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Javier Echevarría Rodríguez

Javier Echevarría Rodríguez (14 June 1932 – 12 December 2016) was a Spanish Catholic bishop who served as the head of Opus Dei from 1994 until his death. He held doctorates in both civil and canon law.

Within the Roman Curia, the governing body of the Catholic Church, he was a member of the Congregation for the Causes of Saints and the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura. He wrote a number of books on spirituality: Paths to God: Building a Christian Life in the 21st Century, Para servir a la Iglesia, Getsemaní, Eucaristía y vida cristiana. He also wrote his reminiscences of Josemaría Escrivá: Memoria del beato Josemaría.

Pope Benedict XVI said on the fiftieth anniversary of Echevarria's ordination in 2005 that his pastoral work "provides effective help to the Church in her urgent evangelization of present-day society" and noted the prelate's concern for "culture and the sciences...the defense of life, the family and marriage, and the formation and pastoral care of young people." Pope Francis lauded his "constant service of love to the Church and souls", underlining his "fatherly testimony of priestly and episcopal life".

Formation
Echevarría Rodríguez was born in Madrid, Spain, on 14 June 1932. He began work as the personal secretary of Josemaría Escrivá before being ordained a priest of Opus Dei on 7 August 1955.

In 1954 Echevarría earned a Doctorate in Canon Law from the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum.

Echevarría was appointed the Secretary General of Opus Dei in 1975, upon the succession of Escrivá by Álvaro del Portillo as prelate, or head, of Opus Dei. Echevarría later became Vicar General in 1982, when Opus Dei became, on the pope's initiative, a personal prelature.

Prelate of Opus Dei
With the death of del Portillo on 23 March 1994, a period of mourning followed. Rodríguez was elected by Opus Dei's General Council as the second prelate of Opus Dei. He was subsequently confirmed by the Holy See on 20 April 1994, and was then appointed Titular Bishop of Cilibia by Pope John Paul II on 21 November 1994. He was consecrated a bishop by the pope, with Bishops Giovanni Battista Re and Jorge María Mejía as co-consecrators, on 6 January 1995.

When he became prelate he stated that his pastoral priorities were evangelization in the areas of the family, youth and culture. During his term of office, the Opus Dei Prelature began stable formational activities in sixteen countries, including Russia, Kazakhstan, South Africa, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka. He "helped steer Opus Dei toward a period of normalization after the controversies surrounding the canonization of Escrivá in 2002 and then the turbulence of the Da Vinci Code."

Echevarría Rodríguez served as the chancellor of the University of Navarra in Spain, the University of Asia and the Pacific in the Philippines, and various other universities under the spiritual care of Opus Dei.

He participated in the General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops for America in 1997 and of Europe in 1999, and also of the General Ordinary Assembly of 2001 and 2005. On Tuesday, 18 September 2012, he was appointed by Pope Benedict XVI to serve as one of the papally-appointed Synod Fathers for the October 2012 13th Ordinary General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops on the New Evangelization.

On 9 July 2005, Pope Benedict XVI greeted Echevarria on the fiftieth anniversary of his ordination, expressing his "esteem and affection":

"Governing your Prelature and contemplating in it the action of God’s grace, you never cease exhorting its members—with your example, with your writings, with your words and your pastoral trips—to remain faithful to the Lord with steadfast purpose (Acts 11:23).

When you foster the eagerness for personal sanctity and the apostolic zeal of your priests and lay people, not only do you see the flock that has been entrusted to you grow, but you provide an effective help to the Church in her urgent evangelization of present-day society.

In the terrain of culture and the sciences, you strive to spread the Christian message in all environments, as is clearly seen in the recently established Pontifical University of the Holy Cross.

You bear in your heart the defense of life, the family and marriage, and the formation and pastoral care of young people."

Late life and death
In 2014, at age 82, he appointed priest Fernando Ocáriz as Auxiliary Vicar, considering an "increase in the work of government required of the Prelate", as well as his age. The Auxiliary Vicar is a position to be filled when needed, holding executive authority, foreseen in the statutes of Opus Dei.

On 5 December 2016 he was admitted to the Campus Bio-Medico University Hospital due to a respiratory infection, where he was treated with antibiotics. On 12 December his condition aggravated leading to a respiratory failure that ultimately caused his death at 21:20 CET.

The day after Echevarría's death, Pope Francis wrote Ocáriz giving condolences to him and all members of Opus Dei, thanking God for his "constant service of love to the Church and souls", underlining his "fatherly testimony of priestly and episcopal life"

Javier's remains was buried inside the crypt of the Prelatic Church of Our Lady of Peace, next to his predecessor, Alvaro del Portillo.

Works
He wrote works on spirituality such as:
 * Memoria del beato Josemaría – reminiscences of Blessed Josemaria
 * Itinerarios de vida cristiana – reflections around the turn of the millennium on the ways of Christian life
 * Para servir a la Iglesia – a homily on serving the church
 * Getsemaní – about praying in union with Christ in his passion
 * Eucaristía y vida cristiana – about the centrality of the Eucharist in the life of a Christian
 * Por Cristo, con Él y en Él: escritos sobre san Josemaría, Madrid, Palabra, 2007, 1ª, 234 pp.
 * Vivir la Santa Misa, Madrid, Rialp, 2010, 1ª, 196 pp.
 * Creo, creemos: textos procedentes de las Cartas pastorales dirigidas a los fieles de la Prelatura del Opus Dei durante el Año de la fe (2012-2013), Madrid, Rialp, 2014, 1ª, 127 pp.
 * Dirigir empresas con sentido cristiano, Pamplona, Eunsa, 2015, 1ª, 103 pp.

Some excerpts from his works

"The People of God would like the Bishops and priests to be masters of holiness, precisely because they seek it on a daily basis, through the sacramental life and through their own ministry. They must be men who pray with faith, who passionately love the Sacrament of the Eucharist and the Sacrament of the Confession, and who live them with sincere piety, to enrich themselves with graces and to be, therefore, bearers of the Good News to other priests and to all the faithful. Using those methods instituted by Jesus Christ in order to identify oneself with Him ensures that the faithful, listening to priests, listen to the Lord; seeing them pray, they in turn are moved to prayer. Aware that they frequently turn to Confession, they too will seek sacramental forgiveness."
 * Christianity is God's nearness to man. It is a close friendship and an intimate relationship between God and man. It expresses the familiarity of a beloved son welcomed with indescribable joy, music, celebration and a great banquet (cf. Lk 15: 22–24).— from Eucaristia y vida cristiana
 * Love is the substance of happiness. To love and to know oneself loved is the only true response to the ultimate anxieties of the human heart...Augustine of Hippo briefly expressed this in writing: “Pondus meus, amor meus”. My love is my weight, that which gives me solidity, attracts me and exalts me. It transmits to me height and depth, it is the origin of my peace.
 * "To all who received Him, He gave the power to become sons of God" (Jn 1:12). For a Christian, this is not just a way of speaking or calling. Awareness of divine filiation is rooted in a divine gift that transforms a person from within. St. John puts it this way: "See what love the Father has for us, that He has called us sons of God, and so we are!...We are truly children of God" (1 Jn 3:1–2). St. Josemaria concludes that "whoever is unaware of this is unaware of his innermost truth;" he has not yet discovered the deepest reality of his being, nor the meaning of his existence on this earth.
 * The secret of the apostolic zeal of a disciple of Christ is rooted in his love for the Master. This is what moves him to give his life for others, to spend it in helping them know the divine Word and to live according to the imperatives of the Love of God. His zeal for souls is born from a love for Christ, which like all true love, implies identification with the person loved.
 * On 10 October 2012, during the Seventh General Congregation of the Synod of Bishops he offered this intervention:

title: Javier Echevarría Rodríguez


text:
Focke-Wulf Ta 183

The Focke-Wulf Ta 183 Huckebein was a design for a jet-powered fighter aircraft intended as the successor to the Messerschmitt Me 262 and other day fighters in Luftwaffe service during World War II. It had been developed only to the extent of wind tunnel models when the war ended, but the basic design was further developed postwar in Argentina as the FMA IAe 33 Pulqui II. The name Huckebein is a reference to a trouble-making raven (Hans Huckebein der Unglücksrabe) from an illustrated story in 1867 by Wilhelm Busch.

Development
In early 1944, the Reich Air Ministry (RLM, for Reichsluftfahrtministerium) became aware of Allied jet developments, and were particularly concerned that they might have to face the Gloster Meteor over the continent. In response, they instituted the Emergency Fighter Program which took effect on July 3, 1944, ending production of most bomber and multi-role aircraft in favour of fighters, especially jet fighters. Additionally, they accelerated the development of experimental designs that would guarantee a performance edge over the Allied designs, designs that would replace the first German jet fighters, the Messerschmitt Me 262 Schwalbe and Heinkel He 162 Spatz.

The result was a series of advanced designs, some using swept wings for improved transonic performance, others instead using the tailless design to lower drag to the same end. Since German aircraft engineers were aware that tailless designs might encounter serious stability problems at transonic speeds, much as the prototype Me 163B V18 did on July 6, 1944, in hitting a record 1,130 km/h (702 mph) top speed and nearly destroying its entire rudder surface in the process, a variety of stabilization methods such as airbrakes on the wings were considered for such aircraft or simply adding conventional tail surfaces. Kurt Tank's design team led by Hans Multhopp designed in 1945 a fighter known as "Huckebein" (from Wilhelm Busch's "Hans Huckebein, the unlucky raven", a cartoon raven that traditionally makes trouble for others), also known as Project V (Project VI in some references) or Design II at Focke-Wulf. The raven character itself was re-used for the modern Bundeswehr's Lufttransportgeschwader 62 as the inspiration for their unit's insignia.

Design
Development of the Ta 183 started as early as 1942 as Project VI, when the engineer Hans Multhopp assembled a team to design a new fighter, based on his understanding that previous Focke-Wulf design studies for jet fighters had no chance of reaching fruition because none had the potential for transonic speeds. This aircraft, bearing the RLM airframe number 8-183, was intended to use, as with a growing number of other advanced German late-war jet aircraft proposals, the advanced Heinkel HeS 011 turbojet; although the first prototypes were to be powered by the Junkers Jumo 004B. Early studies also included an optional 1,000 kgf (10 kN) thrust rocket engine for takeoff and combat boost, much as the special "003R" version of the BMW 003 jet engine was meant to use, with fuel and oxidiser for up to 200 seconds of burn time stored in drop tanks under the wings.

The wings were swept back at 40° and were mounted in the mid-fuselage position. The wings appear to be mounted very far forward compared with most designs, a side-effect of attempting to keep the centre of pressure (CoP) of the wing as a whole as close to the middle of the fuselage as possible. Reflecting the dilemma of a shortage of strategic materials, the first option of using aluminum in the construction of the main spar consisting of two tapered I-beams attached together on the top and bottom with shear webs of thin steel sheeting, led to a reappraisal. Multhopp chose to use wood instead of metal throughout the wing structure, with wood structure ribs attached to the front and back of the I-beams to give the wing its overall shape, and then covered with plywood. The box-like structure contained six fuel cells, giving the aircraft a total fuel load of 1,565 L (413 US gal).

The original design used a T-tail, with a notably long vertical stabilizer and a seemingly undersized horizontal stabilizer. The vertical stabilizer was swept back at 60°, and the horizontal stabilizer was swept back and slightly dihedralled. The horizontal stabilizer also featured two large trim tabs, the main pitching force actually being provided by what would have appeared to be "ailerons" on most other turbojet-powered fighter airframes of the period. The Ta 183 wing's outermost trailing-edge control surfaces on its wing panels, were well behind the center of gravity, placing their trailing edges' tips virtually even, horizontally, with the intended HeS 011 jet engine's exhaust orifice, and thus could provide both pitch and roll control through functioning as elevon control surfaces, as those on the wing panels of Messerschmittt's Me 163 tailplane-less Komet rocket fighter already did. Many problems beset the project, including the chance of a Dutch roll. Work therefore concentrated on the much less problematic Focke-Wulf Project VII. However, when the RLM eventually rejected that design, Huckebein was again brought to the fore.

The Ta 183 had a short fuselage with the air intake passing under the cockpit and proceeding to the rear where the single engine was located. The pilot sat in a pressurized cockpit with a bubble canopy which provided excellent vision. The primary armament of the aircraft consisted of four 30 mm (1.18 in) MK 108 cannons arranged around the air intake.

It was also possible to carry a bomb load of 500 kg (1,100 lb), consisting of one SD or more SC 500 half-tonne bombs, one Bombentorpedo BT 200 bomb, five SD-series fragmentation bombs, SC-series general-purpose bombs, or a Rb 20/30 reconnaissance camera. The weapons load would be carried in the equipment space in the bottom of the fuselage and thus partially protrude about halfway from the fuselage, possibly allowing for other armament packages such as the Ruhrstahl X-4 wire-guided missile.

Multhopp's team also seriously explored a second version of the basic design, known as Design III, a modified Design II (it is unknown what Design I referred to). The first of these had only minor modifications, with slightly differently shaped wingtips and repositioning of the undercarriage. The second version had a reduced sweepback to 32°, allowing the wing and cockpit to be moved rearward. The tail was also redesigned, using a short horizontal boom to mount the control surfaces just above the line of the rear fuselage. This version looks considerably more "conventional" to the modern eye, although somewhat stubby due to the short overall length of the HeS 011.

The second of these two schemes was entered in the official competition ordered by the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe at the end of 1944. On 28 February 1945, the Luftwaffe High Command examined the various Emergency Fighter proposals and selected the Junkers EF 128 to be developed and produced; the Focke-Wulf team gained second place. However, in the last few weeks of the war, it was decided that the Huckebein was really the best design and, at a meeting in Bad Eilsen, Tank was told to arrange mockups and to plan for full production. It had a planned speed of about 1,000 km/h (620 mph) at 7,000 m (22,970 ft) and it was estimated that 300 aircraft per month would be delivered when production got into its stride, each aircraft being produced in 2,500 man hours.

