF curves and thus better detection of higher frequency energy.

This is analogous to taking the Fourier transform of a signal sampling function; as in that case, the dominant factor is the sampling period, which is analogous to the size of the picture element (pixel).

Other factors include pixel noise, pixel cross-talk, substrate penetration, and fill factor.

A common problem among non-technicians is the use of the number of pixels on the detector to describe the resolution. If all sensors were the same size, this would be acceptable. Since they are not, the use of the number of pixels can be misleading. For example, a 2-megapixel camera of 20-micrometre-square pixels will have worse resolution than a 1-megapixel camera with 8-micrometre pixels, all else being equal.

For resolution measurement, film manufacturers typically publish a plot of Response (%) vs. Spatial Frequency (cycles per millimeter). The plot is derived experimentally. Solid state sensor and camera manufacturers normally publish specifications from which the user may derive a theoretical MTF according to the procedure outlined below. A few may also publish MTF curves, while others (especially intensifier manufacturers) will publish the response (%) at the Nyquist frequency, or, alternatively, publish the frequency at which the response is 50%.

To find a theoretical MTF curve for a sensor, it is necessary to know three characteristics of the sensor: the active sensing area, the area comprising the sensing area and the interconnection and support structures ("real estate"), and the total number of those areas (the pixel count). The total pixel count is almost always given. Sometimes the overall sensor dimensions are given, from which the real estate area can be calculated. Whether the real estate area is given or derived, if the active pixel area is not given, it may be derived from the real estate area and the fill factor, where fill factor is the ratio of the active area to the dedicated real estate area. $$ \mathrm{FF} = \frac{a \cdot b}{c \cdot d} $$ where
 * the active area of the pixel has dimensions a×b
 * the pixel real estate has dimensions c×d

In Gaskill's notation, the sensing area is a 2D comb(x, y) function of the distance between pixels (the pitch), convolved with a 2D rect(x, y) function of the active area of the pixel, bounded by a 2D rect(x, y) function of the overall sensor dimension. The Fourier transform of this is a $$\operatorname{comb}(\xi, \eta)$$ function governed by the distance between pixels, convolved with a $$\operatorname{sinc}(\xi, \eta)$$ function governed by the number of pixels, and multiplied by the $$\operatorname{sinc}(\xi, \eta)$$ function corresponding to the active area. That last function serves as an overall envelope to the MTF function; so long as the number of pixels is much greater than one, then the active area size dominates the MTF.

Sampling function:

$$ \mathbf{S}(x,y) = \left[\operatorname{comb}\left(\frac{x}{c},\frac{y}{d}\right) * \operatorname{rect}\left(\frac{x}{a}, \frac{y}{b}\right)\right] \cdot \operatorname{rect}\left(\frac{x}{M \cdot c}, \frac{y}{N \cdot d}\right) $$

where the sensor has M×N pixels $$\begin{align} \mathbf{MTF_{sensor}}(\xi,\eta) &=\mathcal{FF}(\mathbf{S}(x,y)) \\ &=[\operatorname{sinc}((M\cdot c) \cdot \xi, (N \cdot d)\cdot\eta) * \operatorname{comb}(c \cdot \xi, d \cdot \eta)] \cdot \operatorname{sinc}(a \cdot \xi, b \cdot \eta) \end{align}$$

Sensor resolution (temporal)
An imaging system running at 24 frames per second is essentially a discrete sampling system that samples a 2D area. The same limitations described by Nyquist apply to this system as to any signal sampling system.

All sensors have a characteristic time response. Film is limited at both the short resolution and the long resolution extremes by reciprocity breakdown. These are typically held to be anything longer than 1 second and shorter than 1/10,000 second. Furthermore, film requires a mechanical system to advance it through the exposure mechanism, or a moving optical system to expose it. These limit the speed at which successive frames may be exposed.

CCD and CMOS are the modern preferences for video sensors. CCD is speed-limited by the rate at which the charge can be moved from one site to another. CMOS has the advantage of having individually addressable cells, and this has led to its advantage in the high speed photography industry.

Vidicons, Plumbicons, and image intensifiers have specific applications. The speed at which they can be sampled depends upon the decay rate of the phosphor used. For example, the P46 phosphor has a decay time of less than 2 microseconds, while the P43 decay time is on the order of 2-3 milliseconds. The P43 is therefore unusable at frame rates above 1000 frames per second (frame/s). See for links to phosphor information.

Pyroelectric detectors respond to changes in temperature. Therefore, a static scene will not be detected, so they require choppers. They also have a decay time, so the pyroelectric system temporal response will be a bandpass, while the other detectors discussed will be a lowpass.

If objects within the scene are in motion relative to the imaging system, the resulting motion blur will result in lower spatial resolution. Short integration times will minimize the blur, but integration times are limited by sensor sensitivity. Furthermore, motion between frames in motion pictures will impact digital movie compression schemes (e.g. MPEG-1, MPEG-2). Finally, there are sampling schemes that require real or apparent motion inside the camera (scanning mirrors, rolling shutters) that may result in incorrect rendering of image motion. Therefore, sensor sensitivity and other time-related factors will have a direct impact on spatial resolution.

Analog bandwidth effect on resolution
The spatial resolution of digital systems (e.g. HDTV and VGA) are fixed independently of the analog bandwidth because each pixel is digitized, transmitted, and stored as a discrete value. Digital cameras, recorders, and displays must be selected so that the resolution is identical from camera to display. However, in analog systems, the resolution of the camera, recorder, cabling, amplifiers, transmitters, receivers, and display may all be independent and the overall system resolution is governed by the bandwidth of the lowest performing component.

In analog systems, each horizontal line is transmitted as a high-frequency analog signal. Each picture element (pixel) is therefore converted to an analog electrical value (voltage), and changes in values between pixels therefore become changes in voltage. The transmission standards require that the sampling be done in a fixed time (outlined below), so more pixels per line becomes a requirement for more voltage changes per unit time, i.e. higher frequency. Since such signals are typically band-limited by cables, amplifiers, recorders, transmitters, and receivers, the band-limitation on the analog signal acts as an effective low-pass filter on the spatial resolution. The difference in resolutions between VHS (240 discernible lines per scanline), Betamax (280 lines), and the newer ED Beta format (500 lines) is explained primarily by the difference in the recording bandwidth.

In the NTSC transmission standard, each field contains 262.5 lines, and 59.94 fields are transmitted every second. Each line must therefore take 63 microseconds, 10.7 of which are for reset to the next line. Thus, the retrace rate is 15.734 kHz. For the picture to appear to have approximately the same horizontal and vertical resolution (see Kell factor), it should be able to display 228 cycles per line, requiring a bandwidth of 4.28 MHz. If the line (sensor) width is known, this may be converted directly into cycles per millimeter, the unit of spatial resolution.

B/G/I/K television system signals (usually used with PAL colour encoding) transmit frames less often (50 Hz), but the frame contains more lines and is wider, so bandwidth requirements are similar.

Note that a "discernible line" forms one half of a cycle (a cycle requires a dark and a light line), so "228 cycles" and "456 lines" are equivalent measures.

System resolution
There are two methods by which to determine "system resolution" (in the sense that omits the eye, or other final reception of the optical information). The first is to perform a series of two-dimensional convolutions, first with the image and the lens, and then, with that procedure's result and a sensor (and so on through all of the components of the system). Not only is this computationally expensive, but normally it also requires repetition of the process, for each additional object that is to be imaged. $$\begin{align} \mathbf{Image(x,y)} = {} & \mathbf{Object(x,y) * PSF_{atmosphere}(x,y) * } \\ & \mathbf{PSF_{lens}(x,y) * PSF_{sensor}(x,y) *} \\ & \mathbf{PSF_{transmission}(x,y) * PSF_{display}(x,y)} \end{align}$$

The other method is to transform each of the components of the system into the spatial frequency domain, and then to multiply the 2-D results. A system response may be determined without reference to an object. Although this method is considerably more difficult to comprehend conceptually, it becomes easier to use computationally, especially when different design iterations or imaged objects are to be tested.

The transformation to be used is the Fourier transform. $$\begin{align} \mathbf{MTF_{sys}(\xi,\eta)} = {} & \mathbf{MTF_{atmosphere}(\xi,\eta) \cdot MTF_{lens}(\xi,\eta) \cdot } \\ & \mathbf{MTF_{sensor}(\xi,\eta) \cdot MTF_{transmission}(\xi,\eta) \cdot} \\ & \mathbf{MTF_{display}(\xi,\eta)} \end{align}$$

Ocular resolution
The human eye is a limiting feature of many systems, when the goal of the system is to present data to humans for processing.

For example, in a security or air traffic control function, the display and work station must be constructed so that average humans can detect problems and direct corrective measures. Other examples are when a human is using eyes to carry out a critical task such as flying (piloting by visual reference), driving a vehicle, and so forth.

The best visual acuity of the human eye at its optical centre (the fovea) is less than 1 arc minute per line pair, reducing rapidly away from the fovea.

The human brain requires more than just a line pair to understand what the eye is imaging. Johnson's criteria defines the number of line pairs of ocular resolution, or sensor resolution, needed to recognize or identify an item.

Atmospheric resolution
Systems looking through long atmospheric paths may be limited by turbulence. A key measure of the quality of atmospheric turbulence is the seeing diameter, also known as Fried's seeing diameter. A path which is temporally coherent is known as an isoplanatic patch.

Large apertures may suffer from aperture averaging, the result of several paths being integrated into one image.

