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Spanish Texas

Spanish Texas was one of the interior provinces of the colonial Viceroyalty of New Spain from 1519 until 1821. Spain claimed ownership of the region in 1519. Slave raids by Spaniards into what became Texas began in the 16th century and created an atmosphere of antagonism with Native Americans (Indians) which would cause endless difficulties for the Spanish in the future. Spain did not attempt to establish a permanent presence until after France established the colony of Fort Saint Louis in 1685. In 1688, the French colony failed due to internal dissention and attacks by the Karankawa Indians. In 1690, responding to fear of French encroachment, Spanish explorer Alonso de León escorted several Catholic missionaries to east Texas, where they established the first mission in Texas. That attempt to establish a Spanish colony failed due to the hostility of the Caddo Indians. The Spanish returned to southeastern Texas in 1716, establishing several missions and a presidio to maintain a buffer between Spanish territory and the Louisiana district of New France. San Antonio was founded in 1719 and became the capital and largest settlement of Spanish Tejas. The Lipan Apache menaced the newly founded colony until 1749 when the Spanish and Lipan concluded a peace treaty. Both the Spanish and Lipan were then threatened by Comanche raids until 1785 when the Spanish and Comanche negotiated a peace agreement. In 1803, the United States gained ownership of an indefinite part of Texas with the Louisiana Purchase and subsequently the influence of Anglo Americans increased.

During the Mexican War of Independence from 1810 to 1821 Texas experienced turmoil. Reaching a maximum population of perhaps 5,000 Spanish, mixed blood, and subject Indians in 1810, only 2,500 people remained in Hispanic Texas by the end of the war. Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821 and Spanish Texas became part of an independent Mexico. Texas became independent of Mexico in 1836 and joined the United States in 1845.

The Spanish never achieved control of most of Texas which was on the far frontier of Spanish colonial ambitions. Despite the meager nature of Spanish colonization, Hispanic influence in Texas is extensive. Spanish architectural concepts still flourish. Many cities and rivers in Texas were named by the Spanish and many counties in southern and western Texas have majority Hispanic populations. The inadvertent introduction of European diseases by the Spanish caused Native American populations to plummet, leaving a population vacuum later filled by Anglo American settlers. Grazing of European livestock caused mesquite to spread inland replacing native grassland while Spanish farmers tilled and irrigated the land and changed the landscape. Although Texas eventually adopted much of the Anglo-American legal system, many Spanish legal practices survived, including the concepts of a homestead exemption and of community property.

Location
Spanish Texas (Tejas) was a colonial province within the northeastern mainland region of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. On its southern edge, Tejas was bordered by the provinces of Coahuila and Nuevo Santander. The boundary between the provinces was set at the line formed by the Medina River and the Nueces River, 100 mi northeast of the Rio Grande. On the east, Texas bordered La Louisiane (French Louisiana). Although Spain claimed that the Red River formed the boundary between the two, France insisted that the border was the Sabine River, 45 mi to the west.

Initial colonization attempts
Although Alonso Álvarez de Pineda claimed Texas for Spain in 1519, the area was largely ignored by Spain until the late seventeenth century. However Spanish slave raids into what became Texas began in the late 16th century. Among others, Spanish governor Luis de Carvajal y de la Cueva captured hundreds of Indians and sold them to owners of silver mines in Mexico. Frequent epidemics of European diseases reduced the Indian population. The first epidemic, possibly of cholera, among the Indians in Texas was recorded in 1528 by Cabeza de Vaca and they continued to impact the Indian population until the end of the 19th century.

