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Autumn Leaves (1945 song)

"Autumn Leaves" is a popular song based on a French song "Les Feuilles mortes" ("The Dead Leaves") composed by Joseph Kosma in 1945. The original lyrics were written by Jacques Prévert in French, and the English lyrics were by Johnny Mercer. An instrumental version by pianist Roger Williams was a number one best-seller in the US Billboard charts of 1955.

"Autumn Leaves" has become a jazz standard and it is one of the most recorded songs by jazz musicians. More than a thousand commercial recordings are known to have been released by mainstream and jazz musicians.

Background
Kosma was a native of Hungary who was introduced to Prévert in Paris, and they collaborated on the song "Les Feuilles mortes". The song was legally deposited in 1945, and published in 1947. The song has its origin in the ballet music written by Kosma for Le Rendez-vous by Roland Petit, performed in Paris at the end of the Second World War. Large parts of the melodies are exactly the same as the ballet music, which was itself partially similar to "Poème d'octobre No. 4" by Jules Massenet. This portion of the tune has also been noted to be near-identical to a passage in Tchaikovsky's 1888 composition Hamlet Overture-Fantasia, Op. 67. Marcel Carné used "Les Feuilles mortes" for the 1946 film Les Portes de la nuit (Gates of the Night), where it was sung/hummed in parts by Irène Joachim and Yves Montand.

The most successful commercial recording of "Les Feuilles mortes" was by Yves Montand (Columbia) in 1949, which sold a million copies within 5 years. recorded it (1947 or 1948), as did Juliette Gréco who first recorded a version in 1949.

In 1950, Johnny Mercer wrote the English lyric and gave it the title "Autumn Leaves". The English lyrics are significantly shorter than the French version, consisting of only two verses. In the French original, the crucial line "C'est une chanson" starts at the 13th bar, while in English the line "the autumn leaves" starts at bar 1. Mercer was a founder and partner in Capitol Records at the time, and he selected Capitol recording artist Jo Stafford to make the first English-language recording in July, 1950.

Structure and chord progression
The song is in AABC form. "Autumn Leaves" offers a popular way for beginning jazz musicians to become acquainted with jazz harmony as the chord progression consists almost solely of ii–V–I and ii–V sequences which are typical of jazz. Although it is mostly played in G minor, the original key of the composition was A minor.

The song's iv7–bVII7–bIIImaj7–bVImaj7–iiø–V7–i chord progression is an example of the circle-of-fifths progression.

Roger Williams' recording
Roger Williams was signed by Dave Kapp of Kapp Records when he heard Williams playing in a hotel lounge. He was asked to change his birth name Louis Jacob Weertz to Roger Williams. Williams released an album The Boy Next Door, which failed to make an impact, and then the song "Autumn Leaves". "Autumn Leaves" was recorded at the suggestion of Kapp one Friday, and Williams, who had previously thought that the song was titled "Falling Leaves", said: "The first thing that came to mind was to play all those runs down the keyboard, I tried to make it sound like falling leaves." He created the arrangement that Friday and the following Saturday night, and recorded the song on Monday. Williams played the tune with descending arpeggios its dominant feature, backed by an orchestra conducted by Glenn Osser. The first recording was just over 3 minutes long, and Kapp suggested that it be sped up to keep it under 3 minutes, which Williams duly did.

The song became a number-one hit in the U.S. in 1955, the first piano instrumental to reach number one. It stayed at No. 1 for four weeks in the bestsellers chart. The song is said to have sold two million copies around the world, and it remains the best-selling piano record of all time.

Kapp released a new version with choral and orchestral backings to celebrate its 10th anniversary in 1965.

Other versions
The song was recorded steadily throughout the 1950s by leading pop vocalists including Steve Conway (1950), Bing Crosby (1950), Steve Allen (whose rendition was the only other version to chart in 1955), Nat King Cole (included in the 1955 album re-release of Nat King Cole Sings for Two in Love, and used in the 1956 film Autumn Leaves whose title was inspired by the song), Doris Day (1956), and Frank Sinatra (1957). It was also used in the 1959 film Hey Boy! Hey Girl! performed by Louis Prima and Keely Smith.

A half-French half-English version was released by Édith Piaf in 1951.

The song was also quickly adopted by many instrumental jazz artists, including Artie Shaw (1950); Stan Getz (1952); Cal Tjader in his 1954 album "Mambo with Tjader" with Cal Tjader's Modern Mambo Quintet; Ahmad Jamal (1955); Erroll Garner in his 1955 album Concert by the Sea, Duke Ellington (1957, Ellington Indigos); Cannonball Adderley in his 1958 album Somethin' Else featuring Miles Davis who also recorded it live for Miles Davis in Europe in 1964; Vince Guaraldi (1958); Bill Evans (1959, Portrait in Jazz); John Coltrane (1962); and Ryo Fukui (1976). It became the signature tune of Ben Webster in his later career. A few jazz vocalists have also recorded the song, including Sarah Vaughan in her 1982 album Crazy and Mixed Up.

Composer Terry Riley has written a contrafact of the song (1965), using the same principle of small repetitive cells of melody and rhythm first put in use in his breakthrough piece, In C (1964).

In 2012, jazz historian Philippe Baudoin called the song "the most important non-American standard" and noted that "it has been recorded about 1400 times by mainstream and modern jazz musicians alone and is the eighth most-recorded tune by jazzmen."

The song is the official corps song of the Bluecoats Drum and Bugle Corps.

title: Autumn Leaves (1945 song)


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Portal:Trains/Anniversaries/June 14/More

19th century

 * 1841 – The first section of the Bristol and Exeter Railway's main line is opened between Bristol and Bridgwater.
 * 1873 – The Denver, South Park and Pacific Railway is reorganized with greater capital as the Denver, South Park and Pacific Railroad.

20th century

 * 1901 – The Atlantic City Railroad (predecessor of the Pennsylvania-Reading Seashore Lines) is incorporated from the merger of the Camden County Railroad, Ocean City Railroad and Seacoast Railroad.
 * 1936 – The M-10004 streamliner trainset enters service on the City of San Francisco passenger train.
 * 1959 – The Disneyland Monorail System, in Anaheim, California, opens, becoming the first daily operating monorail in the western hemisphere.

Births

 * 1840 – William F. Nast, president of Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad in September 1868, is born (d. 1893).

Deaths

 * 1888 – Charles Crocker, a member of The Big Four group of financiers in California (b. 1822).

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Christian York

Jason Spence (born April 13, 1977) is an American professional wrestler, better known by his ring name, Christian York. He is best known for his appearances with World Championship Wrestling, Extreme Championship Wrestling and Impact Wrestling. Championships held by York over the course of his career include the NWA World Tag Team Championship as one-half of The Bad Street Boys with Joey Matthews.

Early career (1996–1999)
Spence trained under Cueball Carmichael and Jimmy Cicero in the IPWA Training School and had his in ring debut at the age of 19 on December 7, 1996, in Middleport, Ohio in a 30-minute Hardcore Ironman match against Joey Matthews. Adopting the name "Christian York", Spence wrestled for the Organization of Modern Extreme Grappling Arts (OMEGA), Southern Championship Wrestling, Steel City Wrestling, and numerous other independent promotions across the country. In OMEGA, York formed a stable known as the "Badstreet Boys", with Joey Matthews, as well as Shannon Moore and Shane Helms. The group had a boy band gimmick to capitalize on the bubble gum boy bands of pop culture.

National promotions (1999–2001)
Eventually, all four members of the group signed three-year contracts with Ted Turner's World Championship Wrestling (WCW) after try-outs on WCW Monday Nitro in the early summer of 1999. They stayed under contract until April 2000 when budget cuts were in order and management changed hands. York and Matthews went on to wrestle for numerous independent promotions, winning several tag team championships.

In April, they went to Vince McMahon's World Wrestling Federation (WWF) for try-outs in Baltimore on Raw and Richmond the following night for SmackDown!. The office was impressed with their ability but asked if they could send them to Paul Heyman's Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) for more seasoning. Following that date, they were signed to contracts by ECW and aligned themselves with Tommy Dreamer, Joey Styles, and Joel Gertner. York would wrestle on the last match on ECW Hardcore TV in a losing effort to Jerry Lynn.

After ECW declared bankruptcy in April 2001, York and Matthews were offered a contract from former employer WCW, and were written into the shows for the whole month. They then signed a three-year deal with the WWF. Upon signing the deal, they had to report to Memphis, Tennessee to work for WWF's farm league, Memphis Championship Wrestling, until being called up to the main roster. During their stay, they feuded with Eddie Fatu, Matt Anoa'i, Joey Abs, Lance Cade, Spanky, Bryan Danielson, and The Haas Brothers (Russ and Charlie). During their stay, Vince McMahon purchased WCW, upon which York and a number of development wrestlers were released.

Independent circuit (2001–present)
After only a few days being released, on July 20, York and Matthews returned to the independent circuit at International Wrestling Cartel losing to Evolution, the match also included the Backseat Boyz. On September 2, York and Matthews defeated the Holy Roller to become the Maryland Championship Wrestling's Tag Team Championship and would lose it in May 2002 to the Slackers. Throughout 2002 and 2003, York and Matthews appeared for Ring of Honor and Xtreme Pro Wrestling and even took on Youthanazia for the XPW World Tag Team Championship. In June 2002, they were signed to contracts by the newly formed Total Nonstop Action Wrestling promotion, after appearing on their inaugural pay-per-view against The Dupps. They were released later that year.

Away from tag team wrestling, York also had some notable exposure as a singles wrestler. Between the month August and September 2002, York took part in 3PW Heavyweight Title Tournament where he would make it to the final before losing to Gary Wolfe. In July 2003, York took part in the Shane Shamrock Memorial Cup six man match which also had the MCW Cruiserweight Championship and the MEWF Cruiserweight Championship on the line. York would line the match and would also unify the two titles to become the MEWF Maryland Unified Cruiserweight Championship.

In November 2002, York tore ligaments in his left ankle that kept him on the sidelines for three months. He would also have to vacate the MEWF Maryland Unified Cruiserweight Championship. York decided to get out of the wrestling business for a while to take care of life outside of wrestling after marrying his high-school sweetheart.

In February 2003, York made his debut in Delaware Championship Wrestling out of Delaware. York would team with Joey Matthews winning the DCW Tag-Team Championships. Delaware Championship Wrestling would change its name to Dynamite Championship Wrestling in 2004. The team would split up when Matthews went to WWE in 2005.

On July 22, 2006, however, York returned to the business to wrestle for Maryland Championship Wrestling.

On December 18, 2006, York faced "Bone Crusher" Fred Sampson in a tryout dark match for WWE. York also wrestled The Miz on SmackDown and Chuck Palumbo and Carlito on WWE Heat. He was then asked to report to Louisville, Kentucky's Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW), to form a team with Johnny Jeter. York reported to OVW in September 2007, although still not under contract with WWE. In May 2007, York made a televised appearance with World Wrestling Entertainment, losing to The Miz on the May 19, 2007 episode of SmackDown.