Turbulence scales with wavelength at approximately a 6/5 power. Thus, seeing is better at infrared wavelengths than at visible wavelengths.

Short exposures suffer from turbulence less than longer exposures due to the "inner" and "outer" scale turbulence; short is considered to be much less than 10 ms for visible imaging (typically, anything less than 2 ms). Inner scale turbulence arises due to the eddies in the turbulent flow, while outer scale turbulence arises from large air mass flow. These masses typically move slowly, and so are reduced by decreasing the integration period.

A system limited only by the quality of the optics is said to be diffraction-limited. However, since atmospheric turbulence is normally the limiting factor for visible systems looking through long atmospheric paths, most systems are turbulence-limited. Corrections can be made by using adaptive optics or post-processing techniques.

$$ \operatorname{MTF}_s(\nu)= e^{-3.44 \cdot (\lambda f \nu /r_0)^{5/3} \cdot [1-b \cdot (\lambda f \nu /D)^{1/3}]} $$ where
 * $$ \nu $$ is the spatial frequency
 * $$ \lambda $$ is the wavelength
 * f is the focal length
 * D is the aperture diameter
 * b is a constant (1 for far-field propagation)
 * and $$ r_0 $$ is Fried's seeing diameter

Measuring optical resolution
A variety of measurement systems are available, and use may depend upon the system being tested.

Typical test charts for Contrast Transfer Function (CTF) consist of repeated bar patterns (see Discussion below). The limiting resolution is measured by determining the smallest group of bars, both vertically and horizontally, for which the correct number of bars can be seen. By calculating the contrast between the black and white areas at several different frequencies, however, points of the CTF can be determined with the contrast equation. $$ \text{contrast} = \frac{C_{\max}-C_{\min}}{C_{\max}+C_{\min}} $$ where
 * $$ C_{\max} $$ is the normalized value of the maximum (for example, the voltage or grey value of the white area)
 * $$ C_{\min} $$ is the normalized value of the minimum (for example, the voltage or grey value of the black area)

When the system can no longer resolve the bars, the black and white areas have the same value, so Contrast = 0. At very low spatial frequencies, Cmax = 1 and Cmin = 0 so Modulation = 1. Some modulation may be seen above the limiting resolution; these may be aliased and phase-reversed.

When using other methods, including the interferogram, sinusoid, and the edge in the ISO 12233 target, it is possible to compute the entire MTF curve. The response to the edge is similar to a step response, and the Fourier Transform of the first difference of the step response yields the MTF.

Interferogram
An interferogram created between two coherent light sources may be used for at least two resolution-related purposes. The first is to determine the quality of a lens system (see LUPI), and the second is to project a pattern onto a sensor (especially photographic film) to measure resolution.

NBS 1010a/ ISO #2 target
This 5 bar resolution test chart is often used for evaluation of microfilm systems and scanners. It is convenient for a 1:1 range (typically covering 1-18 cycles/mm) and is marked directly in cycles/mm. Details can be found in ISO-3334.

USAF 1951 target

The USAF 1951 resolution test target consists of a pattern of 3 bar targets. Often found covering a range of 0.25 to 228 cycles/mm. Each group consists of six elements. The group is designated by a group number (-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, etc.) which is the power to which 2 should be raised to obtain the spatial frequency of the first element (e.g., group -2 is 0.25 line pairs per millimeter). Each element is the 6th root of 2 smaller than the preceding element in the group (e.g. element 1 is 2^0, element 2 is 2^(-1/6), element 3 is 2(-1/3), etc.). By reading off the group and element number of the first element which cannot be resolved, the limiting resolution may be determined by inspection. The complex numbering system and use of a look-up chart can be avoided by use of an improved but not standardized layout chart, which labels the bars and spaces directly in cycles/mm using OCR-A extended font.

$$ Resolution = 2^{{group} + {\frac{element - 1}{6}}} $$

NBS 1952 target
The NBS 1952 target is a 3 bar pattern (long bars). The spatial frequency is printed alongside each triple bar set, so the limiting resolution may be determined by inspection. This frequency is normally only as marked after the chart has been reduced in size (typically 25 times). The original application called for placing the chart at a distance 26 times the focal length of the imaging lens used. The bars above and to the left are in sequence, separated by approximately the square root of two (12, 17, 24, etc.), while the bars below and to the left have the same separation but a different starting point (14, 20, 28, etc.)

EIA 1956 video resolution target

The EIA 1956 resolution chart was specifically designed to be used with television systems. The gradually expanding lines near the center are marked with periodic indications of the corresponding spatial frequency. The limiting resolution may be determined by inspection. The most important measure is the limiting horizontal resolution, since the vertical resolution is typically determined by the applicable video standard (I/B/G/K/NTSC/NTSC-J).

IEEE Std 208-1995 target
The IEEE 208-1995 resolution target is similar to the EIA target. Resolution is measured in horizontal and vertical TV lines.

ISO 12233 target
The ISO 12233 target was developed for digital camera applications, since modern digital camera spatial resolution may exceed the limitations of the older targets. It includes several knife-edge targets for the purpose of computing MTF by Fourier transform. They are offset from the vertical by 5 degrees so that the edges will be sampled in many different phases, which allow estimation of the spatial frequency response beyond the Nyquist frequency of the sampling.

Random test patterns
The idea is analogous to the use of a white noise pattern in acoustics to determine system frequency response.

Monotonically increasing sinusoid patterns
The interferogram used to measure film resolution can be synthesized on personal computers and used to generate a pattern for measuring optical resolution. See especially Kodak MTF curves.

Multiburst
A multiburst signal is an electronic waveform used to test analog transmission, recording, and display systems. The test pattern consists of several short periods of specific frequencies. The contrast of each may be measured by inspection and recorded, giving a plot of attenuation vs. frequency. The NTSC3.58 multiburst pattern consists of 500 kHz, 1 MHz, 2 MHz, 3 MHz, and 3.58 MHz blocks. 3.58 MHz is important because it is the chrominance frequency for NTSC video.

Discussion
Using a bar target that the resulting measure is the contrast transfer function (CTF) and not the MTF. The difference arises from the subharmonics of the square waves and can be easily computed.

title: Optical resolution


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Crossed module

In mathematics, and especially in homotopy theory, a crossed module consists of groups $$G$$ and $$H$$, where $$G$$ acts on $$H$$ by automorphisms (which we will write on the left, $$(g,h) \mapsto g \cdot h$$, and a homomorphism of groups

 * $$ d\colon H \longrightarrow G, $$

that is equivariant with respect to the conjugation action of $$G$$ on itself:

 * $$ d(g \cdot h) = gd(h)g^{-1} $$

and also satisfies the so-called Peiffer identity:

 * $$ d(h_{1}) \cdot h_{2} = h_{1}h_{2}h_{1}^{-1} $$

Origin
The first mention of the second identity for a crossed module seems to be in footnote 25 on p. 422 of J. H. C. Whitehead's 1941 paper cited below, while the term 'crossed module' is introduced in his 1946 paper cited below. These ideas were well worked up in his 1949 paper 'Combinatorial homotopy II', which also introduced the important idea of a free crossed module. Whitehead's ideas on crossed modules and their applications are developed and explained in the book by Brown, Higgins, Sivera listed below. Some generalisations of the idea of crossed module are explained in the paper of Janelidze.

Examples
Let $$N$$ be a normal subgroup of a group $$G$$. Then, the inclusion
 * $$ d\colon N \longrightarrow G $$

is a crossed module with the conjugation action of $$G$$ on $$N$$.

For any group G, modules over the group ring are crossed G-modules with d = 0.

For any group H, the homomorphism from H to Aut(H) sending any element of H to the corresponding inner automorphism is a crossed module.

Given any central extension of groups
 * $$ 1 \to A \to H \to G \to 1 \! $$

the surjective homomorphism
 * $$ d\colon H \to G \! $$

together with the action of $$G$$ on $$H$$ defines a crossed module. Thus, central extensions can be seen as special crossed modules. Conversely, a crossed module with surjective boundary defines a central extension.

If (X,A,x) is a pointed pair of topological spaces (i.e. $$A$$ is a subspace of $$X$$, and $$x$$ is a point in $$A$$), then the homotopy boundary
 * $$ d\colon \pi_{2}(X,A,x) \rightarrow \pi_{1}(A,x) \! $$

from the second relative homotopy group to the fundamental group, may be given the structure of crossed module. The functor
 * $$ \Pi \colon (\text{pairs of pointed spaces}) \rightarrow (\text{crossed modules}) $$

satisfies a form of the van Kampen theorem, in that it preserves certain colimits.

The result on the crossed module of a pair can also be phrased as: if
 * $$ F \rightarrow E \rightarrow B \! $$

is a pointed fibration of spaces, then the induced map of fundamental groups
 * $$ d\colon \pi_{1}(F) \rightarrow \pi_{1}(E) \! $$

may be given the structure of crossed module. This example is useful in algebraic K-theory. There are higher-dimensional versions of this fact using n-cubes of spaces.

These examples suggest that crossed modules may be thought of as "2-dimensional groups". In fact, this idea can be made precise using category theory. It can be shown that a crossed module is essentially the same as a categorical group or 2-group: that is, a group object in the category of categories, or equivalently a category object in the category of groups. This means that the concept of crossed module is one version of the result of blending the concepts of "group" and "category". This equivalence is important for higher-dimensional versions of groups.