In 1685, the Spanish learned that France had established a colony in the area between New Spain and Florida. Believing the French colony was a threat to Spanish mines and shipping routes, Spanish King Carlos II's Council of War recommended that "Spain needed swift action 'to remove this thorn which has been thrust into the heart of America. The greater the delay the greater the difficulty of attainment.'" Having no idea where to find the French colony, the Spanish launched ten expeditions—both land and sea—over the next three years. While unable to fulfill their original goal of locating the French settlement, the expeditions did provide Spain a deeper understanding of the geography of the Gulf Coast region. The last expedition, in 1689, discovered a French deserter living in southern Texas with the Coahuiltecans. In April 1689, the Frenchman helped guide the Spanish, under Alonso de León, to Fort Saint Louis, which had been destroyed by Karankawa Indians. De León's expedition also met representatives of the Caddo people, who lived between the Trinity and the Red Rivers. The Caddo expressed interest in learning about Christianity.

De León sent a report of his findings to Mexico City, where it "created instant optimism and quickened religious fervor". The Spanish government was convinced that the destruction of the French fort was "proof of God's 'divine aid and favor'". In his report de León recommended that presidios be established along the Rio Grande, the Frio River, and the Guadalupe River and that missions be established among the Hasinai Indians, whom the Spanish called the Tejas, in East Texas. In Castilian Spanish, this was often written as the phonetic equivalent Texas, which became the name of the future province.

Missions
The viceroy approved the establishment of a mission but rejected the idea of presidios, primarily because New Spain was chronically short of funds. On March 26, 1690, Alonso de León set out with 110 soldiers and several missionaries. The group stopped first to burn Fort Saint Louis to the ground, and then they proceeded to East Texas. Mission San Francisco de los Tejas was completed near the Hasinai village of Nabedaches in late May, and its first mass was conducted on June 1. The missionaries refused to allow the unruly soldiers to remain near the missions, and when de León returned to Mexico later that year, only 3 of his initial 110 soldiers remained to assist the monks. Father Damián Massanet, the priest in charge of the mission, left on June 2 to meet the tribes north of the mission before returning to Mexico to request an additional 14 priests and 7 lay brothers.

On January 23, 1691, Spain appointed the first governor of Texas, General Domingo Terán de los Ríos. Terán was ordered to help establish seven new missions, including two more among the Tejas Indians, four amongst the Kadohadachos, and one for the tribes near the Guadalupe River. He was only able to recruit 10 friars and 3 lay brothers. His expedition reached the existing mission in August, 1691 and discovered that the priests there had established a second mission, Santísimo Nombre de María, 5 mi east of San Francisco de los Tejas. One of the priests had died, leaving two to operate the missions. The Indians regularly stole their cattle and horses and were becoming insolent. With provisions running low, Terán chose not to establish any more missions. When he left Texas later that year, most of the missionaries chose to return with him, leaving only 3 religious people and 9 soldiers at the missions.

The group also left a smallpox epidemic. The Indians had no natural immunity to the disease and at first blamed the outbreak on the baptismal waters. After thousands of natives had succumbed, the survivors rose up against the missions. In 1693, the Caddo warned the Franciscan missionaries to leave the area or be killed. The missionaries buried the church bells and burned the mission, then returned to Mexico. Although this first Spanish attempt to settle Texas failed, it provided Spain an increased awareness of the terrain, rivers, and coastline of Texas and convinced the government that "even the most tractable of Indians" could only be converted "by a combination of coercion and persuasion". For the next 20 years, Spain again ignored Texas.

Conflict with France
During the early eighteenth century, France again provided the impetus for Spain's interest in Texas. In 1699, French forts were established at Biloxi Bay and on the Mississippi River, ending Spain's exclusive control of the Gulf Coast. Although Spain "refused to concede France's right to be in Louisiana" and warned King Louis XIV of France that he could be excommunicated for ignoring the 200-year-old papal edict giving the Americas to Spain, they took no further actions to stop France's encroachment or expand the Spanish presence. The two countries became allies during the War of the Spanish Succession and cooperated in the Americas. Despite their friendship, Spain remained unwilling to allow the French to trade within their territory. On hearing rumors of French incursions into Texas in 1707, the viceroy of New Spain ordered all provincial governors to prevent the entry of foreigners and their goods. To dissuade the Tejas Indians from accepting goods from the French, a contingent of soldiers under Pedro de Aguirre traveled into Texas. His expedition reached only as far as the Colorado River and turned around after learning that the Tejas chief was still unhappy with the Spanish. The group did visit the area around the San Antonio River, and was much impressed with the land and availability of water. They believed the river to be unnamed and called it San Antonio de Padua, not realizing that Terán and Massanet had camped nearby years before on the feast day of Saint Anthony of Padua and had given the river the same name.