On September 29, 2007, in Berwyn, Illinois, York reunited with Joey Mercury, in a losing effort against the AAW Tag Team Champions, The Motor City Machine Guns (Chris Sabin and Alex Shelley).

On the December 26, 2007 edition of Maryland Championship Wrestling's Season's Beatings event, York won a number one contendership tag team match with his former tag team partner and then MCW Heavyweight Champion, Joey Matthews after they defeated Tom Brandi and Adam Flash of the Creative Control stable. York later defeated Matthews to win his first MCW Heavyweight Championship.

On November 5, 2010, York defeated Robert Roma to become the new SCWA Mindshock Television champion. On February 22, 2013, York won the MCW Heavyweight Championship for the second time. He lost the title to Drolix on May 3, 2014.

On January 4, 2015, York appeared on the premiere episode of First State Championship Wrestling. He faced fellow ECW alumnus Justin Credible in an Extreme Rules match, which he won.

Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (2012–2013)
On November 1, 2012, York appeared on Total Nonstop Action Wrestling's (TNA) Impact Wrestling program, losing to Zema Ion in a TNA Gut Check match. On the following episode of Impact Wrestling, the Gut Check judges voted unanimously to sign York to a contract.

York returned on the November 22 episode of Impact Wrestling, losing to TNA World Heavyweight Champion Jeff Hardy in a non-title match. After defeating Kid Kash and Kenny King in a tournament to determine the number one contender to the TNA X Division Championship, York unsuccessfully challenged champion Rob Van Dam in a title match at Genesis on January 13, 2013. The day before Genesis, York took part in X-Travaganza, where he won a seven-man Xscape match which aired on April 5, 2013. That same day, York also took part in Joker's Wild which aired on May 3, 2013, competing in a tournament for a $100,000 cash prize; he teamed up with James Storm to defeat Crimson and Gunner in a tag team match to advanced to the main event Gauntlet Battle Royal, but was eliminated by Rob Terry. York returned on March 10 at Lockdown, unsuccessfully challenging Kenny King for the X Division Championship in a three-way match, which also included Zema Ion. York's last appearance for the company was on the May 16 episode of Impact Wrestling, losing to Jay Bradley in the first qualifying round for the Bound for Glory Series Tournament. On July 3, York was released from his TNA contract.

Championships and accomplishments

 * American Pro Wrestling Alliance
 * APWA World Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Bobby Shields, Chase Stevens, Jock Samson and The Stro (1) and Viper (1)
 * Atlantic Terror Championship Wrestling
 * ATCW Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Joey Matthews
 * Dynamite Championship Wrestling
 * DCW Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Joey Matthews
 * East Coast Wrestling Association
 * ECWA Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Mark Schrader
 * Far North Wrestling
 * FNW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 * First State Championship Wrestling
 * 1CW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 * Independent Professional Wrestling Alliance
 * IPWA Light Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
 * KYDA Pro Wrestling
 * KYDA Pro Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
 * Maryland Championship Wrestling
 * MCW Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
 * MCW Cruiserweight Championship (2 times)
 * MCW Tag Team Championship (3 times) – with Joey Matthews (2) and Ruckus (1)
 * Shane Shamrock Memorial Cup (1999, 2003, 2010)
 * Mid-Eastern Wrestling Federation
 * MEWF Cruiserweight Championship (1 time)
 * MEWF Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Joey Matthews
 * National Wrestling Alliance
 * NWA World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Joey Matthews
 * Organization of Modern Extreme Grappling Arts
 * OMEGA Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 * Operation Save Foundation
 * OSF Adrenaline Championship (1 time)
 * Pro Wrestling Illustrated
 * PWI ranked him # 128 of the Top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2001.
 * Real Championship Wrestling
 * RCW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 * CZW South Championship (1 time)
 * Southern Championship Wrestling
 * SCW Junior Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
 * Squared Circle Wrestling Alliance
 * SCWA Mindshock Television Championship (1 time, current)
 * Steel City Wrestling
 * SCW Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 * SCW Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Joey Matthews
 * Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
 * TNA Gut Check winner
 * TNA X Division Championship #1 Contender Tournament (2013)
 * Universal Wrestling Council
 * UWC Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 * Vanguard Championship Wrestling
 * VCW Tag Team Championship (2 time) – with Joey Matthews (1) and John Kermon (1)
 * Virginia Championship Wrestling
 * VCW Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Joey Matthews

York defended the championship with either Stevens, The Stro, Shields, or Samson under the Freebird Rule.

title: Christian York


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title: User talk:64.105.34.213


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Semi-Slav Defense

The Semi-Slav Defense is a variation of the Queen's Gambit Declined chess opening defined by the position reached after the moves:
 * 1. d4 d5
 * 2. c4 c6
 * 3. Nf3 Nf6
 * 4. Nc3 e6

The position may readily be reached by a number of different. Black's supporting pawns resemble a mixture of the Orthodox Queen's Gambit Declined, e6, and the Slav Defense, c6.

Black is threatening to capture the white pawn on c4 and hold it with ...b7–b5. White can avoid this in a number of ways. About 80% of games continue 5.Bg5 or 5.e3: the former constitutes a sharp pawn sacrifice, while the latter restricts the dark-squared bishop from its natural to g5. Other possible moves are 5.Qb3, 5.g3 and 5.cxd5, the last of which, after 5...exd5, leads to a line of the QGD Exchange Variation where White's early Nf3 enables Black's queen bishop to freely develop, which should give equality (ECO codes D43 and D45). 5.Bf4 is considered somewhat inaccurate, as 5...dxc4 is favorable for Black.

The Semi-Slav is designated by codes D43 through D49 in Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings.

First moves and possible deviations
It is possible to reach the Semi-Slav through many move orders. White may start the game with either 1.d4, 1.Nf3 or even 1.c4, keeping the possibility of a Semi-Slav open. Black can choose different combinations of ...d5, ...c6, ...e6 and ...Nf6 as well in order to avoid certain variations or to open up some new opportunities of his own. This chapter looks at the first moves of the game from Black's point of view, assuming that he would prefer to play the Semi-Slav.

1.d4 d5 move order
If White opens the game with 1.d4, Black is happy to respond with 1...d5 when aiming for a Semi-Slav. Of course White can continue the game with 2.Bf4 or even 2.Bg5 (as is the case if Black opens 1...Nf6), and the game will take a completely different path. In vast majority of master games, however, White players choose to play either 2.c4 (Queens Gambit) or 2.Nf3. After 2.Nf3, the natural continuation for Black is 2...Nf6. Playing 2...c6 or 2...e6 might be somewhat inaccurate, since White always has the option of avoiding c2–c4, so developing the knight first makes a lot of sense.

If White chooses the most common 2.c4, Black has three practical choices: either protect the pawn on d5 by playing e6 or c6 (keeping the option of a Semi-Slav open), or alternatively capture the white pawn with dxc4 (leading to Queen's Gambit Accepted). The first thing for Black players to consider is, what if White captures on d5 anyhow with cxd5. If Black has played the Slav move order (2...c6), then after the recapture cxd5 ("exchange Slav") the pawn structure is symmetrical. Should Black have played 2...e6 instead, the recapture exd5 leads to an imbalanced pawn structure called the Carlsbad structure, which might offer White some opportunities for a minority attack on the.

Slav move order: 2...c6
Protecting the d5-pawn with the c-pawn has at least three implications for Black. First, it allows Black to keep the option to enter the Slav Defense, i.e., developing his light-squared bishop to f5 at the appropriate moment, before moving his e-pawn. Second, it may discourage White from capturing on d5, given the somewhat drawish reputation of the Exchange Slav. Third, it prevents White from entering the Catalan opening with 3.g3.

One drawback of playing 2...c6 is that White may continue 3.Nf3, and after 3...Nf6 play 4.e3 ("Slow Slav"), and now Black cannot really play the Semi-Slav since 4...e6 is considered to be good for White as he has not committed to Nc3 thus having other options to develop, for example Nbd2 or b3.

Queen's Gambit declined move order: 2...e6
Protecting the d5-pawn with the e-pawn allows Black to develop his more rapidly, but it does block the light-squared bishop for the time being. After 3.Nf3 Nf6 White has the option of entering the Catalan opening with 4.g3.

If White continues 3.Nc3, Black has two options to proceed with a Semi-Slav in mind. First, Black can play 3...c6 (the "triangle setup", see below). Second, Black can play 3...Nf6, which gives White the opportunity to continue 4.cxd5 exd5 followed by 5.Bg5.

The triangle setup
After the move order 1.d4 d5 2.c4 c6 3.Nc3 Black has the opportunity to respond with 3...e6 instead of 3...Nf6. This "triangle setup" opens up some new alternatives for both players on the fourth move.

Marshall Gambit
First, White has the opportunity to enter the Marshall Gambit by playing 4.e4. Play continues 4...dxe4 (4...Bb4 is sometimes played, but should favor White) 5.Nxe4 Bb4+. Now White has two alternative paths to continue. The main line is considered to be 6.Bd2 Qxd4 7.Bxb4 Qxe4+ and then White blocks the check with either his knight or bishop. Alternatively White can continue with 6.Nc3 (as in World Championship match Carlsen–Anand, 2013), and play continues 6...c5 7.a3 Ba5.

Noteboom Variation
Second, if White continues 4.Nf3, Black has the extra option of playing 4...dxc4 entering the Noteboom Variation. If White wants to avoid this variation, he must play either 4.e4 (Marshall Gambit) or 4.e3 (which usually transposes to the Meran, but deprives White of the Bg5 variations). White now has a number of possible continuations, including 5.a4 (see below), 5.e3 (often transposing to the line given below), 5.e4 (with similarities to the line given below), or even 5.Bg5. A typical line in the Noteboom Variation continues: 5.a4 Bb4 6.e3 b5 7.Bd2 a5 8.axb5 Bxc3 9.Bxc3 cxb5 10.b3 Bb7 11.bxc4 b4 12.Bb2 Nf6 13.Bd3 Nbd7 14.0-0 0-0 with an interesting position where Black has two connected passed pawns on the queenside, while White has the bishop pair and dominates the center of the board.

The "triangle setup" is not ideal for Black if White plays 3.Nf3 instead of 3.Nc3. Should Black play 3...e6 nevertheless, White has the option of continuing with 4.e3 or 4.Qc2, for example, thus avoiding the Noteboom Variation.

1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 move order
Black has the option of delaying the move ...d7–d5, for instance to avoid the exchange cxd5. If White continues 3.Nc3, Black has the option of transposing to a Nimzo-Indian with 3...Bb4. Should White choose to play 3.Nf3 instead, Black can simply play 3...d5, and then after 4.Nc3 c6 we are back at the start of the Semi-Slav. This move order, however, allows White to play the Catalan Opening with either 3.g3, or alternatively 3.Nf3 d5 4.g3.