Classifying space
Any crossed module
 * $$ M= (d\colon H \longrightarrow G) \! $$

has a  classifying space BM  with the property that its homotopy groups are Coker d, in dimension 1, Ker d in dimension 2, and 0 in dimensions above 2. It is possible to describe the homotopy classes of maps from a CW-complex to BM. This allows one to prove that (pointed, weak) homotopy 2-types are completely described by crossed modules.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Crossed module


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Syllabus

A syllabus (, AFI: /ˈsɪl.ə.bəs/; : syllabuses or syllabi ) or specification is a document that communicates information about an academic course or class and defines expectations and responsibilities. It is generally an overview or summary of the curriculum. A syllabus may be set out by an examination board or prepared by the tutor or instructor who teaches or controls the course. The word is also used more generally for an abstract or programme of knowledge, and is best known in this sense as referring to two catalogues published by the Catholic Church in 1864 and 1907 condemning certain doctrinal positions.

Etymology
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word syllabus derives from modern Latin syllabus 'list', in turn from a misreading of the Greek σίττυβος sittybos (the leather parchment label that gave the title and contents of a document), which first occurred in a 15th-century print of Cicero's letters to Atticus. Earlier Latin dictionaries such as Lewis and Short contain the word syllabus, relating it to the non-existent Greek word σύλλαβος, which appears to be a mistaken reading of syllaba 'syllable'; the newer Oxford Latin Dictionary does not contain this word. The apparent change from sitty- to sylla- is explained as a hypercorrection by analogy to συλλαμβάνω (syllambano 'bring together, gather').

Chambers Dictionary agrees that it derives from the Greek for a book label, but claims that the original Greek was a feminine noun, sittybā, σίττυβα, borrowed by Latin, the misreading coming from an accusative plural Latin sittybas.

Modern research
In a 2002 study, Parks and Harris suggest "a syllabus can serve students as a model of professional thinking and writing". They also believe effective learning requires a complex interaction of skills, such as time management, prioritization of tasks, technology use, etc., and that a syllabus can promote the development of these skills.

In 2005, Slattery & Carlson describe the syllabus as a "contract between faculty members and their students, designed to answer student's questions about a course, as well as inform them about what will happen should they fail to meet course expectations". They promote using action verbs (identify, analyze, evaluate) as opposed to passive verbs (learn, recognize, understand) when creating course goals. Habanek stresses the importance of the syllabus as a "vehicle for expressing accountability and commitment."

title: Syllabus


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Talk:Military parlance

Needs work
I have tagged this clean up as it needs a lot of work. However it could be a really interesting article - can we have some ex-miliatry input? How does this change in different countries? A curate's egg 12:26, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * I've made a start - but just don't know enough to provide a lot of details A curate's egg 12:53, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Link to external site 'List of British army slang' is misleading. The target page actually lists Royal Marines slang, which is distinctly nautical and very different to Army slang. Suggest link to http://www.arrse.co.uk/wiki/Army_Slang instead.

Military Songs
I'm pretty sure that the correct song title is It's a long way to Tipparary as suggests. I'll edit it as it's a minor one. Damo 02:17, 22 Sep 2005 (UTC)
 * Thanks The curate's egg 08:57, 22 September 2005 (UTC)

Merge proposal

 * Against - not the same thing Brookie :) - a will o' the wisp ! (Whisper...) 10:22, 22 April 2006 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Military parlance


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Kastellet, Copenhagen

Kastellet is a citadel located in Copenhagen, Denmark. It is one of the best preserved fortresses in Northern Europe. It is constructed in the form of a pentagon with bastions at its corners. Kastellet was continuous with the ring of bastioned ramparts which used to encircle Copenhagen but of which only the ramparts of Christianshavn remain today.

A number of buildings are located within the grounds of Kastellet, including the Citadel Church as well as a windmill. The area houses various military activities but it also serves as a public park and a historic site.

St. Anne's Redoubt
King Christian IV of Denmark initiated Kastellet's construction in 1626 with the building of an advanced post, St. Anne's Redoubt (Sankt Annæ Skanse), on the coast north of the city. The redoubt guarded the entrance to the port, together with a blockhouse that was constructed north of Christianshavn, which had just been founded on the other side of the strait between Zealand and Amager. At that time the fortifications only reached as far north as present day Nørreport station, and then returned south east to meet the coast at Bremerholm, the Royal Shipyard. However, part of the king's plan was to expand the area of the fortified city by abandoning the old East Rampart and instead extend the rampart straight north to connect it to St. Anne's Redoubt. This plan was not completed until the mid-1640s, shortly after King Frederick III succeeded King Christian IV.

The new citadel
After the Swedish siege of Copenhagen (1658–1660) the Dutch engineer Henrik Rüse was called in to help rebuild and extend the construction. The fortification was named Citadellet Frederikshavn, but it is better known as Kastellet ("the Citadel").

Kastellet was part of the defence of Copenhagen against the United Kingdom in the Battle of Copenhagen (1807).

Christen Købke (1810–1848), Danish painter associated with the Golden Age of Danish Painting, grew up in Kastellet and made many paintings of the area.

During the German invasion of Denmark on 9 April 1940, German troops landing at the nearby harbor captured The Citadel without resistance.

Kastellet was renovated 1989–1999 with funds from the A.P. Møller and Wife Chastine McKinney Møllers General Fund.

Gates
The Citadel has two gates, King's Gate on the south side, facing the city, and Norway Gate on the north side of the edifice, which both date from 1663 as part of Ruise's original citadel. They are built in the Dutch Baroque style, and are on their interior side flanked by guardhouses. The King's Gate is decorated with garlands and pilasters, and a bust of King Frederik III. The clock and two bells on the interior facade of the gate come from the Central Guard House at Kongens Nytorv and were installed in 1874 when the central guard moved to the Citadel. In front of the gate stand two so-called caponiers from where it was possible to keep assaulting troops under fire. The Norway Gate used to face open countryside outside the city, and has therefore been built to a more simple design. The caponiers of this gate were demolished in the late 19th century.

Bastions
The five bastions are named as follows: The King's Bastion (Kongens Bastion), The Queen's Bastion (Dronningens Bastion), The Count's Bastion (Grevens Bastion), the Princess's Bastion (Prinsessens Bastion) and the Prince's Bastion (Prinsens Bastion).

Moat and the Blacksmith's Line Outworks
The Blacksmith's Line (Smedelinien) is a system of outworks, separating the inner and the outer moat, located to the south and southwest towards the city. It consisted of four ravelins and three counter guard interconnected by long, low earthworks. On Fyn's Ravelin, one of the eponymous forges has been preserved and is now used by the park authorities. Another forge was built on Falster's Counter Guard in 1709. Rebuilt in 1888, it now serves as residence of military employees. When the Free Port of Copenhagen was constructed, the northern portion of the Blacksmith's Line was dug away, but the remaining part was put at the disposal of the City of Copenhagen in 1918 and now serves as parkland.

Commander's House
The Commander's House (Kommandantboligen) served as the residence of the commander of Kastellet. It was built in 1725 in the Baroque style by architect and master builder Elias Häuser who also designed the first Christiansborg Palace which burned in 1794. Built in yellow-dressed masonry with white detailing, it consists of two floors under a red tile roof. The triangular pediment is decorated with a relief and Christian VII's monogram under topped by a crown. It served as the official residence of the Chief of Defence until 2008.

The Rows
The Rows (Danish: Stokkene) are six two-storey terraces which were originally built by Henrik Ruise as barracks for the soldiers based at the Citadel. The dorms measured four by four metres and contained two triple beds, a small table and two benches. Over time they became known under individual names: General Stock where the commanders resided until the Commander's House was built, Artillery Stock for the artillerists, and Star Stock, Elephant Stock, Swan Stock and Fortuna Stock. The Mansard roofs are not part of the original design but date from 1768 when the rows were altered. The original roof profile is today only seen at the end of Artillery Row as seen from the Prince's Bastion.

Southern and Northern Storehouse
The two storehouses also date from the foundation of the Citadel. They were to store everything need in the event of a siege, and could when full feed the 1,800 men of the garrison, other personnel, and their families for four years. The Southern Storehouse (Danish: Søndre Magasin) served as an arsenal while the Northern Storehouse (Danish: Nordre Magasin) contained a granary.

Powder house
The Powder House at the Queen's Bastion, which was used for the storage of black powder, is the only surviving of originally two identical powder houses which were built by Domenico Pelli in 1712. The other one was located at the Count's Bastion. It was designed with massive walls and a slightly vaulted ceiling to ensure that a possible explosion would move upward and thereby cause a minimum of damages to the surroundings. When in 1779 a powder house at the East Rampart exploded, causing damages in the Nyboder area and all the way to Bredgade, it was decided that it was too dangerous to store explosives at the Ramparts, and the powder houses at the Citadel instead came into use as a jailhouse.

Church

The Kastelskirken ("Citadel Church") was built in 1703–4 in heavy Baroque style during the reign of King Frederik IV. It includes sound holes to the prison to enable prisoners to follow services.

Prison
A prison complex was built on the rear side of the church in 1725. Eye holes in the wall between the church and the prison cells made it possible for the prisoners to follow the church services.

Struensee awaited his execution in Kastellet's prison. The English explorer and pirate John Norcross was the person to be imprisoned at Kastellet for the most extensive period. He spent 32 years in the prison at Kastellet, 16 of the years in a wooden cage.

Windmill
On the King's Bastion, in the southwestern corner of Kastellet, stands a windmill. Built in 1847, it replaced another mill from 1718 which was destroyed by a storm the year before. The original mill was a post mill while the current mill is of the Dutch type.

