text:
Talk:Coaxial cable

RG-142
RG-142 often used in aircraft, not test configuration only.

TEM or TEM00
I never see this written as TEM00. My library is packed right now, but my recollection is that TM00 = TE00 = TEM. Also, do we need a citation for TEM being the dominant mode? Isn't this one of those cases where we know that that reliable source exists even if we do not cite it? Constant314 (talk) 15:37, 11 June 2022 (UTC)

 * I see the that is clarification needed instead of citation needed. It is my understanding that there is only one TEM mode, hence "the TEM mode." Constant314 (talk) 16:39, 11 June 2022 (UTC)
 * I am the person who added the clarification needed tag. I am only vaguely aware of different modes of propagation, and when I first read the sentence as  I wrote it because when I visited the hyperlink transverse electric and magnetic mode when TEM was first mentioned in this page, I read:
 * "Modes in waveguides can be classified as follows:
 * Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) modes"
 * Which is written as plural. And that made me confused about the use of the wording (in a previous revision) as a singular "The TEM mode".  Above in this article it did specify the specific TEM00 mode "Power is transmitted through the radial electric field and the circumferential magnetic field in the TEM00 transverse mode" and I made that 00 a subscript.  So I was a bit confused when I read this single-mode bullet point sentence without the 00.
 * If there is indeed only one TEM mode, then I suppose the usage of simply writing the singular "the TEM mode" is valid. But still in that case I would prefer something like "the fundamental TEM mode" here, like how the transverse mode section writes "In coaxial cable energy is normally transported in the fundamental TEM mode." Em3rgent0rdr (talk) 16:50, 11 June 2022 (UTC)
 * From what I can gather from google now, seems there is only one TEM mode for coaxial cables. Lasers it seems though can have higher TEM modes. So now I'm thinking that "the TEM00 transverse mode" in the sentence in "Signal propagation" section that "Power is transmitted through the radial electric field and the circumferential magnetic field in the TEM00 transverse mode" should be changed to just "the TEM mode" or "the transverse mode". Cause seems to be no need to distinguish from other TEM modes if there is only one. Em3rgent0rdr (talk) 18:29, 11 June 2022 (UTC)
 * I dug up the reference "Classical Electrodynamics" by Jackson on page 244 and find that it onnly talks about "the TEM mode" (singular) and it seems from what I can understand from that is there is only one TEM mode. That reference doesn't use TEM00 there, and from what I can tell elsewhere on internet, the TEM00 usage is found when talking about lasers, since lasers can have multiple TEM modes which need to be differentiated.  So I've deleted the "00" from the TEM when it was first mentioned in this article and also here in the "Single-Mode Band" subsection.  I've removed the clarification needed now that I get that there is only one TEM mode. Em3rgent0rdr (talk) 19:53, 11 June 2022 (UTC)
 * As far as I know, there can be more TEM modes, but there isn't much reason for them. The whole idea behind coaxial cables is that you can run modes with lower frequencies, down to DC, where hollow waveguides have a cut-off frequency. TEM, other than TEM00, would also have a cut-off frequency. I believe they would have radial nodes, and so wavelength much shorter than the radii difference. Also, at that frequency other modes could also propagate. So, in the case of coaxial cables it is implied that one wants TEM, and for that matter, TEM00. As well as I know, both are fine, so you should see what the usual WP:RS say as the WP:COMMONNAME. Gah4 (talk) 22:29, 11 June 2022 (UTC)
 * ah thanks. I'll leave it as plain "TEM" in the article for now in that case. But if someone who knows this stuff can briefly explain that (maybe in Coaxial_cable#Signal_propagation) that would be nice for others like me who stumble upon the article and wonder about higher TEM modes. Em3rgent0rdr (talk) 23:44, 11 June 2022 (UTC)
 * Well, actually, Waveguide_(radio_frequency) should probably explain them, along with all the other modes. It is a generalization of waveguide. Gah4 (talk) 02:06, 12 June 2022 (UTC)
 * Take a really big rigid straight coaxial cable with an air dielectric. Shine a laser through it.  The laser light appears on the other side.  Obviously, the coax can support all those many laser TEM modes.  I know it sounds silly, but there is a continuous spectrum.  And before dismising it, I got from reading Feynman. Those laser modes have a frequency much higher than the cutoff frequency of the cables next highest mode.  No one would consider a coax for guiding those frequencies.  So, we can say the TEM mode, confident that it is the only TEM mode that would ever be used with a coaxial cable.  But there are cases where the lowest non-TEM mode is used. Constant314 (talk) 02:26, 12 June 2022 (UTC)
 * hmm... only writes this on coax TEM:
 * > "This contrasts with two-conductor transmission lines used at lower frequencies; coaxial cable, parallel wire line and stripline, in which TEM mode is possible. Additionally, the propagating modes (i.e. TE and TM) inside the waveguide can be mathematically expressed as the superposition of two TEM waves." Em3rgent0rdr (talk) 02:28, 12 June 2022 (UTC)
 * I know that it says that, however, Wikipedia is not a reliable source. But be careful.  He said the superposition of two TEM waves and not two TEM modes.  It is easy enough to convince yourself that all TE modes in a rectangular waveguide can indeed be decomposed into the superposition of two plane waves, but those waves are not modes of the waveguide. Constant314 (talk) 02:38, 12 June 2022 (UTC)
 * hmm... only writes this on coax TEM:
 * > "This contrasts with two-conductor transmission lines used at lower frequencies; coaxial cable, parallel wire line and stripline, in which TEM mode is possible. Additionally, the propagating modes (i.e. TE and TM) inside the waveguide can be mathematically expressed as the superposition of two TEM waves." Em3rgent0rdr (talk) 02:28, 12 June 2022 (UTC)
 * I know that it says that, however, Wikipedia is not a reliable source. But be careful.  He said the superposition of two TEM waves and not two TEM modes.  It is easy enough to convince yourself that all TE modes in a rectangular waveguide can indeed be decomposed into the superposition of two plane waves, but those waves are not modes of the waveguide. Constant314 (talk) 02:38, 12 June 2022 (UTC)

History Section - Conflicting Information - First Transatlantic Coaxial Cable, 1858 or 1956?
The first entry in the history sections says:

"1858 — Coaxial cable used in first transatlantic cable."

The second to last entry in this section says:

"1956 — First transatlantic coaxial cable laid, TAT-1."

Only one of these can be true. Which one is it? 185.203.219.164 (talk) 19:50, 19 December 2022 (UTC)

 * 1956 was the first telephone cable. the ones before were telegraph cables.  Cheers. Constant314 (talk) 22:19, 19 December 2022 (UTC)

Attenuation vs. frequency
Searching the Internet for various graphs of attenuation vs. frequency, I can see that there is a simple relationship. To the first approximation, presumably when resistive and radiation losses are low, the square of attenuation (measured in decibels) is proportional to the frequency. This is important, because companies selling cable usually display attenuation at only one frequency, and it would be helpful to figure out what it is (roughly) at the frequency of interest.