Semi-Slav: 5.e3 variations
Roughly 50% of the games continue with 5.e3. White gives priority to developing his light-squared bishop, and accepts that for the time being the dark-squared bishop will remain somewhat out of play. The main line continues with 5...Nbd7. 5...Be7 is rare, as the bishop is passively placed on e7 and does not support the freeing move ...e5. The unusual move 5...a6 is considered solid for Black. Some sources call 5...a6 the "accelerated Meran".

Meran Variation: 6.Bd3
One of the main variations of the Semi-Slav is the Meran Variation. White plays 6.Bd3, provoking the continuation 6...dxc4 7.Bxc4 b5 (ECO codes D46 to D49) where black surrenders his center in exchange for queenside expansion and some tempo against the white bishop. The line was first played in 1906 in the game Schlechter–Perlis. The variation takes its name from the town of Meran (Merano) in northern Italy. During a 1924 tournament in Meran, it was used successfully in the game Gruenfeld–Rubinstein. Gruenfeld adopted the same variation two rounds later against Spielmann, winning as well. White will play in the center, leading to a rich, complicated game. These opposing strategies, with the ensuing keen play, have long made the Meran a favorite for enterprising players of either color. An example is Gligoric–Ljubojevic, Belgrade 1979.

Though appearing in contemporary master play with less frequency than the Meran, there are other possibilities: 6...Be7, 6...Bb4, introduced by the Italian master Max Romih, and 6...Bd6, which was much the most popular line before the debut of the Meran, and espoused by the American grandmaster Arthur Bisguier throughout his career.

After the main line 6.Bd3 dxc4 7.Bxc4 b5 White has three alternative retreats for the bishop. The vast majority of games continue 8.Bd3, but the moves 8.Bb3 and 8.Be2 are also possible.

8.Bd3 variation (main line)
By playing 8.Bd3 White returns the bishop on this ideal square, where it supports White's strategic ambition of pushing e3–e4 in the near future, and gives White the option of playing Ne4 if necessary. Black's main plan, on the other hand, is to find a way to push ...c6–c5 in order to free the long diagonal for his light-squared bishop and to eliminate the backward pawn on the semi-open c-file. In practice, Black has three alternative moves in this position: 8...a6 (Classical Meran), 8...Bb7 ("Modern/Improved Meran" ) or 8...Bd6 (which often transposes to the lines of the Anti-Meran).

8.Bb3 variation
Maintaining the bishop on the long diagonal aiming at e6- and f7-squares is an aggressive approach by White. If Black is not careful, White will launch an aggressive attack towards the black king with possible knight sacrifices on e6 or f7 in the near future. An example continuation might be 8...b4 9.Ne2 Bb7 10.Nf4 Bd6 11.Ng5, when White is already threatening sacrifices to open up Black's position, and Black must respond with 11...Bxf4 in order to avoid trouble.

8.Be2 variation
Retreating the bishop to e2 instead of the typical d3-square has an impact on certain continuations, when the white queen is protecting the d-pawn. An example can be seen in a line where Black plays in the typical Meran style: 8.Be2 a6 9.e4 c5 10.e5 cxd4 and now White has the option of playing 11.Qxd4 Bc5 12.Qf4 with a comfortable advantage.

Classical Meran: 8...a6
Black plays 8...a6 in order to protect his b5-pawn and threatening to follow up with the equalizing move ...c6–c5. White cannot really prevent this plan directly, so he must immediately generate some counterplay in the center with 9.e4. It is also possible to play 9.a4, but 9.0-0 is a strategic mistake as it allows Black to freely push his c-pawn, equalizing immediately. Black will respond with 9...c5, after which White has the choice between pushing his d-pawn or e-pawn, leading to very different middlegames.

10.e5 variation (main line)
Pushing the e-pawn is the classical approach by White, adopted in several high-level games, including World Championship match Kramnik–Anand in 2008. The black knight on f6 has no reasonable squares to go to, so Black must continue his aggression by 10...cxd4, attacking the white knight in return. Taking the knight on f6 would favor Black, so White responds 11.Nxb5 (the Blumenfeld Variation), sacrificing his knight while still threatening Black's f6-knight. Black now has three reasonable alternatives for how to proceed. The most popular and tested line continues 11...axb5 12.exf6 gxf6 13.0-0 Qb6 14.Qe2 with a very interesting position. Black is up a pawn and has a very straightforward plan: play ...Bb7, ...Bd6, ...Rb8 and aim for the white king. Practice has shown, however, that White is doing very well in these positions, but precision is certainly required from both sides. Alternatively, Black can play 11...Ng4 (the Rabinovich Variation), where White might respond 12.Qa4, preventing the capture ...axb5 due to the pin on the a-file, as well as discouraging Black from capturing on e5 due to the discovered check on the black king. Nevertheless, play might continue 12...Ngxe5 13.Nxe5 Nxe5 14.Nd6+ Ke7 15.Nxc8+ Rxc8 16.Bxa6 Ra8 and White is clearly better but certainly not yet winning. A third alternative is to play 11...Nxe5 (the Sozin Variation), and after 12.Nxe5 axb5 13.Bxb5+ Bd7 14.Nxd7 Qa5+ 15.Bd2 Qxb5 16.Nxf8 Kxf8 White probably has a slight advantage, but the imbalance in pawn structures will guarantee an exciting game with opportunities for both sides.

10.d5 variation (transposition to Reynolds Attack)
White has the option of playing 10.d5 as well. This often transposes to the Reynolds Attack (described in detail below) after, for example, 10...c4 11.Bc2 Qc7 12.0-0 Bb7, or another move order.

Modern/Improved Meran: 8...Bb7
According to some sources, the move was first played in 1923. The strategic idea behind this move is to develop the light-squared bishop and possibly play b5–b4 and c6–c5 without wasting time on a7–a6. The move 8...Bb7 was long considered virtually unplayable due to the line 9.e4 b4 10.Na4 c5 11.e5 Nd5 12.Nxc5 Nxc5 13.dxc5 Bxc5 14.Bb5+ and the black king will be stuck in the center. However, it was later found, in particular through the work of Danish grandmaster Bent Larsen in the late 1960s and early 1970s, that after 14...Ke7 Black is completely fine and might be even better, with a very strong knight on d5 and strong bishops aiming at the White kingside. This forced White players to look for alternative approaches to Black's modern treatment of the Meran.

9.0-0 variation and Reynolds Attack
White can simply play 9.0-0, and the game often continues 9...a6 10.e4 c5 11.d5 leading into the Reynolds Attack. 11.e5 is no longer an option as it was in the Classical Meran, since Black can respond with 11...cxd4 and now 12.Nxb5 no longer works since Black has the option of playing 12...Bxf3 13.Qxf3 Nd5 with. After 11.d5 Black cannot really capture on d5, since the opening of the e-file could be disastrous for Black in a practical game (although with precise computer play Black seems to be fine after 11...exd5). Therefore, Black must allow White to capture on e6, and try to deal with the consequences.

Black typically develops his queen with ...Qc7, with the choice of whether or not to push the c-pawn to c4. The benefit of pushing the c-pawn is that should White play dxe6 and after the recapture fxe6 attack the e-pawn with either Ng5 or Nd4, Black has the opportunity to defend the pawn with ...Nc5. Alternatively, Black can refrain from pushing the c-pawn to c4, which prevents White from using the d4-square for his knight in some variations.

An example variation where Black keeps his c-pawn on c5 is: 11...Qc7 12.dxe6 fxe6 13.Ng5 Qc6 after which there are many different ways to continue for both sides.

If Black instead pushes his c-pawn, this opens up several interesting opportunities for White. For example: 11...c4 12.Bc2 Qc7 13.dxe6 fxe6 and now White has two possible knight moves (among other alternatives) pressure Black's e-pawn.

First, 14.Ng5 has to be met with 14...Nc5 (now 14...Qc6 would lead to 15.Qf3 h6 16.Qh3 – a typical queen maneuver in such positions – with a very strong advantage for White). Now White has a couple of interesting alternatives to proceed. The first one is a flashy move 15.e5, played for example in 1994 by Kramnik against Shirov, and a couple of rounds later by Karpov against Kramnik himself. Play continues 15...Qxe5 16.Re1 Qd6 17.Qxd6 Bxd6 18.Be3 0-0 19.Rad1 Be7 20.Bxc5 Bxc5 21.Nxe6 Rfc8 with roughly equal chances for both. An alternative approach is 15.Be3 h6, after which White can throw in the even flashier knight sacrifice 16.Nxe6, and the game typically continues 16...Nxe6 17.e5 Qxe5 18.Bg6+ (the point!) Ke7 19.Re1 and White has a strong attack against the black king, despite being a full piece down.

Second, 14.Nd4 Nc5 15.Qe2 Bd6 leads to very interesting play, for example in the game Karpov–Anand, 1998, which continued 16.f4 e5 17.Ndxb5 axb5 18.Nxb5 Qb6 19.Nxd6+ Qxd6 20.fxe5 Qxe5 21.Rf5 Qe7 22.Qxc4 Rc8 23.Qb5+ Ncd7 24.Qxb7 Rxc2 with a wild and tactical game.

A lot of theory and high-level games exist on Reynolds Attack and its different subvariations. As in many variations of the Semi-Slav, the game becomes wildly tactical and provides opportunities for both sides.

9.e4 variation
Continuing the game with 9.e4 b4 10.Na4 c5 11.e5 Nd5 is still very much an option for White. Instead of captures on c5, White can play 12.0-0 with some attacking prospects. The most critical continuation is 12...cxd4, after which White can either play 13.Re1 or 13.Nxd4, both giving opportunity for some wild attacks on the black position. With accurate play, however, Black should be fine.

9.a3 variation
White has a third option to play 9.a3 as well. The idea is to prepare b2–b4 by White, which would make it more difficult for black to achieve his strategic plan of pushing c6–c5. Black may respond with moves like 9...b4, 9...Bd6, 9...a6 or 9...a5.

8...Bd6 variation
Intent of the move 8...Bd6 is to allow rapid castling as well as to increase Black's control over the e5-square, which will be critical in many continuations. White's strategic idea in the Meran is to push e3–e4, and with a bishop on d6 Black is always ready to meet this with e6–e5, and typically Black is doing fine after such moves. Play might continue 9.0-0 0-0 10.Qc2 Bb7 transposing to one of the topical lines discussed in the Anti-Meran section below. In addition there are some independent lines after 8...Bd6, where play continues with, for example, either 9.Ng5 Bb7 10.Qf3 h6 11.Qh3 or 9.Bd2 Bb7 10.Rc1 Rc8 11.a3.

Anti-Meran Variation: 6.Qc2
Also known as the Stoltz Variation, named after Swedish grandmaster Gösta Stoltz, the main alternative to 6.Bd3 has become 6.Qc2. Once a sideline, this move exploded in popularity in the 1990s, in large part due to Anatoly Karpov's advocacy. The idea is to wait for Black to commit to ...dxc4 before playing Bd3. Black commonly replies with 6...Bd6. One such example was played between Magnus Carlsen against Viswanathan Anand at Linares in 2009, in which the white pieces ended victorious.