A total of 16 prototypes were to be built, allowing the tail unit to be interchanged between the Design II and III variations. Of the Versuchs (experimental test series) aircraft, the Ta 183 V1-V3 were to be powered by the Jumo 004B turbojet with somewhat lengthened rear fuselages near the engine's exhaust nozzle to accommodate them, pending delivery of the HeS 011 jet engine. The Ta 183 V4-V14 were intended to be A-0 series pre-production aircraft and V15-V16 were to be static test aircraft. The first flight of the aircraft was projected for May 1945, but no finished Ta 183 Versuchs-series prototypes had been completed by 8 April 1945, when British troops captured the Focke-Wulf facilities.

Influence

After the end of the war, Kurt Tank, in exile in Argentina, resurrected the Ta 183 project, resulting in the IAe Pulqui II. This version was modified to place the wings at a shoulder-mounted position, in order to avoid a heavy fuselage spar pass-through structure going around the engine, however this resulted in deep stall problems at high angles of attack. This could be resolved, and a version correcting these problems was planned. However, the financial crash of 1953 and the fall of Juan Peron temporarily suspended work on the project. By 1955, the project had been abandoned due to the availability of surplus ex-Korean War F-86 Sabres at a fraction of the cost.

Historians including David Myrha have claimed the Soviet Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 was at least inspired by the Ta 183, because the Soviets captured plans from the Germans at the end of World War II. The MiG-15 does bear a resemblance in layout, sharing the high tailplane and nose-mounted intake, although the aircraft are different in structure, details, and proportions. The MiG-15's design shared features, and some appearance commonalities with the MiG design bureau's own 1945-46 attempt at a Soviet-built rocket interceptor similar to the Messerschmitt Me 263 rocket fighter, and also common to many contemporary jet fighters — and were derived from aerodynamic and structural considerations (for example, the American Republic F-84F, the Swedish SAAB 29, and the French Dassault Ouragan and Mystère). A detailed design history of the MiG-15 was published by Russian aviation historian Yefim Gordon refuting any connection between the Ta 183 and the MiG-15. According to the designers, the MiG-15 was an indigenous design, their choice of swept wings (as swept-back wings of any sort on a Soviet-designed aircraft were first flown on the MiG-8 Utka canard light aircraft of 1945) being due to their desire to move ahead of most Western designs which were not intended for the 960 km/h+ (600 mph+) speed range.

Like the MiG-9 and MiG-15, the Saab 29 is subject to claims of having been indirectly influenced by the Ta 183. SAAB engineers received German research studies in swept wings in the immediate post-war period via contacts in Switzerland, and incorporated it into the Tunnan design, which was still limited to paper studies at the time.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Focke-Wulf Ta 183


text:
Talk:Interstellar medium

Contents

 * The interstellar medium consists of an extremely dilute (by terrestrial standards) mixture of ions, atoms, molecules, larger dust grains, cosmic rays, and (galactic) magnetic fields.

Magnetic fields doesn't seem to fit in this sentence. By following this logic, one could just as well include gravitational fields in this mixture, or neutrinos or photons? or am i getting the wrong end of the stick here? I appreciate that cosmic rays are included because they are not really rays, is there a special meaning to "(galactic) magnetic fields" 213.249.149.102 (talk) 14:29, 4 November 2009 (UTC)

A certain sentence
Using logical deduction, I'm confused about a certain sentence in the article.
 * Therefore, it is nearly impossible to see light emitted at that wavelength from a star, because most of it is absorbed during the trip to Earth by Lyman-alpha absorption.

The area between the sun and earth is not Interstellar Medium. While hydrogen does exist in this space, and even more light is refracted/absrobed by out atmosphere (giving us a blue sky), I'm going to remove the sentence, as it gives the impression that the space between the earth and sun is interstellar medium. --ORBIT 23:21, 26 May 2005 (UTC)
 * I just reread the paragraph, and while a bit confusing on my first past, does make sense, and doesn't need to be removed... Not sure how to clarify the sentence though. --ORBIT 23:23, 26 May 2005 (UTC)
 * I've cleaned up the paragraph and added visible extinction Mordecai-Mark Mac Low 02:05, 13 January 2006 (UTC)

Birekland's prediction
I've restored the historical paragraph, omitting the unsubstantiated claim that astronomers thought that space was a vacuum. I'll restore it, if and when I find a reference. I have no idea why you took out Birkeland's prediction, though I have qualified it as predicting both dark matter and plasma. --Iantresman 15:08, 3 February 2006 (UTC)

Gas/plasma
Why is it that the plasma article says the intersellar medium is composed moslty of a sparse plasma, and this article says it's a sparse gas? Is it a case of using "gas" & "plasma" interchangeably at this level of sparseness, or considering plasma to be a type of gas and therefore using the more general term? Just curious.

 * The latter. Astrophysicists routinely refer to ionized, neutral, and molecular gas, the first of which can also be called plasma.  If the discussion refers specifically to plasma behaviors (eg particle orbits in tangled magnetic fields), then plasma rather than ionized gas will be used. Mordecai-Mark Mac Low 21:47, 22 February 2007 (UTC)

Picture
The caption on the picture on the main page, and the caption on the picture shown after clicking the thumbnail disagree as to the origin of the picture and what it shows. The main page caption on the H II medium image labels it as "the parts of the Galactic interstellar medium visible from the Earth's northern hemisphere (from the Wisconsin H-Alpha Mapper Survey)," while the caption on the larger picture you view after clicking on the thumbnail labels it as "a sky map of the southern sky derived from a robotic telescope in Chile," from the SHASSA team at NSF. Since the larger picture caption provides a valid linked reference, I assume it is the one labelled correctly, but I left this for someone more knowledgeable in the subject area of the article to change.
 * Can anyone tell which is right? Kauczuk 15:47, 9 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Having looked at the WHAM homepage they seem to be a lower resolution study than the SHASSA team. That image, or a higher resolution copy is from the SHASSA site so they must be the originators. --Jason Kirk 23:03, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
 * I don't see the image anymore on this page and my memory is foggy about what used to be here. But yes, WHAM has a lower spatial resolution than SHASSA, although it gathers spectra as a tradeoff. --mh 21:02, 25 January 2007 (UTC)

Section Edits
I've just gone through the article moving stuff around and adding new section headings. I've also reworded and expanded one or two paragraphs to make things more obvious to the non-astronomer. However, there is still a lot of stuff that I think should be included, but that something I haven't got the free time to do at the moment. Therefore I'll added a todo box to this discussion page should anybody else want to carry on. --Jason Kirk 23:03, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

As an aside: The Historical section was the biggest bugbear as its really just a collection of random quotes without any sort of context. I've tried to add bits and pieces in where the quotes seem to be taking about certain events, but its still unfinished. I also moved history to the top as the general wikipedia style seems to be for the "History" section to come first. The references in the text should also be moved to the reference section and correctly formatted. --Jason Kirk 23:03, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