Perhaps someone familiar with academic literature on the subject could post the correct formula, quoted from some relevant manual. I don't have access to one, unfortunately. The formula seems to be: $$f_{h}/f_{l} = (a_{h}/a_{l})^2$$ where $$ f $$ is the frequency, and $$ a $$ is the attenuation in decibels. Morycm (talk) 21:06, 10 February 2023 (UTC)

 * Here is a brief reply that is slightly WP:OR. There are nine possible frequency regimes (yes, nine) although typically we only concern ourselves with three of them which I will call low frequency (LF), intermediate frequency (IF) and high frequency (HF).   LF includes the voice frequency range up until the point when skin effect is felt (perhaps 30 kHz).  HF regime is where G/ωC << 1 and R/ωL << 1 or perhaps greater than 10 MHz.  The IF regime is in-between.  In the LF regime, attenuation (in dB) is approximately proportional to the square root of frequency.   In the HF regime, attenuation is also approximately proportional to the square root of frequency, but with a higher proportionality constant than the LF regime.  For the attenuation changes smoothly between the LF and HF regimes, it sometimes increases more rapidly than the square root of frequency.  Finally, at a high enough frequency, dielectric loss may become dominant (not in an air core coax, of course) and you will see the attenuation increase proportionally to frequency.
 * Here is a representative plot based on published data and what I consider reasonable extrapolations at very low and very high frequencies. Note: I will collapse this figure to a thumb after the discussion is finished.  At 1GHz, you can see the curve start to curve upward as dielectric loss starts to become significant.  The transition points between the regimes depend on a number of things, so it is generally not reliable to extrapolate between low frequency attenuation and high frequency attenuation.  However, the low frequency attenuation has a simple formula which is $$ \alpha = \sqrt{ \frac {\omega R_\omega C_\omega} 2}$$ where $$ \alpha $$ is the loss in nepers.  In this regime $$ R_\omega, C_\omega$$ are roughly constant.
 * Typical Good Transmission Line Loss.png

Constant314 (talk) 22:06, 10 February 2023 (UTC)

On inductance of coax
@Constant314

My edit had the purpose of clarifying the specific assumption, used for formula derivation $$ \frac{\ L\ }{\ell} = \frac{\mu}{\ 2 \pi\ }\ \ln\left(\frac{\ D\ }{d} \right) $$

In this formula it's assumed that no magnetic field exists inside central conductor; which is the case for high frequency due to skin effect. However; if current distribution in the center conductor cross-section assumed even (low frequency range); the value of inductance changes to $$ \frac{\ L\ }{\ell} = \frac{\mu}{\ 2 \pi\ }\ \ln\left( \frac{1}{4} + \frac{\ D\ }{d} \right) $$ Brsbrs (talk) 17:04, 8 October 2023 (UTC)

 * Yes, I agree with you. I thought that I reverted my reversion.  In general, at low frequency, L includes the internal inductance of the wire. However, that formula is the formula that applies at frequencies high enough for skin effect to be well developed. I was too fast on the revert button.  So, my apologies for reverting your entirely reasonable edit. Constant314 (talk) 17:27, 8 October 2023 (UTC)

 * Actually, I think the formula for low frequency is $$ \frac{\ L \ }{\ell} = \frac{\mu}{\ 2 \pi\ }\left[ \ \ln\left(  \frac{\ D\ }{d} \right) +\frac{1}{4}  \right] $$ Constant314 (talk) 17:50, 8 October 2023 (UTC)
 * Thanks! Yes, you are right, there was a typo in my formula. 1/4 should be outside of the logarithm Brsbrs (talk) 18:36, 8 October 2023 (UTC)
 * The inductance and capacitance per unit length should come out to give the right propagation velocity. But propagation velocity is only useful at higher frequencies. (Or extremely long cables.) Nice to get the low frequency limit right, but it doesn't come up all that often. Note also, that there are delay cables with a helical center conductor for increased inductance and lower velocity. Or you can figure how long it takes the signal to follow around the helix. Comes out pretty close that way, too. Gah4 (talk) 19:34, 8 October 2023 (UTC)
 * The inductance and capacitance per unit length should come out to give the right propagation velocity. But propagation velocity is only useful at higher frequencies. (Or extremely long cables.) Nice to get the low frequency limit right, but it doesn't come up all that often. Note also, that there are delay cables with a helical center conductor for increased inductance and lower velocity. Or you can figure how long it takes the signal to follow around the helix. Comes out pretty close that way, too. Gah4 (talk) 19:34, 8 October 2023 (UTC)

L and C
In electronics, L and C are commonly inductance and capacitance. This article, confusingly, wants to use them as inductance/length and capacitance/length. The article could, near the top, explain this unusual usage. I believe some use l and c, but don't know of a WP:RS for that. Gah4 (talk) 08:30, 26 May 2024 (UTC)

 * I will check a few, but I believe upper case is the clear majority. Constant314 (talk) 10:00, 26 May 2024 (UTC)
 * The following use upper case letters: Brian C. Wadell, Johnson & Graham, Edward F. Vance, Gupta, Metzger, Miano & Maffucc1, Karakash, Albert A. Smith, Harrington, Hayt, Kraus, Jordan & Balman, Ramo & Whinnery & Van Duzer, Marshall & Skitek
 * The following use upper case script letters: Walter Weeks
 * The following use lower case letters: Clayton R. Paul, Skilling, Magnusson Constant314 (talk) 10:31, 26 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Thanks much. I am remembering from some reference from some years ago. It mostly matters if you need both near each other.
 * I do still believe that the article should state early that they are the per unit length variables, to avoid confusion. Gah4 (talk) 06:15, 27 May 2024 (UTC)
 * I do still believe that the article should state early that they are the per unit length variables, to avoid confusion. Gah4 (talk) 06:15, 27 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Coaxial cable


text:
Götz

Götz or Goetz is a German name, in origin a hypocorism of Gottfried. It remains in use as a short form of Gottfried, but it has also become a surname.

Surnames

 * Goetz
 * Alphonse Goetz (1865-1934), French chess master
 * Arturo Goetz, Argentine actor
 * Benjamin Eliakim Goetz (died 1798), English rabbi
 * Bernhard Goetz, New York City's "subway vigilante"
 * Curt Goetz, Swiss-German writer and actor
 * E. Ray Goetz, an American composer, lyricist, and theatrical producer
 * Eric Goetz, world-renowned yacht builder
 * Henri Goetz, the French-American Surrealist painter and etcher
 * Hermann Goetz, German composer
 * Hermann Goetz (art historian), German scholar and museum director
 * Jaden Goetz, Canadian actor
 * James B. Goetz, American politician
 * John Goetz, baseball player
 * Judith Goetz (born 1983), Austrian literature and political science scholar
 * Kimi Goetz (born 1994), American speed skater
 * Leo Goetz, German painter
 * Louise Götz, actress
 * Magdalena Żernicka-Goetz, Polish biologist
 * Meg Goetz, the first woman reading clerk of the U.S. House of Representatives
 * Peter Michael Goetz, actor
 * Ruth Goetz, American playwright, screenwriter, and translator
 * Ruth Goetz (German screenwriter), German screenwriter
 * William Goetz, the American film producer

 * Götz
 * Franz Götz (politician) (born 1945), German politician
 * Leon Götz (1892–1970), New Zealand politician
 * Johann Nikolaus Götz (1721–1781), German religious figure, writer and translator
 * Paul Götz, German astronomer
 * Rainald Götz, German writer
 * Ralph Götz, president of the German Rugby Federation
 * Simone Götz (born 1969), Swiss politician and oenologist

Given name

 * Götz von Berlichingen (Gottfried von Berlichingen, 1480–1562), Franconian mercenary and poet
 * Götz Briefs (Gottfried Anton Briefs, 1889–1974), German Catholic social ethicist, social philosopher, and political economist
 * Götz Friedrich (1930–2000), German film and theater director
 * Götz George (1938–2016), German actor
 * Götz Aly (b. 1947), German journalist and historian
 * Götz Alsmann (b. 1957), German musician and entertainer
 * Götz Spielmann (b. 1961), Austrian film director
 * Götz Otto (b. 1967), German actor
 * Götz Werner (1944–2022), German businessman

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Götz


text:
LMS Royal Scot Class

The London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS) Royal Scot Class is a class of 4-6-0 express passenger locomotive introduced in 1927. Originally having parallel boilers, all members were later rebuilt with tapered type 2A boilers, and were in effect two classes.