Since a fortified city needed secure supplies, including supplies of flour and rolled groats, in the event of siege, numerous windmills were constructed on the bastions. In 1800, a total of 16 windmills were found on the ramparts of Copenhagen. The mill at Kastellet is the last which is still working, while another one, Lille Mølle at the Christianshavn Rampart, was transformed into a private home in 1915 and now survives as a historic house museum.

Russian Empress Consort Maria Feodorovna, daughter of Christian IX of Denmark, got her rye flour from the mill at Kastellet. The Army's Bread Factory would send it to the Imperial Court in Saint Petersburg where she was served øllebrød every morning in the Anichkov Palace.

Central Guard House
Located just inside the King's Gate, the Central Guard House was built from 1873 to 1874 with an attached jailhouse. The architect is unknown. It replaced the Central Guard house at Kongens Nytorv where the Central Guard had been stationed since 1724.

Military use
The Citadel is still an active military area that belongs to the Ministry of Defence. Military activity in the area includes use by the Home Guard, Defence Intelligence Service, the Judge Advocate Corps, and the Royal Garrison Library.

Visitation and museums
In spite of the continuous military presence in the area, the Citadel is today a peaceful, protected area, serving as a public park as well as a cultural-historical monument. It is located close to Langelinie, The Little Mermaid, the Gefion Fountain. It is a popular place to go for a walk on a sunny day, and is very popular with children on account of the many animals and birds in the grounds, including Black-headed gull, Pomeranian duck, European herring gull, Grey heron and Mute swan. The site includes two small museums with limited opening hours. The Garrison's Historical Collections are on display in one of the guard buildings inside the North Gate. The other is the Livjæger Museum.

Special events and concerts
There is a changing of the guard ceremony at the Central Guard House every day at 12.00. Military concerts take place at the drill grounds on summer afternoons at 14.00. The Citadel Church frequently arranges concerts as well.

The Citadel's birthday on 28 October is marked with an annual concert and the wings of the windmill. It is a tradition to promenade on the ramparts on Store Bededag, a Danish holiday, which is also celebrated with music.

title: Kastellet, Copenhagen


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Gerald Holtom

Gerald Herbert Holtom (20 January 1914 – 18 September 1985   ) was an English artist and designer. A graduate of the Royal College of Art in London, in 1958 he designed the Nuclear Disarmament (ND) logo, which was adopted the same year by the British Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND), and later became an international peace symbol.

ND symbol
Educated at Gresham's School in Holt, Norfolk, Holtom was a graduate of the Royal College of Art in London. He had been a conscientious objector during World War II. In 1958, he was working for the Ministry of Education.

On 21 February 1958 he designed the nuclear disarmament logo for the first Aldermaston March, organised by the Direct Action Committee against Nuclear War (DAC) in Easter 1958 (4–7 April).

There are differing accounts of how the design was conceived. According to CND, Holtom had been invited by the DAC to design artwork for the Aldermaston March. He showed his preliminary sketches to a DAC meeting in February 1958 at the Peace News offices in North London. According to Christopher Driver, who wrote about CND in a 1964 book, The Disarmers, Holtom brought the design, unsolicited, to the chairperson of his local anti-nuclear group in Twickenham and alternative versions were shown at the inaugural meeting of the London CND. Driver wrote, "The first mark on paper, according to Mr. Holtom, was a white circle within a black square, followed by various versions of the Christian cross within the circle". But the cross, for these people, had too many wrong associations – with the Crusaders, with military medals, with the public blessing by an American chaplain of the airplane that flew to Hiroshima – and eventually the arms of the cross were depicted as declining, forming the composite semaphore signal for the letters N and D (the letters "N" (two arms outstretched pointing down at 45 degrees) and "D" (one arm upraised above the head) of the flag semaphore alphabet representing the words nuclear disarmament), and at the same time suggesting a gesture of human despair against the background of a globe. Eric Austen, who adapted the symbol for ceramic lapel badges, is said to have "discovered that the 'gesture of despair' motif had long been associated with 'the death of man', and the circle with 'the unborn child'". Holtom also rejected the image of the dove, as it had been appropriated by the Soviet peace propaganda.

Trademark registration of the logo was never carried out, and since the 1960s the logo has become known to, and used by, the public as a general-purpose peace symbol.

In addition to this primary genesis, Holtom additionally cited as inspiration Goya's Peasant Before the Firing Squad: I was in despair. Deep despair. I drew myself: the representative of an individual in despair, with hands palm outstretched outwards and downwards in the manner of Goya's peasant before the firing squad. I formalised the drawing into a line and put a circle round it. The reference is to Goya's The Third of May 1808 (1814), although the peasant shown in this painting has his arms stretched upwards, not downwards.

Personal life
Holtom had six children, including four with his first wife: Peter, Julia, Anna (now Anna Scott, an artist) and Benjamin; and two with his second wife: Darius and Rebecca (also an artist).

title: Gerald Holtom


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Hiroyuki Hayashi (musician)

Hiroyuki Hayashi (ハヤシヒロユキ) is the founder, guitarist, and lead singer of the Japanese new wave rock group, Polysics. He occasionally works as a remix artist under the alias POLY-1. He is known for having very energetic live performances.

title: Hiroyuki Hayashi (musician)


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Kristi Myst

Krysti Myst (born December 25, 1973) is an American former pornographic actress and former professional wrestler.

Porn career
Myst was working as a dental assistant in Los Angeles when she decided to get into the adult entertainment industry. She did a cover shoot for Hustler magazine and layouts for High Society and New Rave before making the jump into adult films in 1995.

Myst's best known films include the Buffy the Vampire Layer series of horror parodies. Buffy Down Under (1996), from that series, produced by David Haines, was the highest selling Australian produced adult film of all time.

She won the 2001 AVN Award for Best Anal Sex Scene – Video for a gang bang scene with urophagia in the film In The Days of Whore (Extreme Associates). Myst had broken down on the set and wanted to walk off the film and quit the business rather than complete her scene.

Pro wrestling career
She made a move into professional wrestling by joining Xtreme Pro Wrestling in 1999 and feuded with Lizzy Borden. She was present for an incident which took place at Extreme Championship Wrestling's HeatWave 2000 PPV. Several XPW wrestlers attended the ECW event and an altercation ensued between XPW and ECW performers. Much of ECW's locker room ran to ringside to escort their XPW counterparts out of the building.

Myst went on to become part of the Wrestling Vixxxens website with Tammy Lynn Sytch and Missy Hyatt in 2001.

Retirement
In January 2001, she left the industry to raise a child. In a 2005 interview, she described herself as a "full time mom," and a fan of X-Men comic books.

title: Kristi Myst


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Roger Merrett

Roger Merrett (born 19 April 1960) is a former Australian rules footballer who played in two Victorian Football League premiership sides with the Essendon Football Club in the mid-1980s before moving to the fledgling Brisbane Bears, later captaining the new club for seven seasons. He ended his career as the games record holder for the Brisbane Bears, in addition to being the last VFL/AFL player from the 1970s to retire from professional football.

Essendon
Merrett was a strong competitor for the Essendon Football Club during the first part of his playing career from 1978 to 1987. For Essendon, he played 149 games and kicked a total of 148 goals. Merrett was also a member of Essendon's premiership teams in 1984 and 1985.

Brisbane Bears
He moved to the Brisbane Bears in 1988 as captain. Merrett became a strong and inspirational captain of the Bears, at first alternating in the ruck with Mark Mickan. After John Hutton's inconsistent form at full-forward reached an end, Merrett's tired legs were moved permanently to the position where he was able to use his height and kicking abilities to spearhead the club as their leading goalkicker for many seasons before Alastair Lynch proved a suitable replacement. Merrett retired from his playing career at the end of the 1996 season.

Merrett played a total of 164 games and kicked a total of 285 goals for Brisbane Bears from 1988 until 1996.

He played on for many years, earning the nickname Roger the Dodger (with reference to his age) before his eventual retirement.

Brisbane Lions
Merrett held coaching ambitions for much of his career, and after his retirement from his playing career at the end of the 1996 season, he was immediately recruited by his senior coach John Northey to fill an assistant coaching role at the Brisbane Lions (formed on 1 November 1996 from a merger between the Brisbane Bears and the Fitzroy Football Club). However, relations between the two men were cool, and half-way through the 1998 season, with the Lions at the bottom of the ladder, Northey was sacked as senior coach and Merrett was appointed caretaker senior coach of Brisbane Lions for the rest of the 1998 season. Merrett then led Brisbane Lions to three wins, one draw and seven losses of the remaining eleven games in the 1998 season to still finish in last place on the ladder, which was the sixteenth position for the wooden spoon. At the end of the 1998 season, Merrett was however not retained as Brisbane Lions senior coach and was replaced by Australian football legend Leigh Matthews. Merrett has not been closely involved in football since, outside of occasional club functions at Brisbane and Essendon.

Life after football
Merrett now lives on the Gold Coast, Queensland, where he operates a post office. He also provides special comments for ABC Radio broadcasts of Brisbane Lions home matches.

The Brisbane Lions' award for their best-and-fairest player over a season, the Merrett–Murray Medal, is partly named after him.

For 2009 AFLQ season, Merrett was part-time assistant coach for AFLQ power house, Southport Sharks.

On 18 January 2011, Merrett suffered a stroke, thought to be related to a hereditary heart condition.

