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Biomineralization

Biomineralization, also written biomineralisation, is the process by which living organisms produce minerals, often resulting in hardened or stiffened mineralized tissues. It is an extremely widespread phenomenon: all six taxonomic kingdoms contain members that are able to form minerals, and over 60 different minerals have been identified in organisms. Examples include silicates in algae and diatoms, carbonates in invertebrates, and calcium phosphates and carbonates in vertebrates. These minerals often form structural features such as sea shells and the bone in mammals and birds.

Organisms have been producing mineralized skeletons for the past 550 million years. Calcium carbonates and calcium phosphates are usually crystalline, but silica organisms (sponges, diatoms...) are always non-crystalline minerals. Other examples include copper, iron, and gold deposits involving bacteria. Biologically formed minerals often have special uses such as magnetic sensors in magnetotactic bacteria (Fe3O4), gravity-sensing devices (CaCO3, CaSO4, BaSO4) and iron storage and mobilization (Fe2O3•H2O in the protein ferritin).

In terms of taxonomic distribution, the most common biominerals are the phosphate and carbonate salts of calcium that are used in conjunction with organic polymers such as collagen and chitin to give structural support to bones and shells. The structures of these biocomposite materials are highly controlled from the nanometer to the macroscopic level, resulting in complex architectures that provide multifunctional properties. Because this range of control over mineral growth is desirable for materials engineering applications, there is interest in understanding and elucidating the mechanisms of biologically-controlled biomineralization.

Types
Mineralization can be subdivided into different categories depending on the following: the organisms or processes that create chemical conditions necessary for mineral formation, the origin of the substrate at the site of mineral precipitation, and the degree of control that the substrate has on crystal morphology, composition, and growth. These subcategories include biomineralization, organomineralization, and inorganic mineralization, which can be subdivided further. However, the usage of these terms varies widely in the scientific literature because there are no standardized definitions. The following definitions are based largely on a paper written by Dupraz et al. (2009), which provided a framework for differentiating these terms.

Biomineralization
Biomineralization, biologically controlled mineralization, occurs when crystal morphology, growth, composition, and location are completely controlled by the cellular processes of a specific organism. Examples include the shells of invertebrates, such as molluscs and brachiopods. Additionally, the mineralization of collagen provides crucial compressive strength for the bones, cartilage, and teeth of vertebrates.

Organomineralization
This type of mineralization includes both biologically induced mineralization and biologically influenced mineralization.
 * Biologically induced mineralization occurs when the metabolic activity of microbes (e.g. bacteria) produces chemical conditions favorable for mineral formation. The substrate for mineral growth is the organic matrix, secreted by the microbial community, and affects crystal morphology and composition. Examples of this type of mineralization include calcareous or siliceous stromatolites and other microbial mats. A more specific type of biologically induced mineralization, remote calcification or remote mineralization, takes place when calcifying microbes occupy a shell-secreting organism and alter the chemical environment surrounding the area of shell formation. The result is mineral formation not strongly controlled by the cellular processes of the animal host (i.e., remote mineralization); this may lead to unusual crystal morphologies.
 * Biologically influenced mineralization takes place when chemical conditions surrounding the site of mineral formation are influenced by abiotic processes (e.g., evaporation or degassing). However, the organic matrix (secreted by microorganisms) is responsible for crystal morphology and composition. Examples include micro- to nanometer-scale crystals of various morphologies.

Biological mineralization can also take place as a result of fossilization. See also calcification.

Biological roles
Among animals, biominerals composed of calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, or silica perform a variety of roles such as support, defense, and feeding.

If present on a supracellular scale, biominerals are usually deposited by a dedicated organ, which is often defined very early in embryological development. This organ will contain an organic matrix that facilitates and directs the deposition of crystals. The matrix may be collagen, as in deuterostomes, or based on chitin or other polysaccharides, as in molluscs.

In molluscs
The mollusc shell is a biogenic composite material that has been the subject of much interest in materials science because of its unusual properties and its model character for biomineralization. Molluscan shells consist of 95–99% calcium carbonate by weight, while an organic component makes up the remaining 1–5%. The resulting composite has a fracture toughness ≈3000 times greater than that of the crystals themselves. In the biomineralization of the mollusc shell, specialized proteins are responsible for directing crystal nucleation, phase, morphology, and growths dynamics and ultimately give the shell its remarkable mechanical strength. The application of biomimetic principles elucidated from mollusc shell assembly and structure may help in fabricating new composite materials with enhanced optical, electronic, or structural properties.

The most described arrangement in mollusc shells is the nacre, known in large shells such as Pinna or the pearl oyster (Pinctada). Not only does the structure of the layers differ, but so do their mineralogy and chemical composition. Both contain organic components (proteins, sugars, and lipids), and the organic components are characteristic of the layer and of the species. The structures and arrangements of mollusc shells are diverse, but they share some features: the main part of the shell is crystalline calcium carbonate (aragonite, calcite), though some amorphous calcium carbonate occurs as well; and although they react as crystals, they never show angles and facets.

In fungi

Fungi are a diverse group of organisms that belong to the eukaryotic domain. Studies of their significant roles in geological processes, "geomycology", have shown that fungi are involved with biomineralization, biodegradation, and metal-fungal interactions.

In studying fungi's roles in biomineralization, it has been found that fungi deposit minerals with the help of an organic matrix, such as a protein, that provides a nucleation site for the growth of biominerals. Fungal growth may produce a copper-containing mineral precipitate, such as copper carbonate produced from a mixture of (NH4)2CO3 and CuCl2. The production of the copper carbonate is produced in the presence of proteins made and secreted by the fungi. These fungal proteins that are found extracellularly aid in the size and morphology of the carbonate minerals precipitated by the fungi.

In addition to precipitating carbonate minerals, fungi can also precipitate uranium-containing phosphate biominerals in the presence of organic phosphorus that acts as a substrate for the process. The fungi produce a hyphal matrix, also known as mycelium, that localizes and accumulates the uranium minerals that have been precipitated. Although uranium is often deemed as toxic to living organisms, certain fungi such as Aspergillus niger and Paecilomyces javanicus can tolerate it.

Though minerals can be produced by fungi, they can also be degraded, mainly by oxalic acid–producing strains of fungi. Oxalic acid production is increased in the presence of glucose for three organic acid producing fungi: Aspergillus niger, Serpula himantioides, and Trametes versicolor. These fungi have been found to corrode apatite and galena minerals. Degradation of minerals by fungi is carried out through a process known as neogenesis. The order of most to least oxalic acid secreted by the fungi studied are Aspergillus niger, followed by Serpula himantioides, and finally Trametes versicolor.

In bacteria
It is less clear what purpose biominerals serve in bacteria. One hypothesis is that cells create them to avoid entombment by their own metabolic byproducts. Iron oxide particles may also enhance their metabolism.

Other roles

Biomineralization plays significant global roles terraforming the planet, as well as in biogeochemical cycles and as a carbon sink.

Composition
Most biominerals can be grouped by chemical composition into one of three distinct mineral classes: silicates, carbonates, or phosphates.

Silicates

Silicates (glass) are common in marine biominerals, where diatoms and radiolaria form frustules from hydrated amorphous silica (opal).

Carbonates
The major carbonate in biominerals is CaCO3. The most common polymorphs in biomineralization are calcite (e.g. foraminifera, coccolithophores) and aragonite (e.g. corals), although metastable vaterite and amorphous calcium carbonate can also be important, either structurally or as intermediate phases in biomineralization. Some biominerals include a mixture of these phases in distinct, organised structural components (e.g. bivalve shells). Carbonates are particularly prevalent in marine environments, but also present in freshwater and terrestrial organisms.

Phosphates
The most common biogenic phosphate is hydroxyapatite (HA), a calcium phosphate (Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) and a naturally occurring form of apatite. It is a primary constituent of bone, teeth, and fish scales. Bone is made primarily of HA crystals interspersed in a collagen matrix—65 to 70% of the mass of bone is HA. Similarly, HA is 70 to 80% of the mass of dentin and enamel in teeth. In enamel, the matrix for HA is formed by amelogenins and enamelins instead of collagen. Remineralisation of tooth enamel involves the reintroduction of mineral ions into demineralised enamel. Hydroxyapatite is the main mineral component of enamel in teeth. During demineralisation, calcium and phosphorus ions are drawn out from the hydroxyapatite. The mineral ions introduced during remineralisation restore the structure of the hydroxyapatite crystals.

The clubbing appendages of the peacock mantis shrimp are made of an extremely dense form of the mineral which has a higher specific strength; this has led to its investigation for potential synthesis and engineering use. Their dactyl appendages have excellent impact resistance due to the impact region being composed of mainly crystalline hydroxyapatite, which offers significant hardness. A periodic layer underneath the impact layer composed of hydroxyapatite with lower calcium and phosphorus content (thus resulting in a much lower modulus) inhibits crack growth by forcing new cracks to change directions. This periodic layer also reduces the energy transferred across both layers due to the large difference in modulus, even reflecting some of the incident energy.

Other minerals
Beyond these main three categories, there are a number of less common types of biominerals, usually resulting from a need for specific physical properties or the organism inhabiting an unusual environment. For example, teeth that are primarily used for scraping hard substrates may be reinforced with particularly tough minerals, such as the iron minerals magnetite in chitons or goethite in limpets. Gastropod molluscs living close to hydrothermal vents reinforce their carbonate shells with the iron-sulphur minerals pyrite and greigite. Magnetotactic bacteria also employ magnetic iron minerals magnetite and greigite to produce magnetosomes to aid orientation and distribution in the sediments.

Celestine, the heaviest mineral in the ocean, consists of strontium sulfate, SrSO4. The mineral is named for the delicate blue colour of its crystals. Planktic acantharean radiolarians form celestine crystal shells. The denseness of the celestite ensures their shells function as mineral ballast, resulting in fast sedimentation to bathypelagic depths. High settling fluxes of acantharian cysts have been observed at times in the Iceland Basin and the Southern Ocean, as much as half of the total gravitational organic carbon flux.