Background
Until the mid-1920s, the LMS had followed the Midland Railway's small engine policy, which meant that it had no locomotives of sufficient power for its expresses on the West Coast Main Line. These trains were entrusted to pairs of LMS/MR Midland Compound 4-4-0s between Glasgow and Carnforth, and a 4-6-0 locomotive of the LNWR Claughton Class, piloted by an LNWR George V 4-4-0, southwards to Euston station.

The Operating and Motive Power Departments of the LMS were satisfied with the small engine policy. However, in 1926 the Chief Mechanical Engineer, Henry Fowler, began the design of a compound Pacific express locomotive. The management of the LMS, faced with disagreement between the CME and the other departments, obtained a loan of a GWR Castle class locomotive, Launceston Castle, which was operated for one month between Euston and Carlisle.

Following the success of the Castle 4-6-0 in working on the LMS, a decision was taken to cancel Fowler's Pacific project, and to replace it with a 4-6-0 with three cylinders and a simple-expansion steam circuit. Because there was an urgent need for new express locomotives the LMS placed an order with the North British Locomotive Company of Glasgow for 50 engines. The North British, with its extensive drawing office and two works, possessed sufficient capacity to expedite the order within a year. The Derby drawing office and North British staff collaborated in designing the class, with the latter producing the working drawings. Fowler took little part in the design process, which was carried out by Herbert Chambers, Chief Draughtsman at Derby, and his staff. The LMS requested a set of drawings of the Castle class from the GWR, but did not receive them. Instead a set of drawings of the SR Lord Nelson Class were obtained, and used for the design of the firebox. The main features of the design followed existing Derby practice, with the cylinders and valve gear being derived from the Fowler 2-6-4T, also being designed at Derby at that time.

They were introduced without testing. Radford claims that the boiler owed much to the MR 0-10-0 Lickey Banker 'Big Bertha'. A further 20 were built by Derby Works.

They were initially named after regiments of the British Army, and after historical LNWR locomotives. Those with LNWR names were renamed in 1935 and 1936 with more names of regiments.

From late 1931, after several forms of smoke deflectors were tried on various locomotives to stop drifting smoke obscuring the crew's forward vision, the straight sided smoke deflectors were added. These were later replaced by deflectors with angled top. From 1933 the class was taken off the top-link expresses, being superseded by the LMS Princess Royal Class and later the LMS Coronation Class pacifics.

North American tour
In 1933, the LMS was invited to send a locomotive and train to the Century of Progress International Exposition in Chicago, USA. It was decided to send an engine of the Royal Scot class, and one was selected that was due for general overhaul. The identity of this locomotive is generally regarded as having been No. 6152 "The Kings Dragoon Guardsman". The coupled axleboxes were replaced with larger ones, based on a GWR design, and the bogie replaced by a De Glehn type, also derived from GWR practice. Springs and spring rigging were also updated, and the boiler replaced. The rebuilt locomotive assumed the identity of 6100 Royal Scot with (on its return from the USA) an enlarged nameplate with details of its appearance at the exhibition. It retained this identity after its return from the USA.

Fury
LMS 6399 Fury, built in 1929, was an unsuccessful experimental prototype locomotive with a high-pressure, water tube boiler and compound 3-cylinder drive, based on the Royal Scot. It was rebuilt by William Stanier in 1935 with a Type 2 conventional boiler to become 6170 British Legion. This served as the blueprint for later rebuilding, but always remained a one-off.

Rebuilding
In 1942, the LMS rebuilt two LMS Jubilee Class locomotives with Type 2A boilers, but later turned to the parallel-boilered Royal Scots whose boilers and cylinders were life-expired, and whose smokeboxes were difficult to keep airtight. Between 1943 and 1955, the whole class was rebuilt to create the LMS Rebuilt Royal Scot Class. The rebuilds were quite substantial, requiring new boiler, frames and cylinders, but in most cases the original frame stretchers, wheels, cab and fittings were retained. The usual procedure was that as each locomotive arrived for rebuilding, it was stripped and the identity transferred to a fresh frameset prepared using the parts recovered from the locomotive that had previously been rebuilt. The new frames were slightly shorter than the originals. Thus, most rebuilt examples retained their own cab, wheels etc., but most of the frame stretchers, and other integral parts of the frame were from the previously rebuilt loco.

The new 'Rebuilt Scot' design was carried out under the auspices of William Stanier, who was then engaged on war work, so was actually undertaken by George Ivatt and E.S. Cox. Initially these too were built without smoke deflectors, but later acquired them.

Accidents and incidents

 * On 13 October 1939, 6130 The West Yorkshire Regiment , piloted by Black 5 locomotive no. 5025, was hauling a Euston railway station to Stranraer express passenger train when they collided with LNWR Class G1 no. 9169 while it was attaching a van to the rear of an Inverness train at Bletchley, Buckinghamshire. 5 people were killed and more than 30 were injured.
 * On 30 September 1945, at the Bourne End rail crash, 6157 The Royal Artilleryman was hauling an express passenger train which was derailed at Bourne End, Hertfordshire due to excessive speed through a set of points. 43 people were killed and 64 were injured.

Details
Note: Date built refers to the 'LMS build date'.

Preservation
No original Royal Scots in 'as built' condition survive, as all were rebuilt by 1955. However, two of the rebuilt locomotives have been preserved as LMS Rebuilt Royal Scot Class examples.

In fiction
No. 6115 Scots Guardsman featured in the 1936 film Night Mail along with No. 6108 Seaforth Highlander, the latter being cleaned at an unknown shed. 46126 Royal Army Service Corps featured in the 1949 film Train of Events.

Models
Models to 00 scale of the Royal Scot in both unrebuilt and rebuilt forms have been produced by several manufacturers, and each has been available in several liveries with a variety of numbers and names. Mainline (Palitoy) introduced a model of the rebuilt locomotives in 1977 and they were followed by Airfix who introduced their own version in 1978, but after the Airfix range was incorporated into the Mainline range, the ex-Airfix model was dropped. In unrebuilt form, G & R Wrenn introduced a model in 1980; and Mainline introduced their own version in 1982. Bachmann took over the tooling for both of the Mainline locomotives, and did do several production runs, with the ultimate intention of re-tooling the design to upgrade it to modern standards and detailing, but unfortunately for them, Hornby beat them to it.