In 2016, he joined the Bond University Bullsharks in a volunteer capacity and to assist his son Ben who took on the reserves coaching job.

title: Roger Merrett


text: Category:Roman Catholic missionary work

title: Category:Roman Catholic missionary work


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User talk:Passionismyname

Sometimes Sometimes when i do things i people get mad at me especially when i horesplay with other people.But i don`t get why they get mad at me for trying to have fun with other people.It`s like they don`t want me to talk to anyone.But sometimes people say thier my sister and friend,but,most of the thier mean to me and they say thier mad at me for no reason except when i do things to them.But most of the time they say i do things to them.And they say that i treat them like shit.How do i treat them like shit?What do i even do to them?except get mad at them when they piss me off.Thghat`s not even a big deal is it?+ their the ones being:mean rude ignorant and vindictive towards me.I  already told 1 of them how i feel and i treat them.i only 2,3,4,5,6,7 friends that even like me and treat me good.And know how i feel.then i have a lot of adults i love.ms.huff ms.mullons ms.pearson mr.carter and some other people but i don`t remeber their names.

my friends
Sometimes my friends treat me like shit then sometimes they don`t.My so called friends say their my friends and say their my sister.then the next minute you know i`m this that bitch this bitch that.Because either i then wrote something about them and they didn`t like it.but oh wel that`s how felt actully and they can`t stop how i feel.i do a lot of things for them.but then they want to say i do this and that for you,but,guess what that`s old.because now you don`t do shit for me.Then you do more stuff for me then my mother.well guess another,that`s because were both in the same place.i and i actully give yal stuff when my mom doesn`t even want me 2.so what the hell are you talking about?my mother does everything she can do for me.at least she comes 2 see more then you`re mother does.so hahaha.

friends and god when some people lost thier friends they want to start trouble with othert people so that they won`t like that person.and they come back to other person that they left.but they did want friends right?they did have friends but then they lost them for a sertin reason.maybe because no one wanted to be friends with that person.because ofwhat they said or did an/or they got shit started and spreded a rumor.or diffrent things.but so what if you don`t got friends maybe god didn`t plan you to have friends he is your friend so don`t even worry about having friends with one sometimes you may have done something not to have a friend.but,remeber you still got god.or if you parents do not cre or love you god love you.and i do 2.you can still.be cool with god jesus or any one that cares and loves you.god does because your his child.

title: User talk:Passionismyname


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Recitation

A recitation in a general sense is the act of reciting from memory, or a formal reading of verse or other writing before an audience.

Public recitation is the act of reciting a work of writing before an audience.

Academic recitation

In academia, recitation is a presentation made by a student to demonstrate knowledge of a subject or to provide instruction to others. In some academic institutions the term is used for a presentation by a teaching assistant or instructor, under the guidance of a senior faculty member, that supplements course materials. In recitations that supplement lectures, the leader will often review the lecture, expand on the concepts, and carry on a discussion with the students.

In its most basic form, a student would recite verbatim poems or essays of others, either to the teacher or tutor directly, or in front of a class or body of assembled students.

In classes involving mathematics and engineering, a recitation is often used as the vehicle to perform derivations or solve problems similar to those assigned to the students.

Scientific classes, such as biology, chemistry, and physics, often employ the use of recitation sections to help students clarify subject matter that was either not fully understood or inadequately addressed in the limited time of lecture. These recitation sections may be conducted by the professor or a student teaching assistant. These sections provide students with an opportunity to receive additional instruction on confusing subject matter or receive personal assistance with problems or questions assigned as homework in the lecture section. Some universities may require attendance at regularly scheduled recitation sections in addition to any required labs. Recitations may also provide students with additional opportunities for receiving grades for the lecture portion of the course. Despite mandatory attendance and additional time spent in the classroom, these sections usually do not count towards university credits required for graduation, but may significantly increase a student's ability to understand important concepts required to pass the course.

Religious recitation
Recitations of holy scriptures and prayers are common in the liturgies of Abrahamic religions.

Islam
Quran literally means "recitation". The 1924 Cairo Quran, the Quran that is in "general use" throughout almost all the Muslim world today, is based on the "Ḥafṣ" version ("qira'at") based on ʻAsim's recitation, the 8th-century recitation of Kufa. ۞ It uses a system of additional symbols and an elaborate system of modified vowel-signs and for minute details, not identical to any older system.

Recitation as a performing art
Recitation is practiced as a performing art especially in Bangladesh and India. Nowadays it is a popular art form in Bengal. The reciters recite Bengali poems on stage and electronic media. Shambhu Mitra, Kazi Sabyasachi, Pradeep Ghosh, Partha Ghosh, Gouri Ghosh, Utpal Kundu are great reciters from West Bengal. Reciters like Samiran Sanyal, Bratati Bandyopadhyay, Bijoylakshmi Burman, Pinaki Chattopadhyay, Sutapa Bandyopadhyay, Urmimala Basu, Samya Karpha to name a few, are contributing significantly in this field. There are many such organizations of recitation, with most located in Bangladesh.

It was often popular for a poet to recite his or her newly created poetry to an audience. In the early twentieth century, recitation developed into an autonomous art form.

Recitationes were a common way for Roman poets to test and publicize their works.

title: Recitation


text:
Kylie Ireland

Kylie Ireland (born May 26, 1970) is an American pornographic actress, film director, producer, publicist, and satellite radio show host. She is an inductee into the AVN, XRCO, and NightMoves Halls of Fame.

Early life and education
Ireland was born on May 26, 1970, in Longmont, Colorado, a small community outside Denver. She grew up a good student until her parents divorced when she was 13. At 15, she became rebellious and started taking recreational drugs, until her father sent her to live with her mother, who had remarried, in San Diego, California. In San Diego, Ireland returned to getting good grades, graduated high school, and started college, majoring in broadcast journalism. While going to high school and college, Ireland worked part-time ordering videos for a chain of video stores, which she credits for learning a lot about pornographic films.

Career
Ireland returned to Colorado to continue college partially in Boulder, Colorado, partially in Fort Collins, Colorado, and began to dance in a Fort Collins strip club. One of her first female lovers was a waitress at the same club who would become the pornographic actress Juli Ashton.

She entered the pornographic film industry in 1994, through an acquaintance with glamour photographer Warren Tang. Her first films were L'il Ms. Behaved, where she performed with Randy West, and Up & Cummers 10, with Jenna Jameson; she started at the same time as Jameson. Ireland moved to Los Angeles after her first five films, and performed in a total of 80 films her first year, before returning to Colorado intending to slow down her film work.

From 1995 to 2000, Ireland performed in exclusive contracts, starring in a few films per year, while traveling across America and Europe, strip tease dancing and promoting her films. Her first contract, with Sin City Entertainment, was brief, and ended in a breach of contract small claims court lawsuit which went before Judge Judy on television; Ireland won. That was followed by a five-year contract with VCA Pictures. Ireland served as VCA's Director of Publicity from 1999 to 2000, before returning to performing freelance. Demonstrating that no hard feelings remained about the lawsuit, she had a one-month stint as Director of Publicity for Sin City in April 2003. In 1996, during her time at VCA, Ireland returned to her natural red hair.

Recognition
In January 1995 Ireland was awarded AVN Best New Starlet by Adult Video News Magazine. This would be the first of many adult film awards. Fans of X-Rated Entertainment awarded her the 'Vixen' award in 1995 and the 'Fan Favorite' in 1996. She was named by Playboy Magazine as one of their Top 10 Porn Stars for 1997. In 2001, AVN listed her among the Top 50 Porn Stars of All Time and in 2005 inducted her into the AVN Hall of Fame.

Directing
When her contract with VCA expired, Ireland directed her first movie, The Whore Next Door. Ireland continued to direct, first for Jewel De'Nyle at Platinum X Pictures, then other companies. In April 2006, she founded her own adult film company, SlutWerkz, which features women directors and Cross as head of production, producing, and starring in hardcore gonzo pornography. SlutWerkz launch was delayed from its planned fall 2007 to sometime in 2008 after replacing the original intended distributors. The company originally planned to release one film per month.

Internet
Ireland started her personal website in 1996, becoming one of the first pornographic actresses on the Web; she describes it as "my obsession." On her website, she would perform live sex shows that would receive 10,000 hits a day at $5 a hit during the late 1990s. She does Web consulting and public relations for other adult actresses.

Other ventures
From October 2003 to February 2006, Ireland hosted a weekly Internet radio show, Kylie Live on ksexradio.com, about the pornography industry. She won the KSEX Radio Listener's Choice Award for "Best Radio Voice" in 2004, and the "Best Insight into the Adult Business" award for 2005. In February 2006, Ireland became the host of sex talk show Private Calls, on Friday evenings for Playboy Radio on Sirius Radio.

In November 2010, Ireland launched a new weekend show on Spice radio called The Jerkbox. The show took over where The Friday Night Threeway left off. It features guest interviews, segments revolving around the world of sex and porn-related topics.

Around January 2011, Ireland started a website called Bombed Out LA along with her husband, which uses her love of photography to capture and publish street art in Los Angeles.

In March 2011, it was discovered after a television interview that Ireland was also street artist DeeKay.

In January 2013, after leaving Spice radio, Ireland joined the Toadhopnetwork and began The Wednesday Night Threeway, a weekly podcast with Raylene and Derrick Pierce.

In April 2013, Ireland launched her own weekly podcast channel along with her husband Andy Appleton called Apples & Pairs on SoundCloud.com.

Personal life
Ireland got divorced after a ten-year marriage to a man outside of porn. They had been married three years prior to the start of her career in pornography, and she stated that the divorce was not due to her career.

Ireland says that she "dabbled" in recreational drugs, even before entering the adult industry; she tried most drugs, and used crystal meth for a time to stay thin, but her main drug of choice was alcohol. In 2001, she realized her drinking was becoming a problem.