In 1711, Franciscan missionary Francisco Hidalgo, who had served in the earlier Texas missions, wanted to reestablish missions with the Caddos. The Spanish government was unwilling to provide the funding and troops for the project, so Hidalgo approached the French governor of Louisiana, Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac for help. Cadillac was under orders to turn Louisiana into a profitable colony and believed that Spanish settlers closer to Louisiana could provide new trading opportunities. He sent Louis Juchereau de St. Denis, along with brothers Pierre and Robert Talon, who, as children, had been spared at the massacre of Fort Saint Louis, to find Hidalgo and offer assistance. In July 1714, the French delegation reached the Spanish frontier, at that time around the Rio Grande, where Hidalgo was located. Although St. Denis was arrested and questioned, he was ultimately released. The Spanish recognized that the French could become a threat to other Spanish areas, and ordered the reoccupation of Texas as a buffer between French settlements in Louisiana and New Spain.

On April 12, 1716, an expedition led by Domingo Ramón left San Juan Bautista for Texas, intending to establish four missions and a presidio which would be guarded by twenty-five soldiers. The party of 75 people included 3 children, 7 women, 18 soldiers, and 10 missionaries. These were the first recorded female settlers in Spanish Texas. After marrying a Spanish woman, St. Denis also joined the Spanish expedition.

The party reached the land of the Hasinai people in late June 1716 and was greeted warmly. On July 3, mission San Francisco was reestablished as Mission Nuestro Padre San Francisco de los Tejas for the Neche Indians. Several days later, Mission Nuestra Señora de la Purísima Concepción was established at the main village of the Hainai, the head tribe of the Hasinai Confederacy, along the Angelina River. A third mission, Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe, was established 15 mi east of Purísima Concepción, at the main village of the Nacogdoche tribe, at what is now Nacogdoches. A final mission, San José de los Nazonis, was built among the Nazoni Indians just north of present-day Cushing. A presidio, Nuestra Señora de los Dolores, was built opposite San Francisco de los Tejas.

During this period, the area was named the New Philippines by the missionaries in the twin hopes of gaining royal patronage, and that the Spanish efforts would be as successful as in the Philippines a century and a half earlier. The alternate name became official and remained in use for several decades, but had virtually disappeared from use (in favor of 'Texas') by the end of the century. The name however persisted in documents, especially in land grants

At the same time, the French were building a fort in Natchitoches to establish a more westward presence. The Spanish countered by founding two more missions just west of Natchitoches, San Miguel de los Adaes and Dolores de los Ais. The missions were located in a disputed area; France claimed the Sabine River to be the western boundary of Louisiana, while Spain claimed the Red River was the eastern boundary of Texas, leaving an overlap of 45 mi.

The new missions were over 400 mi from the nearest Spanish settlement, San Juan Bautista. It was difficult to reprovision the missions, and by 1718 the missionaries were in dire straits. Martín de Alarcón, who had been appointed governor of Texas in late 1716, wished to establish a way station between the settlements along the Rio Grande and the new missions in East Texas. The Coahuiltecans had built a thriving community near the headwaters of the San Antonio River, in the area the Spanish had admired in 1707. Alarcón led a group of 72 people, including 10 families, into Texas on April 9, 1718. They brought with them 548 horses, 6 droves of mules, and other livestock. On May 1, the group created a temporary mud, brush and straw structure to serve as a mission, San Antonio de Valero, whose chapel was later known as the Alamo. The mission was initially populated with three to five Indians that one of the missionaries had raised since childhood. Alarcon built a presidio, San Antonio de Béxar 1 mi north of the mission,. Alarcón also chartered the municipality of Béjar, now San Antonio. Given a status higher than a village (pueblo) but lower than a city (ciudad), San Antonio became the only villa in Texas, and the colonists who settled there relied on farming and ranching to survive. With the new settlement established, Alarcón continued on to the East Texas missions, where he found evidence of much illicit trade with France.