I said it's not ISM. 71.237.21.218 (talk) 22:39, 7 December 2021 (UTC) Anonymous

Interstellar medium=Interstellar space?
I'm a little unclear: is the medium the same thing as the space? The way redirects are structured, one thinks that it is (i.e. Interstellar space redirects here). Erudy 20:53, 10 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Space is not the same as medium. Interstellar space is merely the (mathematical) space in which the interstellar medium (gas, dust, radiation) resides. Space can exist without a medium (it would then be empty space), but a medium can never exist without space to contain it. Maybe it would be a good idea if somebody explained on the interstellar space page what the difference is. Hope this clarifies matters a bit MHD 14:44, 24 October 2007 (UTC)
 * -->"Space is not the same as medium" means we have two different "things" and therefor two different articles encyclopedicaly. Interstellar space should not redirect here so I have changed that redirect to Outer space. Fountains of Bryn Mawr (talk) 19:53, 2 December 2009 (UTC)
 * MHD, IS is not a mathematical but rather physical space. I.e. with all the conceptions of the nature of the continuum implied. IMHO.
 * Erudy, such links should be weighed in their context and, if necessary, corrected. Lincoln Josh (talk)
 * NB: Hm. The IS link leads to a section in "Outer space" and that section says HERE (the "medium") is its main article... Lincoln Josh (talk) 22:21, 19 February 2013 (UTC)
 * Well, I've changed the presumably main redirection on "Interstellar" (see the Talk page) and modified the "redirection" template here. Lincoln Josh (talk) 23:13, 19 February 2013 (UTC)

Hα image
I added an Hα image from the Wisconsin Hα Mapper. (A similar image with a non-commercial use only license was deleted two years ago.) Disclaimer: I am on the WHAM team. Ashill (talk) 17:03, 1 February 2008 (UTC)

Table 1
What does "Scale Height" mean? I'd like the explanation to be either before or straight after (just beneath) the table. Or it may be realised with the help of wikilinking the heading. That's it. Lincoln Josh (talk) 22:03, 19 February 2013 (UTC)
 * I wikified it to scale height. ★NealMcB★ (talk) 01:14, 16 July 2022 (UTC)

ISM is gas and dust
Generally the ISM is said to consist of gas and dust. I'd remove "cosmic rays" from the defining sentence. Cosmic rays are sourced and they travel through the ISM as does star light. But the gas and dust is the ISM, from which stars are formed. One also doesn't mention dark matter which is also present. ISM is the baryonic matter that makes the ISM a medium or "stuff," which will contract under the force of gravity leading to star formation. Jason from nyc (talk) 02:58, 1 December 2014 (UTC)
 * Cosmic rays are baryonic matter in the ISM. Not all of the ISM will ever participate in star formation -- only the dense phases (CNM and molecular gas) do, at least in the vaguely near term. And the Reviews of Modern Physics reference by Ferriere (2001) defines the interstellar medium explicitly as having "three basic constituents -- ordinary matter, comic rays, and magnetic fields". —Alex (ASHill | talk | contribs) 16:48, 2 December 2014 (UTC)
 * Thanks, Alex, for the reference. At first I couldn’t access a copy but finally found a pdf here: . Pages 27 & 28 go into detail on the role played by cosmic rays and interstellar magnetic fields. The author says:"… interstellar magnetic field helps to support the ordinary matter against its own weight in the Galactic gravitational potential, and it confines cosmic rays to the Galactic disk. In this manner, both magnetic fields and cosmic rays partake in the overall hydrostatic balance of the ISM and influence its stability.” She cites research in 1990 that first “fully appreciated the importance of magnetic fields and cosmic rays in the hydrostatic balance.”

 * Research is clearly ongoing concerning the influence of magnetic fields on instability, turbulence, star formation, etc. The origin of the magnetic field is speculative. The author favors a hydromagnetic dynamo, motion of a conducting fluid through a magnetic field, which amplifies the original magnetic field. The original field, a seed field, could be extragalactic in origin, early interaction with the CMB, or 1st generation SN & solar winds.

 * She uses the phrases “interstellar material” and “interstellar matter” to refer to just the gas and dust while the more general term “interstellar medium” includes that plus cosmic rays and magnetic fields. In their graduate text, “Galactic Dynamics,” Binney and Tremaine, write “the gas and dust are called the interstellar medium (ISM)” thus restricting the term to what Ferriere calls interstellar material. B&T seem to have little use of the magnetic field in terms of galactic dynamics and mention it mostly to account for synchrotron radiation (p465) although Mo, den Bosch, and White discuss the role magnetic fields play in the inhibition of star formation in Chapter 9 of their “Galaxy Formation and Evolution.”

 * There seems to be a broader definition and a more narrow definition. Still, Ferriere is making the “interstellar environment” the focus of her study and that is hard to dispute. Jason from nyc (talk) 17:30, 3 December 2014 (UTC)

Extremely low frequency
I understand that these won't travel in the interstellar medium? Maybe worth mentioning and explaining. --Trickstar (talk) 09:14, 2 May 2017 (UTC)

How do photodissociation regions (PDRs) fit in?
From photodissociation region I guess that PDRs include the neutral atomic H components (in the table), but it is unclear to me if that includes just Cold neutral medium (CNM), just Warm neutral medium (WNM), or both. Could the article be expanded in the right places to show where PDRs fit in? And then could the PDR article be fleshed out a bit more? Thanks! ★NealMcB★ (talk) 01:10, 16 July 2022 (UTC)

Strange section on "The atomic hydrogen model"
The following section was added on 1st July 2017 by User:Jamtby and since then has been subject to only minor copy-editing. However, it was at best grossly out of place and at least partially cranky (the ISM does not produce "flares"!). I have copied it below in case anyone can make sense of parts of it, and replaced it with a brief summary of the physics behind the 3-phase ISM model. PaddyLeahy (talk) 18:56, 12 June 2023 (UTC)

The atomic hydrogen model
This model takes into account only atomic hydrogen: A temperature higher than 3000 K breaks molecules, while that lower than 50000 K leaves atoms in their ground state. It is assumed that the influence of other atoms (He ...) is negligible. The pressure is assumed to be very low, so the durations of the free paths of atoms are longer than the ~ 1 nanosecond duration of the light pulses that constitute ordinary, temporally incoherent light.