Diversity
In nature, there is a wide array of biominerals, ranging from iron oxide to strontium sulfate, with calcareous biominerals being particularly notable. However, the most taxonomically widespread biomineral is silica (SiO2·nH2O), being present in all eukaryotic supergroups. Notwithstanding, the degree of silicification can vary even between closely related taxa, from being found in composite structures with other biominerals (e.g., limpet teeth; to forming minor structures (e.g., ciliate granules; or being a major structural constituent of the organism. The most extreme degree of silicification is evident in the diatoms, where almost all species have an obligate requirement for silicon to complete cell wall formation and cell division. Biogeochemically and ecologically, diatoms are the most important silicifiers in modern marine ecosystems, with radiolarians (polycystine and phaeodarian rhizarians), silicoflagellates (dictyochophyte and chrysophyte stramenopiles), and sponges with prominent roles as well. In contrast, the major silicifiers in terrestrial ecosystems are the land plants (embryophytes), with other silicifying groups (e.g., testate amoebae) having a minor role.

Broadly, biomineralized structures evolve and diversify when the energetic cost of biomineral production is less than the expense of producing an equivalent organic structure. The energetic costs of forming a silica structure from silicic acid are much less than forming the same volume from an organic structure (≈20-fold less than lignin or 10-fold less than polysaccharides like cellulose). Based on a structural model of biogenic silica, Lobel et al. (1996) identified by biochemical modeling a low-energy reaction pathway for nucleation and growth of silica. The combination of organic and inorganic components within biomineralized structures often results in enhanced properties compared to exclusively organic or inorganic materials. With respect to biogenic silica, this can result in the production of much stronger structures, such as siliceous diatom frustules having the highest strength per unit density of any known biological material, or sponge spicules being many times more flexible than an equivalent structure made of pure silica. As a result, biogenic silica structures are used for support, feeding, predation defense  and environmental protection as a component of cyst walls. Biogenic silica also has useful optical properties for light transmission and modulation in organisms as diverse as plants, diatoms,  sponges, and molluscs. There is also evidence that silicification is used as a detoxification response in snails and plants, biosilica has even been suggested to play a role as a pH buffer for the enzymatic activity of carbonic anhydrase, aiding the acquisition of inorganic carbon for photosynthesis.

There are questions which have yet to be resolved, such as why some organisms biomineralize while others do not, and why is there such a diversity of biominerals besides silicon when silicon is so abundant, comprising 28% of the Earth's crust. The answer to these questions lies in the evolutionary interplay between biomineralization and geochemistry, and in the competitive interactions that have arisen from these dynamics. Fundamentally whether an organism produces silica or not involves evolutionary trade-offs and competition between silicifiers themselves, and non-silicifying organisms (both those which use other biominerals, and non-mineralizing groups). Mathematical models and controlled experiments of resource competition in phytoplankton have demonstrated the rise to dominance of different algal species based on nutrient backgrounds in defined media. These have been part of fundamental studies in ecology. However, the vast diversity of organisms that thrive in a complex array of biotic and abiotic interactions in oceanic ecosystems are a challenge to such minimal models and experimental designs, whose parameterization and possible combinations, respectively, limit the interpretations that can be built on them.

Evolution
The first evidence of biomineralization dates to some, and sponge-grade organisms may have formed calcite skeletons. But in most lineages, biomineralization first occurred in the Cambrian or Ordovician periods. Organisms used whichever form of calcium carbonate was more stable in the water column at the point in time when they became biomineralized, and stuck with that form for the remainder of their biological history (but see for a more detailed analysis). The stability is dependent on the Ca/Mg ratio of seawater, which is thought to be controlled primarily by the rate of sea floor spreading, although atmospheric levels may also play a role.

Biomineralization evolved multiple times, independently, and most animal lineages first expressed biomineralized components in the Cambrian period. Many of the same processes are used in unrelated lineages, which suggests that biomineralization machinery was assembled from pre-existing "off-the-shelf" components already used for other purposes in the organism. Although the biomachinery facilitating biomineralization is complex – involving signalling transmitters, inhibitors, and transcription factors – many elements of this 'toolkit' are shared between phyla as diverse as corals, molluscs, and vertebrates. The shared components tend to perform quite fundamental tasks, such as designating that cells will be used to create the minerals, whereas genes controlling more finely tuned aspects that occur later in the biomineralization process, such as the precise alignment and structure of the crystals produced, tend to be uniquely evolved in different lineages. This suggests that Precambrian organisms were employing the same elements, albeit for a different purpose – perhaps to avoid the inadvertent precipitation of calcium carbonate from the supersaturated Proterozoic oceans. Forms of mucus that are involved in inducing mineralization in most animal lineages appear to have performed such an anticalcifatory function in the ancestral state. Further, certain proteins that would originally have been involved in maintaining calcium concentrations within cells are homologous in all animals, and appear to have been co-opted into biomineralization after the divergence of the animal lineages. The galaxins are one probable example of a gene being co-opted from a different ancestral purpose into controlling biomineralization, in this case, being 'switched' to this purpose in the Triassic scleractinian corals; the role performed appears to be functionally identical to that of the unrelated pearlin gene in molluscs. Carbonic anhydrase serves a role in mineralization broadly in the animal kingdom, including in sponges, implying an ancestral role. Far from being a rare trait that evolved a few times and remained stagnant, biomineralization pathways in fact evolved many times and are still evolving rapidly today; even within a single genus, it is possible to detect great variation within a single gene family.

The homology of biomineralization pathways is underlined by a remarkable experiment whereby the nacreous layer of a molluscan shell was implanted into a human tooth, and rather than experiencing an immune response, the molluscan nacre was incorporated into the host bone matrix. This points to the exaptation of an original biomineralization pathway. The biomineralisation capacity of brachiopods and molluscs has also been demonstrated to be homologous, building on a conserved set of genes. This indicates that biomineralisation is likely ancestral to all lophotrochozoans.

The most ancient example of biomineralization, dating back 2 billion years, is the deposition of magnetite, which is observed in some bacteria, as well as the teeth of chitons and the brains of vertebrates; it is possible that this pathway, which performed a magnetosensory role in the common ancestor of all bilaterians, was duplicated and modified in the Cambrian to form the basis for calcium-based biomineralization pathways. Iron is stored in close proximity to magnetite-coated chiton teeth, so that the teeth can be renewed as they wear. Not only is there a marked similarity between the magnetite deposition process and enamel deposition in vertebrates, but some vertebrates even have comparable iron storage facilities near their teeth.

Potential applications
Most traditional approaches to the synthesis of nanoscale materials are energy inefficient, requiring stringent conditions (e.g., high temperature, pressure, or pH), and often produce toxic byproducts. Furthermore, the quantities produced are small, and the resultant material is usually irreproducible because of the difficulties in controlling agglomeration. In contrast, materials produced by organisms have properties that usually surpass those of analogous synthetically manufactured materials with similar phase composition. Biological materials are assembled in aqueous environments under mild conditions by using macromolecules. Organic macromolecules collect and transport raw materials and assemble these substrates and into short- and long-range ordered composites with consistency and uniformity.

The aim of biomimetics is to mimic the natural way of producing minerals such as apatites. Many man-made crystals require elevated temperatures and strong chemical solutions, whereas the organisms have long been able to lay down elaborate mineral structures at ambient temperatures. Often, the mineral phases are not pure but are made as composites that entail an organic part, often protein, which takes part in and controls the biomineralization. These composites are often not only as hard as the pure mineral but also tougher, as the micro-environment controls biomineralization.

Architecture
Bacterially induced calcium carbonate precipitation can be used to produce "self‐healing" concrete. Bacillus megaterium spores and suitable dried nutrients are mixed and applied to steel‐reinforced concrete. When the concrete cracks, water ingress dissolves the nutrients and the bacteria germinate triggering calcium carbonate precipitation, resealing the crack and protecting the steel reinforcement from corrosion. This process can also be used to manufacture new hard materials, such as bio‐cement.

However, the full potential of bacteria‐driven biomineralization is yet to be realized, as it is currently used as a passive filling rather than as a smart designable material. A future challenge is to develop ways to control the timing and the location of mineral formation, as well as the physical properties of the mineral itself, by environmental input. Bacillus subtilis has already been shown to respond to its environment, by changing the production of its ECM. It uses the polymers produced by single cells during biofilm formation as a physical cue to coordinate ECM production by the bacterial community.

Uranium contaminants
Biomineralization may be used to remediate groundwater contaminated with uranium. The biomineralization of uranium primarily involves the precipitation of uranium phosphate minerals associated with the release of phosphate by microorganisms. Negatively charged ligands at the surface of the cells attract the positively charged uranyl ion (UO22+). If the concentrations of phosphate and UO22+ are sufficiently high, minerals such as autunite (Ca(UO2)2(PO4)2•10-12H2O) or polycrystalline HUO2PO4 may form thus reducing the mobility of UO22+. Compared to the direct addition of inorganic phosphate to contaminated groundwater, biomineralization has the advantage that the ligands produced by microbes will target uranium compounds more specifically rather than react actively with all aqueous metals. Stimulating bacterial phosphatase activity to liberate phosphate under controlled conditions limits the rate of bacterial hydrolysis of organophosphate and the release of phosphate to the system, thus avoiding clogging of the injection location with metal phosphate minerals. The high concentration of ligands near the cell surface also provides nucleation foci for precipitation, which leads to higher efficiency than chemical precipitation.

Biogenic mineral controversy
The geological definition of mineral normally excludes compounds that occur only in living beings. However, some minerals are often biogenic (such as calcite) or are organic compounds in the sense of chemistry (such as mellite). Moreover, living beings often synthesize inorganic minerals (such as hydroxylapatite) that also occur in rocks.

The International Mineralogical Association (IMA) is the generally recognized standard body for the definition and nomenclature of mineral species. , the IMA recognizes 5,650 official mineral species out of 5,862 proposed or traditional ones.

A topic of contention among geologists and mineralogists has been the IMA's decision to exclude biogenic crystalline substances. For example, Lowenstam (1981) stated that "organisms are capable of forming a diverse array of minerals, some of which cannot be formed inorganically in the biosphere."