The following year, the War of the Quadruple Alliance broke out, aligning Spain against France, Great Britain, the Dutch Republic, and Austria. The war was fought primarily over Italy, but Great Britain and France launched several attempts to capture Spanish colonies in North America. In June 1719, 7 Frenchmen from Natchitoches took control of Mission San Miguel de los Adaes from its sole defender, who did not know that the countries were at war. The French soldiers explained that 100 additional soldiers were coming, and the Spanish colonists, missionaries, and remaining soldiers abandoned the area and fled to San Antonio.

The Marquis of San Miguel de Aguayo volunteered to reconquer Texas and raised an army of 500 soldiers. Aguayo was named the governor of Coahuila and Texas and the responsibilities of his office delayed his trip to Texas by a year, until late 1720. Just before he departed, the fighting in Europe halted, and King Felipe V of Spain ordered them not to invade Louisiana, but instead find a way to retake Eastern Texas without using force. The expedition brought with them over 2,800 horses, 6,400 sheep and many goats; this constituted the first large "cattle drive" in Texas. This greatly increased the number of domesticated animals in Texas and marked the beginning of Spanish ranching in Texas.

In July 1721, while approaching the Neches River, Aguayo's expedition met St. Denis, who had returned to the French and was leading a raid on San Antonio. Realizing that he was badly outnumbered, St. Denis agreed to abandon East Texas and return to Louisiana. Aguayo then ordered the building of a new Spanish fort Nuestra Señora del Pilar de los Adaes, located near present-day Robeline, Louisiana, only 12 mi from Natchitoches. The new fort became the first capital of Texas, and was guarded by 6 cannon and 100 soldiers. The six East Texas missions were reopened, and Presidio Dolores, now known as Presidio de los Tejas, was moved from the Neches River to a site near mission Purísima Concepción near the Angelina River. The Spaniards then built another fort, Presidio La Bahía del Espíritu Santo, known as La Bahía, on the site of the former French Fort St. Louis. Nearby they established a mission, Espíritu Santo de Zúñiga (also known as La Bahía), for the Coco, Karankawa, and Cujane Indians. Ninety men were left at the garrison. Aguayo returned to Mexico City in 1722 and resigned his governorship. At the beginning of his expedition, Texas had consisted only of San Antonio and about 60 soldiers; at his resignation, the province had grown to consist of 4 presidios, over 250 soldiers, 10 missions, and the small civilian town of San Antonio.

Settlement difficulties
Shortly after Aguayo returned to Mexico, the new viceroy of New Spain, Juan de Acuña, marqués de Casafuerte, was ordered to cut costs accrued for the defense of the northern part of the territory. Acuña appointed Colonel Pedro de Rivera y Villalón to inspect the entire northern frontier. Beginning in what is now California in November 1724, Rivera spent the next three years inspecting the northern frontier, reaching San Antonio in August 1727. His reports of Los Adaes, Presidio Nuestra Señora de Loreto, and the presidio at San Antonio were favorable, but he was unimpressed with Presidio de los Tejas, whose 25 soldiers were guarding empty missions. The native population had refused to congregate into communities around the missions and refused baptism unless they were on the brink of death. Because the Indians were well-armed, the Franciscans were unable to compel them to join the missions. The frustrated missionaries finally petitioned the Spanish government for 50 soldiers to burn the Indians' houses of worship and force them to build homes near the missions. No troops were forthcoming.