In this collisionless gas, Einstein's theory of coherent light-matter interactions applies: all the gas-light interactions are spatially coherent. Suppose that a monochromatic light is pulsed, then scattered by molecules with a quadrupole (Raman) resonance frequency. If the “length of light pulses is shorter than all involved time constants” (Lamb (1971)), an “impulsive stimulated Raman scattering (ISRS)” (Yan, Gamble & Nelson (1985)) applies: the light generated by incoherent Raman scattering at a shifted frequency has a phase independent of the phase of the exciting light, thus generating a new spectral line, and coherence between the incident and scattered light facilitates their interference into a single frequency, thus shifting the incident frequency. Assume that a star radiates a continuous light spectrum up to X-rays. Lyman frequencies are absorbed in this light and pump atoms mainly to the first excited state. In this state, the hyperfine periods are longer than 1 ns, so an ISRS “may” redshift the light frequency, populating high hyperfine levels. Another ISRS “may” transfer energy from hyperfine levels to thermal electromagnetic waves, so the redshift is permanent. The temperature of a light beam is defined by its frequency and spectral radiance with Planck's formula. As entropy must increase, “may” becomes “does”. However, where a previously absorbed line (first Lyman beta, ...) reaches the Lyman alpha frequency, the redshifting process stops, and all hydrogen lines are strongly absorbed. But this stop is not perfect if there is energy at the frequency shifted to Lyman beta frequency, which produces a slow redshift. Successive redshifts separated by Lyman absorptions generate many absorption lines, frequencies of which, deduced from absorption process, obey a law more dependable than Karlsson's formula.

The previous process excites more and more atoms because a de-excitation obeys Einstein's law of coherent interactions: Variation dI of radiance I of a light beam along a path dx is dI=BIdx, where B is Einstein amplification coefficient which depends on medium. I is the modulus of Poynting vector of field, absorption occurs for an opposed vector, which corresponds to a change of sign of B. Factor I in this formula shows that intense rays are more amplified than weak ones (competition of modes). Emission of a flare requires a sufficient radiance I provided by random zero point field. After emission of a flare, weak B increases by pumping while I remains close to zero: De-excitation by a coherent emission involves stochastic parameters of zero point field, as observed close to quasars (and in polar auroras). PaddyLeahy (talk) 18:56, 12 June 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Interstellar medium


text:
User talk:Freiberg

Editing
Hi. I have been on this website for a while, but have only now created an account. Does anyone know what I could do for the encyclopedia?
 * It really depends on your area of expertise, your education, or your interests in general. You could start by creating your User Page and telling people who you are and how you can contribute. Normally, it's an administrator's job to welcome you and introduce you to the Wikipedia (they have this whole template with things you could do as a beginner, which they usually post on your Discussion Page). Anyway, good luck with your editing endeavors! KNewman 14:57, Jun 1, 2005 (UTC)

CDVF
Reading the entire page helps. Instructions on how to install were a few sections above your question. (see this link) -- Mgm|(talk) 17:46, Jun 1, 2005 (UTC)

Minor Edit
Hello! I took the liberty of making a minor typo edit to your New User page entry ("balck holes" to "black holes"). Oddly enough though, the original typo STILL linked to the correct article, lol. capitalist 02:37, 19 October 2005 (UTC)

Welcome
Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Questions, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome!
 * The five pillars of Wikipedia
 * How to edit a page
 * Help pages
 * Tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Manual of Style

--Freiberg, Let's talk!, contribs 22:56, 27 January 2006 (UTC)

Middle School
Nice to see other Middle-Schoolers here! Welcome! Эйрон Кинни 05:20, 26 February 2006 (UTC)

Re:Thanks for voting!
You´re welcome! ♠  TomasBat   18:43, 11 August 2007 (UTC)

has smiled at you! Smiles promote WikiLove and hopefully this one has made your day better. Spread the WikiLove by smiling at someone else, whether it be someone you have had disagreements with in the past or a good friend. Happy editing! Smile at others by adding {{subst:Smile}} to their talk page with a friendly message.

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ACID Atom
The article Atom, which you voted for the Article Collaboration and Improvement Drive on August 11, and was removed on September 11, because on one got around to choosing it as the winner, has been renominated and needs votes. Zginder 15:52, 10 November 2007 (UTC)

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You helped choose Dwarf planet as this week's WP:ACID winner
'''Sorry, we weren't able to suggest any articles for you. Something is probably wrong on our end.'''

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Speedy deletion of Template:User proc
A tag has been placed on Template:User proc requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under section T3 of the criteria for speedy deletion, because it is a deprecated or orphaned template. After seven days, if it is still unused and the speedy deletion tag has not been removed, the template will be deleted.

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Thanks. --MZMcBride (talk) 21:44, 20 February 2008 (UTC)

== AHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ==

AHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH!

Who are you? R U DAVE? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Sumestest (talk • contribs) 13:13, 5 March 2008 (UTC)

Edit counts
I saw on Clown's page that you were wondering how many edits he had. If you want to find out how many edits anybody has, feel free to use [|kate's tool]Balloonman (talk) 04:32, 12 March 2008 (UTC)

Thank you. I was hoping that something like this existed, but I did not know where it was or what its name was. Now I don't have to annoy people with that! Thank you.--Freiberg, Let's talk!, contribs 14:50, 12 March 2008 (UTC)

Diphosphoinositol-pentakisphosphate kinase
Just what I said.--Freiberg, Let's talk!, contribs 13:42, 14 March 2008 (UTC)

AHHHH!
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2%2C3-dihydro-2%2C3-dihydroxybenzoate_dehydrogenase

Your Logo Request
I'm having a bit of trouble with the font. It does not seem to be included in Microsoft Office, and the download file won't work with Adobe Photoshop. Also, the blue-to-white gradient you wanted won't fit over the text> The background does work, though. Is there another font or effect I could use (I have many)? STORMTRACKER   94  Go Sox! 12:31, 16 March 2008 (UTC)

g'day freiberg
I thought I'd let you know that the NotTheWikipediaWeekly skypecast is going to go ahead in about a couple of hours - with the doors opening in about an hour and a half - so do pop along to that page, where you'll find a link to join the 'room' if you fancy being part of the conversation! (oh, and I should reiterate that you'll need the latest version of Skype for it to work smoothly... and it can take several attempts to join the 'room' so persevere if it doesn't work at first!) - hope to chat soon! Privatemusings (talk) 22:56, 17 March 2008 (UTC)

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Attacks in
Please do not make personal attacks. Wikipedia has a strict policy against personal attacks. Attack pages and images are not tolerated by Wikipedia and are speedily deleted. Users who continue to create or repost such pages and images, especially those in violation of our Biographies of living persons policy, will be blocked from editing Wikipedia. Thank you. JohnCD (talk) 14:42, 19 March 2008 (UTC)

 * My deepest apologies. My account was compromised, as I am at school and was away from the computer for a few minutes. I sincerely mean no harm to the encyclopedia, nor to Alex Sidor.  I will try to not let this happen, but I keep myself logged into Wikipedia automatically.  I will speak to those responsible, and I will take steps to make sure that this never happens again.  --Freiberg, Let's talk!, contribs 14:53, 19 March 2008 (UTC)
 * No harm done, but maybe best to log out when leaving your computer if you are in a vandal environment - it doesn't take long to log in again. Apologies for delayed response - I have only recently adopted the strategy of watching others' talk pages for a response, and I forgot to watch yours. Regards, JohnCD (talk) 21:41, 22 March 2008 (UTC)
 * No prob. I do the same thing.  I promise that I will do my best to stop this from happening again.  --Freiberg, Let's talk!, contribs 23:28, 22 March 2008 (UTC)