White can choose between a couple of very different continuations:

Karpov Variation: 7.Bd3
Most often White players choose the move 7.Bd3. Karpov first played 7.Be2 but it soon transpired that the d3-square gives White better chances. Play usually continues 7...dxc4 8.Bxc4 0-0 9.0-0 b5 10.Bd3 Bb7, after which White has several interesting options to continue the game.

11.a3 variation
One of the "hot" positions of Semi-Slav occurs after 11.a3. White intends to simply push b2–b4, which would seriously hamper Black's strategic plan of playing c6–c5. White also often looks at transferring his knight from f3 via g5 to e4, which is something Black might want to prevent. Black players have tried various approaches to combat White's plan, and the final word on this variation has certainly not yet been said.

If Black responds with 11...a5, he is certainly slowing down White's intentions towards b4, but the cost may be too high: Black will never be able to support his b-pawn with a6, and the weakness of the queenside pawn structure will be a permanent problem.

An alternative is to play 11...a6 aiming at pushing c5 next, which more or less invites White to play 12.b4. Now Black can respond with 12...a5, and the game could continue with 13.Rb1 axb4 14.axb4 Qe7 15.e4 e5, with very dynamic play and opportunities for both sides.

Playing 11...Qe7 takes the poison out of White's planned knight transfer, since after the moves 12.Ng5 h6 13.Nge4 Nxe4 14.Nxe4 c5 Black seems to be fine. However, after 11...Qe7, White can continue 12.e4 e5 13.Bg5, and White seems to retain some advantage.

A very radical approach by Black is to play 11...Rc8, with a clear threat of placing the rook on the same file as the white queen. If White now plays 12.b4 to "prevent" Black from pushing the c-pawn, Black may simply respond with 12...c5!? (12...a5 is the computer preference), and after 13.bxc5 Bxf3 14.cxd6 Nd5 the game is wide open with massive tactical complications and opportunities for both sides.

11.Rd1 variation
Playing 11.Rd1 is a possibility, but it looks like Black can neutralize White's play after 11...b4 12.Na4 c5 13.dxc5 Rc8 and the tactics seem to work in Black's favor.

11.e4 variation
White can immediately push 11.e4, and Black must respond with the thematic 11...e5. Play often continues 12.dxe5 Nxe5 13.Nxe5 Bxe5 14.h3 with some slight advantage for White.

11.Ng5 variation
White can begin the thematic knight transfer immediately with 11.Ng5. In such positions, Black often has the tactical idea of Bxh2+ Kxh2 Ng4+ at his disposal, but in this precise variation it does not seem to provide anything for Black. After 11...h6 12.Nge4 Be7 the position seems very equal, though.

7.b3 variation
Instead of preparing the e3–e4 push to free his dark-squared bishop, White can also play 7.b3 to support the pawn on c4 and develop the bishop on the long diagonal in anticipation of future opening of the center. Play might continue 7...0-0 8.Be2 after which Black has several viable continuations at his disposal, with the most common being 8...b6 and 8...e5.

Shirov–Shabalov Gambit: 7.g4
Another increasingly common gambit line used in the Anti-Meran is the sharp 7.g4. Popularized by Alexander Shabalov and Alexey Shirov, the gambit destabilizes the center for Black and has been successful for several grandmasters, including Kasparov, who won the first game of his 2003 match against the computer chess program Deep Junior with it.

If Black simply takes the pawn with 7...Nxg4, White will respond with 8.Rg1. Black now has a number of playable continuations, including Qf6, Nxh2, f5, h5 and Nh6, and with precise play Black should be fine.

An alternative to taking the pawn is to simply stop it by playing 7...h6. White will continue with 8.Rg1 anyhow, but Black has a number of playable responses.

Another popular response is to play 7...dxc4, but after 8.Bxc4 it seems that White will retain a slight advantage. Play might continue, for example, with 8...e5 9.g5 Nd5 10.Ne4

Semi-Slav: 5.Bg5 variations
The Anti-Meran Gambit (ECO code D44) arises after 5.Bg5. White refuses to shut in the dark-squared bishop, instead developing it to an active square where it pins the black knight. The downsides of this choice are that it does not help developing White's kingside, and the pawn of c4 remains unprotected. In some cases, such as the Cambridge Springs Defense (see below), Black aims to benefit from the slight dark square weaknesses left behind on the queenside after the bishop has moved outside the pawn chain.

Main Black replies are (in order of frequency in high-level games): 5...h6 (immediately questioning the white bishop's intentions, leading to Moscow/Anti-Moscow variations), 5...Nbd7 (transposing to the Cambridge Springs Defense), 5...dxc4 (triggering the ultra-sharp Botvinnik Variation) or 5...Be7 (transposing to the Orthodox Defense of the Queen's Gambit Declined).

Moscow Variation: 5...h6 6.Bxf6 Qxf6
The Moscow Variation 5...h6 6.Bxf6 Qxf6 gives rise to play of a very different character from the Botvinnik or Anti-Moscow Variations. Black has the bishop pair, which gives him good long-term chances, but must avoid prematurely opening the position in the face of White's superior development and central control, as his position is initially solid but passive. Alexei Dreev, for example, has played this line successfully as Black.

Play might continue like this: 7.e3 Nd7 8.Bd3 dxc4 (White was threatening to play e3–e4–e5) 9.Bxc4 g6 (9...Bd6 is also possible) 10.0-0 Bg7 and now there are various ways to continue the game for both sides. Black has the bishop pair and no immediate structural weaknesses, but his pieces are still a bit undeveloped, especially the light-squared bishop. White might continue with a queenside expansion, for example 11.b4 0-0 12.a4 with a lively game to follow. An alternative approach is one introduced in a game Carlsen–Karjakin (2009), where White continued with the thematic 11.e4 e5 12.d5 Nb6 13.Bb3 Bg4. This allows Black to inflict doubled pawns for White, but it seems that White is able to get a lot of play against Black's weak c-pawn. The game continued: 14.Rc1 0-0 15.h3 Bxf3 16.Qxf3 Qxf3 17.gxf3 Rfd8 18.Rfd1 Bf6 19.dxc6 bxc6 20.Rxd8+ Rxd8 21.Nd1 and White seems to have a slight advantage.

In order to avoid the continuations above, Black can also play 7...g6 instead. This makes White's typical plan of e3–e4–e5 a bit less attractive (an example line could be: 8.Bd3 Bg7 9.e4 0-0 10.0-0 Qd8 11.e5 dxc4 12.Bxc4 c5 challenging White's center). One alternative approach was introduced in a game Kramnik–Topalov (2014 candidates), where the game continued 8.Bd3 Bg7 9.0-0 0-0 10.Ne5. This could be a strong square for the knight, since Black cannot really challenge it with a move ...f7–f6, given the weaknesses of the kingside pawns. The game continued 10...c5 11.cxd5 cxd4 12.exd4 exd5 13.Re1 Be6 14.Bb5, restricting the black knight and securing a good position for White.

Anti-Moscow Variation: 5...h6 6.Bh4 dxc4
Instead of the more calm and positional 6.Bxf6, White has the option of retreating the bishop with 6.Bh4. This allows Black to capture and keep the c4-pawn, but in return offers White a lot of active play against Black's weakened pawn structure and vulnerable king. The game typically continues 6...dxc4 7.e4 (note: 7.a4 to prevent Black's b5 does not work, see below) g5 8.Bg3 b5 and Black has been able to defend the pawn on c4, but his position is full of weaknesses for White to attack. The Anti-Moscow Variation leads to a very complicated game, similar to the Botvinnink Variation in many ways.

Note: In such positions, White often considers pushing a2–a4 to prevent Black from defending the c4-pawn with b5. In this particular case, 7.a4 is a mistake. First, Black can play 7...b5 anyway, with the idea that 8.axb5 cxb5 9.Nxb5 Qb6 10.Na3 Qxb2 is very good for Black. (There are some other variations, including taking Bxf6 at some point, but Black is better in any case.) Second, Black can play 7...Bb4, followed up by b5, and Black is a pawn up and it is difficult to believe White has enough compensation.

White has a number of typical plans to attack the Black position all over the board. On the kingside, White can consider the move h2–h4, possibly further weakening Black's kingside pawn structure. In the center, White often plays Ne5 and opens up the d1–h5 diagonal for his queen and bishop, as well as looks for opportunities to break through with d4–d5. It is worth mentioning that pushing the e-pawn to e5 is often not a good idea, since it blocks the white minor pieces. On the queenside, White often plays moves like a2–a4 and b2–b3 to undermine the Black pawn structure. All of this is combined with the fact that the Black king has no strong shelter to hide, so a constant threat of mating attacks hangs in the air.

White typically continues 9.Be2, and Black responds with 9...Bb7. This is an important prophylactic move by Black, as White is constantly threatening to push d4–d5 to break through in the center. White now has the option of playing either 10.h4 or 10.0-0. A typical line after the former is 10.h4 g4 11.Ne5 h5 12.0-0 Nbd7, 13.Qc2 Nxe5 14.Bxe5 Bg7 with various possible continuations and possibly still a slight advantage for White. The latter often leads to wild complications after 10.0-0 Nbd7 11.Ne5 Bg7, and now White can choose between two very different continuations. The first one is 12.Nxd7, which typically continues 12...Nxd7 13.Bd6 a6 14.a4 e5 and so on. The second one, first seen in 2008 in a game between Topalov and Kramnik, is the flashy 12.Nxf7 (a full piece sacrifice), which leads to a wild attack after 12...Kxf7 13.e5 Nd5 14.Ne4 Ke7 15.Nd6 Qb6 16.Bg4 and White has a great position, strong knight on d6, control over the center and the light squares, and pressure against the weak e6 pawn. Although Black might be objectively able to survive and even convert his to a win, the complications are huge, and whoever is better prepared to deal with the position certainly has the upper hand in practical games.