Rivera recommended closing Presidio de los Tejas and reducing the number of soldiers at the other presidios. His suggestions were approved in 1729, and 125 troops were removed from Texas, leaving only 144 soldiers divided among Los Adaes, La Bahía, and San Antonio. The three East Texas missions which had depended on Presidio de los Tejas were relocated along the San Antonio River in May 1731, increasing the number of missions in the San Antonio area to five. The San Antonio missions usually contained fewer than 300 Indians. Many of those who lived at the mission had nowhere else to go, and belonged to small tribes that have since become extinct.

The Spanish government believed that settlers would defend their property, alleviating the need for some of the presidios. Texas was an unappealing prospect for most settlers, however, due to the armed nomadic tribes, high costs, and lack of precious metals. In 1731, the Spanish government resettled 55 people, mostly women and children, from the Canary Islands to San Antonio. At that time, only 300 Hispanic settlers lived in San Antonio, with 200 others dispersed throughout the rest of the colony. The new immigrants began farming and renamed the town San Fernando de Béxar, establishing the first municipal, and only civilian, government in Texas. Juan Leal Goraz, the oldest of the settlers, was appointed the first councilman. As the first settlers of the municipality, the Islanders and their descendants were designated hidalgos. The established settlers resented the Islanders for their new titles and exclusive privileges within the city government. The newcomers did not know how to handle horses, rendering them useless in mounted warfare against the Apaches. Unlike the established settlers, who relied on ranching, the Islanders were primarily farmers, and their refusal to build fences led to many disagreements when livestock trampled the fields. By the early 1740s, however, intermarriage and the need for closer economic ties had helped to alleviate some of the infighting, and the original settlers were given permission to serve as magistrates and council members.

Spain discouraged manufacturing in its colonies and limited trade to Spanish goods handled by Spanish merchants and carried on Spanish vessels. Most of the ports, including all of those in Texas, were closed to commercial vessels in the hopes of dissuading smugglers. By law, all goods bound for Texas had to be shipped to Veracruz and then transported over the mountains to Mexico City before being sent to Texas. This caused the goods to be very expensive in the Texas settlements. Settlers were often forced to turn to the French for supplies, as the fort at Natchitoches was well-stocked and goods did not have to travel as far. Without many goods to trade, however, the remaining Spanish missionaries and colonists had little to offer the Indians, who remained loyal to the French traders.

Peace with France
Indians confirmed in 1746 that French traders periodically arrived by sea to trade with tribes in the lower Trinity River region. Eight years later, the Spanish learned of rumors that the French had opened a trading post at the mouth of the Trinity River. In September 1754, the governor, Jacinto de Barrios y Jáuregui sent soldiers to investigate, and they captured five Frenchmen who had been living at an Indian village. To dissuade the French from returning, Spain built the presidio of San Agustín de Ahumada and the mission of Nuestra Señora de la Luz de Orcoquisac near the mouth of the Trinity at Galveston Bay. Conditions were awful at the new location, and both the presidio and the mission were closed in 1770.

The Presidio La Bahía was moved from the Guadalupe River to Goliad on the San Antonio River in 1749. Within five years, a new mission for the Karankawa tribes, Nuestra Señora del Rosario de los Cuhanes, was built upstream of the presidio. This mission survived for many years. Despite the new missions and presidios, Texas was one of the least populated provinces on the northern frontier of New Spain. By 1760, almost 1,200 Hispanic people lived in Texas, with half in San Antonio, 350 at Los Adaes, and 260 at La Bahía. Other Spaniards lived in what is now the El Paso area, but that was considered part of New Mexico and not part of Texas.

On November 3, 1762, as part of the Treaty of Fontainebleau, France ceded the portion of Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to Spain. Spain had assisted France against Britain in the Seven Years' War, and lost both Manila and Havana to the British. Although the Louisiana colony was a financial liability, King Carlos III of Spain reluctantly accepted it, as that meant France was finally ceding its claim to Texas. At the Treaty of Paris on February 10, 1763, Great Britain recognized Spain's right to the lands west of the Mississippi. Great Britain received the remainder of France's North American territories, and Spain exchanged some of their holdings in Florida for Havana.