As of 2007, Ireland lived in a renovated 1927 10000 sqft warehouse loft in downtown Los Angeles with pornographic director Eli Cross, her boyfriend of six years.

In 2010, Ireland and Eli split up and she later married English retired nightclub manager Andy Appleton. Following a whirlwind romance, she now lives just outside Los Angeles.

Awards

 * 1995 AVN Award – Best New Starlet
 * 1995 F.O.X.E. Award – Vixen
 * 1995 NightMoves Award – Best Actress
 * 1996 F.O.X.E. Award – Fan Favorite
 * 2005 AVN Hall of Fame
 * 2006 XRCO Hall of Fame
 * 2007 NightMoves Triple Play Award (Dancing/Performing/Directing)
 * 2008 XRCO Award – MILF of the Year
 * 2008 AVN Award – Best Supporting Actress – Film – Layout
 * 2008 AVN Award – Best Oral Scene – Film – Layout
 * 2009 NightMoves Hall of Fame

title: Kylie Ireland


text:
Talk:Muzzle velocity

"Terminal Velocity"
¿What is the generally accepted terminal velocity for an average human without protective equipment? (IE how great at minimum does an object have to go to kill a person.) Assume a .22 cal (I know the bigger the projectile the slower it can go). 71.34.68.150 (talk) 20:06, 26 July 2009 (UTC) A REDDSON

 * A discussion of velocity alone with regard to lethality is meaningless. People have been killed by thrown objects, such as rocks and baseballs.  The highest velocity of an object thrown by a human is about 105 miles per hour (154 Feet per second).  This is meaningless unless you know another factor of ballistic discussion, which is muzzle energy.Digitallymade (talk) 09:03, 1 July 2016 (UTC)

Air Resistance
"The velocity of a projectile is highest at the muzzle and drops off steadily due to air resistance."

Question: Given that air resistance decreases as velocity decreases, is it correct to say that projectile velocity drops off steadily? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 189.152.146.9 (talk) 02:46, 13 February 2009 (UTC)
 * No. This is not accurate.  In a vacuum there would be no reduction of muzzle velocity of a projectile.  In gas, the faster a projectile is traveling initially, the faster it will be slowed.  This is also true in liquid.  Liquid resistance rises with the speed of impact.

The bullet retrieval tanks used by Police Laboratories to retrieve fired bullets are no longer than about 15 feet. Because of the increased density of water compared to air even the fastest and most powerful cartridges bullets are halted without damage in this short distance. Digitallymade (talk) 09:14, 1 July 2016 (UTC)

Powder vs. Velocity
I have got a question. Asume that youhave a barrel that can stand a great pressure. Does twice amount of gun powder give a twice of muzzle velocity.

---

No, because the velocity in meters per second is equal to the square root of 2 times the joules of force divided by the mass of the object in kilograms or more specifically, v = (2E/m)^(1/2) where v is the velocity in meters per second, E is the force in joules and m is the mass in kilograms. Shining Arcanine 04:44, 26 January 2007 (UTC)
 * ¿What's that mean in feet per second and mass in lbs/oz?71.34.68.150 (talk) 20:03, 26 July 2009 (UTC)A REDDSON
 * There is a rule of thumb that you get 1/4th the powder increase as velocity. IE 100% more powder, 25% more velocity. This is simply a handy estimate, and not a law of physics. Arthurrh 00:57, 31 July 2007 (UTC)

Speed limit of chemical propellants
Could anyone explain why there is such a limit lying around ~2km/s with chemical propellants? As I know for now, if we would have a barrel to withstand a huge pressure, we could launch projectiles, example, with TNT, up to 6-7km/s. So, what's the secret of the limit? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Allgermeine (talk • contribs) 15:13, 3 March 2008 (UTC)

 * I think the definition of propellent versus explosive depends on speed. So, 2 km/s *may* be the limit of propellents until you get to explosives (and those have different properties/behaviors).  --UnneededAplomb (talk) 05:38, 30 April 2008 (UTC)

Bad Authoring
"... projectile mass and barrel length must be found if both safety and optimal performance is to be found."

Who writes these things? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.218.218.24 (talk) 05:31, 15 July 2008 (UTC)

 * Unpaid volunteers. Often the first version is rough. Wikipedia depends on people such as yourself to correct the bad writing. Don't just insert comments! Change it! Nick Beeson (talk) 02:37, 18 July 2008 (UTC)

Measurement
There is not a single word about how muzzle velocity is measured. 82.130.29.52 (talk) 10:50, 2 August 2008 (UTC)

List of influencing factors
Well, I put the tag there... PwnerELITE (talk) 06:47, 19 August 2008 (UTC)

.30-06 Springfield
Hi,

some time ago, I saw someone wonder on youtube why the game Call of Duty: World at War would portray the M1919 dismembering and a M1 Garand not. If this game portrays correctly: at the time, I thought it might have to with the velocity, now when I check both articles it is says that both weapons have equal barrel length, effective range and muzzle velocity. So, perhaps someone can answer these questions Mallerd (talk) 20:19, 1 December 2009 (UTC)

 * IMHO that may be because of the rapid succession of shots delivered by the M1919 Machine Gun. Mr. Browning himself is reportedly known to show it's ability to chop down trees with his invention to boost sales. If it can chop down a tree it may also be able to dismember. Pepysshack (talk) 16:14, 19 April 2023 (UTC)

External links modified (January 2018)
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Unsourced myths?
Currently the article contains "Longer barrels provide more opportunity to rotate the bullet before it leaves the gun." etc. So far as I am aware unless the rifling has gain-twist/progressive the maximum rotation speed/stabilization is attained almost immediately after engaging with the rifling and a barrel of any length could simply have the last ~projectile length of the barrel rifled with no loss in stabilization; the main reasons for full length rifling being ease of manufacture, more to wear and better obturation from the leade. I didn't notice a source for the article's claim but I also cannot find any proper sources regarding a minimum rifling length affecting accuracy so I'm leaving this here in the hopes someone more engaged with Wikipedia can edit things. 70.24.54.171 (talk) 03:10, 1 August 2021 (UTC)

Made comparisons between muzzle velocities and escape velocities are bad
> Some high-velocity small arms have muzzle velocities higher than the escape velocities of some Solar System bodies such as Pluto and Ceres [..]

> While traditional cartridges cannot generally achieve a Lunar escape velocity [..]

This information is fluff. The average reader might find the trivia amusing, but it doesn't help as a comparison to make it better to understand. Who can relate to whether shooting with small arms in the sky makes bullets not come back on a given astronomical body? Vektorweg (talk) 00:28, 20 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Muzzle velocity


text:
Academic institution

An academic institution is an educational institution dedicated to education and research, which grants academic degrees. See also academy and university.

Types

 * Primary schools – (from French école primaire ) institutions where children receive the first stage of compulsory education known as primary or elementary education. Primary school is the preferred term in the United Kingdom and many Commonwealth Nations, and in most publications of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). In some countries, and especially in North America, the term elementary school is preferred. Children generally attend primary school from around the age of four or five until the age of eleven or twelve.
 * Secondary schools – institutions where the final stage of compulsory schooling, known as secondary education, takes place. It follows on from primary or elementary education. There are many different types of secondary school and the terminology used varies around the world. Children usually transfer to secondary school between the ages of 11 and 14, and finish between the ages of 16 and 18, though there is considerable variation from country to country. In North America the term high school is often used as a synonym for secondary school.
 * Advanced educational institutions, also known as tertiary schools or schools of higher education – Tertiary education, also referred to as third stage, third level, and post-secondary education, is the educational level following the completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school, secondary school, or gymnasium. Higher education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, while vocational education and training beyond secondary education is known as further education.

These types of institutions can be further broken down by the type of education they offer and the form of funding they use.

Funding types

 * Private schools – Private schools, or independent schools, are schools not administered by local, state, or national government, which retain the right to select their student body and are funded in whole or in part by charging their students tuition rather than with public (state) funds. In the United Kingdom and some other Commonwealth countries the use of the term is generally restricted to primary and secondary educational levels: it is almost never used of universities or other tertiary institutions.
 * Parochial schools – A parochial school (also known as a faith school or a sect school) is a type of school which engages in religious education in addition to conventional education. Parochial schools are typically grammar schools or high schools run by churches, diocese or parishes. Tertiary education that may not require study in a particular religious doctrine may also be in the tradition or directly supported by a religious organization, and may or may not receive primary funding from that or any other religious organization, are not usually referred to as "parochial".
 * Public schools – In some countries, a public school is financed and operated by an agency of government which does not charge tuition fees; instead, financing is obtained through taxes or other government-collected revenues. This is in contrast to a private school (also known as an independent school). Here, the word "public" is used in the same sense as in "public library", that is, provided for the public at public expense. These public schools range in classes from kindergarten to four years of high school or secondary school, normally taking pupils up to the age of seventeen or eighteen.

Education provided

 * College – This term, from (Latin collegium) is most often used today to denote an educational institution. More broadly, it can be the name of any group of colleagues (see, for example electoral college, College of Arms, College of Cardinals). Originally, it meant a group of persons living together under a common set of rules (con- = "together" + leg- = "law" or lego = "I choose"); indeed, some colleges call their members "fellows". The precise usage of the term varies among English-speaking countries.
 * University – A university is an institution of higher education and research, which grants academic degrees at all levels (bachelor, master, and doctorate) in a variety of subjects. A university provides both undergraduate education and postgraduate education. The word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, roughly meaning "community of teachers and scholars".
 * Technical schools – Technical school is a general term used for two-year college which provide mostly employment-preparation skills for trained labor, such as welding, culinary arts and office management.
 * Vocational/trade schools – A vocational school, providing vocational education and also as referred to as a trade school or career college, and school is operated for the express purpose of giving its students the skills needed to perform a certain job or jobs. Traditionally, vocational schools have not existed to further education in the sense of liberal arts, but rather to teach only job-specific skills, and as such have been better considered to be institutions devoted to training, not education.