Botvinnik Variation: 5...dxc4
The Botvinnik Variation is probably one of the most complicated of all chess openings, with theory stretching past move thirty in some variations. The opening was introduced by Mikhail Botvinnik in the 1945 USSR vs. USA radio match vs. Arnold Denker. Today, Alex Yermolinsky has an excellent record with the white pieces and Alexei Shirov has been Black's chief proponent in this variation. Although this variation bears Botvinnik's name, he was not the first person known to have played it—Klaus Junge is credited as the actual inventor. Black makes the thematic pawn capture 5...dxc4 immediately. White takes control of the center with 6.e4 as Black defends his extra pawn with 6...b5. The main line of the Botvinnik now continues 7.e5 h6 8.Bh4 g5 9.Nxg5 hxg5 (9...Nd5 is sometimes played, and after 10.Nxf7 Qxh4 11.Nxh8 Bb4 12.Rc1 White is objectively much better, but the position is incredibly complex to play in practice for both sides) 10.Bxg5 Nbd7 (10...Be7 11.exf6 Bxf6 12.Bxf6 Qxf6 13.g3 should be favorable for White). White will regain his piece with interest, emerging with an extra pawn, but Black will soon complete his development, gaining great dynamic compensation, whereas White's task is rather more difficult. White will fianchetto his king bishop and castle kingside, while Black will play ...c5, ...Qb6, castle queenside, and can carry out an attack in the center or on either flank, leading to complex play. The main continuation is 11.g3, aiming to quickly take control of the long diagonal. White can also play 11.exf6, but after 11...Bb7 12.g3 c5 13.d5 White has given Black some additional options compared to the main move, such as ...Nb6, ...Ne5, ...Qc7 or ...Bh6, which was not necessary. The 11.g3 move order does, however, open up the possibility of 11...Rg8, and play might continue 12.h4 Rxg5 13.hxg5 Nd5 14.g6 fxg6 15.Qg4 Qe7 16.Bg2 with a slight advantage for White. The main continuation is 11...Bb7 12.Bg2 Qb6 13.exf6 0-0-0 14.0-0 c5 (14...Ne5 is also an option: White can simply capture 15.dxe5, and while Black wins the queen after 15...Rxd1 16.Raxd1, white seems to have the upper hand at least according to engines. In practical play, this variation is no different to most Botvinnik variations – a slight sidestep may lead to immediate disaster for either player) 15.d5 b4 and we have reached one of the key positions of the Botvinnik Variation. White now has two main continuations: 16.Na4 and 16.Rb1.

16.Na4 variation
The most challenging continuation is 16.Na4, where Black has two main replies. The first one, although not the best one, is 16...Qa6, leading to another wild and forcing continuation: 17.a3 Bxd5 18.Bxd5 Ne5 19.axb4 Rxd5 20.Qe2 cxb4 21.Nc3. The second one and probably the better one, is 16...Qb5, after which play might continue with multiple forcing moves 17.a3 Nb8 18.axb4 cxb4 19.Qg4 Bxd5 20.Rfc1 Nc6 21.Bxd5 Rxd5 22.Rxc4 Rxg5 23.Qd4 Kb8 24.Rxc6 Rxg3+ 25.fxg3 Qxc6 26.Rd1 Qc7 and so on.

16.Rb1 variation
With this somewhat odd-looking move White actually prevents Black from capturing the c3-knight (16...bxc3 17.bxc3 Qa6 18.Rxb7 followed up by 19.dxe6 would be completely winning for White). Black would respond 16...Qa6 and play typically continues in a completely bizarre Botvinnik fashion: 17.dxe6 Bxg2 18.e7 Bxf1 and now either 19.Kxf1 or 19.Qd5 and so on. These positions are highly dynamic and favor first and foremost the better-prepared player, although objectively speaking White might have a slight advantage.

Cambridge Springs Variation: 5...Nbd7 6.e3 Qa5
Black breaks the pin on the h4–d8 diagonal and forms a pin of his own on the c3-knight (exploiting the absence of the White's queen bishop from the ). If Black later plays dxc4, there may be threats against the g5-bishop.

Orthodox Defense: 5...Be7
Breaking the pin with 5...Be7 transposes to the lines of Orthodox Defense of the Queen's Gambit Declined. This move is, however, less challenging for White, at least judging by the fact that White scores more than 70% in top-level games. An example continuation is 6.e3 Nbd7 7.Qc2 0-0 8.Rd1 and White has a comfortable position.

Semi-Slav: 5th move alternatives
Although more than 90% of games continue with either 5.Bg5 or 5.e3, there are some sidelines that are worth a quick look.

5.Qb3 variation
The move 5.Qb3 is an alternative way of protecting the c-pawn. If Black continues with the typical 5...Nbd7, White can play 6.Bg5 and this is supposed to lead to a favorable version of a Queen's Gambit Declined. If Black plays 5...dxc4 instead, White will recapture with 6.Qxc4 (see below).

5.Qd3 variation
The move 5.Qd3 is often combined with the idea of pushing e2–e4 in the near future. If Black continues in a typical Semi-Slav fashion with 5...Nbd7, then White can immediately play 6.e4, and after 6...dxe4 7.Nxe4 Nxe4 8.Qxe4 Bb4+ 9.Bd2 Bxd2+ 10.Nxd2 the game is pretty much even. White also has the option of playing 6.g3, leading to some sort of Catalan setup. If Black plays 5...dxc4 instead, White will recapture with 6.Qxc4 (see below).

5.Qb3/d3 dxc4 6.Qxc4 variation
After either queen move, Black can continue in Semi-Slav style by capturing the white pawn with 5...dxc4. Play will continue 6.Qxc4 b5, and now White can retreat his queen back to either b3 or d3. After 7.Qb3, the game might continue 7...Nbd7 8.Bg5 Be7 9.e3 with equal opportunities. The move 7.Qd3 is an alternative, and Black's best reply is considered to be 7...a6 8.e4 c5 and Black is supposed to be fine after either 9.dxc5 or 9.e5.

5.g3 variation
By playing 5.g3, White makes a claim that he's ready to play the Catalan, with the black pawn a bit passively on c6. This practically forces Black to take the c-pawn with 5...dxc4. White will continue 6.Bg2 (6.a4 c5 is supposed to be good for Black), and Black has now two main choices. First, he can play 6...b5, and the game might continue in Catalan style with 7.Ne5 a6 8.a4 (8.Nxc6 Qb6 is fine for Black) Bb7 and so on. Second, he can play 6...Nbd7 preventing white's Ne5, which might lead to 7.0-0 Be7 8.e4 0-0.

5.Bf4 variation
Developing the bishop to f4 might seem reasonable at first, but in this particular opening it is not the correct approach by White. After 5.Bf4 Black responds thematically 5...dxc4 (anything else is good for White), and is ready to defend the c-pawn with the standard push b7–b5. White's best attempt might be to continue 6.a4, but Black now has the move 6...Nd5 (since the knight is not pinned by the White bishop as it would be in the standard Bg5 lines). White's best continuation is probably 7.Bg5, underlining the fact that this is where the bishop should have gone in the first place. After 7...Be7 8.Bxe7 Qxe7 Black is probably slightly better. If White plays 6.e4 as he would in a Botvinnik variation with the bishop on g5, Black simply responds 6...b5 and this must be a much better version of the Botvinnik for Black since White lacks the usual counterplay with e4–e5 against the pinned knight. Finally, the same logic applies for 6.e3 b5, and White cannot claim having enough dynamic compensation for the pawn.

title: Semi-Slav Defense


text:
Medieval Unicode Font Initiative

In digital typography, the Medieval Unicode Font Initiative (MUFI) is a project which aims to coordinate the encoding and display of special characters in medieval texts written in the Latin alphabet or in runes, which are not otherwise encoded as part of Unicode.

Organization
MUFI was founded in July 2001 by a workgroup consisting of Odd Einar Haugen (Bergen), Alec McAllister (Leeds), and Tarrin Wills (Sydney). From 2006 to 2015, MUFI had a board of four members, consisting of the three founding members and Andreas Stötzner (Leipzig). Currently the board consists of Tarrin Wills, Copenhagen (Chair), Alex Speed Kjeldsen, Copenhagen (Deputy chair), Odd Einar Haugen, Bergen and Beeke Stegmann, Iceland.

Character variants
In medieval texts, many special ligatures, scribal abbreviations, and letter forms existed, which are no longer a part of the Latin alphabet. As few of these characters are encoded in Unicode, ligatures have to be broken up into separate letters when digitized. Since few fonts support medieval ligatures or alternative letter forms, it is difficult to transmit them reliably in digital formats.

To prevent the possibility of corruption of the source texts, the eventual goal of the MUFI is to create a consensus on which characters to encode, and then present a completed proposal to the Unicode Consortium. In the meantime, a part of the Private Use Area has been assigned for encoding, so these characters can be placed in typefaces for testing and to speed up the later transition to the final encodings (if the project is accepted). This was originally based upon work done by the TITUS project, which also deals with Greek, Cyrillic, Georgian, Arabic and Devanagari characters. As of Unicode 5.1, this proposal has been made, covering 152 characters, and most of these (89 in all) have been encoded in the Latin Extended-D block. Others are in the Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement (26 chars.), Latin Extended Additional (10 chars.), Supplemental Punctuation (15 chars.) and Ancient Symbols (12 chars.).

Fonts
, Junicode (GPL) is the first typeface to cover all of MUFI 4.0, also in its italic face. Prior to MUFI 4.0, there were some 39 code point conflicts with Junicode.

The Kurinto Font Folio has two typefaces – Kurinto Book UFI and Kurinto Roma UFI – that cover all of MUFI, including code points added after version 4.0 of MUFI. Kurinto also includes the code points of the CYFI and RUFI standards.

There are three typefaces that are confirmed to cover all of MUFI 3.0. These are Cardo, Andron Scriptor Web and Palemonas MUFI. Only the last one comes in four faces (regular, italic, bold and both).

LeedsUni supports all of MUFI 2.0. Caudex, which is available at Google Fonts for embedding, claims to support most of MUFI 3.0, but is not listed on the MUFI homepage. Alphabetum has an almost complete coverage of MUFI 2.0 and some coverage of version 3.0, in addition to a complete coverage of MUFI 1.0.

TITUS Cyberbit covers all of MUFI 1.0 and includes some additional characters at different places, as it predates the MUFI project.

There is a project to make available MUFI characters, including version 4.0 ones, in LaTeX.

Private Use Area
The MUFI set includes standardized characters from many areas in the Basic Multilingual Plane and includes named character references ("entities") for use in SGML and XML, especially in TEI formats such as Menota. It also specifies many characters that are not encoded in Unicode, yet, in the Private Use Area which is designated for such use. When MUFI PUA characters have been accepted for encoding they are removed from the PUA in subsequent versions. As of version 4.0 there are the following PUA assignments, organized into several sub-areas.

Coordination
Similar initiatives have been founded for Early Cyrillic Symbols (Cyrillic Font Initiative, CYFI) and others. They are coordinated in the Linguistic Corporate Use Area (LINCUA). UNZ is a set compatible with MUFI, but it is not a true subset since it contains PUA additions of its own. It is intended for blackletter fonts, their typographic ligatures in particular.

title: Medieval Unicode Font Initiative


text:
Vacuum aspiration

Vacuum or suction aspiration is a procedure that uses a vacuum source to remove an embryo or fetus through the cervix. The procedure is performed to induce abortion, as a treatment for incomplete spontaneous abortion (otherwise commonly known as miscarriage) or retained fetal and placental tissue, or to obtain a sample of uterine lining (endometrial biopsy). It is generally safe, and serious complications rarely occur.

Some sources may use the terms dilation and evacuation or "suction" dilation and curettage to refer to vacuum aspiration, although those terms are normally used to refer to distinctly different procedures.

History
Vacuuming as a means of removing the uterine contents, rather than the previous use of a hard metal curette, was pioneered in 1958 by Drs Wu Yuantai and Wu Xianzhen in China, but their paper was only translated into English on the fiftieth anniversary of the study which would ultimately pave the way for this procedure becoming exceedingly common. It is now known to be one of the safest obstetric procedures, and has saved countless women’s lives.