Skinner (2005) views all solids as potential minerals and includes biominerals in the mineral kingdom, which are those that are created by the metabolic activities of organisms. Skinner expanded the previous definition of a mineral to classify "element or compound, amorphous or crystalline, formed through biogeochemical  processes," as a mineral.

Recent advances in high-resolution genetics and X-ray absorption spectroscopy are providing revelations on the biogeochemical relations between microorganisms and minerals that may shed new light on this question. For example, the IMA-commissioned "Working Group on Environmental Mineralogy and Geochemistry " deals with minerals in the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. The group's scope includes mineral-forming microorganisms, which exist on nearly every rock, soil, and particle surface spanning the globe to depths of at least 1,600 metres below the sea floor and 70 kilometres into the stratosphere (possibly entering the mesosphere).

Biogeochemical cycles have contributed to the formation of minerals for billions of years. Microorganisms can precipitate metals from solution, contributing to the formation of ore deposits. They can also catalyze the dissolution of minerals.

Prior to the International Mineralogical Association's listing, over 60 biominerals had been discovered, named, and published. These minerals (a sub-set tabulated in Lowenstam (1981) ) are considered minerals proper according to Skinner's (2005) definition. These biominerals are not listed in the International Mineral Association official list of mineral names, however, many of these biomineral representatives are distributed amongst the 78 mineral classes listed in the Dana classification scheme.

Skinner's (2005) definition of a mineral takes this matter into account by stating that a mineral can be crystalline or amorphous. Although biominerals are not the most common form of minerals, they help to define the limits of what constitutes a mineral properly. Nickel's (1995) formal definition explicitly mentioned crystallinity as a key to defining a substance as a mineral. A 2011 article defined icosahedrite, an aluminium-iron-copper alloy as mineral; named for its unique natural icosahedral symmetry, it is a quasicrystal. Unlike a true crystal, quasicrystals are ordered but not periodic.

List of minerals
Examples of biogenic minerals include:
 * Apatite in bones and teeth.
 * Aragonite, calcite, fluorite in vestibular systems (part of the inner ear) of vertebrates.
 * Aragonite and calcite in travertine and biogenic silica (siliceous sinter, opal) deposited through algal action.
 * Hydroxylapatite formed by mitochondria.
 * Magnetite and greigite formed by magnetotactic bacteria.
 * Pyrite and marcasite in sedimentary rocks deposited by sulfate-reducing bacteria.
 * Quartz formed from bacterial action on fossil fuels (gas, oil, coal).
 * Goethite found as filaments in limpet teeth.

Astrobiology
It has been suggested that biominerals could be important indicators of extraterrestrial life and thus could play an important role in the search for past or present life on Mars. Furthermore, organic components (biosignatures) that are often associated with biominerals are believed to play crucial roles in both pre-biotic and biotic reactions.

On 24 January 2014, NASA reported that current studies by the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers on the planet Mars will now be searching for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic and/or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable. The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic carbon on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA objective.

title: Biomineralization


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Alice Joyce

Alice Joyce Brown (née Joyce; October 1, 1890 – October 9, 1955) was an American actress who appeared in more than 200 films during the 1910s and 1920s. She is known for her roles in the 1923 film The Green Goddess and its 1930 remake of the same name.

Early life and career beginnings
Alice Joyce was born in Kansas City, Missouri, to John Edward and Vallie Olive McIntyre Joyce. She had a brother, Francis "Frank" Joyce, who was 2 years younger and who later became an entertainment manager. Her father was a smelter of Irish and French ancestry and her mother a Welsh seamstress. Educated at a convent in Maryland, she ran away to New York while still a teenager.

By 1900, her parents' marriage fell apart, and her father took custody of Alice and Frank and moved to Falls Church, Virginia, where Joyce spent most of her childhood. According to the 1910 Census, her mother remarried in 1900 to Leon Faber, and they resided in the Bronx, New York, along with Alice and Frank, where she was employed as a photographer's model and appeared in illustrated songs.

She once said that film producer D.W. Griffith had told her that she reminded him of a cow. Despite this unflattering comment, Joyce was a well-respected actress of the silent film era. Though Griffith did not show any interest in her, she found work modelling for both artists and photographers. One film historian ranks her among the top models of 1910, in the company of Mabel Normand and Anna Nilsson. She posed for some of the better known artists of the day, including Harrison Fisher, Charles Dana Gibson, and Neysa McMein.

Marriages
Joyce was married three times, the first time in 1914 to actor Tom Moore with whom she had a daughter, Alice Joyce Moore. They divorced in 1920. The same year, she married James B. Regan, son of the managing director of the old Knickerbocker Hotel; her second daughter was born during this union. They divorced in 1932, shortly after which the actress declared bankruptcy, and then she married for a third time.

Her last marriage came in 1933 in Virginia City, Nevada to film director Clarence Brown; they separated in 1942 and divorced in 1945. The actress retained Brown's name. During their separation, she sued him for reparation on cruelty charges.

Retirement
Joyce was known as "The Madonna of the Screen" for her striking features and presence. She made her last movie in 1930, after which she and ex-husband Tom Moore worked a late vaudeville circuit for a time. She declared voluntary bankruptcy in 1933. Joyce was active in women's organizations in the San Fernando Valley in her later years. She did book reviews and made sketches for friends.

Partial filmography

 * The Deacon's Daughter (1910)
 * The Miser's Child (1910)
 * The Heart of Edna Leslie (1910)
 * An Engineer's Sweetheart (1910)
 * The Education of Elizabeth (1910)
 * For a Woman's Honor (1910)
 * The Roses of the Virgin (1910)
 * Rachel (1910)
 * The Rescue of Molly Finney (1910)
 * Her Indian Mother (1910)
 * The Bolted Door (1911)
 * The Runaway Engine (1911)
 * The Trail of the Pomas Charm (1911)
 * The Broken Trail (1911)
 * The Lost Ribbon (1911)
 * Mexican Filibusterers (1911)
 * The Mission Carrier (1911)
 * The Hero Track Walker (1911)
 * Big Hearted Jim (1911)
 * Slim Jim's Last Chance (1911)
 * Slabsides (1911)
 * The Loyalty of Don Luis Verdugo (1911)
 * The Carrier Pigeon (1911)
 * Tangled Lives (1911)
 * The Love of Summer Morn (1911)
 * A Cattle Herder's Romance (1911)
 * Reckless Reddy Reforms (1911)
 * The Badge of Courage (1911)
 * By the Aid of a Lariat (1911)
 * The Indian Maid's Sacrifice (1911)
 * The Mexican Joan of Arc (1911)
 * Over the Garden Wall (1911)
 * Peggy, the Moonshiner's Daughter (1911)
 * The Wasp (1911)
 * Don Ramon's Daughter (1911)
 * The Branded Shoulder (1911)
 * On the Warpath (1911)
 * When Two Hearts Are Won (1911)
 * When the Sun Went Out (1911)
 * The Alpine Lease (1911)
 * The Blackfoot Halfbreed (1911)
 * The Mistress of Hacienda del Cerro (1911)
 * A Prisoner of Mexico (1911)
 * The Peril of the Plains (1911)
 * For Her Brother's Sake (1911)
 * The Engineer's Daughter (1911)
 * When California Was Won (1911)
 * Dan, the Lighthouse Keeper (1911)
 * The Temptation of Rodney Vane (1911)
 * How Betty Captured the Outlaw (1911)
 * The Long Arm of the Law (1911)
 * Too Much Realism (1911)
 * Between Father and Son (1911)
 * The Higher Toll (1911)
 * Mrs. Simms Serves on the Jury (1912)
 * The Russian Peasant (1912)
 * An Interrupted Wedding (1912)
 * A Princess of the Hills (1912)
 * An American Invasion (1912)
 * The Alcalde's Conspiracy (1912)
 * The Bell of Penance (1912)
 * The Defeat of the Brewery Gang (1912)
 * Jean of the Jail (1912)
 * The Spanish Revolt of 1836 (1912)
 * The Secret of the Miser's Cave (1912)
 * The Adventures of American Joe (1912)
 * The Mexican Revolutionist (1912)
 * The Stolen Invention (1912)
 * The Outlaw (1912)
 * The Gun Smugglers (1912)
 * The Bag of Gold (1912)
 * The Colonel's Escape (1912)
 * The Organ Grinder (1912)
 * Saved by Telephone (1912)
 * The Suffragette Sheriff (1912)
 * Fantasca, the Gipsy (1912)
 * The Family Tyrant (1912)
 * The Soldier Brothers of Susanna (1912)
 * Freed from Suspicion (1912)
 * The Wandering Musician (1912)
 * Rube Marquard Marries (1912)
 * The County Fair (1912)
 * The Strange Story of Elsie Mason (1912)
 * The Mystery of Grandfather's Clock (1912)
 * The Young Millionaire (1912)
 * A Battle of Wits (1912)
 * A Daughter's Sacrifice (1912)
 * A Race with Time (1912)
 * The Finger of Suspicion (1912)
 * The Street Singer (1912)
 * A Business Buccaneer (1912)
 * The Flag of Freedom (1913)
 * The Nurse at Mulberry Bend (1913)
 * The Cub Reporter's Temptation (1913)
 * The Senator's Dishonor (1913)
 * In the Power of Blacklegs (1913)
 * The $20,000 Carat (1913)
 * The American Princess (1913)
 * The Exposure of the Land Swindlers (1913)
 * In the Grip of a Charlatan (1913)
 * A Streak of Yellow (1913)
 * The Sneak (1913)
 * The Heart of an Actress (1913)
 * The Adventure of an Heiress (1913)
 * The Artist's Sacrifice (1913)
 * When Fate Decrees (1913)
 * The Pawnbroker's Daughter (1913)
 * The Attorney for the Defense (1913)
 * The Cloak of Guilt (1913)
 * A Victim of Deceit (1913)
 * A Thief in the Night (1913)
 * A Bolt from the Sky (1913)
 * For Her Sister's Sake (1913)
 * The Christian (1913)
 * The Midnight Message (1913)
 * The Riddle of the Tin Soldier (1913)
 * Our New Minister (1913)
 * Perils of the Sea (1913)
 * The Octoroon (1913) (unconfirmed participation)
 * The Hunchback (1913)
 * An Unseen Terror (1913)
 * The Hand Print Mystery (1914)
 * The Shadow (1914)
 * The Cabaret Dancer (1914)
 * The Dance of Death (1914)
 * A Celebrated Case (1914)
 * Nina o' the Theatre (1914)
 * The Show Girl's Glove (1914)
 * The Weakling (1914)
 * In Wolf's Clothing (1914)
 * The Beast (1914)
 * The Vampire's Trail (1914)
 * The Old Army Coat (1914)
 * The Brand (film) (1914)
 * The Mystery of the Sleeping Death (1914)
 * The Green Rose (1914)
 * The Viper (1914)
 * Fate's Midnight Hour (1914)
 * The Girl and the Stowaway (1914)
 * The Lynbrook Tragedy (1914)
 * The Riddle of the Green Umbrella (1914)
 * The Theft of the Crown Jewels (1914)
 * The Price of Silence (1914)
 * The School for Scandal (1914)
 * The Mayor's Secretary (1914)
 * Cast Up by the Sea (1915)
 * The Leech (1915)
 * The Swindler (1915)
 * Her Supreme Sacrifice (1915)
 * The White Goddess (1915)
 * Unfaithful to His Trust (1915)
 * The Girl of the Music Hall (1915)
 * The Face of the Madonna (1915)
 * Whom the Gods Destroy (1916)
 * The Courage of Silence (1917)
 * Womanhood, the Glory of the Nation (1917)
 * Within the Law (1917)
 * The Question (1917)
 * The Countess (1917)
 * Richard the Brazen (1917)
 * An Alabaster Box (1917)
 * The Fettered Woman (1917)
 * The Woman Between Friends (1918)
 * The Song of the Soul (1918)
 * The Business of Life (1918)
 * The Triumph of the Weak (1918)
 * Find the Woman (1918)
 * To the Highest Bidder (1918)
 * Everybody's Girl (1918)
 * The Captain's Captain (1919)
 * The Lion and the Mouse (1919)
 * The Cambric Mask (1919)
 * The Third Degree (1919)
 * The Spark Divine (1919)
 * The Winchester Woman (1919)
 * The Vengeance of Durand (1919)
 * Slaves of Pride (1920)
 * The Sporting Duchess (1920)
 * Dollars and the Woman (1920)
 * The Vice of Fools (1920)
 * The Prey (1920)
 * Cousin Kate (1921)
 * Her Lord and Master (1921)
 * The Scarab Ring (1921)
 * The Inner Chamber (1921)
 * The Green Goddess (1923)
 * White Man (1924)
 * The Passionate Adventure (1924)
 * Daddy's Gone A-Hunting (1925)
 * The Little French Girl (1925)
 * Headlines (1925)
 * The Home Maker (1925)
 * Stella Dallas (1925)
 * Mannequin (1926)
 * Dancing Mothers (1926)
 * Beau Geste (1926)
 * The Ace of Cads (1926)
 * So's Your Old Man (1926)
 * Sorrell and Son (1927)
 * 13 Washington Square (1928)
 * The Noose (1928)
 * The Rising Generation (1928)
 * The Squall (1929)
 * The Green Goddess (1930)
 * He Knew Women (1930)
 * Song o' My Heart (1930)