Hornby produced their own Rebuilt Scots, these being introduced in 2007, along with the rebuilt patriot locomotives. Rivarossi (now part of Hornby) made a similar model of the No. 6100 in an intermediate 1:80 scale (approx. 3.8 mm/ft) between HO & OO in 1977 based on the original unrebuilt form in LMS livery. It also made another model of the No. 6140 "Hector" sister engine.

Graham Farish released a British N gauge model in 2009, in LMS Black, and BR Brunswick Green liveries.

Comet Models produce a 4 mm kit in brass and white metal for the rebuilt Scot. Wills produced an original version kit in whitemetal which Southeastern Finecast have revised this kit and added an etched chassis. Eames/Jamieson produced a rebuilt version using nickel silver for the superstructure.

Brassmasters did a limited edition kit in 4 mm.

The erstwhile Kitmaster company produced an unpowered polystyrene injection moulded model kit for TT gauge. In late 1962, the Kitmaster brand was sold by its parent company (Rosebud Dolls) to Airfix. It is thought that the moulds for this locomotive were amongst those lost or destroyed at about this time or before. As a result, unmade examples of this kit exchange hands between collectors for considerable sums.

title: LMS Royal Scot Class


text:
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Structured data across Wikimedia is starting!
Hello there, PKM! I am writing to you because a new WMF project, Structured Data Across Wikimedia (SDAW), is about to start.

SDAW is a grant-funded programme that will explore ways to structure content on wikitext pages in a way that will be machine-recognizable and -relatable, in order to make reading, editing, and searching easier and more accessible across projects and on the Internet.

The reason why I am contacting you is because of your hard work on English Wikipedia, and your opinion would be of great interest for us to kickstart the discussion. We defined a series of questions we would like to have feedback on. If you want to ask a question on your own, or just want to share with us your ideas or opinions, please feel free to do so!

Also, if you know some other user(s) that can be interested, please let me know or invite them to join the discussion. The more, the better!

Hope to hear from you soon! -- Sannita (WMF) (talk) 18:10, 19 March 2021 (UTC)

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Featured article candidates/Inuit clothing/archive1
Fancy this? It's been a long while since we had a clothing article at FAC I think. I intend to have a go myself, if we get rain to bring me in from the garden. Hope you are keeping well! Best, Johnbod (talk) 22:16, 1 June 2021 (UTC)
 * , I'll take a look! - PKM (talk) 22:44, 1 June 2021 (UTC)

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Rainbow Portrait
Hi, thoughts? ip's only edit. Image file has both attributions. Do you know the latest thinking? I've reverted for now, as I presume Strong in 1977 said Oliver..... Best, Johnbod (talk) 20:41, 21 October 2021 (UTC)
 * That's a good one. Strong's latest take (2019)  is "unknown artist" and "no artist has been satisfactorily identified as its author" (The Elizabethan Image, p. 189).  Karen Hearn (Marcus Gheeraerts II: Elizabethan Artist, 2002) says it's "possibly" by Gheeraerts "although opinion on this is divided" (p. 34).  Matthew Dimmock (Elizabethan Globalism: England, China and the Rainbow Portrait, 2019) attributes it to Gheeraerts, but he's not an art historian so not sure who he is following.  Strong had Gheeraerts in 1987 (Gloriana) and unknown artist in 1963 (Portraits of Queen Elizabeth I). Not likely Oliver in any case - I'd go with  "unknown artist, possibly Gheeraerts".  I'm going to update Wikidata and Commons accordingly. PKM (talk) 21:58, 21 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Great - thanks very much! Johnbod (talk) 02:17, 22 October 2021 (UTC)
 * , Updated Artists of the Tudor Court (attribution of Rainbow Portrait, dates for van der Meulen, added note on the career of Gower). Added references for all of these.  The picture of "Flemish exiles" from A Fete at Bermondsey may have to come out since the painting has now been attributed to Gheeraerts the Elder, but I need to re-read the article on that https://www.jstor.org/stable/43858024 to be sure. PKM (talk) 23:13, 23 October 2021 (UTC)
 * and in fact Town's article supports the group of Flemsih exile artists in A Fete at Bermondsey but identifies them as possibly Gheeraerts and friends. Just need to tweak the note and add another reference. - PKM (talk) 23:37, 23 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Great stuff, thanks! Did you see the question on the scope of Lace at Talk:Textile arts wiki proj? Johnbod (talk) 02:56, 24 October 2021 (UTC)

 * No I missed that. Thanks for the heads-up.  I'll check it out. PKM (talk) 03:21, 24 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Thks! Proper lk: Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Textile_Arts. Johnbod (talk) 03:28, 24 October 2021 (UTC)

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Happy Holidays!

Happy Holidays text.png Hello PKM : Enjoy the holiday season and winter solstice if it's occurring in your area of the world, and thanks for your work to maintain, improve and expand Wikipedia. Cheers, RV (talk) 04:08, 25 December 2022 (UTC)

 * Thank you! PKM (talk) 23:04, 25 December 2022 (UTC)

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Request edit assistance for Daphne Guinness article
Hi. I see you’re a member of the Fashion WikiProject - I’ve made some proposals to update the article about Daphne Guinness, posted here Talk:Daphne Guinness. Because I have a conflict of interest, I can’t do these edits myself. Could you have time to look at these and consider? Thank you very much.YhSA99b3tTnCnLdr (talk) 19:14, 3 March 2023 (UTC)

 * Thanks for following the COI process. I don't have any bandwidth to take this on right now. - PKM (talk) 23:03, 3 March 2023 (UTC)

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Edward Burne-Jones has been nominated for a good article reassessment. If you are interested in the discussion, please participate by adding your comments to the reassessment page. If concerns are not addressed during the review period, the good article status may be removed from the article. Z1720 (talk) 16:10, 16 August 2023 (UTC)

feedback on Impulse Space article
Hi @PKM, reaching out if you have interest/capacity to review and help approve a draft article for Impulse Space, a notable Californian space company. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draft:Impulse_Space

I saw you created the article for Vast Space, and wondering if you have ideas to improve this related space company article. Thanks for your time and your talent! Rosswi88 (talk) 03:34, 7 September 2023 (UTC)

 * I think it looks fine. I posted in the talk page and tagged the user who did the last rejection.  I am not an expert on the steps needed to promote the article to main space. PKM (talk) 04:12, 7 September 2023 (UTC)
 * Amazing, and thank you! Rosswi88 (talk) 19:33, 10 September 2023 (UTC)

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Books & Bytes – Issue 59
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title: User talk:PKM


text:
The Humpty Dance

"The Humpty Dance" is a song by the American hip-hop group Digital Underground from their debut album Sex Packets. Released as the second single from the album in January 1990, it reached No. 11 on the pop chart, No. 7 on the R&B chart, and No. 1 on the Billboard Rap Singles chart. The song is sung by Shock G's alter ego, "Humpty Hump", marking the character's second musical appearance; the first was Digital Underground's "Doowutchyalike," a pre-album video-single released in the spring of 1989. The song has been sampled by many different artists and producers.

In 2008, "The Humpty Dance" was ranked No. 30 on VH1's 100 Greatest Songs of Hip Hop and No. 65 on VH1's 100 Greatest Songs of the '90s in 2007. The song was selected as one of many songs to hear and download in the musical reference book 1001 Songs You Must Hear Before You Die: And 10,001 You Must Download. The song was nominated for Best Rap Video at the 1990 MTV Video Music Awards, but lost to "U Can't Touch This" by MC Hammer (ironically, Hammer is name-checked in "The Humpty Dance"). Canadian television channel MuchMoreMusic's series Back In... rated the song's video as one of the worst of 1990.