Judith Leyster
Please review the history here - you only reverted a small part of the removal of most of the article! You need to check, especially if, as here, the same vandal has made a series of edits. 03:16, 24 March 2008 (UTC)

NotTheWikipediaWeekly
Thanks for your interest in coming and being a part of a conversation! - I'm going to host a chit chat at 00.00 UTC March 26th (which is probably tomorrow for most - it's 8.00pm east coast US) - it'd be great if you can come along, and I've created a new 'confirmed' participants section at the wiki page, which it would be great if you could pop over and sign, if you are indeed available! - I hope so, and I look forward to chatting tomorrow! best, Privatemusings (talk) 02:11, 25 March 2008 (UTC)

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Hello
--Tablepie (talk) 17:26, 19 April 2008 (UTC)

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2008 US Prez election
Hello Freiberg. You were sharp to point out the fact, that Obama is half-caucasion, a fact usually overlooked. GoodDay (talk) 16:10, 31 August 2008 (UTC)

 * If this is referring to Freiberg's recent edit on the election page, I believe Obama is still considered "African American", as he fits the description on the African American article. So, African American is still accurate and shouldn't be removed. However, it probably should be mentioned that he is half-caucasian, just not in place of African American. Tim  meh  !  16:16, 31 August 2008 (UTC)
 * Is the way it is phrased now acceptable?--Freiberg, Let's talk!, contribs 16:21, 31 August 2008 (UTC)

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Lopadotemachoselachogaleokranioleipsanodrimhypotrimmatosilphioparaomelitokatakechymenokichlepikossyphophattoperisteralektryonoptekephalliokigklopeleiolagoiosiraiobaphetraganopterygon
Even worse than the first one.

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ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 13:04, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of Kelgian (Sector General)

The article Kelgian (Sector General) has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern: "Fails WP:GNG."

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Proposed deletion of Melfan (Sector General)

The article Melfan (Sector General) has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern: "Fails WP:GNG."

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title: User talk:Freiberg


text:
Portal:Ukraine/Things you can do

If you just came here for the first time, please read this and be bold... but timid.
 * Articles needing major work, Be Bold!: a cleanup listing for this project is available. See also the list by category, the tool's wiki page and the index of WikiProjects.
 * To start: Moldavian speaking Ukrainians, Ukrainian speaking Moldavians, Miroslav Skochilyas, Smerichka, Roman Oleksiv, Metropolitan Oleksiy (Hromadsky), Political reform in Ukraine (2004)
 * Stubs needing expansion:
 *  : Mayor of Kyiv, Ukrainian Navy, Ukrainian rock, State Border Guard Service of Ukraine, Berkut (Ukraine), Sport in Ukraine, Supreme Court of Ukraine, Kyiv Bank Union, Ukrzaliznytsia, Shevchenko National Prize
 *  : Koliyivschyna, Elected Cossacks, Koshovyi Otaman, Ataman, 1st Ukrainian Front
 *  : Pylyp Orlyk, Ivan Pidkova, Kyrylo Rozumovsky,
 *  : Ros' River, Yayla Mountains, Yablonitsky Pass, Arcadia Beach, Poshtova Square
 *  : Battle on the Irpen' River, List of early East Slavic states, Hypatian Codex
 *  : Ukrainian SSR, Flag of the Ukrainian SSR, Coat of arms of the Ukrainian SSR
 * Featured portal: Portal:Ukraine
 * Featured pictures: Reply of the Zaporozhian Cossacks (Commons), 1691 map of Kamianets-Podilskyi, Downtown Lviv (C), Nataliya Gotsiy
 * Featured articles: St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery, Sviatoslav I of Kiev, Rus' Khaganate, Caspian expeditions of the Rus, House with Chimaerasg
 * Former Featured articles: Hero of Ukraine, T-34
 * Featured article candidate's status within reach: Ukraine, Yulia Tymoshenko, Kamianets-Podilskyi Castle

 * Good articles: Andriyivskyy Descent, Rus'-Byzantine War (860), Kiev Offensive (1920), Onion dome, Oleg of Novgorod, Second Battle of Kharkov, Kiev Expedition (1018), Mezhyhirskyi Monastery, Ukraine, Battle of the Kalka River, Battle of Kostiuchnówka, Yulia Tymoshenko, Kamianets-Podilskyi Castle, Vorontsov Palace (Alupka), Zoloti Vorota

 * Former Good articles: Boltysh crater, Chernobyl disaster, Donetsk, Crimean Karaites
 * Images wanted:
 * 1) Tetyana Yablonska photograph or painting?
 * 2) Proposed featured images;
 * 3) A picture of the ministry of defense building.

title: Portal:Ukraine/Things you can do


text:
Curse (disambiguation)

A curse is a spell or incantation intended to harm.

Curse(s) may also refer to:

Film and television

 * Curses! (film), a 1925 film directed by Fatty Arbuckle
 * Curses! (TV series), a 2023 streaming television series
 * "Curse" (The Secret Circle), a 2012 TV episode
 * "Curses!" (Brandy & Mr. Whiskers), a 2006 TV episode
 * "Curses" (Space Ghost Coast to Coast), a 1998 TV episode

Music

 * Curse (rapper) (born 1978), German rapper

Albums

 * Curse (Alien Sex Fiend album), 1990
 * Curse (The Legendary Pink Dots album), 1983
 * Curses (Future of the Left album), 2007
 * Curses, by Vanna, 2007

Songs

 * "Curse", by Cult of Luna from Eternal Kingdom, 2008
 * "Curse", by Imagine Dragons from Imagine Dragons, 2009
 * "Curse", by Jamie Drastik, featuring David Rush and Big Ali, 2010
 * "Curse", by Architects, 2024
 * "Curses", by Bullet for My Valentine from Bullet for My Valentine, 2004

Video games

 * Curse (video game), a 1989 Sega Mega Drive console game
 * Curse: The Eye of Isis, a 2003 video game
 * Curses (video game), a 1993 interactive fiction computer game
 * Curse LLC, an online video game portal and software company

Other

 * Curse (character), a fictional villain in the comic book Spawn
 * Curses (anthology), a 1989 collection of fantasy and science fiction stories
 * Curses (programming library), a programming library for Unix and Unix-like systems
 * Profanity, a socially offensive use of language

title: Curse (disambiguation)


text:
OII

OII may refer to:

Organisations

 * OII, market exchange symbol for Oceaneering International
 * Office of Innovation and Improvement, an office of the United States Department of Education
 * Organisation Intersex International, a global advocacy and support group for people with intersex traits
 * Oxford Internet Institute, a multi-disciplinary department, part of the University of Oxford, England

title: OII


text: User talk:68.59.186.81

title: User talk:68.59.186.81


text:
Yoshitaka Murata

Yoshitaka Murata (村田 吉隆) is the Chairman of the National Public Safety Commission, the Minister of State for Disaster Management and the Minister of State for National Emergency Legislation in Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi's Cabinet.