title: Alice Joyce


text: User talk:62.57.231.129

title: User talk:62.57.231.129


text:
User:Fatoil2000

Just get started.......

title: User:Fatoil2000


text:
User:Jawr256/To do

 * 1) Add Template:Beano strip to all Beano strip articles.
 * 2) Create navigation box for my user area
 * 3) Concentrate on maintaining user area

title: User:Jawr256/To do


text:
Sudden

James Green aka "Sudden" is a fictional character created by an English author Oliver Strange in the early 1930s as the hero of a series, originally published by George Newnes Books Ltd, set in the American Wild West era. Oliver Strange died in 1952, and the series was revived by Frederick H. Christian in the 1960s. Christian classified the books as "Piccadilly westerns", that is books written by English authors, simply drawing on the conventions the genre, with no first hand experience of America. The Sudden books are among the earliest and best-loved of the type. Sudden is portrayed as an intrepid and accurate gunfighter in search of two men who cheated his foster father. James Green earns the nickname "Sudden" because of his lightning speed with a gun. Sudden is portrayed as a stereotypical gunfighter: an intelligent and resourceful drifting cowboy who is respectful of the law, unwilling to use a gun unless absolutely necessary, humanitarian, brave, strong, and fair. The first book was published in 1930 and was followed by 10 more until the 1940s and featured vivid descriptions of the western American landscape, rare in an author at that time. The series became popular for its exciting narrations combining elements of mystery, suspense, and action, with engaging characters, in a Wild West setting of dusty towns, ranches, and saloons.

Plot
Sudden's background story is not explicitly detailed but it is mentioned several times that as a young man, he promises his dying foster father that he will find the two men who cheated him and take revenge. In Sudden—Outlawed, which goes back to the beginning of his story, he has returned to Texas from an Eastern education, but sets out on his quest for revenge on the death of his foster parent, using the name James Green. Almost at once, he himself is wrongly accused of murder and robbery and becomes an outlaw. In Sudden (1933), he is pardoned by the Governor of Arizona, Bleke, made a US deputy marshal, and subsequently sent on (typically undercover) missions to maintain law and order. In The Range Robbers, in fact the first book to be written, his story is resolved. He is revealed to be Donald Peterson, son of one of the men he has been hunting, and he marries Noreen, who turns out to be the abducted daughter of his foster father. The other object of his search is the villain of this story, whom Sudden exposes and kills.

The second story to be written, The Law o' the Lariat, follows on from The Range Robbers. In it Sudden, this time calling himself Jim Severn, has temporarily left his wife and family to go and help another rancher. However, the original situation outlined in The Range Robbers, of a once-outlaw turned undercover lawman, forced to move from place to place on his own quest for vengeance, provided a framework for any number of more or less self-contained stories, and Strange devoted the rest of the series to these earlier adventures.

The stories in the series follow very conventional and repetitive plot lines. A plot line typically revolves around Sudden arriving in a town that either has several unlawful elements or recent conflicts and mysterious deaths. Sudden earns the respect of the townspeople, fights against all odds, defeats the villains, protects the wronged, and then rides out into the sunset to continue his search.

Many events are repeated in all the stories, for example, fist fights in which the cowboy faces a bigger adversary without using any weapons, and emerges victorious; gun fights describing Sudden's lightning speed; and kidnapping-cum-rescue-cum-chase sequences as the climax. Often he acts as a detective, piecing together clues, and revealing the villain in a well-attended denouement, leading to a violent resolution. Further, in every book, Sudden befriends a young man who acts as a capable sidekick, and this young friend falls in love and inevitably wins the hand of the girl he loves; the only exception is The Range Robbers where the romantic involvement is that of Sudden himself and Noreen. One of the young men he befriends, however, reappears in more than one of the stories.

After Oliver Strange
After Strange's death in 1952 the novels were still selling well, and an editor at Corgi Books in England had the idea of continuing the series, with the approval of Strange's family. Under the name of Frederick H. Christian he produced "modest little three-weeks-to-write westerns", which also sold successfully. Christian not only copied two novels with almost similar story lines, but also botched up the narrative in Sudden Strikes Back, where a bully tries to ride Sudden's horse and gets thrown down; the name of the girl who watches is given as "Noreen," Sudden's wife who he meets only much later in The Range Robbers (according to Oliver Strange) which describes an almost identical incident. Similarly, Sudden at Bay has strong resemblances to Sudden (1933). In Dead or Alive!, Christian makes Sudden a widower with references to Noreen clearly suggesting her death.

Books
The Range Robbers was the first book published, but when Oliver Strange continued the series, he went back and forth with Sudden's history and so the publication order is not the same as the chronological order. All Sudden novels are out of print today.

Oliver Strange wrote 10 Sudden books –

 * The Range Robbers (1930)
 * The Law o' the Lariat (1931)
 * Sudden (1933)
 * The Marshal of Lawless (1933)
 * Sudden—Outlawed (1934)
 * Sudden—Gold Seeker (1937)
 * Sudden Rides Again (1938)
 * Sudden Takes the Trail (1940)
 * Sudden Makes War (1942)
 * Sudden Plays a Hand (1950)

Frederick H. Christian wrote 5 Sudden books –

 * Sudden Strikes Back (1966)
 * Sudden—Troubleshooter (1967)
 * Sudden at Bay (1968)
 * Sudden—Apache Fighter (1969)
 * Sudden—Dead or Alive! (1970)

title: Sudden


text:
E and M signaling

E and M signaling is a type of supervisory line signaling that uses DC signals on separate leads, called the "E" lead and "M" lead, traditionally used in the telecommunications industry between telephone switches. Various mnemonic names have been used to memorize these letters, such as Earth and Magneto or Ear and Mouth, the most common variation.

E&M was originally developed for signaling between PABXs in different geographic locations over an analog private circuit. The protocol was later extended for use on digital carrier system with Channel Associated Signaling (CAS).

Signaling units and trunk circuits
The E&M standards were initially developed by Bell Labs and extended by national PTT administrations. The standard defines two sides of the interface, the trunk circuit and the signaling unit. The trunk circuit is normally the side to which the PABX is connected. The signaling unit is the special modem that converts the DC signaling protocol into tones that could be transmitted over a four-wire link back to the PTT exchange.

The signaling unit and trunk circuit communicate their status over the E and M leads, using a combination of battery and earth (also known as ground) levels. The battery signal level used in the standard is nominally −48 VDC. All E&M installations require that the positive terminal of the battery is connected to a reliable shared earth circuit. The maximum distance between the signaling unit and the trunk interface is determined by the resistance of the wire, but is normally less than 100 meters for adequate noise immunity.

Variants
The group of E&M signaling includes several variations.