In Canada, the method was pioneered and improved on by Henry Morgentaler, achieving a complication rate of 0.48% and no deaths in over 5,000 cases. He was the first doctor in North America to use the technique, which he then trained other doctors to use.

Dorothea Kerslake introduced the method into the United Kingdom in 1967 and published a study in the United States that further spread the technique.

Harvey Karman in the United States refined the technique in the early 1970s with the development of the Karman cannula, a soft, flexible cannula that avoided the need for initial cervical dilatation and so reduced the risks of puncturing the uterus.

Clinical uses
Vacuum aspiration may be used as a method of induced abortion as well as a therapeutic procedure after spontaneous abortion. The procedure can also aid in regulation of the menstrual cycle and to obtain a sample for endometrial biopsy. A study found use of Karman vacuum aspiration to be a safer option for endometrial biopsy when compared to the alternatives such as conventional endometrial curettage. It is also used to terminate molar pregnancy.

When used as a spontaneous abortion management or as a therapeutic abortion method, vacuum aspiration may be used alone or with cervical dilation anytime in the first trimester (up to 12 weeks gestational age). For more advanced pregnancies, vacuum aspiration may be used as one step in a dilation and evacuation procedure. Vacuum aspiration is the surgical procedure used for almost all first-trimester abortions in many countries, if medication abortion is not a viable option.

Procedure

Vacuum aspiration is an outpatient procedure that generally involves a clinic visit of several hours. The procedure itself typically takes less than 15 minutes. Depending on the state of residence and local laws, two appointments and various other proceedings may be required if the vacuum aspiration is being used for therapeutic abortion. There are two options for the source of suction in the use of these procedures. Suction can be created with either an electric pump (electric vacuum aspiration or EVA) or a manual pump (manual vacuum aspiration or MVA). A hand-held 25cc or 50cc syringe can function as a manual pump. Both of these methods can create the same level of suction, and therefore are considered equivalent in terms of efficacy of treatment and safety. The difference in use primarily comes down to provider preference.

The clinician places a speculum into the vagina in order to visualize the cervix. The cervix is cleansed, then a local anesthetic (usually lidocaine) is injected in the form of a para-cervical block or intra-cervical injection into the cervix. The clinician may use instruments called "dilators" in incrementally larger sizes to gently open the cervix, or medically induce cervical dilation with drugs or osmotic dilators administered before the procedure. Finally, a sterile cannula is inserted into the uterus. The cannula may be attached via tubing to the pump if using an electric vacuum, or attached directly to a syringe if using a manual vacuum aspirator. The pump creates a vacuum and suction which empties uterine contents, which either enter a canister or the syringe.

After a procedure for abortion or miscarriage treatment, the tissue removed from the uterus is examined for completeness to ensure that no products of conception are left behind. Expected contents include the embryo or fetus, as well as the decidua, chorionic villi, amniotic fluid, amniotic membrane and other tissues. These are all tissues which are found in a normal pregnancy. In the case of a molar pregnancy, these components will not be found.

Post-treatment care includes brief observation in a recovery area and a follow-up appointment approximately two weeks later. During these visits, it is possible that the provider may perform tests to check for infection, as retained tissue in the uterus can be a source of infection.

Additional medications used in vacuum aspiration include NSAID analgesics that may be started the day before the procedure, as well as misoprostol the day before for cervical ripening which makes dilation of the cervix easier to perform. Procedural sedation and analgesia may be offered to the patient in order to avoid discomfort.

Advantages over sharp dilation and curettage
Sharp dilation and curettage (D&C), also known as sharp curettage, was once the standard of care in situations requiring uterine evacuation. However, vacuum aspiration has a number of advantages over sharp D&C and has largely replaced D&C in many settings. Manual vacuum aspiration has been found to have lower rates of incomplete evacuation and retained products of conception in the uterus. Sharp curettage has also been associated with Asherman's Syndrome, whereas vacuum aspiration has not been found to have this longer term complication. Overall, vacuum aspiration has been found to have lower rates of complications when compared to D&C.

Vacuum aspiration may be used earlier in pregnancy when compared to sharp D&C. Manual vacuum aspiration is the only surgical abortion procedure available earlier than the sixth week of pregnancy.

Vacuum aspiration, especially manual vacuum aspiration, is significantly cheaper than sharp D&C. The equipment needed for vacuum aspiration costs less than a set of surgical curettes. Additionally, sharp D&C is generally provided only by physicians, vacuum aspiration may be performed by advanced practice clinicians such as physician assistants and midwives, which greatly increases access to these services.

Manual vacuum aspiration does not require electricity and so can be provided in locations that have unreliable electrical service or none at all. Manual vacuum aspiration also has the advantage of being quiet, without the louder noise of an electric vacuum pump, which can be stressful or bothersome to patients.

Complications
When used for pregnancy evacuation, vacuum aspiration is 98% effective in removing all uterine contents. One of the main complications is retained products of conception which will usually require a second aspiration procedure. This is more common when the procedure is performed very early in pregnancy, before 6 weeks gestational age.

Another complication is infection, usually caused by retained products of conception or introduction of vaginal flora (otherwise known as bacteria) into the uterus. The rate of infection is 0.5%.

Other complications occur at a rate of less than 1 per 100 procedures and include excessive blood loss, creating a hole through the cervix or uterus (perforation) that may cause injury to other internal organs. Blood clots can possibly form within the uterus and block outflow of bleeding from the uterus which can cause the uterus to be enlarged and tender.

title: Vacuum aspiration


text:
Portal talk:Ireland/Did you know

Discussion
Hello. I've included some DYKs from my past that previously featured on the Main Page and was just wondering if they qualify for here as well? If not then at least I've left a warning. Steer clear! :) --Candlewicke (Talk) 02:18, 4 October 2008 (UTC)
 * Sure, why not! The more the merrier! --rannṗáirtí anaiṫnid (coṁrá) 23:03, 9 November 2009 (UTC)

title: Portal talk:Ireland/Did you know


text:
Talk:François Sébastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Count of Clerfayt

Untitled
however keeps on changing this article, please stop. The count's name was Charles de Croix Graf Clerfayt and as such he should be listed as well. the english translation is well... a translation, not the original. all french nobility is listed by their french names as well. The Austrian nobility is also listed by their german names, because some of their titles you just cannot translate into english (for example Carl Ritter von Ghega, there is no correct way to translate his name and title into english, otherwise he would have to be called Charles Knight of Ghega, which is absurd). so in order to keep it consistent, I suggest we keep the names in German and add the english name in the article itself as well, to avoid confusion. any search-function for Count Clerfayt will end up to him anyways. this wikipedia site might be in english, but he was not english, nor was his title. any suggestions otherwise are more than welcome... (talk) 17:02, 31 May 2005

 * I presume you're talking about putting the article at another location. I am the one who has been reverting it because the blanking of this article and copying it to a different location is a violation of the GFDL.  If you want to put this article somewhere else, sign up for an account and move the article.  In this way is the history preserved.  Cut and paste moves are not permitted on Wikipedia.  CryptoDerk 16:14, May 31, 2005 (UTC)

ok got it, i will try it. thanks for the advice. Antares911 20:17, 6 Jun 2005 (UTC)

I hereby nominate these efforts by User:Antares911 (currently Gryffindor) to rename articles and to make moves (including cut+paste moves), nominate to the inclusion to WP:BJAODN. These Gryffindor efforts, on surface, seem to fulfill criteria. 217.140.193.123 16:20, 29 August 2005 (UTC)

move to original name
It has been proposed below that François Sebastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Count of Clerfayt be renamed and moved to Charles de Croix Graf Clerfayt. requesting that this article be moved to the real name of the person. thanks Antares911 21:52, 10 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * agree with proposal. Bhinneka 29 June 2005 13:33 (UTC)

Perhaps readers find it interesting that Bhinneka clearly is a sockpuppet of Antares911. 217.140.193.123 21:40, 19 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Oppose. As this is English Wikipedia, there is no need to use German form of name of a guy who was a Walloon - and whose titulary "count of Clerfayt" was translated between languages all his life. Arrigo 22:05, 19 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Oppose Are we going to move the Constable of Bourbon, (under Charles III, Duke of Bourbon), and Eugene of Savoy next? Wikipedia policy is clear: use English, and calling a Walloon Graf because he was in the Austrian service is neither English nor sensible. Septentrionalis 21:17, 28 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Oppose. Calling a Walloon by German titles is silly. john k 15:49, 29 August 2005 (UTC)

It was requested that this article be renamed but there was no consensus for it be moved. Dragons flight 02:47, September 1, 2005 (UTC)

We can of course argue ad nauseam whether Walloon is French or not, but at least it is quite close to French and it is definitely not German. 217.140.193.123 16:16, 29 August 2005 (UTC)

rename
I propose moving the article to François Sebastien Charles Joseph de Croix, according to WP:Naming conventions (people), which says: «[article titles should] not have additional qualifiers (such as "King", "Saint", "Dr.", "(person)", "(ship)"), except when this is the simplest and most NPOV way to deal with disambiguation.» --Waldir talk 19:23, 7 November 2008 (UTC)


text:
Chris Chetti

Christopher Chetti (born July 16, 1974) is an American retired professional wrestler, best known for his appearances with Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) between 1996 and 2001.

Early years (1996–1998)
Chetti was trained at the Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) "House of Hardcore" professional wrestling school by Mikey Whipwreck and his cousin, Taz. He made his professional wrestling debut under the ring name "G. Q. Gorgeous" as one half of the tag team Erotic Experience with Pat Day at a live event in Middletown, New York, on September 21, 1996, where they lost to The Dudleys (Buh Buh Ray and Spike). Erotic Experience made a few appearances at ECW live events for the next few months as enhancement talents against more established wrestlers. Chetti's first win was against fellow House of Hardcore student Roadkill on November 22 and November 23.

Chetti changed his ring name to "Chris Van de Lay" and made his televised debut on the January 30, 1997, episode of Hardcore TV against Mikey Whipwreck in a losing effort. He soon began using his given name "Chris Chetti" in a match against The Full Blooded Italians member Little Guido at Winter Blowout. Chetti soon established himself as a fan favorite and began feuding with the F.B.I., primarily against Little Guido, whom he defeated for the first time at CyberSlam. At Hostile City Showdown, Chetti teamed with Tracy Smothers to take on F.B.I. members Little Guido and Tommy Rich, during which Smothers turned on Chetti to join Full Blooded Italians. Chetti continued his rivalry with FBI over the next few months. He received several title shots against Shane Douglas for the World Television Championship at The Buffalo Invasion and Wrestlepalooza but failed to win the title on both occasions.