Professional schools

 * Medical school – A medical school or faculty of medicine is a tertiary educational institution or part of such an institution that teaches medicine. In addition to fulfilling a major requirement to become a medical doctor, some medical schools offer master's degree programs, PhD (Doctor of Philosophy) programs, and other educational programs. Medical schools can also employ medical researchers, and operate hospitals or other programs.
 * Law school – Law schools provide a legal education. Legal education is the education of individuals who intend to become legal professionals or those who simply intend to use their law degree to some end, either related to law (such as politics or academic) or business.
 * Dental school
 * Veterinary school – A veterinary school is a tertiary educational institution, or part of such an institution, which is involved in the education of future veterinary practitioners (veterinarians).  The entry criteria, structure, teaching methodology and nature of veterinary programs offered at veterinary schools vary considerably around the world.
 * Pharmacy school – The requirements of pharmacy education, pharmacist licensure and post-graduate continuing education vary from country to country and between regions/localities within countries. In most countries, prospective pharmacists study pharmacy at a pharmacy school or related institution. Upon graduation, they are licensed either nationally or by region to dispense medication of various types in the settings for which they have been trained.

title: Academic institution


text:
Michael Winstanley, Baron Winstanley

Michael Platt Winstanley, Baron Winstanley (27 August 1918 – 18 July 1993) was the Liberal Member of Parliament (MP) for Cheadle from 1966 to 1970 and, after boundary changes, for Hazel Grove, a newly created seat comprising half his former seat, from February to October 1974.

Early life
Winstanley was born in Nantwich, Cheshire, to Sydney Adams Winstanley (1878–1953), GP. He was educated at Manchester Grammar School and the University of Manchester where he was President of the University Union and captain of cricket. He graduated in medicine and served in the RAMC before becoming a general practitioner in Urmston.

Television career
Winstanley became a media personality as a television and radio doctor in the 1960s. Between 1972 and 1986, he presented Granada Television's This Is Your Right, an early-evening, five-minute consumer advice and legal rights bulletin which ultimately credited him as Lord Michael Winstanley.

Politics
Following his return to the House of Commons in 1974, Winstanley discovered that he held a post which would disqualify him from being a member of the House of Commons, medical officer at a Royal Ordnance Factory that amounted to employment in the Civil Service of the Crown. On 3 April 1974, the Commons passed a motion under section 6 of the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1957 to override the disqualification and allow Winstanley to sit.

Honours
Winstanley was created a life peer on 23 January 1976 with the title Baron Winstanley, of Urmston in Greater Manchester. He was chairman of the Countryside Commission from 1978 to 1980.

Personal life
Winstanley's daughter, Diana, became a highly respected academic and teacher at Kingston University, where bursaries are offered in her memory. His niece is journalist and newsreader Anna Ford.

title: Michael Winstanley, Baron Winstanley


text:
Talk:Beer in Australia

Beer Glass sizes
I notice the table of Beer Glass Sizes is ...[ misinforamtion removed by original contributor, see below ...mea culpa !] --Textbot 07:06, 11 July 2006 (UTC)
 * What are your suggested changes? I can help you change the table

Update : geeze, lucky I didn't change the table : on reflection, is see it refers to the PRESENT, as distinct from the Historical PAST to which I referred ....--Textbot 07:06, 11 July 2006 (UTC) Stouts : I'd love to be able to link the contrib I made on "Stouts" to the main/international Stouts page ( ie internal link) ..anyone who can, please feel free to help me --Textbot 07:06, 11 July 2006 (UTC) Does anybody know of the first brewery established in Australia? seems to claim James Squire established the first brewery (this was written by the guy who runs the Malt Shovel Brewery, and may be somewhat biased), but does anyone know for sure?

I am reasonably certain that the Cascade Brewery is oldest brewery that is still operating.

-3mta3 12:40, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)

The name Squire is older, but it was a defunct business for a long time before Lion Nathan resurrected it, as to claim the title. Cascade has been continuously operating and deserves the title through genuine age rather than marketing [albeit Squire's genuine quality]

-Ml_grug I beleive also that Squire is an older name but has only recently been used on Beer again. Cascade has operated since it started.

-vagon As part of the guide I feel that something like Lord Nelson's in the rocks should be noted seeing as it is (well claims to be) both the oldest hotel in Sydney and a brewery. The fortune of war claims to be the oldest pub but I'm fairly sure they don't brew.

I remember going to SA and ordering a Pint and thinking how cheap it was till I realised it was really a Schooner. :) -Mike "TinTin"

Airgead 03:39, 9 June 2006 (UTC) Do we need the advert from Chopper heavy in the main section? Also, do they use schooners in VIC? I always thought the prefered size there was the pint and ordering a schooner would mark you out for ridicule as a new South Welshman.-Leigh

Four years ago, staying at Waurn Ponds, Geelong, VIC for uni. purposes (Deakin) I inadvertently ordered a schooner at the Waurn Ponds Pub and was given a quick education! Last Year at the same place I was surprised to see schooners being served. I ordered one, commented on the changing 'culture' and was informed that they do pints as well now, so I drank pints from then on! An English themed pub has opened in Geelong (the Bended Elbow) and pints are the default there. --MichaelGG 03:43, 4 June 2007 (UTC)

Some places in Vic have been serving schooners, not many. It may have something to do with the Melbourne Beer War

As a young Victorian who has only been drinking since circa 2010, I've seen glasses, pots, schooners, pints and jugs but nothing else (other than ponies at microbreweries). Few people order glasses, pots are often standard and some places only go as high as a schooner rather than a pint. I'm not sure why it says schooners aren't common. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 27.32.138.67 (talk) 05:46, 15 December 2016 (UTC)

New beer glass template
I've replaced the old table with Template:Aust Beer Glass. The new table is a combination of the old one & a similar one that had resided on Australian words/Australian English vocabulary/Australian English terms for food and drink. The new table is a little different to the old one but there are reasons for this. Whether these reasons are the right reasons is another question. Please have a look at the new table & correct any errors. Jimp 05:20, 24 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Very comprehensive! Up to the early 90s in Queensland 8 oz beers were regularly served in Brisbane but 7 oz in country areas. I lived in Bundaberg then Maryborough and beers were usually ordered as "a seven please" or "three tens and two sevens please (i.e. in a 'shout')". Nowadays they seem to have almost completely disappeared, but I have seen some elderly patrons at our local RSL club being served beer in a 'seven' glass.--MichaelGG 03:50, 4 June 2007 (UTC)

 * The template is up for deletion on the grounds that it contains errors and it is not referenced. Can it be saved? Jɪmp 15:38, 17 January 2008 (UTC)

These beers are gaining market share?
There not only gaining market share, but DECENT market share at that? "Brands such as Chopper Heavy 6%, 3 Ravens, Holgate and Mountain Goat are all gaining decent market share"

Who wrote that? The marketing departments of "Chopper Heavy 6%, 3 Ravens, Holgate and Mountain Goat" I suspect?

Far from gaining decent market share, I'd suspect the vast majority of beer drinkers would never have even heard of them!

I'd say, cite something showing these beers growing "decent" market share, or remove it - it's seemingly just a free plug!

Too hot for ale brewing?
This is an oversimplification, the problem with temperature is that, unlike more temperate countries such as the UK and Ireland, the climate can vary wildly, for example Melbourne's "4 seasons in one day" and before modern temperature control systems the brewing of ale could be a hit or miss affair, likely to be interrupted by cold snaps as well as heatwaves (areas such as Ballarat or Toowoomba which get very cold and had long established breweries)

Lager brewing is ideally suited to the climate because the temperature control system (i.e. refrigeration)works well in hot weather, and is aided by cool weather - a "win win".