Type I is the most common standard in North America and Japan, and signals an outgoing call from the PBX to the signaling unit with Battery on the M ("Mouth") lead. Incoming calls from the CO are signaled by an earth (ground) signal on the E ("Ear") lead. The interface is vulnerable to poor earthing at either end, and interference from external electrical noise which act on inferior voice signal quality.

Types II to IV are variants which attempt to overcome the main limitation of Type I, which is the reference to earth at each end of the circuit. Types II-IV use the Signal Battery (SB) and Signal Ground (SG) lead in conjunction with the E&M wires. This improves noise immunity as the Signal Ground does not carry the same heavy currents as normal ground connections and provides a low resistance return path for signaling. However, if the main ground connection fails all earth current may flow via the interface, causing signaling failure, hum and in extreme cases destruction of equipment.

Type V is the most common variant in use outside United States. In contrast to Type I, both ends of the connection indicate a call by grounding the relevant lead. This means that it is easy to interconnect two PABXs "back-to-back" by crossing over the E&M leads and transmit and receive pairs.

SSDC5 is commonly used in the United Kingdom and unlike Type V the on- and off-hook state, are backwards to allow for fail-safe operation. If the line breaks, the interface defaults to busy.

Number of wires
E&M defines eight wires:
 * E: It is often called ear or earth
 * M: It is often called mouth or magneto
 * SG and SB: signal ground and signal battery
 * T and R: Tip and Ring – the ground and battery of the receiver voice pair
 * T1 and R1: the ground and battery of the transmitter voice pair

4-wire E&M uses a 4-wire (2-pair) transmission path for the voice signal. 2-wire E&M uses a single pair for both transmit and receive voice signal. This is much inferior to 4-wire E&M as the 2-wire interface uses hybrid transformers which reduce signal quality and can introduce echo.

Address signaling
The mechanisms described so far only allow circuit seizure – on-hook and off-hook – to be signaled. In order to allow dialing over the interface, "start" signaling mechanisms are defined. This allows the other end to know when to send the dialed digits, which are transmitted by pulse (loop disconnect) or multi-frequency tones. E&M defines three methods of "start" signaling:

 * Wink Start – when the originator goes off hook, the other end transmits a short (140-290ms) off-hook signal and returns to on-hook. The originator detects the wink and then sends the dialed digits. The other end goes permanently off-hook (seized) when the call is answered.
 * Delay Start – the originator goes off hook, waits a pre-defined delay, and then checks for on-hook from the other end before sending the digits.
 * Immediate Start – The originator goes off hook, waits 150ms and then sends the dialed digits.

Origin of "E&M"
The choice of letters for the E and M leads was fortuitous, unrelated to any names or meanings. However, various names have been associated with the letters E and M:

 * E for ear, i.e., when the near-end E lead was grounded, the far end was calling and wanted your ear. Whereas M is commonly called mouth, because when the near-end wanted to call (i.e., speak to) the far end, −48 vdc was applied to that lead.
 * E for earth and magneto for M, from the very earliest days of telephony. An actual magneto was used to apply −48 volts to the M lead through mechanical relay switches, while the E lead is normally held to ground (earth) unless acknowledging the signaling from the M lead.
 * In another story, the proposed labels were R and T for reception and transmission of signaling. However R and T were already used as labels for the tip and ring wire pair carrying voice signals. Thus a letter within each of the word recEive and transMit was chosen.
 * Yet another explanation is that these were sequential designations on the wiring list of the original design.

title: E and M signaling


text:
List of The Monkees episodes

This is a list of episodes of the television series The Monkees, which aired on NBC on Monday nights at 7:30 p.m. Eastern from 1966 to 1968.

The first songs listed are from the original NBC broadcasts. Over the summer of 1967, NBC reran multiple episodes with revised soundtracks to promote the Monkees' current album Headquarters and the singles released during that summer. Between 1969 and 1973, CBS (and later ABC) reran the episodes on Saturday morning, revising the soundtracks once again to promote the albums The Monkees Present and Changes. All alternate songs are listed where applicable.

Tracks with different mixes or versions as compared to the album versions are indicated.

Season 1 (1966–1967)
Debuting on September 12, 1966, the series aired on Monday nights at 7:30 p.m. Eastern, preceding I Dream of Jeannie and opposite The Iron Horse (ABC) and Gilligan's Island (CBS). A few episodes were aired in different chronological order than when they were filmed, such as episode 8, "Don't Look a Gift Horse in the Mouth" and the pilot as episode 10.

Some syndicated and overseas versions of episode (such as many of those used by the BBC in the United Kingdom when it ran the series several times) use the second-season version of the opening credits in place of the original first-season version.

Season 2 (1967–1968)
The series aired on Monday nights preceding The Man from U.N.C.L.E., Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In, and The Champions and opposite Cowboy in Africa (ABC) and Gunsmoke (CBS). "For Pete's Sake" from the Headquarters album replaced the "Monkees Theme" as the closing song during this season.

Unproduced episode

 * "Monkees Toy Around" (written by Coslough Johnson; first draft: February 27, 1967)

Movie
The Monkees also filmed a movie called Head that started production in early 1968, and was released in theaters that November by the Monkees' parent studio, Columbia, just after their TV show was canceled. Head was co-written by a then-largely-unknown Jack Nicholson. The film included six new songs, but was poorly promoted and not received very well by the public (as the film had a somewhat darker and more mature tone than the TV series) or contemporary critics; in the decades since, it has become a cult hit; some of the film's songs joined the Monkees' concert setlist.

Later television episodes
The Monkees' television series was canceled after its second season. The group hoped to take the television show in different directions, e.g. recasting it as an hour-long variety show with comedy sketches and musical guests. However, NBC wanted the show to stay the same. Both parties decided to throw in the towel. After the series was canceled, NBC contracted with The Monkees to create and broadcast three longer television specials.

33⅓ Revolutions Per Monkee was the first of these longer television productions. It aired on NBC on April 14, 1969 (opposite ABC's live telecast of the 41st Academy Awards) to lower-than-expected ratings. The second two planned television specials were never produced. Peter Tork quit the group between the taping of 33⅓ Revolutions Per Monkee and its broadcast; Michael Nesmith left the group - buying out of his contract - in early 1970 to focus on his solo career, leaving the Monkees as a duo of Dolenz and Jones, under which one final original Monkees album under the 1966 Colgems contract, Changes, was released in June 1970.

The Monkees returned to broadcast television with Hey, Hey, It's the Monkees, a reunion special which was broadcast on ABC on February 17, 1997. The special was written and directed by Nesmith, emulating the style of the original NBC series; all four of the "real" Monkees do comedy and sing songs, some of which were new songs from the quartet's 1996 album Justus. This would be the last time Dolenz, Jones, Nesmith, and Tork would appear together on a television special, although Dolenz, Jones, and Tork made semi-frequent guest appearances on TV talk shows (such as The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, the Rosie O'Donnell Show and the Today show) for a few years afterwards. Davy Jones died in 2012.

Nesmith, Dolenz and Tork continued to make occasional TV interview appearances in later years. The trio appeared together for a May 2016 interview with Anthony Mason of CBS News Sunday Morning, on the occasion of the group's 50th anniversary. Peter Tork died in 2019. Michael Nesmith died in 2021.

title: List of The Monkees episodes


text:
Humberto Brenes

Humberto Brenes (born May 8, 1951) is a Costa Rican professional poker player.

In 1988, Brenes made the final table of the World Series of Poker (WSOP) main event, finishing in fourth place and winning $83,050. He has collected two WSOP bracelets, cashed 72 times at the WSOP and made three World Poker Tour final tables.

Brenes's two bracelets came at the 1993 World Series of Poker in limit Texas hold 'em and pot limit Omaha. He tied with Phil Hellmuth, Jr. for highest number of money finishes (eight) in the 2006 WSOP. He also finished first, winning $502,460 at the Jack Binion 2002 World Poker Open, beating Erik Seidel heads up.

Brenes's unique dress makes him easy to spot at tournaments, as he tends to wear bright tracksuits, two pairs of glasses, one on top of the other, and a visor. He uses a toy shark as a card protector, the origin of his nickname. A relentless self-promoter, the bright tracksuit and toy shark are consistent with Brenes' ostentatious personality; he will often use the shark to belittle his opponents, thus gaining himself more time in front of the cameras. He is also known for singing during hands.

He also is a member of Team PokerStars. Brenes plays under the screen name "HumbertoB".

Two of his brothers, Alex Brenes and Eric Brenes, have won World Poker Tour titles.

In 2006, Brenes finished 36th in the WSOP Main Event in a field of 8,773 and in 2007, Brenes cashed in the money again in the $10,000 No Limit Hold'em Main Event Championship, placing 83rd out of a field of 6,358 players, winning $82,476. Brenes was eliminated by Hevad Khan. In the hand Brenes with approximately 1,500,000 in chips had raised to 85,000, Khan then re-raised to 205,000, Brenes in dramatic fashion then went all-in holding  and was instantly called by Khan who held pocket Aces, one of which was a spade. The board came 3♠ 5♠ K♠ 10♠ giving Khan the ace high flush. However, with the 83rd-place finish, Brenes made WSOP history with the largest number of Main Event players outlasted in a two-year span with 15,012.

As of 2023, his total live tournament winnings exceed $6,100,000. His 72 cashes in the WSOP account for $2,264,333 of those winnings, which he takes credit personally but also attributes greatly to his mentor and coach, Andrés "El Pemorado" Calderón.

title: Humberto Brenes


text:
Martian scientist

A Martian scientist or Martian researcher is a hypothetical Martian frequently used in thought experiments as an outside observer of conditions on Earth. The most common variety is the Martian anthropologist, but Martians researching subjects such as philosophy, linguistics and biology have also been invoked.

The following extract from an essay by Richard Dawkins is more or less typical.
 * A Martian taxonomist who didn't know that all human races happily interbreed with one another, and didn't know that most of the underlying genetic variance in our species is shared by all races might be tempted by our regional differences in skin colour, facial features, hair, body size and proportions to split us into more than one species.

In American structuralist linguistics, the Martian approach is recommended for language description:
 * The descriptive analyst must be guided by certain very fixed principles if he is to be objective in describing accurately any language or part of any language. It would be excellent if he could adopt a completely man-from-Mars attitude toward any language he analyzes and describes.