Chetti formed a tag team with Jerry Lynn as the two defeated FBI in a tag team match at Hostile City Showdown on January 31, 1998. Chetti and Lynn won a rematch against FBI at Living Dangerously, where Chetti made his pay-per-view debut. Chetti feuded with FBI throughout the rest of 1998. At UltraClash, Chetti teamed with J.T. Smith and Tommy Rogers to defeat Little Guido, Tommy Rich and Tracy Smothers in an Italian Vendetta six-man tag team match.

Teaming and feuding with Nova (1999–2001)
Chetti's first major match in 1999 was a win against Steve Corino at House Party. He soon formed a tag team with Nova. The team of Chetti and Nova had their first feud with Rod Price and Skull Von Krush, whom they defeated at CyberSlam. Chetti and Nova then exchanged wins with Danny Doring and Roadkill at Hostile City Showdown and Heat Wave. At Anarchy Rulz, Nova and Chris Chetti fought Simon Diamond and DeVito to a no contest after interference from ECW wrestlers. At the 2000 Guilty as Charged pay-per-view, Chetti substituted for an injured Jazz as Nova and Kid Kash's tag team partner against the team of Danny Doring, Roadkill and Simon Diamond in a losing effort. Chetti and Nova defeated the team of Jado and Gedo at Living Dangerously. Following the win, they entered the World Tag Team Championship picture as they challenged the tag team champions The Impact Players (Lance Storm and Justin Credible) for the title on the April 24 episode of Hardcore TV in a losing effort. The following week, on Hardcore TV, Chetti defeated Credible in a match, which earned Chetti and Nova, another title shot at Impact Players on the April 14 episode of ECW on TNN, which they lost.

Nova and Chetti then continued their success in the tag team division by defeating The New Dangerous Alliance (C. W. Anderson and Bill Wiles) at Wrestlepalooza. At Hardcore Heaven, Chetti and Nova defeated Da Baldies (Angel and Tony DeVito) and the team of Danny Doring and Roadkill in a three-way dance. At Heat Wave, Chetti and Nova defeated Da Baldies in a tag team match. On the August 6 episode of Hardcore TV, Chetti received his first opportunity for the ECW World Heavyweight Championship, challenging Justin Credible for the title in a losing effort.

In August 2000 at Midtown Massacre, Chetti and Nova participated in a tournament for the vacant ECW World Tag Team Championship, where they lost to Simon Diamond and Johnny Swinger in the quarter-final. The following week, on Hardcore TV, Chetti and Nova competed against Simon and Swinger and Danny Doring and Roadkill in a three-way dance, during which Chetti turned on Nova by hitting him with a chair and causing him to get eliminated, thus turning into a villain for the first time in his ECW career. This disbanded their team and Chetti cut promos in which he berated Nova and held him responsible for Chetti's downfall in ECW and Chetti aligned himself with Lou E. Dangerously. The two former partners began a rivalry against each other, which culminated in a loser leaves town match between the two at November to Remember, which Nova won. This turned out to be Chetti's final ECW match. Chetti returned to ECW at the company's final pay-per-view, Guilty as Charged on January 7, 2001, where he jumped into Nova's match against Chris Hamrick as the special guest referee to favour Hamrick until Spike Dudley made the save for Nova.

Independent circuit; retirement (2001–2005)
After leaving ECW, Chetti participated in several independent promotions, such as Midwest Championship Wrestling, USA Pro Wrestling and Phoenix Championship Wrestling. During his short stay with the aforementioned promotions, Chetti had rivalries with wrestlers such as Joey Matthews, Nova and Balls Mahoney. Nevertheless, little activity in the promotions and a lack of a final contract carried Chetti to a constant change of home promotions, until October 2002 when he signed a contract with Xtreme Pro Wrestling.

On October 5, 2002, Chetti debuted in Xtreme Pro Wrestling at the event Fallout, which was their second show on The East Coast. He defeated Chris Hamrick. During the next months, he failed to win a match, losing to opponents including Shark Boy, Psicosis, and Super Crazy.

On November 23, 2002, Chetti proclaimed himself the new ECW FTW Heavyweight Champion, only to lose the title on July 16, 2003, against Danny Doring. Neither title changes are recognised in the history of the championship.

Chetti's appeared at ringside at One Night Stand 2005. After sustaining a back injury, Chetti went into retirement.

Pro Wrestling Syndicate (2013)
Chetti broke his retirement for a single night on April 5, 2013, teaming with Nova to defeat Hurricane Helms and Starman at a pay-per-view event promoted by Pro Wrestling Syndicate in Metuchen, New Jersey.

Championships and accomplishments

 * NWA Midwest
 * NWA Midwest BMF Champion (1 time)

 * New York Wrestling Connection
 * NYWC Tag Team Gauntlet Winner (2004)

 * NPWA
 * NPWA Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Qenaan Creed
 * Oulaw Wrestling
 * Oulaw Wrestling Tag Team Championship (1 time, current) - with Danny Doring
 * SWF
 * SWF Light Heavyweight Champion (1 time)
 * SWF Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Danny Jaxx

 * UWF Wrestling
 * UWF Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time)

 * Wrestling Superstars
 * Wrestling Superstars United Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time)

title: Chris Chetti


text:
S. B. Spencer

Samuel Bacon Spencer (December 26, 1827 – October 16, 1901) was the last mayor of Atlanta, Georgia to serve a one-year term.

Spencer was born on December 26, 1827. In 1848, he graduated from Oglethorpe University in Milledgeville, Georgia. On December 12, 1849, Spencer married the former Mary E. Baker. Between 1848 and 1854, he was a teacher in Greene County and Lumpkin Counties then turned to practicing law in Thomasville. A major in the Confederate Army during the American Civil War, Spencer moved to Atlanta in 1870 and continued practicing law. On December 3, 1873, as the unopposed Democratic candidate, he was elected mayor of Atlanta with 798 votes. After his one-term as mayor, Spencer moved to Savannah and taught school again at the Chatham Academy. In 1896, he returned to Atlanta. Spencer died on October 16, 1901, and is interred at Oakland Cemetery.

title: S. B. Spencer


text:
User:Minder~enwiki

I'll try to add some InterWikis and also contribute to Physics- and music-related articles.

title: User:Minder~enwiki


text:
Social behavior

Social behavior is behavior among two or more organisms within the same species, and encompasses any behavior in which one member affects the other. This is due to an interaction among those members. Social behavior can be seen as similar to an exchange of goods, with the expectation that when you give, you will receive the same. This behavior can be affected by both the qualities of the individual and the environmental (situational) factors. Therefore, social behavior arises as a result of an interaction between the two—the organism and its environment. This means that, in regards to humans, social behavior can be determined by both the individual characteristics of the person, and the situation they are in.

A major aspect of social behavior is communication, which is the basis for survival and reproduction. Social behavior is said to be determined by two different processes, that can either work together or oppose one another. The dual-systems model of reflective and impulsive determinants of social behavior came out of the realization that behavior cannot just be determined by one single factor. Instead, behavior can arise by those consciously behaving (where there is an awareness and intent), or by pure impulse. These factors that determine behavior can work in different situations and moments, and can even oppose one another. While at times one can behave with a specific goal in mind, other times they can behave without rational control, and driven by impulse instead.

There are also distinctions between different types of social behavior, such as mundane versus defensive social behavior. Mundane social behavior is a result of interactions in day-to-day life, and are behaviors learned as one is exposed to those different situations. On the other hand, defensive behavior arises out of impulse, when one is faced with conflicting desires.

Development
Social behavior constantly changes as one continues to grow and develop, reaching different stages of life. The development of behavior is deeply tied with the biological and cognitive changes one is experiencing at any given time. This creates general patterns of social behavior development in humans. Just as social behavior is influenced by both the situation and an individual's characteristics, the development of behavior is due to the combination of the two as well—the temperament of the child along with the settings they are exposed to.

Culture (parents and individuals that influence socialization in children) play a large role in the development of a child's social behavior, as the parents or caregivers are typically those who decide the settings and situations that the child is exposed to. These various settings the child is placed in (for example, the playground and classroom) form habits of interaction and behavior insomuch as the child being exposed to certain settings more frequently than others. What takes particular precedence in the influence of the setting are the people that the child must interact with their age, sex, and at times culture.

Emotions also play a large role in the development of social behavior, as they are intertwined with the way an individual behaves. Through social interactions, emotion is understood through various verbal and nonverbal displays, and thus plays a large role in communication. Many of the processes that occur in the brain and underlay emotion often greatly correlate with the processes that are needed for social behavior as well. A major aspect of interaction is understanding how the other person thinks and feels, and being able to detect emotional states becomes necessary for individuals to effectively interact with one another and behave socially.

As the child continues to gain social information, their behavior develops accordingly. One must learn how to behave according to the interactions and people relevant to a certain setting, and therefore begin to intuitively know the appropriate form of social interaction depending on the situation. Therefore, behavior is constantly changing as required, and maturity brings this on. A child must learn to balance their own desires with those of the people they interact with, and this ability to correctly respond to contextual cues and understand the intentions and desires of another person improves with age. That being said, the individual characteristics of the child (their temperament) is important to understanding how the individual learns social behaviors and cues given to them, and this learnability is not consistent across all children.

Patterns of development across the lifespan
When studying patterns of biological development across the human lifespan, there are certain patterns that are well-maintained across humans. These patterns can often correspond with social development, and biological changes lead to respective changes in interactions.

In pre and post-natal infancy, the behavior of the infant is correlated with that of the caregiver. The development of social behavior is influenced by their mothers' reactions to children's emotional displays. In infancy, there is already a development of the awareness of a stranger, in which case the individual is able to identify and distinguish between people.

Come childhood, the individual begins to attend more to their peers, and communication begins to take a verbal form. One also begins to classify themselves on the basis of their gender and other qualities salient about themselves, like race and age.

When the child reaches school age, one typically becomes more aware of the structure of society in regards to gender, and how their own gender plays a role in this. They become more and more reliant on verbal forms of communication, and more likely to form groups and become aware of their own role within the group. By puberty, general relations among same and opposite sex individuals are much more salient, and individuals begin to behave according to the norms of these situations. With increasing awareness of their sex and stereotypes that go along with it, the individual begins to choose how much they align with these stereotypes, and behaves either according to those stereotypes or not. This is also the time that individuals more often form sexual pairs.

Once the individual reaches child rearing age, one must begin to undergo changes within the own behavior in accordance to major life-changes of a developing family. The potential new child requires the parent to modify their behavior to accommodate a new member of the family.

Come senescence and retirement, behavior is more stable as the individual has often established their social circle (whatever it may be) and is more committed to their social structure.

Neural correlates
With the advent of the field social cognitive neuroscience came interest in studying social behavior's correlates within the brain to see what is happening beneath the surface as organisms act in a social manner. Although there is debate on which particular regions of the brain are responsible for social behavior, some have claimed that the paracingulate cortex is activated when one person is thinking about the motives or aims of another, a means of understanding the social world and behaving accordingly. The medial prefrontal lobe has also been seen to have activation during social cognition Research has discovered through studies on rhesus monkeys that the amygdala, a region known for expressing fear, was activated specifically when the monkeys were faced with a social situation they had never encountered before. This region of the brain was shown to be sensitive to the fear that comes with a novel social situation, inhibiting social interaction.