With France no longer a threat to Spain's North American interests, the Spanish monarchy commissioned the Marquis of Rubí to inspect all of the presidios on the northern frontier of New Spain and make recommendations for the future. Rubí's two-year journey, beginning in early 1766, covered 7,000 mi from the Gulf of California to East Texas. This was the first comprehensive look at the New Spain frontier since the 1720s, when Pedro de Rivera conducted his expedition. Rubí was unimpressed with the presidio at San Saba, which he declared to be the worst in the kingdom of New Spain. He recommended that only the presidios at San Antonio and La Bahía be maintained, and that East Texas be totally abandoned, with all population moving to San Antonio. With Louisiana in Spanish control, there was no need for Los Adaes to reside so closely to Natchitoches, especially after the missions had relocated to San Antonio. In August 1768, the acting governor, Juan María Vicencio, Baron of Ripperdà, moved his headquarters and the garrison to San Antonio, and in 1772 San Antonio became the new Texas capital. Los Adaes was abandoned completely. The new governor also augmented the garrison at San Antonio to protect the town from recurring Indian attacks. A new presidio, Fuerte de Santa Cruz de Cibolo, was also established 40 mi southeast of San Antonio to protect farmers and ranchers from attacks.

As a result of Rubí's recommendations, Presidio de San Agustín de Ahumada was closed in 1771, leaving the Texas coast unoccupied except for La Bahía. In July 1772, however, the governor of Texas heard rumors that English traders were building a settlement in the area of the Texas coast that had been abandoned. The commander of La Bahía was sent to find the settlement, but saw no sign of other Europeans. His expedition did, however, traced the San Jacinto River to its mouth where it emptied into Galveston Bay.

Founding of Nacogdoches
The 500 Hispanic settlers who had lived near Los Adaes had to resettle in San Antonio in 1773. In the six years between the inspection and the removal of the settlers, the immigrant population of East Texas had increased from 200 Europeans to 500, a mixture of Spanish, French, Indians, and a few blacks. The settlers were given only five days to prepare to relocate to San Antonio. Many of them perished during the three-month trek and others died soon after arriving.

After protesting, they were permitted in the following year to return to East Texas, but only as far as the Trinity River, 175 mi from Natchitoches. Led by Antonio Gil Y'Barbo, the settlers founded the town of Nuestra Señora del Pilar de Bucareli "where the trail from San Antonio to Los Adaes crossed the Trinity." The settlers helped smuggle contraband goods from Louisiana to San Antonio, and also helped the soldiers with coastal reconnaissance.

In May 1776, King Carlos III created a new position, the Commandancy General of the Internal Provinces of the North (Provincias Internas), to control frontier areas across northern New Spain, including Spanish Texas. The first appointee, Teodoro de Croix, served as governor and commander-in-chief of the area from 1776 until 1783. As de Croix prepared to take office, his predecessor, Baron of Ripperdà, wrote a detailed report, dated April 27, 1777, of the settlements in Texas. One-third of the report detailed the village of Bucareli, which he labeled as "'of the greatest importance as a means of acquiring reports of a coast as extensive as it is uninhabited.'" The Bucareli settlers regularly performed coastal explorations and developed a friendship with the Bidai tribe, who reported any signs of foreigners along the coast. In the summer of 1777, Gil Ybarbo discovered that a group of Englishmen had come from the sea and stayed long enough to plant a crop near the Neches River. He led an expedition to find the Englishmen, but, although they discovered the fields, the expedition did not find any of the settlers.

In 1779, the Comanches began raiding the Bucareli area, and the settlers chose to move further east to the old mission of Nacogdoches, where they founded the town of the same name. The new town quickly became a waystation for contraband. The settlers did not have authorization to move, and no troops were assigned to protect the new location until 1795.