The hypothetical Martian anthropologist is described in the writings of Noam Chomsky as one who, upon studying the world's languages, would conclude that they are all dialects of a single language embodying a "universal grammar" reflecting a hardwired, genetically determined linguistic module inherent in the human brain.

In philosophy, especially philosophy of language and philosophy of mind, the Martian is often invoked as an example of an intelligent being with a cognitive apparatus that differs from that of humans, e.g. the following example given by Saul Kripke:

 * I will not here argue that simplicity is relative, or that it is hard to define, or that a Martian might find the quus function simpler than the plus function.

In a common rhetorical turn, invoking the Martian scientist forces the reader to observe an obvious state of affairs that is ordinarily overlooked:
 * If a Martian graced our planet, it would be struck by one remarkable similarity among Earth's living creatures and a key difference.

(NB: The similarity Chomsky et al. mean is the universal hereditary language of DNA, while the difference is the lack of a universal language of communication.)

American Martian scientists
Extraordinary World War II era Hungarian scientists who emigrated to the United States in the early half of the 20th century. The most prominent Martians (scientists) included Theodore von Kármán, John von Neumann, Eugene Wigner, and Edward Teller. They were referred to as Martians due to their brilliant problem solving and invention talents that seemed out-of-this world .

title: Martian scientist


text:
File:Eisa shikawi.JPG

Eisa Shikawi - the oldest man in Dar al-Manasir is allegedly 104 years old (in 2005)

(c) GFDL David Haberlah (Homepage of David Haberlah, david@haberlah.com)

title: File:Eisa shikawi.JPG


text: Category:Rolling mills

title: Category:Rolling mills


text:
RDF Schema

RDF Schema (Resource Description Framework Schema, variously abbreviated as RDFS, RDF(S), RDF-S, or RDF/S) is a set of classes with certain properties using the RDF extensible knowledge representation data model, providing basic elements for the description of ontologies. It uses various forms of RDF vocabularies, intended to structure RDF resources. RDF and RDFS can be saved in a triplestore, then one can extract some knowledge from them using a query language, like SPARQL.

The first version was published by the World-Wide Web Consortium (W3C) in April 1998, and the final W3C recommendation was released in February 2014. Many RDFS components are included in the more expressive Web Ontology Language (OWL).

Terminology
RDFS constructs are the RDFS classes, associated properties and utility properties built on the vocabulary of RDF.

Classes

 * Represents the class of everything. All things described by RDF are resources.
 * Represents the class of everything. All things described by RDF are resources.

 * An rdfs:Class declares a resource as a class for other resources.
 * An rdfs:Class declares a resource as a class for other resources.

A typical example of an rdfs:Class is foaf:Person in the Friend of a Friend (FOAF) vocabulary. An instance of foaf:Person is a resource that is linked to the class foaf:Person using the rdf:type property, such as in the following formal expression of the natural-language sentence: 'John is a Person'. ex:John      rdf:type        foaf:Person The definition of rdfs:Class is recursive: rdfs:Class is the class of classes, and so it is an instance of itself. rdfs:Class   rdf:type        rdfs:Class

The other classes described by the RDF and RDFS specifications are:
 * literal values such as strings and integers. Property values such as textual strings are examples of RDF literals. Literals may be plain or typed.
 * literal values such as strings and integers. Property values such as textual strings are examples of RDF literals. Literals may be plain or typed.

 * the class of datatypes. rdfs:Datatype is both an instance of and a subclass of rdfs:Class. Each instance of rdfs:Datatype is a subclass of rdfs:Literal.
 * the class of datatypes. rdfs:Datatype is both an instance of and a subclass of rdfs:Class. Each instance of rdfs:Datatype is a subclass of rdfs:Literal.

 * the class of XML literal values. rdf:XMLLiteral is an instance of rdfs:Datatype (and thus a subclass of rdfs:Literal).
 * the class of XML literal values. rdf:XMLLiteral is an instance of rdfs:Datatype (and thus a subclass of rdfs:Literal).

 * the class of properties.
 * the class of properties.

Properties
Properties are instances of the class rdf:Property and describe a relation between subject resources and object resources. When used as such a property is a predicate (see also RDF: reification).

 * the rdfs:domain of an rdf:Property declares the class of the subject in a triple whose predicate is that property.
 * the rdfs:domain of an rdf:Property declares the class of the subject in a triple whose predicate is that property.

 * the rdfs:range of an rdf:Property declares the class or datatype of the object in a triple whose predicate is that property.
 * the rdfs:range of an rdf:Property declares the class or datatype of the object in a triple whose predicate is that property.

For example, the following declarations are used to express that the property ex:employer relates a subject, which is of type foaf:Person, to an object, which is of type foaf:Organization: ex:employer	 rdfs:domain  	  foaf:Person ex:employer	 rdfs:range	  foaf:Organization Given the previous two declarations, from the triple: ex:John		 ex:employer	  ex:CompanyX can be inferred (resp. follows) that ex:John is a foaf:Person, and ex:CompanyX is a foaf:Organization.

 * a property used to state that a resource is an instance of a class. A commonly accepted QName for this property is "a".
 * a property used to state that a resource is an instance of a class. A commonly accepted QName for this property is "a".

 * allows declaration of hierarchies of classes.
 * allows declaration of hierarchies of classes.

For example, the following declares that 'Every Person is an Agent': foaf:Person	 rdfs:subClassOf	  foaf:Agent Hierarchies of classes support inheritance of a property domain and range (see definitions in the next section) from a class to its subclasses.
 * an instance of rdf:Property that is used to state that all resources related by one property are also related by another.
 * an instance of rdf:Property that is used to state that all resources related by one property are also related by another.

 * an instance of rdf:Property that may be used to provide a human-readable version of a resource's name.
 * an instance of rdf:Property that may be used to provide a human-readable version of a resource's name.

 * an instance of rdf:Property that may be used to provide a human-readable description of a resource.
 * an instance of rdf:Property that may be used to provide a human-readable description of a resource.

Utility properties

 * an instance of rdf:Property that is used to indicate a resource that might provide additional information about the subject resource.
 * an instance of rdf:Property that is used to indicate a resource that might provide additional information about the subject resource.

 * an instance of rdf:Property that is used to indicate a resource defining the subject resource. This property may be used to indicate an RDF vocabulary in which a resource is described.
 * an instance of rdf:Property that is used to indicate a resource defining the subject resource. This property may be used to indicate an RDF vocabulary in which a resource is described.

RDFS entailment
An entailment regime defines whether the triples in a graph are logically contradictory or not. RDFS entailment is not very restrictive, i.e. it does not contain a large amount of rules (compared, for example, to OWL) limiting what kind of statements are valid in the graph. On the other hand it is also not very expressive, meaning that the semantics that can be represented in a machine-interpretable way with the graph is quite limited.

Below in a simple example of the capabilities and limits of RDFS entailment, we start with a graph containing the following explicit triples: foo:SomeGiraffe rdf:type bar:Animal. foo:SomeElephant rdf:type bar:Elephant. foo:SomeZoo rdf:type bar:Zoo. bar:livesInZoo rdfs:domain bar:Animal. bar:livesInZoo rdfs:range bar:Zoo. foo:SomeElephant bar:livesInZoo foo:SomeZoo. Without enabling inferencing with RDFS entailment, the data we have does not tell us whether  is a. When we do RDFS-based inferencing, we will get the following extra triple: foo:SomeElephant rdf:type bar:Animal. The  statement dictates that any subject in triples where   is the predicate is of type. What RDFS entailment is not able to tell us is the relationship between  and. Due to inferencing we now know that  is both   and   so these classes do intersect but there is no information to deduce whether they merely intersect, are equal or have a subclass relationship.

In RDFS 1.1, the domain and range statements do not carry any formal meaning and their interpretation is left up to the implementer. On the other hand in the 1.2 Working draft they are used as entailment rules for inferencing the types of individuals. Nevertheless in both versions, it is very clearly stated that the expected functionality of range is "the values of a property are instances of one or more classes" and domain "any resource that has a given property is an instance of one or more classes".

The example above demonstrated some of the limits and capabilities of RDFS entailment, but did not show an example of a logical inconsistency (which could in layman terms be interpreted as a "validation error"), meaning that the statements the triples make are in conflict and try to express contradictory states of affairs. An example of this in RDFS would be having conflicting datatypes for objects (e.g. declaring a resource to be of type  and being also declared to be   when inferencing is enabled).

Examples of RDF vocabularies
RDF vocabularies represented in RDFS include:
 * FOAF: the source of the FOAF Vocabulary Specification is RDFS written in the RDFa syntax.
 * Dublin Core: RDFS source is available in several syntaxes
 * Schema.org: the source of their schema was originally RDFS written in the RDFa syntax until July 2020.
 * Simple Knowledge Organization System (SKOS) developed the RDF schema titled as SKOS XL Vocabulary, which is an OWL ontology for the SKOS vocabulary that uses the OWL RDF/XML syntax, and hence makes use of a number of classes and properties from RDFS.
 * The Library of Congress defines an RDF schema titled Metadata Authority Description Schema in RDF, or MADS/RDF for short. From the abstract, it is intended for use within their library and "information science (LIS) community". It allows for annotating special relational data, such as if an individual within a family is well-known via madsrdf:prominentFamilyMember.
 * The UniProt database has an RDF schema for describing biochemical data, and is specialized towards describing proteins.

title: RDF Schema


text:
Barrett v. Rosenthal

Barrett v. Rosenthal, 40 Cal.4th 33 (2006), was a California Supreme Court case concerning online defamation. The case resolved a defamation claim brought by Stephen Barrett, Terry Polevoy, and attorney Christopher Grell against Ilena Rosenthal and several others. Barrett and others alleged that the defendants had republished libelous information about them on the internet. In a unanimous decision, the court held that Rosenthal was a "user of interactive computer services" and therefore immune from liability under Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act.