Another form of studying the brain regions that may be responsible for social behavior has been through looking at patients with brain injuries who have an impairment in social behavior. Lesions in the prefrontal cortex that occurred in adulthood can affect the functioning of social behavior. When these lesions or a dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex occur in infancy/early on in life, the development of proper moral and social behavior is effected and thus atypical.

Biological correlates
Along with neural correlates, research has investigated what happens within the body (and potentially modulates) social behavior. Vasopressin is a posterior pituitary hormone that is seen to potentially play a role in affiliation for young rats. Along with young rats, vasopressin has also been associated with paternal behavior in prairie voles. Efforts have been made to connect animal research to humans, and found that vasopressin may play a role in the social responses of males in human research.

Oxytocin has also been seen to be correlated with positive social behavior, and elevated levels have been shown to potentially help improve social behavior that may have been suppressed due to stress. Thus, targeting levels of oxytocin may play a role in interventions of disorders that deal with atypical social behavior.

Along with vasopressin, serotonin has also been inspected in relation to social behavior in humans. It was found to be associated with human feelings of social connection, and there is a drop in serotonin when one is socially isolated or has feelings of social isolation. Serotonin has also been associated with social confidence.

Affect
Positive affect (emotion) has been seen to have a large impact on social behavior, particularly by inducing more helping behavior, cooperation, and sociability. Studies have shown that even subtly inducing positive affect within individuals caused greater social behavior and helping. This phenomenon, however, is not one-directional. Just as positive affect can influence social behavior, social behavior can have an influence on positive affect.

Electronic media
Social behavior has typically been seen as a changing of behaviors relevant to the situation at hand, acting appropriately with the setting one is in. However, with the advent of electronic media, people began to find themselves in situations they may have not been exposed to in everyday life. Novel situations and information presented through electronic media has formed interactions that are completely new to people. While people typically behaved in line with their setting in face-to-face interaction, the lines have become blurred when it comes to electronic media. This has led to a cascade of results, as gender norms started to merge, and people were coming in contact with information they had never been exposed to through face-to-face interaction. A political leader could no longer tailor a speech to just one audience, for their speech would be translated and heard by anyone through the media. People can no longer play drastically different roles when put in different situations, because the situations overlap more as information is more readily available. Communication flows more quickly and fluidly through media, causing behavior to merge accordingly. Media has also been shown to have an impact on promoting different types of social behavior, such as prosocial and aggressive behavior. For example, violence shown through the media has been seen to lead to more aggressive behavior in its viewers. Research has also been done investigating how media portraying positive social acts, prosocial behavior, could lead to more helping behavior in its viewers. The general learning model was established to study how this process of translating media into behavior works, and why. This model suggests a link between positive media with prosocial behavior and violent media with aggressive behavior, and posits that this is mediated by the characteristics of the individual watching along with the situation they are in. This model also presents the notion that when one is exposed to the same type of media for long periods of time, this could even lead to changes within their personality traits, as they are forming different sets of knowledge and may be behaving accordingly.

In various studies looking specifically at how video games with prosocial content effect behavior, it was shown that exposure influenced subsequent helping behavior in the video-game player. The processes that underlay this effect point to prosocial thoughts being more readily available after playing a video game related to this, and thus the person playing the game is more likely to behave accordingly. These effects were not only found with video games, but also with music, as people listening to songs involving aggression and violence in the lyrics were more likely to act in an aggressive manner. Likewise, people listening to songs related to prosocial acts (relative to a song with neutral lyrics) were shown to express greater helping behaviors and more empathy afterwards. When these songs were played at restaurants, it even led to an increase in tips given (relative to those who heard neutral lyrics).

Individual and group behavior
Conformity refers to the behavior that an individual is unconsciously pressured by the group to make his behavior tend to be consistent with the majority of people in the group. Generally speaking, the larger the group size, the easier it is for individuals to display conformity behaviors. Individuals may submit to the group for two reasons: first, to gain acceptance from the group (normative social influence); second, to obtain important information for the group (informational social influence).

Aggressive and violent behavior
Aggression is an important social behavior that can have both negative consequences (in a social interaction) and adaptive consequences (adaptive in humans and other primates for survival). There are many differences in aggressive behavior, and a lot of these differences are sex-difference based.

Verbal and coverbal behaviors
Although most animals can communicate nonverbally, humans have the ability to communicate with both verbal and nonverbal behavior. Verbal behavior is the content of one's spoken word. Verbal and nonverbal behavior intersect in what is known as coverbal behavior, which is nonverbal behavior that contributes to the meaning of verbal speech (i.e. hand gestures used to emphasize the importance of what someone is saying). Although the spoken words convey meaning in and of themselves, one cannot dismiss the coverbal behaviors that accompany the words, as they place great emphasis on the thought and importance contributing to the verbal speech. Therefore, the verbal behaviors and gestures that accompany it work together to make up a conversation. Although many have posited this idea that nonverbal behavior accompanying speech serves an important role in communication, it is important to note that not all researchers agree. However, in most literature on gestures, unlike body language, gestures can accompany speech in ways that bring inner thoughts to life (often thoughts unable to be expressed verbally). Gestures (coverbal behaviors) and speech occur simultaneously, and develop along the same trajectory within children as well.

Nonverbal behaviors
Behaviors that include any change in facial expression or body movement constitute the meaning of nonverbal behavior. Communicative nonverbal behavior include facial and body expressions that are intentionally meant to convey a message to those who are meant to receive it. Nonverbal behavior can serve a specific purpose (i.e. to convey a message), or can be more of an impulse/reflex. Paul Ekman, an influential psychologist, investigated both verbal and nonverbal behavior (and their role in communication) a great deal, emphasizing how difficult it is to empirically test such behaviors. Nonverbal cues can serve the function of conveying a message, thought, or emotion both to the person viewing the behavior and the person sending these cues.

Disorders involving impairments in social behavior
A number of forms of mental disorder affect social behavior. Social anxiety disorder is a phobic disorder characterized by a fear of being judged by others, which manifests itself as a fear of people in general. Due to this pervasive fear of embarrassing oneself in front of others, it causes those affected to avoid interactions with other people. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is a neurodevelopmental disorder mainly identified by its symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Hyperactivity-Impulsivity may lead to hampered social interactions, as one who displays these symptoms may be socially intrusive, unable to maintain personal space, and talk over others. The majority of children that display symptoms of ADHD also have problems with their social behavior. Autism Spectrum Disorder is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects the functioning of social interaction and communication. People who fall on the autism spectrum scale may have difficulties in understanding social cues and the emotional states of others.

Learning disabilities are often defined as a specific deficit in academic achievement; however, research has shown that with a learning disability can come social skill deficits as well.

title: Social behavior


text:
Cicero C. Hammock

Cicero C. Hammock (c. 1823 – December 15, 1890) was the 20th and 22nd Mayor of Atlanta, Georgia, during the Reconstruction era.

Biography
Born in Walton County, Hammock served in the United States Army during the Mexican–American War, where he served with another future mayor, Captain Allison Nelson. After the war, he moved to Oglethorpe County, Georgia where he married, but soon after moved to Atlanta.

When the American Civil War began, he entered the Confederate States Army as a commissioned officer.

After the war, he returned to Atlanta and began working as a merchant with the firm Langston, Crane & Hammock and later he worked the real estate trade with a prominent office on Whitehall St at Five Points.

During his first reconstruction-era term as mayor he inaugurated the city's waterworks system and his second term was the first two-year term after Atlanta adopted a new city charter.

He served as president of the city water commission from the mid-1880s until his death.

title: Cicero C. Hammock


text:
Talk:Imperial Regalia

Laws
good golly Ms. Dolly... can someone please help me out with this page maybe? I translated most of the text from the German version (this is completely legal, right?) if not i apologise. but i don´t have enough time right now to do this alone.... cheers!

User:antares911 15:10, 31 May 2005 (UTC)

Disambiguation?
Should this instead be a disambiguation page for Imperial Regalia of Japan and Imperial Regalia of the Holy Roman Empire? Nik42 04:36, 18 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Err...Japan was not part of the Holy Roman Empire, no matter how much any Japanese person may have wished it to be so. Now, during WW II there was a certain...uh, relationship that existed.  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 204.111.118.28 (talk) 17:30, 8 August 2009 (UTC)

Sword of Charlemagne
The 'Saber of Charlemagne' misdirects to 'Joyeuse' which is the French coronation sword (note the painting of Louis XIV wearing it) and has never been a part of the Imperial Regalia. Joyeuse is a broadsword and the Saber of Charlemagne is a saber, very early, probably of 10th or 11th century Magyar origin. It's origin is unknown; possibly a gift from one of the Arpads to one of the Saxon or Salian emperors.67.52.199.50 (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 06:14, 23 December 2010 (UTC).

 * You are right. Another editor has created an article that belongs to them. The links have changed. Thank you! Tri-l (talk) 15:15, 13 April 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:Imperial Regalia


text:
Bianzano

Bianzano (Bergamasque: Biansà) is a comune in the province of Bergamo, in Lombardy, Italy. It is 600 m above sea level and lies on a little plateau between Cavallina and Seriana valleys. The village boasts a historic center, having kept its original structure with some remains of minor fortified buildings and the imposing medieval Suardi Castle overlooking the valley. Other two outstanding monuments are the shrine of Our Lady of the Assumption (1234) and the parish church dedicated to Saint Roch (1575).

Suardi Castle
The date of the castle construction remains unknown, although an inscription on the right side of the portal which leads to the inner courtyard bears the date 1233. Surrounded by a double walls with the remains of the rampart, the castle has a perfectly square shape and is dominated by its 25 m tower, centered on the front side of the building. The castle was never used as a noble residence but served as a safe place to keep agricultural produce and shelter wayfarers. Thanks to its position, it was also used to control the road linking up Cavallina and Seriana valleys.

Valuable frescoes are still preserved in the castle main entrance: playful Cupids with garlands and flowers on the barrel vault; the cardinal Virtues on the niches by the sides of the Gothic portal.

The Shrine of Our Lady of the Assumption
Built in 1234, it served as parish church until 1614, when a new, greater church was built in the center of the village. Heavily restored at the beginning of the 18th century, it houses a valuable wooden ciborium carved by Andrea Fantoni.

title: Bianzano


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Max lewy

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was Delete Zzyzx11 (Talk) 05:03, 15 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Max lewy
Appears to be a vanity page. Google returns zero hits when you enter "Max Lewy" and either "dance" or "dancer". Delete--Sophitus 15:12, May 31, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, nn based on Sophitus' results. --Idont Havaname 20:42, 31 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete nn vanity. --Etacar11 23:14, 31 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete vanity. JamesBurns 09:47, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Deletedrini ☎ 17:15, 6 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. --Schulte 05:36, 12 Jun 2005 (UTC)
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