Born in the city of Shizuoka, Murata graduated from Faculty of Law, Kyoto University and joined the Ministry of Finance in 1968. In 1990, he was elected to the House of Representatives for the first time and, since September 2004 he has been on the present posts.

title: Yoshitaka Murata


text:
International security

International security is a term which refers to the measures taken by states and international organizations, such as the United Nations, European Union, and others, to ensure mutual survival and safety. These measures include military action and diplomatic agreements such as treaties and conventions. International and national security are invariably linked. International security is national security or state security in the global arena.

By the end of World War II, a new subject of academic study, security studies, focusing on international security emerged. It began as an independent field of study, but was absorbed as a sub-field of international relations. Since it took hold in the 1950s, the study of international security has been at the heart of international relations studies. It covers areas such as security studies, strategic studies, peace studies, and other areas.

The meaning of "security" is often treated as a common sense term that can be understood by "unacknowledged consensus". The content of international security has expanded over the years. Today it covers a variety of interconnected issues in the world that affect survival. It ranges from the traditional or conventional modes of military power, the causes and consequences of war between states, economic strength, to ethnic, religious and ideological conflicts, trade and economic conflicts, energy supplies, science and technology, food, as well as threats to human security and the stability of states from environmental degradation, infectious diseases, climate change and the activities of non-state actors.

While the wide perspective of international security regards everything as a security matter, the traditional approach focuses mainly or exclusively on military concerns.

Concepts of security in the international arena
Edward Kolodziej has compared international security to a Tower of Babel and Roland Paris (2004) views it as "in the eye of the beholder". Security has been widely applied to "justify suspending civil liberties, making war, and massively reallocating resources during the last fifty years".

Walter Lippmann (1944) views security as the capability of a country to protect its core values, both in terms that a state need not sacrifice core values in avoiding war and can maintain them by winning war. David Baldwin (1997) argues that pursuing security sometimes requires sacrificing other values, including marginal values and prime values. Richard Ullman (1983) has suggested that a decrease in vulnerability is security.

Arnold Wolfers (1952) argues that "security" is generally a normative term. It is applied by nations "in order to be either expedient—a rational means toward an accepted end—or moral, the best or least evil course of action". In the same way that people are different in sensing and identifying danger and threats, Wolfers argues that different nations also have different expectations of security. Not only is there a difference between forbearance of threats, but different nations also face different levels of threats because of their unique geographical, economic, ecological, and political environment.

Barry Buzan (2000) views the study of international security as more than a study of threats, but also a study of which threats that can be tolerated and which require immediate action. He sees the concept of security as not either power or peace, but something in between.

The concept of an international security actor has extended in all directions since the 1990s, from nations to groups, individuals, international systems, NGOs, and local governments.

Traditional security
The traditional security paradigm refers to a realist construct of security in which the referent object of security is the state. The prevalence of this theorem reached a peak during the Cold War. For almost half a century, major world powers entrusted the security of their nation to a balance of power among states. In this sense international stability relied on the premise that if state security is maintained, then the security of citizens will necessarily follow. Traditional security relied on the anarchistic balance of power, a military build-up between the United States and the Soviet Union (the two superpowers), and on the absolute sovereignty of the nation state. States were deemed to be rational entities, national interests and policy driven by the desire for absolute power. Security was seen as protection from invasion; executed during proxy conflicts using technical and military capabilities.

As Cold War tensions receded, it became clear that the security of citizens was threatened by hardships arising from internal state activities as well as external aggressors. Civil wars were increasingly common and compounded existing poverty, disease, hunger, violence and human rights abuses. Traditional security policies had effectively masked these underlying basic human needs in the face of state security. Through neglect of its constituents, nation states had failed in their primary objective.

In the historical debate on how best to achieve national security, writers like Hobbes, Machiavelli, and Rousseau tended to paint a rather pessimistic picture of the implications of state sovereignty. The international system was viewed as a rather brutal arena in which states would seek to achieve their own security at the expense of their neighbors. Inter-state relations were seen as a struggle for power, as states constantly attempted to take advantage of each other. According to this view, permanent peace was unlikely to be achieved. All that states could do was to try to balance the power of other states to prevent any one from achieving overall hegemony. This view was shared by writers such as E.H. Carr and Hans Morgenthau.

More recently, the traditional state-centric notion of security has been challenged by more holistic approaches to security. Among the approaches which seeks to acknowledge and address these basic threats to human safety are paradigms that include cooperative, comprehensive and collective measures, aimed to ensure security for the individual and, as a result, for the state.

Classical realism
In the field of international relations, realism has long been a dominant theory, from ancient military theories and writings of Chinese and Greek thinkers, Sun Tzu and Thucydides being two of the more notable, to Hobbes, Machiavelli and Rousseau. It is the foundation of contemporary international security studies. The twentieth century classical realism is mainly derived from Edward Hallett Carr's book The Twenty Years' Crisis. The realist views anarchy and the absence of a power to regulate the interactions between states as the distinctive characteristics of international politics. Because of anarchy, or a constant state of antagonism, the international system differs from the domestic system. Realism has a variety of sub-schools whose lines of thought are based on three core assumptions: groupism, egoism, and power-centrism. According to classical realists, bad things happen because the people who make foreign policy are sometimes bad.

Neorealism
Beginning in the 1960s, with increasing criticism of realism, Kenneth Waltz tried to revive the traditional realist theory by translating some core realist ideas into a deductive, top-down theoretical framework that eventually came to be called neorealism. Theory of International Politics brought together and clarified many earlier realist ideas about how the features of the overall system of states affects the way states interact:

 * "Neorealism answers questions: Why the modern states-system has persisted in the face of attempts by certain states at dominance; why war among great powers recurred over centuries; and why states often find cooperation hard. In addition, the book forwarded one more specific theory: that great-power war would tend to be more frequent in multipolarity (an international system shaped by the power of three or more major states) than bipolarity (an international system shaped by two major states, or superpowers)."

The main theories of neorealism are balance of power theory, balance of threat theory, security dilemma theory, offense-defense theory, hegemonic stability theory and power transition theory.

Liberalism
Liberalism has a shorter history than realism but has been a prominent theory since World War I. It is a concept with a variety of meanings. Liberal thinking dates back to philosophers such as Thomas Paine and Immanuel Kant, who argued that republican constitutions produce peace. Kant's concept of Perpetual Peace is arguably seen as the starting point of contemporary liberal thought.

Economic liberalism
Economic liberalism assumes that economic openness and interdependence between countries makes them more peaceful than countries who are isolated. Eric Gartzke has written that economic freedom is 50 times more effective than democracy in creating peace. Globalization has been important to economic liberalism.

Liberal institutionalism
Liberal institutionalism views international institutions as the main factor to avoid conflicts between nations. Liberal institutionalists argue that; although the anarchic system presupposed by realists cannot be made to disappear by institutions; the international environment that is constructed can influence the behavior of states within the system. Varieties of international governmental organizations (IGOs) and international non-governmental organizations (INGOs) are seen as contributors to world peace.