The California Supreme Court reversed a judgment by the California Court of Appeals, First District, which would have allowed a trial on one of the defamation claims. The lower court's decision was the first opinion to break from Zeran v. America Online, Inc. by holding that Section 230 immunity was not absolute for common law distributors. In reversing the Court of Appeals, the California Supreme Court reaffirmed Zeran and directed that all claims against the defendants be dismissed.

Factual background
The case concerns an e-mail sent by Tim Bolen, a publicist for alternative medicine practitioners. While working for Hulda Clark, Bolen distributed a missive online that attacked Stephen Barrett and Terry Polevoy, medical doctors who publicly criticize what they consider quackery. Among other things, Bolen's letter accused Polevoy of stalking a Canadian radio reporter and preventing her from airing a show about alternative medicine.

One of the people who came across Bolen's letter was Ilena Rosenthal, who runs an Internet-based support group for women who have medical problems, which they believe to be caused by breast implants. Rosenthal reposted Bolen's letter on two alternative medicine newsgroups. Barrett contacted her, claiming that the letter was libelous and threatening a lawsuit if she did not remove it. Rosenthal subsequently re-posted Bolen's letter, with a copy of Barrett's threat.

Lower court proceedings
Stephen Barrett, Terry Polevoy, and attorney Christopher Grell filed suit against Clark, Bolen, Rosenthal, and 100 John Doe defendants in November 2000 before Alameda County Superior Court Judge James A. Richman. The case was originally captioned Barrett v. Clark. The defendants were accused of libel and conspiracy to libel, for publishing or republishing allegedly defamatory statements on the internet.

Rosenthal was represented by an attorney from the California Anti-SLAPP Project. Rosenthal moved to be stricken from the suit, citing Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act and California's Anti-SLAPP statute. It was uncontested that Rosenthal had published or republished the e-mail on the internet.

The trial court granted her motion, effectively dropping all of the claims against Rosenthal. In an unusually long 27-page written opinion, Judge Richman dismissed the case (against Rosenthal only) under the California Special motion to strike (an anti-SLAPP statute), which is intended to stop lawsuits that are "brought primarily to chill the valid exercise of the constitutional rights of freedom of speech and petition for redress of grievances." The court further ordered that all three plaintiffs pay Rosenthal's attorney's fees.

The appellate court upheld the dismissal against Grell and Barrett. Still, it vacated the decision as against Polevoy. The court held that Section 230 did not protect Rosenthal for one statement she had reposted on two newsgroups regarding Polevoy's alleged "stalking" of a Canadian talk show host. The court ruled that Rosenthal, as a "distributor," could be held liable under Section 230 for content republished after receiving notice of a potentially defamatory statement, just as vendors of traditional media can be.

Rosenthal petitioned the California Supreme Court to hear the case, and the court granted her petition for review in April 2004.

California Supreme Court decision
The California Supreme Court overturned the lower court in November 2006, in a landmark decision that is the first to interpret Section 230 defamation immunity as providing immunity to an individual internet "user" who is not a provider. The American Civil Liberties Union, the Electronic Frontier Foundation, and a number of internet corporations — including Google, Yahoo!, and AOL — filed briefs on behalf of the defendant, arguing that only the originator of a defamatory statement published on the internet could be held liable.

In the majority opinion, Justice Corrigan observed that the plain language of Section 230 shows that "Congress did not intend for an internet user to be treated differently than an internet provider." Both had immunity from liability for the republication of defamatory content on the internet.

The court agreed that "subjecting Internet service providers and users to defamation liability would tend to chill online speech." (citing Zeran v. America Online, Inc. (4th Cir. 1997) 129 F.3d 327, 331-333), which ruled that Internet users – unlike publishers – are not liable for posting online content. Moreover, the court agreed with Rosenthal in the interpretation of congressional intent: "The congressional intent of fostering free speech on the internet supported the extension of Section 230 immunity to active individual users. It is they who provide much of the 'diversity of political discourse,' the pursuit of 'opportunities for cultural development,' and the exploration of 'myriad avenues for intellectual activity' that the statute was meant to protect."

However, the court also acknowledged that blanket immunity for the redistribution of defamatory statements on the Internet has "disturbing implications." Although plaintiffs are free under Section 230 to sue the originator of a defamatory Internet publication, "any further expansion of liability must await Congressional action."

In a concurring opinion, Justice Carlos Moreno also suggested that immunity would not extend to an online publisher or distributor who conspires to defame an original content provider. However, in this case, there was provided no proof of a conspiracy to defame.

Because Barrett and Polevoy were public figures, to pursue their defamation claims, they would have had to show by clear and convincing evidence that Rosenthal republished Bolen's statements with malice. While the court affirmed the lower court's dismissal of Barrett's claims (finding the statements in question to be non-actionable statements of opinion), the court also noted that the statements concerning Polevoy's alleged stalking may still be actionable if the plaintiff can show that Rosenthal knowingly republished a falsehood or a statement in reckless disregard of its truth. The court also affirmed the lower court's decision to award Rosenthal attorney's fees for prevailing on her anti-SLAPP motion to dismiss; however, the court directed that those fees be reduced to reflect its ruling to permit Polevoy to proceed with his libel claim.

title: Barrett v. Rosenthal


text:
Safety barrier

A safety barrier is a component which prevents passage into a dangerous area, and is commonly used to mitigate risk.

Description
A safety barrier is a component which prevents passage into a dangerous area. It is commonly used to mitigate risk in the Hazard-Barrier-Target model, as studied in safety science. Work Safe Victoria (an Australian organization) defines a Safety Barrier as a device that:
 * physically separate the work area and the traveled way,
 * are designed to resist the penetration of an out-of control vehicle, and
 * have properties which redirect an out-of-control vehicle back on to the road away from the work area.

Types of barriers
Hard barriers are fixed or removable guards which prevent entry. These include fences, traffic barriers, and crush barriers.

Soft barriers are devices such as light curtains. They detect the presence of a foreign body and are tied into the control circuit to stop the machine.

Components
Hard barriers are fixed into the ground as a bollard or gate, removable on stands, or clipped to a structure. Regardless of the barrier type, the components and overall assembly will be similar.

The material of rails used to stop the flow of objects into the protected area must be durable and strong enough to withstand any impacts related to the environment in which it is installed; for example, a guard rail on the side of the road must be able to contain and safely stop or drastically slow down a vehicle weighing up to 40 tons (cable barriers are most effective against tractor trailers), whereas a pedestrian safety barrier only needs to be tall enough, designed with a lattice effect to keep people from climbing through it, or highly visible when being used to display caution.

Applications
Safety barriers vary depending on their application. In an industrial setting, a safety barrier may be a fence or window, designed to keep the operator away from moving parts or other hazards. Railings should be closed cornered with rounded or flared edges to prevent any further damage to personnel or machinery in the event of a collision. Safety barriers can also be used to protect the corners of fixtures, support columns, exposed pipes or cables, or designated areas on the work floor.

In an automotive setting, the barrier may be a traffic barrier or Jersey barrier, separating lanes/directions of traffic flow. In crowd control, terraces use crush barriers to reduce the risk of human crush in large crowds.

title: Safety barrier


text: User talk:67.164.132.133

title: User talk:67.164.132.133


text:
CPython

CPython is the reference implementation of the Python programming language. Written in C and Python, CPython is the default and most widely used implementation of the Python language.

CPython can be defined as both an interpreter and a compiler as it compiles Python code into bytecode before interpreting it. It has a foreign function interface with several languages, including C, in which one must explicitly write bindings in a language other than Python.

Design
A particular feature of CPython is that it makes use of a global interpreter lock (GIL) on each CPython interpreter process, which means that within a single process, only one thread may be processing Python bytecode at any one time. This does not mean that there is no point in multithreading; the most common multithreading scenario is where threads are mostly waiting on external processes to complete.

This can happen when multiple threads are servicing separate clients. One thread may be waiting for a client to reply, and another may be waiting for a database query to execute, while the third thread is actually processing Python code.

However, the GIL does mean that CPython is not suitable for processes that implement CPU-intensive algorithms in Python code that could potentially be distributed across multiple cores.

In real-world applications, situations where the GIL is a significant bottleneck are quite rare. This is because Python is an inherently slow language and is generally not used for CPU-intensive or time-sensitive operations. Python is typically used at the top level and calls functions in libraries to perform specialized tasks. These libraries are generally not written in Python, and Python code in another thread can be executed while a call to one of these underlying processes takes place. The non-Python library being called to perform the CPU-intensive task is not subject to the GIL and may concurrently execute many threads on multiple processors without restriction.

Concurrency of Python code can only be achieved with separate CPython interpreter processes managed by a multitasking operating system. This complicates communication between concurrent Python processes, though the multiprocessing module mitigates this somewhat; it means that applications that really can benefit from concurrent Python-code execution can be implemented with limited overhead.

The presence of the GIL simplifies the implementation of CPython, and makes it easier to implement multi-threaded applications that do not benefit from concurrent Python code execution. However, without a GIL, multiprocessing apps must make sure all common code is thread safe.

Although many proposals have been made to eliminate the GIL, the general consensus has been that in most cases, the advantages of the GIL outweigh the disadvantages; in the few cases where the GIL is a bottleneck, the application should be built around the multiprocessing structure. To help allow more parallelism, an improvement was released in October 2023 to allow a separate GIL per subinterpreter in a single Python process and have been described as "threads with opt-in sharing".

After several debates, a project was launched in 2023 to propose making the GIL optional from version 3.13 of Python, which is scheduled for release in October 2024.

Unladen Swallow
Unladen Swallow was an optimization branch of CPython, intended to be fully compatible and significantly faster. It aimed to achieve its goals by supplementing CPython's custom virtual machine with a just-in-time compiler built using LLVM.

The project had stated a goal of a speed improvement by a factor of five over CPython; this goal was not met.

The project was sponsored by Google, and the project owners, Thomas Wouters, Jeffrey Yasskin, and Collin Winter, are full-time Google employees; however, most project contributors were not Google employees. Unladen Swallow was hosted on Google Code.

Like many things regarding the Python language, the name Unladen Swallow is a Monty Python reference, specifically to the joke about the airspeed velocity of unladen swallows in Monty Python and the Holy Grail.