In 2021, it was listed at No. 241 on Rolling Stone's "500 Greatest Songs of All Time."

Composition
Of the five raw elements that make up the "Humpty Dance" drum track, one is a sample from "Sing a Simple Song" by Sly and the Family Stone, in the form of a one-measure-long drum loop. Digital Underground incorporated the Family Stone drum loop with four other raw elements; a deep tonal kick drum that alternated between two bass notes, a handclap snare (also a sample, taken from "Theme From the Black Hole" by the band Parliament), drum-machine hi-hats running continuously throughout which were programmed to 8th-notes, and a guitar hit happening once every bar, all assembled into the now-familiar pattern that forms the Humpty Dance drum track. The vocal sample that happens in the song's chorus sections is from Parliament's "Let's Play House" from their 1980 album, Trombipulation.

Subject matter
"The Humpty Dance" is a tribute to Humpty's sexual prowess despite his ridiculous appearance. Humpty introduces the appearance theme with the opening line, "I'm about to ruin the image and the style that you're used to," a protest against the uniformity among successful rappers of the time.

In the final verse, Humpty describes the Humpty Dance itself as a loose, easy dance, "like MC Hammer on crack ... Anyone can play this game." The contrast is with the precision dancing in MC Hammer's videos. The song ends with an invitation for people of all races to join in the dance.

Humpty Hump
"The Humpty Dance" is Shock G's second song to feature his alter-ego "Humpty Hump," who debuted on "Doowutchyalike" which was Digital Underground's first video release in 1989. The character, which sports a buffoon persona, colorful clothes, and Groucho glasses, is sung by Shock G. A fictional biography was constructed for Humpty, the story being that Edward Ellington Humphrey III, former lead singer of "Smooth Eddie and the Humpers," had become a rapper after burning his nose in a kitchen accident with a deep-fryer. Because of the "accident", the character is seen wearing a large nose disguise.

In popular culture
The song was featured in the VH1 series I Love the '90s, and also on America's Best Dance Crew, where it was included in a dance routine performed by Super Cr3w. The song was also featured in Charlie's Angels. "Weird Al" Yankovic covered the song for the polka medley "Polka Your Eyes Out" from his 1992 album Off the Deep End. The song is also available for play in the 2004 karaoke video game Get On Da Mic for PlayStation 2. It was sampled by Justin Timberlake, Jimmy Fallon on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon, and by the Spice Girls on their debut album Spice as the track "If U Can't Dance". The song was also featured in the 2021 film Free Guy.

In 1990, the song was used in the Season Three episode of the TV series Midnight Caller entitled "Sale Away: Part 2".

Sampling "The Humpty Dance"
"The Humpty Dance" is one of the most sampled songs recorded by a hip hop/rap artist, boasting over 100 usages in other songs. By 1993, less than three years after its release, it had already been sampled in over 20 popular songs, most of them utilizing its drum track. In fact, it was sampled so much that Digital Underground humorously devoted the song "The Humpty Dance Awards" from their album The Body-Hat Syndrome to the many recording artists who sampled the track. Since then, dozens more artists have sampled the Humpty Dance song, from Ice Cube to Public Enemy.

 * "A Crazy Break" – WC & the Maad Circle (full drum loop)
 * "Ain't That a Bitch" – Kam (full drum loop)
 * "Assata's Song (Remix)" – Paris (full drum loop on bridge)
 * "Attention: The Shawanda Story" – Lo-Key? (full drum loop)
 * "Back to the Underground" – WC & the Maad Circle (vocal, snare & kicks used in drum track)
 * "Behind Closed Doors" – WC & the Maad Circle (raw instrumental used as their drum track)
 * "Blow Your Mind" – Redman (drum loop)
 * "Boom! Shake the Room" – Will Smith (drum track looped underneath as kick drum support)
 * "Buck tha Devil – Da Lench Mob (full drum loop)
 * "Bumbell" – Yukmouth feat. Tech N9ne (bassline)
 * "Can't Truss It" – Public Enemy (full drum loop)
 * "Cherish the Day" (Best of Sade version) – Sade (raw instrumental used as drum track in last 30 secs of song)
 * "Christmas Spliff" – Luke (full drum loop)
 * "City to City" – Straw tha Vegas Don feat. Shock G (raw instrumental scratched in first verse)
 * "Cotex" – BWP (full drum loop; looped in reverse)
 * "Curse" – Recoil
 * "D.O.G. Me Out" – Guy (piece of loop, muted, as kick drum support)
 * "Dirty Water" – Made in London (full drum loop)
 * "Don't Be Afraid (Jazz You Up Version)" – Aaron Hall (full drum loop)
 * "Dr. Trevis (Signs Off)" – Redman (bit of drum loop underneath)
 * "Drive-By (Rollin' Slow)" – Boss (full drum loop)
 * "Flip Squad's in da House" – Big Kap, Flip Squad, Funkmaster Flex (full drum loop & bassline)
 * "Funk Mobb Niggaz" – Little Bruce (full drum loop)
 * "Get a Little Freaky with Me" – Aaron Hall (full drum loop)
 * "Here We Go Again" – Portrait (raw instrumental as their drum track)
 * "His Story" – TLC (full drum loop)
 * "Hold Onto My Bumper" – Dice (full drum loop)
 * "Holiday Madness" – Kam (full drum loop)
 * "How I'm Comin'" – LL Cool (full drum loop)
 * "How Ya Gonna Reason With a Psycho" – Insane Poetry (full drum loop)
 * "I Made Love (4 Da Very First Time)" – Little Shawn (drum track doubled up)
 * "If U Can't Dance" – Spice Girls (drum loop & bassline)

 * "I'm Outstanding" – Shaquille O'Neal (drum track looped underneath as support)
 * "Imma Gitz Mine" – Erick Sermon (chopped & muted drum bit underneath; kick drum support)
 * "Is It Good to You" – Heavy-D & the Boys (full drum loop)
 * "Jackin' For Beats" – Ice Cube (raw instrumental)
 * "Live and Learn" – Joe Public (full drum loop)
 * "Lost in the Storm" – Chubb Rock (raw instrumental used as their drum track)
 * "Love Don't Make Sense" – Alexander O'Neal (full drum loop)
 * "Love Sick" – Gang Starr (vocal sample scratched in choruses)
 * "Mama Said Knock You Out" – LL Cool J (full drum loop)
 * "Night of a Thousand Furry Toys" – Richard Wright (full drum loop)
 * "Not Your Money" – Oaktowns 357 (full drum loop)
 * "Nothin'" – Gold Money (full drum loop)
 * "PlayGround" – ABC (full loop, muted, used for kick drum support)
 * "Public Service Announcement" – Jay-Z (lyrics & rhyme cadence interpolation)
 * "Really Doe" – Ice Cube (bit of drum track underneath)
 * "SMPTE" – The Boys (full drum loop)
 * "Stop What Ya Doin'" – Apathy (one full bar length vocal & music sample)
 * "Teddy's Jam 2" – Guy (full loop)
 * "The Break Up" – WC & the Maad Circle (full drum loop)
 * "The Humpty Dance Awards" – Digital Underground (full drum loop & bassline)
 * "The Money is Made" – Detroit's Most Wanted (full drum loop)
 * "Time 4 Sum Aksion" – Redman (drum track chopped underneath; kick drum support)
 * "Two 4 the Time" – Nubian Crackers (raw instrumental as their drum track)
 * "Walk Thru Hell" – K-Stone (raw full instrumental)
 * "What About Your Friends" – TLC (drum track looped underneath for support)
 * "Who's the Mack?" – Ice Cube (vocal sample)
 * "Witchhunt" – Godflesh (drum loop & bassline)
 * "You Gotta Believe" – Marky Mark & the Funky Bunch (full drum loop)
 * "Young N*ggaz" – 2Pac (drum track underneath)

Printed References:

Posted References:

Audio References:

title: The Humpty Dance


text: Category:Provinces of Burundi

title: Category:Provinces of Burundi


text:
Thind

Thind is a Hindu, Muslim, and Sikh family name. It is mainly found among Jats and Kambojs.