Have amended page slightly --MichaelGG 23:57, 11 June 2007 (UTC)

Any beer will brew at 35C, and will brew very quickly. It won't taste very good, and will need 2 weeks simply for the yeast to clear. Colder temps help lager bugs to attenuate a little better, and for the proteins to coagulate and sink. The beer will still function as intended.27.33.247.140 (talk) 04:47, 15 February 2015 (UTC)

Specialities & Micros
I think there is a distinction to be made, as these two are NOT identical categories: Speciality is much more than the micros ! I have also re-posted my links to "cosmopolitan"...Feroshki (talk) 07:52, 1 January 2008 (UTC)

Cohn Bros
I have read in a couple of places, including a family history "Tablets of Memory", that the Cohn Bros brewery in the Victorian gold fields was the first in Australia to brew lagers - one of the Cohn brothers went to Germany to learn the new technique. This contradicts the statement in the article that Gambrinus brewed the first lagers in Australia. What are the sources for this statement? Dr Tom Conway (talk) —Preceding comment was added at 00:56, 16 January 2008 (UTC)

pint
This article states the pint used in Australia is 570ml/20fl oz. A pint is 568ml/20 fl oz. is this a mistake or are the pints actualy made up to 570 in Aus? --Brideshead (talk) 10:42, 7 August 2008 (UTC)

Aus pints are English pints, being 20floz (568.261ml). American pints are an older definition, being 16floz (473.176ml). The US floz is 29.573ml, although the USFDA defines a floz as 30ml. East coast pub glass sizes are midi/pot=10floz, schooner=15floz, and pint=20floz. 7oz and 5oz glasses are now only used for spirits. Air Conditioning installed in most pubs by 1980 obviated the need for small beer glasses. Most pubs will not serve beer in these glasses.14.202.248.82 (talk) 06:57, 21 September 2015 (UTC)

New ? Bottle size
I came across a bottle of Toohey's Extra Dry recently in the (odd!) size of 696ml, which AFAIK is nothing equivalent to a round measure in the usual international systems ( UK or US)which it might be if it was an export size ( what about Japan, though ?). This is interesting because it contradicts the trend towards "unit pricing", and is thus "anti-consumer". Any ideas ? Feroshki (talk) 22:35, 26 January 2009 (UTC)

Stubbies (13 fl.oz) were exclusively used by XXXX in Queensland until the early 70s. Other brands used 26fl.oz bottles, and 13fl.oz steel cans. The first "stubbies" in Sydney were the frog mouth types used by KB, circa 1973. These had very large ring-pull steel caps, and a lot of drunken fingers were cut on the very sharp edges. US standard sized "stubby" is 12fl.oz, as is the coke can, so a lot of export beer is now bottled in this size, or 330ml. European beers are increasingly using 440 (20fl.oz) to 500ml as their "stubby" sized can. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 220.244.75.87 (talk) 03:16, 16 January 2012 (UTC)

Jug
So what about jugs? I am not sure if they are common in all states/territories, or whether there is standard size for them. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.196.92.158 (talk) 23:57, 18 December 2010 (UTC)

AHA jugs were 1125ml, or three 375ml stubbies. There was no official standard size, though. Australian-made and calibrated AHA glassware is long gone now. Most historical measures, such as demijohn or flagon or magnum, don't have official sizes. A flagon can be 1/2 gallon, or a full gallon, etc.14.202.248.82 (talk) 08:21, 21 September 2015 (UTC)

Beer in SA
Quick question - an IP added: 350 ml (12 fl oz) known as a "metropolis" to the list of SA beer sizes. I'm not much of a beer drinker, but I haven't heard of that size before - it could be my ignorance, but because it was unsourced I removed it for now. Is anyone able to confirm that this is a South Australian beer glass size? - Bilby (talk) 14:14, 11 April 2011 (UTC)
 * I've occasionally heard it here in SA but I don't think its widespread. -- PennyDancer — Preceding unsigned comment added by PennyDancer (talk • contribs) 13:18, 30 July 2011 (UTC)

Needs a Re-Write
This article is about the most piece-meal and worst written article I've come across. A lot of drunks trying to write something sensible (hic). Needs to be locked and rewritten by a professional piss pot. "Fosters bros arrive from NY with refrigeration equipment ..." Didn't the Australian Thomas Mort invent the first commecial friges. NOT freakin New Yorkers !!!! Where ice is available all year 'round!!! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.213.61.59 (talk) 09:07, 11 September 2011 (UTC)
 * The template is from 2008 and this article is still not up to standard. I am going to do some work on it now, but any help will be very much welcome, as 5 years is long enough!--Soulparadox (talk) 12:51, 10 October 2013 (UTC)

The history bit is just educated guess work. Lager strains did not arrive in the UK until 100yrs after the first fleet. There were a lot of German immigrants during the potato famine, and I'll bet some of them brought supplies into SA. The very first beer brewed in Oz was at a stall on the Sydney-Parramatta road. Nettles were used in place of hops; an old English recipe. The malt was derived from imported grain, most likely wheat.27.33.247.140 (talk) 04:56, 15 February 2015 (UTC)

Abbott's Lager?
I remember this from my childhood (Melbourne in the 40s). Where did it come from and who made it? Is there any connection with a brewer named William Henry Abbott who was active as a brewer in Launceston around 1880? Pamino (talk) 00:59, 20 December 2011 (UTC)

It would have been produced at CUB's Abbotsford Brewery in Melbourne, where they still do Abbotsford Invalid Stout. Every now and again CUB have to do a batch of extinct beers (for example Ballarat Bitter) to keep their ownership of the trademark, who knows they might do a batch of Abbotts Lager eventually. --MichaelGG (talk) 05:09, 27 October 2014 (UTC)

Abbott's was one of the firms that merged to make CUB, circa 1910. THe dominant partner was Victoria Brewery. They had "VB" written vertically in red print on all their labels. The beer was simply called Bitter Ale. The public had incorrectly assumed that VB stood for Victoria Bitter, and so CUB renamed it to that in the 50s.14.202.248.82 (talk) 08:32, 21 September 2015 (UTC)

Taxation
I tried to add this new section but I don't have access. Can someone add it.

Beer and spirits are heavily taxed by the Federal Government compared to wine. All alcoholic beverages incur an excise that is in addition to other taxes. There is little on no excise on domestically produced wine. For 2015 typical prices, the effective cost of 1L of alcohol is $125 in spirits, $113 in beer, and less than $30 in wine in bulk 4L casks. Beer and spirits are produced mostly by large companies most of which are owned international concerns. Wine and wine grapes are produced on farms and many of which are family concerns. In keeping with policies of agricultural protectionism, farm products are treated with favour and wine is not excised. The excise on the 'big business' beer and spirits is claimed to place a curb on excessive alcohol consumption. Nevertheless most alcohol abuse occurs with cheap wine and particularly with the bulk cask wine. 4L and 5L casks of 10% ABV wine can be purchased often for less than $10. A 9L carton of 4% beer costs $45. It is a case of a cash grab by the Federal government using reasoning that they do not adhere to themselves.27.33.247.208 (talk) 05:36, 25 March 2015 (UTC)

❌ Got a source for that? Kendall-K1 (talk) 17:40, 30 March 2015 (UTC)

Yes, get NAT 72660 (PDF) from the ATO. It lists the cutoff strengths of beer for each of the excise levels. Go to Dan Murphy's and check the prices: 1. VB $48/carton, 2; JW $38 per 700ml, Oak cask wine $9 per 4L, McWilliams Sherry $11 for 2L at 18%. I forgot to mention that if a brewery sells beer onsite there is no excise on that beer.( Buy some XXX at the Milton brewery and see how much cheaper it is.) No excise if the brewery's total production is less than 30 tonnes per annum. Excises are usually proclaimed by some public servant and they are very reluctant to advertise these facts. Note that beer is *much* cheaper to make than wine.27.33.247.187 (talk) 12:43, 6 April 2015 (UTC)

For a standard drink (i.e. same amount of alcohol): spirits have a Fed tax of $1, beer is 45c, and wine is 5c. Source "ABC Landline", 14 Nov, Cider piece.220.245.40.163 (talk) 02:19, 15 November 2015 (UTC)

Article on SA butcher and serving sizes
This might be a useful reference: "Take a butcher's hook at the butcher glass", Brews News, Brett J. Stubbs (2012). https://www.brewsnews.com.au/2012/06/09/take-a-butchers-hook-at-the-butcher-glass/

In addition to the "butcher", the article also mentions the downshift in SA serving sizes.

Despite some stories of small servings for short workers' breaks, the butcher may have originally been a large serve intermediate between a half-pint and a pint (like the NSW schooner).

Pelagic (talk) 10:38, 29 November 2017 (UTC) Pelagic (talk) 10:38, 29 November 2017 (UTC)

Units used inconsistency and inaccuracy
The section regarding the volume measurements used has a part which is poorly written and lacking in consistency. >The (425 ml) schooner is only regularly requested in NSW and most other states generally drink the smaller pot or middy. A pint is a misnomer in all states bar NSW. In NSW and WA a pint is the larger imperial measure, in all other states it is the 425-475ml NSW schooner. It claims that the 20 fl oz pint is only regularly used in NSW and WA, when Victoria by my knowledge frequently uses it as well. This assertion also contradicts that given in the table above it. I am not confident enough with my sources to change it currently though.Deonyi (talk) 01:36, 14 December 2018 (UTC)

I know this is only my understanding, but i believe ^9 in the beer size table is incorrect, specifically saying "traditionally". Schooners have long been sold in WA, though it has been hard in the last few decades to find a pub or bar that sells them. My understanding is that in the 90s there was an infux of British themed pubs that sold British ales in pint glasses and this became quite popular, to the point of pubs more generally serving all beers in pint glasses (even if the type of beer didn't suit being served in a wide glass (that's a thing right?, I feel it's a thing)). Schooners have come back a bit of late though, refer https://www.watoday.com.au/national/western-australia/sneaky-pintsized-tricks-in-perth-are-not-smart-business-20160707-gq10bk.html(.) I'm not an editor so will leave this for others to consider 61.68.193.4 (talk) 10:04, 29 May 2022 (UTC)

Using an extract from a book of fiction as a quote about real life should be removed
I note under History 19th century that an extract from the book "For the term of his natural life" by Marcus Clarke is used to reinforce claims of ongoing public inebriation at that time, including drunkenness in children. While the novel was based on research undertaken by the author as well as a visit to the penal settlement of Port Arthur, Tasmania, none but the author can possibly know how much is truth and how much is fiction.

A fictional book does not necessarily reflect real life, so using a quote from a piece of fiction should be removed, otherwise where is the data to actually confirm its veracity? If there is historical data on which this novel is claimed to be based, then I suggest that the historical data should be used to confirm this claim, and not a book of fiction.

Tzali (talk) 05:13, 6 December 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Beer in Australia