Although it fell short of all published goals, Unladen Swallow did produce some code that got added to the main Python implementation, such as improvements to the cPickle module.

In July 2010, some observers speculated on whether the project was dead or dying since the 2009 Q4 milestone had not yet been released. The traffic on Unladen's mailing list had decreased from 500 messages in January 2010 to fewer than 10 in September 2010. It has also been reported that Unladen lost Google's funding. In November 2010, one of the main developers announced that "Jeffrey and I have been pulled on to other projects of higher importance to Google."

The 2009 Q4 development branch was created on 26 January 2010, but no advertising was made on the website. Further, regarding the long-term plans, and as the project missed the Python 2.7 release, a Python Enhancement Proposal (PEP) was accepted, which proposed a merge of Unladen Swallow into a special py3k-jit branch of Python's official repository. As of July 2010, this work was ongoing. This merging would have taken some time, since Unladen Swallow was originally based on Python 2.6 with which Python 3 broke compatibility (see Python 3000 for more details). However, the PEP was subsequently withdrawn.

In early 2011, it became clear that the project was stopped.

Unladen Swallow release history

 * 2009 Q1
 * 2009 Q2
 * 2009 Q3: reduce memory use, improve speed

Distribution
Officially supported tier-1 platforms are Windows, Linux, and macOS. (Also Raspberry Pi OS, and Linux for s390x on lower tier.)

More platforms have working implementations, including:

• AIX
 * Unix-like:

• BSD

• Darwin

• FreeBSD

• HP-UX

• illumos

• Linux

• macOS

• NetBSD

• OpenBSD

• Plan 9

• Solaris

• Tru64

• Android
 * Special and embedded:

• Apple iOS (support for outdated Python 3.6 and 2.7 available)

• BlackBerry 10

• GP2X

• iPodLinux

• Nintendo DS

• GameCube

• Symbian OS Series60

• Nokia 770 Internet Tablet

• Nokia N800

• Nokia N810

• Nokia N900

• Openmoko

• Palm OS

• PlayStation 2

• PlayStation 3 (FreeBSD)

• Psion

• QNX

• Sharp Zaurus

• Xbox/XBMC

• VxWorks

• AROS
 * Other:

• OS/390

• Windows Vista and later

• z/OS

PEP 11 lists platforms which are not supported in CPython by the Python Software Foundation. These platforms can still be supported by external ports. These ports include:

• AtheOS (unsupported since 2.6)

• BeOS (unsupported since 2.6)

• DOS (unsupported since 2.0)

• IRIX 4 (unsupported since 2.3)

• IRIX 5 and later (unsupported since 3.2, 3.7)

• Mac OS 9 (unsupported since 2.4)

• MINIX (unsupported since 2.3)

• OpenVMS (unsupported since 3.3)

• OS/2 (unsupported since 3.3)

• RISC OS (unsupported since 3.0)

• Windows XP (unsupported since 3.5)

• Windows 2000 (unsupported since 3.3)

• Windows 3.x (unsupported since 2.0)

• Windows 9x (unsupported since 2.6)

• Windows NT4 (unsupported since 2.6)

External ports not integrated to Python Software Foundation's official version of CPython, with links to its main development site, often include additional modules for platform-specific functionalities, like graphics and sound API for PSP and SMS and camera API for S60. These ports include:

• Amiga: AmigaPython

• IBM i: iSeriesPython

• DOS using DJGPP: PythonD

• MorphOS: Python 2 and 3

• PlayStation Portable: Stackless Python for PSP

• Symbian OS: Python for S60

• Windows CE/Pocket PC: Python Windows CE port

• OpenVMS: Ports of Python 3.x are maintained by VSI

Enterprise Linux
These Python versions are distributed with currently-supported enterprise Linux distributions. The support status of Python in the table refers to support from the Python core team, and not from the distribution maintainer.

Alternatives
CPython is one of several "production-quality" Python implementations including: Jython, written in Java for the Java virtual machine (JVM); PyPy, written in RPython and translated into C; and IronPython, written in C# for the Common Language Infrastructure. There are also several experimental implementations.

title: CPython


text:
User:Golbez/sandbox/RI

The history of the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations began in 1636, when Roger Williams, exiled from the Province of Massachusetts Bay, purchased land from the Narragansett and founded Providence at the head of Narragansett Bay. He secured a parliamentary patent in 1644 for Providence Plantation, bordering Plymouth Colony to the east, Massachusetts Bay Colony to the north, and the land of the Pequot to the west. In 1663 it was granted a self-governing corporate charter and renamed the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. Along with the other Thirteen Colonies, it declared independence in 1776, and it was the final colony to ratify the Constitution of the United States, becoming the 13th state.

The colony's borders remained generally the same throughout its history, with alterations to the northeast corner, expansion across Narragansett Bay, and gaining Block Island. A notable exception is the 41-year border dispute with Connecticut Colony, which led at one point to the southern half of Rhode Island Colony being placed under direct royal jurisdiction. From 1686 to 1689, the colony was part of the Dominion of New England. Since becoming a state in 1790, its external borders have changed only once, exchanging land with Massachusetts.

This list includes not only changes to Rhode Island's borders but also those immediately around it, to supply historical context.

The charter for Providence Plantation was granted to Roger Williams, who had founded the colony in 1636. It consisted of most of the mainland portion of the current state of Rhode Island west of Narragansett Bay, as well as the islands of the bay. The Province of Massachusetts Bay was to the north, and Plymouth Colony was to the east, across the bay. The western border was generally undefined. The settlement of Pawtuxet, founded in 1638, had been under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts Bay since 1642 due to a request from disgruntled settlers.
 * March 14, 1644

The settlement of Pawtuxet rejoined Providence Plantation.
 * May 26, 1658

The Colony of Connecticut was chartered, claiming an eastern boundary at Narragansett Bay, overlapping Providence Plantation's charter. The disputed portion was called Narragansett Country.
 * April 23, 1662

Providence Plantation was granted a new charter as a self-governing corporate county, and was renamed the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. The charter granted it Block Island and some mainland area from Plymouth Colony on the east side of the bay, as well as filling out its northeastern corner with land from the Province of Massachusetts Bay.
 * July 8, 1663

Plymouth's borders were surveyed, gaining land from Massachusetts Bay and Rhode Island.
 * May 9, 1664

The eastern border of Rhode Island was clarified; Plymouth retook the area east of Narragansett Bay, and the notch in the northeast of Rhode Island was returned to Massachusetts Bay. (verify notch)
 * February 27, 1665

Narragansett Country was placed under direct royal jurisdiction and renamed King's Province, under Rhode Island's administration.
 * April 8, 1665

The Dominion of New England was created, uniting King's Province and the Provinces of Maine, Massachusetts Bay, and New Hampshire.
 * May 17, 1686

The Dominion of New England created a provisional government in King's Province, and prohibited Connecticut and Rhode Island from exercising authority there.
 * May 28, 1686

Rhode Island was incorporated into the Dominion of New England.
 * December 30, 1686

Following the Glorious Revolution, the Dominion of New England was dissolved.
 * April 18, 1689

Rhode Island reinstated its former government and began exercising authority over King's Province, which Connecticut challenged.
 * May 1, 1689

The Province of Massachusetts Bay is chartered, incorporating Plymouth Colony.
 * October 7, 1691

Rhode Island and Connecticut came to a border agreement, ending the dispute over King's Province in Rhode Island's favor. The decision was confirmed in London on February 20, 1726.
 * May 12, 1703

The colony created its first two counties: Providence Plantations, consisting of the mainland; and Rhode Island, consisting of the islands.
 * June 22, 1703

Providence Plantations County was renamed Providence County, and Rhode Island County was renamed Newport County. Kings County was created from the southern third of Providence County.
 * June 16, 1729

(apostrophe, King's?)

Rhode Island gained from Massachusetts Bay, filling out Providence County's northeast corner and gaining land on the east side of Narragansett Bay. Bristol County is created from the northern portion of the area across the bay, the remainder being added to Newport County.
 * February 17, 1747

Kent County was created from the southern third of Providence County. (look through this one for details)
 * June 11, 1750

Connecticut, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island, and ten other colonies declared independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain. Rhode Island notably did so earlier on May 4, but the United States Declaration of Independence was enacted by the Continental Congress on behalf of all the colonies.
 * July 4, 1776

Kings County was renamed Washington County.
 * October 29, 1781

Rhode Island ratified the Constitution, becoming the 13th state admitted to the Union.
 * May 29, 1790

The border with Massachusetts was adjusted, adding some land to Providence County, connecting Bristol County by land with the rest of the state, but losing some land from Newport County.
 * March 1, 1862

Washington County gained Block Island from Newport County.
 * May 6, 1963

title: User:Golbez/sandbox/RI


text:
GRQ

GRQ or grq may refer to:

 * GRQ, the IATA code for Groningen Airport Eelde, Drenthe, Netherlands
 * grq, the ISO 639-3 code for Gorovu language, Papua New Guinea

title: GRQ


text:
User talk:Doteurovision

Image Tagging Image:Sport palace.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Sport palace.jpg. I notice the 'image' page currently doesn't specify who created the content, so the copyright status is unclear. If you have not created this media yourself then there needs to be an argument why we have the right to use the media on Wikipedia (see copyright tagging below). If you have not created the media yourself then it needs to be specified where it was found, i.e., in most cases link to the website where it was taken from, and the terms of use for content from that page.

If the media also doesn't have a copyright tag then one should be added. If you created/took the picture, audio, or video then the GFDL-self tag can be used to release it under the GFDL. If you believe the media qualifies as fair use, consider reading fair use, and then use a tag such as or one of the other tags listed at Image copyright tags. See Image copyright tags for the full list of copyright tags that you can use.

If you have uploaded other media, consider checking that you have specified their source and copyright tagged them, too. You can find a list of 'image' pages you have edited by clicking on the "my contributions" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting "Image" from the dropdown box. Note that any unsourced and untagged images will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

title: User talk:Doteurovision


text: User talk:204.94.167.1

title: User talk:204.94.167.1