Some believe that these international institutions lead to neotrusteeship, or postmodern imperialism. International institutions lead to an interconnectedness between strong and weak or post-conflict nations. In a situation such as a collapsed, weak-nation without the means of autonomous recovery, international institutions often lead to involvement by a stronger nation to aid in recovery. Because there is no definite international security policy to address weak or post-conflict nations, stronger nations sometimes face "mission-creep," a shift from supplying and aiding nations to an escalation of mission goals, when aiding weaker nations. In addition, there is some debate due to lack of testing that international intervention is not the best institution to aid weak or post-war nations. Possible mission-creep, as well as inefficiencies in international intervention, creates debate as to the effectiveness of international institutions in peacekeeping.

Constructivism
Since its founding in the 1980s, constructivism has become an influential approach in international security studies. "It is less a theory of international relations or security, however, than a broader social theory which then informs how we might approach the study of security." Constructivists argue that security is a social construction. They emphasize the importance of social, cultural and historical factors, which leads to different actors construing similar events differently.

Women in international security
As stated previously on this page, international and national security are inherently linked. Former U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton has been prominent in highlighting the importance of women in national and thus international security. In what has been referred to as "the Hillary Doctrine", she highlights the adversarial relationship between extremism and women's liberation in making the point that with women's freedom comes the liberation of whole societies. As states like Egypt and Pakistan grant more rights to women, further liberation and stability within such countries will inevitably ensue, fostering greater security throughout the international realm. Along the same lines, Secretary of State John Kerry stated that "no country can get ahead if it leaves half of its people behind. This is why the United States believes gender equality is critical to our shared goals of prosperity, stability, and peace, and why investing in women and girls worldwide is critical to advancing US foreign policy". Elevating women to equal standing internationally will help achieve greater peace and security. This can be seen in both developmental and economic factors, as just two examples among many. Built into American foreign policy is the idea that empowering women leads to greater international development due to their increased ability to maintain "the well-being of their families and communities, drive social progress, and stabilize societies." Female empowerment through economic investment, such as supporting their participation in the workforce, allows women to sustain their families and contribute to overall economic growth in their communities. Such principles must be propagated nationally and globally in order to increase the agency of women to achieve the necessary gender equality for international security.

There is much consideration within feminist international relations (IR) surrounding the importance of female presence to international security. The inclusion of women in discussions surrounding international cooperation increases the likelihood of new questions being asked that may not be given consideration in an otherwise masculine-dominated environment. As a renowned theorist within Feminist IR, J. Ann Tickner points out questions that women would likely be more inclined to ask in regards to war and peace. For example, why men have been the predominant actors in combat, how gender hierarchies contribute to the legitimation of war, and the consequences of associating women with peace. In general, the main issue of concern to feminists within IR is why in political, social, and economic realms, femininity remains inferior to masculinity, as they see the effects of this transcendental hierarchy both nationally and internationally. Such considerations contribute significant perspective to the role that women play in maintaining peaceful conditions of international security.

Despite acknowledgment of the importance of recognizing women's role in maintaining international security by Clinton, Kerry, and conceivably many others, the fact remains that women are disproportionately presented as victims, rather than actors or leaders. This can be derived by looking at information and statistics presented in Joni Seager's book The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World. For example, in combat zones, women face heightened risks of sexual assault, and their familial responsibilities are complicated by reduced access to necessary resources. In terms of governmental presence, (to support their role as leaders), women have not yet achieved equal representation in any state, and very few countries have legislative bodies that are more than 25% female. While prominent female politicians are becoming more frequent, "women leaders around the world like those who become presidents or prime ministers or foreign ministers or heads of corporations cannot be seen as tokens that give everyone else in society the change to say we've taken care of our women". This statement by Clinton reiterates the necessity to confront such on-going challenges to female participation, making such issues pertinent to international security.

Prominent thinkers

 * Robert Axelrod – Liberal institutionalism
 * Barry Buzan – Copenhagen School
 * Edward Hallett Carr – Classical realism
 * Robert Gilpin – Neorealism
 * Thomas Hobbes – Classical realism
 * Robert Jervis – Neorealism
 * Immanuel Kant – Kantian liberalism
 * Peter J. Katzenstein – Constructivism
 * Robert Keohane – Liberal institutionalism
 * Machiavelli – Classical realism
 * John Mearsheimer – Neorealism
 * Hans J. Morgenthau – Classical realism
 * Joseph Nye – Liberal institutionalism
 * Kathryn Sikkink – Constructivism
 * Thucydides – Classical realism
 * Kenneth Waltz – Neorealism
 * Alexander Wendt – Constructivism

Human security
Human security derives from the traditional concept of security from military threats to the safety of people and communities. It is an extension of mere existence (survival) to well-being and dignity of human beings. Human security is an emerging school of thought about the practice of international security. Under The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), the Commission on Human Security (CHS), in its final report, Human Security Now defines human security as "…to protect the vital core of all human lives in ways that enhance human freedoms and human fulfillment." Critics of the concept of human security claim that it covers almost everything and that it is too broad to be the focus of research. There have also been criticisms of its challenge to the role of states and their sovereignty. The challenge continues with the debate between responsibility for protection of the international community versus the sovereignty of each state.

Human security offers a critique of and advocates an alternative to the traditional state-based conception of security. Essentially, it argues that the proper referent for security is the individual and that state practices should reflect this rather than primarily focusing on securing borders through unilateral military action. The justification for the human security approach is said to be that the traditional conception of security is no longer appropriate or effective in the highly interconnected and interdependent modern world in which global threats such as poverty, environmental degradation, and terrorism supersede the traditional security threats of interstate attack and warfare. Further, state-interest-based arguments for human security propose that the international system is too interconnected for the state to maintain an isolationist international policy. Therefore, it argues that a state can best maintain its security and the security of its citizens by ensuring the security of others. It is need to be noted that without the traditional security no human security can be assured.

Human security is more aligned with non-traditional threats of international security. Compared to the traditional security issues, human security "has been related more to nation-states than to people." Thus, the emphasis on security transitions from territorial security between states to the individual people's security. The two main components includes freedom from fear and freedom from want. The list of human security threats is broad, but can be narrowed under seven main categories: economic security, food security, health security, environmental security, personal security, community security, and political security. Some examples include human trafficking, disease, environmental and natural disasters, degradation, poverty, and more.

UNDP human security proposal
The 1994 UNDP Human Development Report (HDR) proposes that increasing human security entails:
 * Investing in human development, not in arms;
 * Engaging policy makers to address the emerging peace dividend;
 * Giving the United Nations a clear mandate to promote and sustain development;
 * Enlarging the concept of development cooperation so that it includes all flows, not just aid;
 * Agreeing that 20 percent of national budgets and 20 percent of foreign aid be used for human development; and
 * Establishing an Economic Security Council.

The report elaborates on seven components to human security. Tadjbakhsh and Chenoy list them as follows:

title: International security


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