Surname
Notable people with the surname Thind, who may or may not have a connection to the clan, include:

 * Balwant Singh Thind, finance minister of Punjab
 * Bhagat Singh Thind, writer and immigrant to the USA
 * Gurminder Thind, player of American football
 * Hira Thind, Punjabi singer
 * Kartar Singh Thind, botanist
 * Sadhu Singh Thind, politician

title: Thind


text:
Nucleation

In thermodynamics, nucleation is the first step in the formation of either a new thermodynamic phase or structure via self-assembly or self-organization within a substance or mixture. Nucleation is typically defined to be the process that determines how long an observer has to wait before the new phase or self-organized structure appears. For example, if a volume of water is cooled (at atmospheric pressure) below 0°C, it will tend to freeze into ice, but volumes of water cooled only a few degrees below 0°C often stay completely free of ice for long periods (supercooling). At these conditions, nucleation of ice is either slow or does not occur at all. However, at lower temperatures nucleation is fast, and ice crystals appear after little or no delay.

Nucleation is a common mechanism which generates first-order phase transitions, and it is the start of the process of forming a new thermodynamic phase. In contrast, new phases at continuous phase transitions start to form immediately.

Nucleation is often very sensitive to impurities in the system. These impurities may be too small to be seen by the naked eye, but still can control the rate of nucleation. Because of this, it is often important to distinguish between heterogeneous nucleation and homogeneous nucleation. Heterogeneous nucleation occurs at nucleation sites on surfaces in the system. Homogeneous nucleation occurs away from a surface.

Characteristics

Nucleation is usually a stochastic (random) process, so even in two identical systems nucleation will occur at different times. A common mechanism is illustrated in the animation to the right. This shows nucleation of a new phase (shown in red) in an existing phase (white). In the existing phase microscopic fluctuations of the red phase appear and decay continuously, until an unusually large fluctuation of the new red phase is so large it is more favourable for it to grow than to shrink back to nothing. This nucleus of the red phase then grows and converts the system to this phase. The standard theory that describes this behaviour for the nucleation of a new thermodynamic phase is called classical nucleation theory. However, the CNT fails in describing experimental results of vapour to liquid nucleation even for model substances like argon by several orders of magnitude.

For nucleation of a new thermodynamic phase, such as the formation of ice in water below 0°C, if the system is not evolving with time and nucleation occurs in one step, then the probability that nucleation has not occurred should undergo exponential decay. This is seen for example in the nucleation of ice in supercooled small water droplets. The decay rate of the exponential gives the nucleation rate. Classical nucleation theory is a widely used approximate theory for estimating these rates, and how they vary with variables such as temperature. It correctly predicts that the time you have to wait for nucleation decreases extremely rapidly when supersaturated.

It is not just new phases such as liquids and crystals that form via nucleation followed by growth. The self-assembly process that forms objects like the amyloid aggregates associated with Alzheimer's disease also starts with nucleation. Energy consuming self-organising systems such as the microtubules in cells also show nucleation and growth.

Heterogeneous nucleation often dominates homogeneous nucleation

Heterogeneous nucleation, nucleation with the nucleus at a surface, is much more common than homogeneous nucleation. For example, in the nucleation of ice from supercooled water droplets, purifying the water to remove all or almost all impurities results in water droplets that freeze below around −35°C,  whereas water that contains impurities may freeze at −5°C or warmer.

This observation that heterogeneous nucleation can occur when the rate of homogeneous nucleation is essentially zero, is often understood using classical nucleation theory. This predicts that the nucleation slows exponentially with the height of a free energy barrier ΔG*. This barrier comes from the free energy penalty of forming the surface of the growing nucleus. For homogeneous nucleation the nucleus is approximated by a sphere, but as we can see in the schematic of macroscopic droplets to the right, droplets on surfaces are not complete spheres and so the area of the interface between the droplet and the surrounding fluid is less than a sphere's $$ 4\pi r^2 $$. This reduction in surface area of the nucleus reduces the height of the barrier to nucleation and so speeds nucleation up exponentially.

Nucleation can also start at the surface of a liquid. For example, computer simulations of gold nanoparticles show that the crystal phase sometimes nucleates at the liquid-gold surface.

Computer simulation studies of simple models
Classical nucleation theory makes a number of assumptions, for example it treats a microscopic nucleus as if it is a macroscopic droplet with a well-defined surface whose free energy is estimated using an equilibrium property: the interfacial tension σ. For a nucleus that may be only of order ten molecules across it is not always clear that we can treat something so small as a volume plus a surface. Also nucleation is an inherently out of thermodynamic equilibrium phenomenon so it is not always obvious that its rate can be estimated using equilibrium properties.

However, modern computers are powerful enough to calculate essentially exact nucleation rates for simple models. These have been compared with the classical theory, for example for the case of nucleation of the crystal phase in the model of hard spheres. This is a model of perfectly hard spheres in thermal motion, and is a simple model of some colloids. For the crystallization of hard spheres the classical theory is a very reasonable approximate theory. So for the simple models we can study, classical nucleation theory works quite well, but we do not know if it works equally well for (say) complex molecules crystallising out of solution.

The spinodal region
Phase-transition processes can also be explained in terms of spinodal decomposition, where phase separation is delayed until the system enters the unstable region where a small perturbation in composition leads to a decrease in energy and, thus, spontaneous growth of the perturbation. This region of a phase diagram is known as the spinodal region and the phase separation process is known as spinodal decomposition and may be governed by the Cahn–Hilliard equation.

The nucleation of crystals
In many cases, liquids and solutions can be cooled down or concentrated up to conditions where the liquid or solution is significantly less thermodynamically stable than the crystal, but where no crystals will form for minutes, hours, weeks or longer; this process is called supercooling. Nucleation of the crystal is then being prevented by a substantial barrier. This has consequences, for example cold high altitude clouds may contain large numbers of small liquid water droplets that are far below 0°C.

In small volumes, such as in small droplets, only one nucleation event may be needed for crystallisation. In these small volumes, the time until the first crystal appears is usually defined to be the nucleation time. Visualization of the initial stage of crystal nucleation of sodium chloride was achieved through atomic-resolution real-time video imaging. Calcium carbonate crystal nucleation depends not only on degree of supersaturation but also the ratio of calcium to carbonate ions in aqueous solutions. In larger volumes many nucleation events will occur. A simple model for crystallisation in that case, that combines nucleation and growth is the KJMA or Avrami model.

Although the existing theories including the classical nucleation theory explain well the steady nucleation state when the crystal nucleation rate is not time dependent, the initial non-steady state transient nucleation, and even more mysterious incubation period, require more attention of the scientific community. Chemical ordering of the undercooling liquid prior to crystal nucleation was suggested to be responsible for that feature by reducing the energy barrier for nucleation.

Primary and secondary nucleation
The time until the appearance of the first crystal is also called primary nucleation time, to distinguish it from secondary nucleation times. Primary here refers to the first nucleus to form, while secondary nuclei are crystal nuclei produced from a preexisting crystal. Primary nucleation describes the transition to a new phase that does not rely on the new phase already being present, either because it is the very first nucleus of that phase to form, or because the nucleus forms far from any pre-existing piece of the new phase. Particularly in the study of crystallisation, secondary nucleation can be important. This is the formation of nuclei of a new crystal directly caused by pre-existing crystals.

For example, if the crystals are in a solution and the system is subject to shearing forces, small crystal nuclei could be sheared off a growing crystal, thus increasing the number of crystals in the system. So both primary and secondary nucleation increase the number of crystals in the system but their mechanisms are very different, and secondary nucleation relies on crystals already being present.

Experimental observations on the nucleation times for the crystallisation of small volumes
It is typically difficult to experimentally study the nucleation of crystals. The nucleus is microscopic, and thus too small to be directly observed. In large liquid volumes there are typically multiple nucleation events, and it is difficult to disentangle the effects of nucleation from those of growth of the nucleated phase. These problems can be overcome by working with small droplets. As nucleation is stochastic, many droplets are needed so that statistics for the nucleation events can be obtained. To the right is shown an example set of nucleation data. It is for the nucleation at constant temperature and hence supersaturation of the crystal phase in small droplets of supercooled liquid tin; this is the work of Pound and La Mer.

Nucleation occurs in different droplets at different times, hence the fraction is not a simple step function that drops sharply from one to zero at one particular time. The red curve is a fit of a Gompertz function to the data. This is a simplified version of the model Pound and La Mer used to model their data. The model assumes that nucleation occurs due to impurity particles in the liquid tin droplets, and it makes the simplifying assumption that all impurity particles produce nucleation at the same rate. It also assumes that these particles are Poisson distributed among the liquid tin droplets. The fit values are that the nucleation rate due to a single impurity particle is 0.02/s, and the average number of impurity particles per droplet is 1.2. Note that about 30% of the tin droplets never freeze; the data plateau at a fraction of about 0.3. Within the model this is assumed to be because, by chance, these droplets do not have even one impurity particle and so there is no heterogeneous nucleation. Homogeneous nucleation is assumed to be negligible on the timescale of this experiment. The remaining droplets freeze in a stochastic way, at rates 0.02/s if they have one impurity particle, 0.04/s if they have two, and so on.

These data are just one example, but they illustrate common features of the nucleation of crystals in that there is clear evidence for heterogeneous nucleation, and that nucleation is clearly stochastic.

Ice
The freezing of small water droplets to ice is an important process, particularly in the formation and dynamics of clouds. Water (at atmospheric pressure) does not freeze at 0°C, but rather at temperatures that tend to decrease as the volume of the water decreases and as the concentration of dissolved chemicals in the water increases. Thus small droplets of water, as found in clouds, may remain liquid far below 0°C.

An example of experimental data on the freezing of small water droplets is shown at the right. The plot shows the fraction of a large set of water droplets, that are still liquid water, i.e., have not yet frozen, as a function of temperature. Note that the highest temperature at which any of the droplets freezes is close to -19°C, while the last droplet to freeze does so at almost -35°C.

Nucleation of fluids (gases and liquids)

 * Clouds form when wet air cools (often because the air rises) and many small water droplets nucleate from the supersaturated air. The amount of water vapour that air can carry decreases with lower temperatures. The excess vapor begins to nucleate and to form small water droplets which form a cloud. Nucleation of the droplets of liquid water is heterogeneous, occurring on particles referred to as cloud condensation nuclei. Cloud seeding is the process of adding artificial condensation nuclei to quicken the formation of clouds.
 * Bubbles of carbon dioxide nucleate shortly after the pressure is released from a container of carbonated liquid.
 * Nucleation in boiling can occur in the bulk liquid if the pressure is reduced so that the liquid becomes superheated with respect to the pressure-dependent boiling point. More often, nucleation occurs on the heating surface, at nucleation sites. Typically, nucleation sites are tiny crevices where free gas-liquid surface is maintained or spots on the heating surface with lower wetting properties. Substantial superheating of a liquid can be achieved after the liquid is de-gassed and if the heating surfaces are clean, smooth and made of materials well wetted by the liquid.
 * Some champagne stirrers operate by providing many nucleation sites via high surface-area and sharp corners, speeding the release of bubbles and removing carbonation from the wine.
 * The Diet Coke and Mentos eruption offers another example. The surface of Mentos candy provides nucleation sites for the formation of carbon-dioxide bubbles from carbonated soda.
 * Both the bubble chamber and the cloud chamber rely on nucleation, of bubbles and droplets, respectively.

Nucleation of crystals

 * The most common crystallisation process on Earth is the formation of ice. Liquid water does not freeze at 0°C unless there is ice already present; cooling significantly below 0°C is required to nucleate ice and for the water to freeze. For example, small droplets of very pure water can remain liquid down to below -30 °C although ice is the stable state below 0°C.
 * Many of the materials we make and use are crystalline, but are made from liquids, e.g. crystalline iron made from liquid iron cast into a mold, so the nucleation of crystalline materials is widely studied in industry. It is used heavily in the chemical industry for cases such as in the preparation of metallic ultradispersed powders that can serve as catalysts. For example, platinum deposited onto TiO2 nanoparticles catalyses the decomposition of water. It is an important factor in the semiconductor industry, as the band gap energy in semiconductors is influenced by the size of nanoclusters.

Nucleation in solids
In addition to the nucleation and growth of crystals e.g. in non-crystalline glasses, the nucleation and growth of impurity precipitates in crystals at, and between, grain boundaries is quite important industrially. For example in metals solid-state nucleation and precipitate growth plays an important role e.g. in modifying mechanical properties like ductility, while in semiconductors it plays an important role e.g. in trapping impurities during integrated circuit manufacture.

title: Nucleation


text: User talk:68.124.111.105

title: User talk:68.124.111.105


text:
Fréjus Road Tunnel

The Fréjus Road Tunnel is a tunnel that connects France and Italy. It runs under Col du Fréjus in the Cottian Alps between Modane in France and Bardonecchia in Italy. It is one of the major trans-Alpine transport routes between France and Italy being used for 80% of the commercial road traffic.

Construction of the 13 km long tunnel started in 1974, and it came into service on 12 July 1980, leading to the closure of the motorail shuttle service in the Fréjus rail tunnel. It cost 2 billion francs (equivalent to €700 million at 2005 prices). It is the thirteenth longest road tunnel in the world.

The French section is managed by the French company SFTRF, and the Italian section by the Italian company SITAF. (The French politician Pierre Dumas was chairman of SFTRF from 1962 to 1989). The tunnel can be reached from the Italian side by the A32 Torino-Bardonecchia motorway, or by SS335 from Oulx, which joins SS24 (“del Monginevro”), and reaches Bardonecchia after 20 km. From the French side, it can be reached by the A43 (“l’Autoroute de la Maurienne”) from Lyon and Chambéry. A toll is charged to all traffic. Over 20 million vehicles passed through the tunnel during the first 20 years.

Safety
Following a major fire in the Mont Blanc tunnel in 1999, measures were taken at the start of 2000 to improve safety in the tunnel. A strict 70 km/h speed limit, and a safe distance of 150 m between vehicles was imposed. The tunnel was equipped with the latest smoke and flame detectors, and a system of videocameras in the tunnel to detect the speed of traffic, as well as fire and smoke. Temperature sensors were installed at short distances throughout the tunnel, monitored from a central control post. Fire hydrants were installed every 130 m, fed from large water tanks. There are 11 safety points along the tunnel, equipped with telephones and loud speakers connected to the control room, with a separate ventilation duct to supply fresh air. These are separated from the main tunnel by two fire doors; the outer door closes automatically when the temperature in the tunnel reaches a certain level. Finally there is a ‘thermal gate’ system at each entrance to identify any overheating vehicles.

Despite these measures, on 4 June 2005, a fire caused the death of two Slovak lorry drivers, and the closure of the tunnel to traffic for several weeks. It reopened to cars on 4 August 2005, and later to commercial vehicles. The tunnel was also briefly closed due to non-fatal fires on 9 January 2007, 29 November 2010, and 10 April 2014.

A second bore, parallel to the existing one at a distance of 50 m, is under construction. Work began in 2009, following EU regulations put in place after the Mont Blanc Tunnel fire. Originally planned as an 8 m wide rescue tunnel, an agreement was reached in 2012 to open the new bore to traffic towards France while converting one lane of the existing bore into an emergency lane. The breakthrough occurred on 17 November 2014. The new bore is due to open to traffic in the autumn of 2023. As there will still be a single lane for each direction (the other lane being an emergency lane), the capacity of the tunnel will remain unchanged. Both bores will be connected by a series of passages, five of which can be used by emergency vehicles.

The firefighting team consists of four intervention teams: positioned on the Italian and French sides, and two inside the tunnel, about 4 km from each end.

Fréjus Underground Laboratory
Near the midpoint is the Laboratoire Souterrain de Modane (also referred to as the Fréjus Underground Laboratory). This site houses the Neutrino Ettore Majorana Observatory (NEMO experiment), an international collaboration of scientists searching for neutrinoless double beta decay. An observation of neutrinoless double beta decay would be evidence that neutrinos are Majorana particles and could be used to measure the neutrino mass. Attempts are underway to build a larger laboratory, either in the same tunnel or in the even deeper Lyon Turin Ferroviaire 15 km to the east.

title: Fréjus Road Tunnel


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Naima Mora

Naima Mora (born March 1, 1984) is an American fashion model and the winner of Cycle 4 of America's Next Top Model.

Early life
Mora was born in Detroit, Michigan, the daughter of jazz vocalist and entrepreneur Theresa Mora and jazz percussionist Francisco Mora Catlett. Her paternal grandparents were Mexican muralist Francisco Mora and sculptor, painter, and printmaker Elizabeth Catlett. She is the inspiration for her grandmother's 2001 black marble bust entitled Naima. Catlett described it as:

"That black marble head, Naima: we have twin granddaughters who came to stay with us one summer, they were studying Spanish. I kept looking at one of them, who has a very dynamic personality. I thought I would like to do a head of her. And then it was the shape of her hair with a knot at the back. It was a whole different shape. She posed for me a little bit, to get the general shape of it. She has a little bump in her nose that I wanted to put in."

Her father is half Mexican and half African-American; her mother is Irish and African-American. She was named after the John Coltrane song "Naima". Mora has five sisters, including her identical twin, Nia, who is a photographer. Her older sister, Ife Sanchez Mora (born 1977), is a singer/ songwriter and was signed to Tricky's Massive Attack label Durban Poison/ DreamWorks S.K.G in the trip-hop group, The Autumn People and is now a solo rock singer Ife Sanchez Mora and part of duet Ife & Danny and was the wife of chef Aaron Sanchez.

Mora grew up near West McNichols and Schaefer on Detroit's northwest side and attended Bates Academy for middle school. She graduated from Cass Technical High School in Detroit in 2002. A serious ballet student, Mora attended Detroit's Ballet Renaissance and was enrolled in American Ballet Theatre's Detroit summer program.

Mora practices Nichiren Buddhism and is an active member of the Soka Gakkai International. In 2013, she gave a Ted Talk describing her upbringing and the influence of Buddhism on her career.

Winning America's Next Top Model
Mora was the fifth woman chosen for the top fourteen to compete on the UPN reality television show America's Next Top Model, Cycle 4. Over her stay, she was voted Covergirl of the Week ten times in a row, won four challenges, and received two first call-outs. Mora had one appearance in the bottom two where she survived over eventual Cycle 17: All Stars contestant, Brittany Brower. In the final judging, the judges selected Mora over the runner-up Kahlen Rondot.

Career
On September 3, 2012, she released the iBook Naima Mora's Model Behavior, published by Possibility Publishing & Entertainment. She has been seen on television as a guest on The Tyra Banks Show, on the second-season premiere of Veronica Mars, and in a CoverGirl commercial with Yoanna House.

Mora and Cycle 3's Ann Markley were Trophy Girls at the 2005 Primetime Emmy Awards. Mora also served as a judge at the Miss Teen USA Pageant in 2005.

Mora has done print modeling for CoverGirl, ELLE Magazine, Fuego Magazine, Us Weekly Magazine, Radar, In Touch, Star, Teen People, Split Clothing, and elsewhere. Mora's runway shows include Christopher Deane Spring 2006 Collection, Gharani Strok Fall 2005, Carlos Miele Fashion Show, Walmart and ELLEgirl Presents Dare To Be You Spring 2006, Fashion Comedy Style 2005 (Charity Event), and New York Fashion Week 2007. She has modeled with her sisters twice: with her sister, Ife, for iTunes and with her twin, Nia, for Cycle 2's Camille McDonald's lingerie line, Lingerwear.

In 2006, she completed filming a role in the independent film Sarbanes-Oxley and made an appearance in a music video for TV on the Radio's "Wolf Like Me." The following year, she was on the cover of U&U magazine and Uzuri magazine and was photographed by Romer Pedrome and Derek Blanks. In 2008, she had a cover and editorial in Vicious magazine, and she signed with 301 Model Management in Miami and Basic Model Management in New York City. She got a showcard for Fashion Week SS09 and walked in the Project Runway Finale for designer Joe Farris. , Mora continued modeling, and was signed with EMG Models.

Mora was the vocalist for the unsigned band Chewing Pics, and later with the band Galaxy of Tar.

With director Marishka S. Phillips, Mora wrote a play, The Amazing Adventures of a Woman in Need, about three characters who are each a part of Mora's own inner dialogue. In August 2021, MPTP Productions announced an Off-Broadway performance of the play, with Mora performing as the narrator, scheduled for October 2021.

title: Naima Mora


text: Category:Florida State University

title: Category:Florida State University