Apache raids
The tribes traded freely, and soon many had acquired French guns, while others had traded for Spanish horses. Tribes without access to either resource were left at a disadvantage. The Lipan Apache, who had been seasonal farmers, were soon pressed by the Comanche, who had horses, and the Wichita, who had guns. The Apaches were bitter enemies of the Tejas of East Texas and had transferred their enmity to the Spanish as friends of the Tejas. After discovering San Antonio in 1720, the Apache mounted small-scale raids on the area to steal livestock, especially horses. The Hispanic population of San Antonio was only about 300 and all of Texas about 500 and the Apache killed an average of 3 Spaniards each year and stole approximately 100 animals from the beleaguered colony. In retaliation, the Spanish launched multiple attacks on the Apaches, capturing horses and mules, hides and other plunder, and taking Apache captives, whom the Spanish used as household slaves. By 1731, however, the San Antonio garrison was begging the government for help in negotiating a peace with the tribes.

The threat of Apache raids led to a constant state of unease in San Antonio, and some families left the area, while others refused to leave the safety of the town to tend their livestock. The problems culminated with a late-night raid on San Antonio by 350 Apache on June 30, 1745, retaliation for a Spanish military campaign several months before. The attackers were repelled with the assistance of 100 Indians from nearby Mission Valero. The Apache also preyed on other tribes, including the Deadose and Tonkawa. In the 1740s, these weaker tribes requested missions along the San Gabriel River in the hopes that the Spanish could protect them from attack. Mission San Francisco Xavier was established at the confluence of the San Gabriel River and Bushy Creek in January 1746 to serve the Deadose, Mayeye, and Coco Indians. In 1748 alone, the Apaches raided the mission four times, killing three soldiers and four of the Indian residents. Many of the resident Indians fled the mission due to the threat of attacks. This did not deter the missionaries, who founded two more missions, San Ildefonso and Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria, in the area the following year. Within six months, all of the potential converts at San Ildefonso had left. By 1755, the missions were transferred to a new location on the San Marcos River.

The Apache were coming under increased pressure from the Comanche advancing from the north and sought peace with the Spanish. A peace was declared in August 1749, when a group of Apache chiefs and Spanish officials "symbolically [buried] the trouble between the two parties" by burying weapons in the plaza at San Antonio. The Spanish also promised to provide military assistance to the Apache. The Lipan Apache had asked for missions several times, and in 1757 all property of the former San Gabriel missions, as well as the military garrison which briefly protected them, was transferred to new Mission Santa Cruz de San Sabá along the San Saba River northwest of San Antonio. A log stockade was constructed 3 mi from the mission, on the other side of the river, so that the soldiers would not corrupt the Indians. The stockade could hold up to 400 including the 237 women and children who accompanied the soldiers.

Apaches shunned the mission, and on March 16, 1758, a band of Comanche, Tonkawa, and Hasinai warriors, angry that the Spaniards were assisting their Apache enemies, pillaged and burned the mission, killing eight people. The San Sabá mission was the only Spanish mission in Texas to be completely destroyed by Indians, and it was never rebuilt. Although the Indian force had 2000 members, they chose not to attack the fort.

The Spanish government refused to abandon the area completely out of fear that such an action would make them appear weak. While they planned a response, Indians raided the San Saba horse herd, stealing all of the horses and pack mules and killing 20 soldiers. In October 1759, Spain sent the San Sabá commander, Colonel Diego Ortiz Parrilla, on an expedition north to the Red River to avenge the attack. The tribes were forewarned and led Parrilla's army to a fortified Wichita village, surrounded by a stockade and a moat, where natives brandished French guns and waved a French flag. After a skirmish in which 52 Spaniards were killed, wounded, or deserted, the Spanish retreated. The San Sabá presidio was replaced with a limestone fortress and a moat, but the Comanches and their allies remained close and killed any soldiers who ventured out. By 1769, Spain abandoned the fort.

In 1762, missionaries established two unauthorized missions south of San Sabá, in the Nueces River valley. For several years the Apache lived in the missions most of the year, but left in winter to hunt buffalo. One of the missions closed in 1763, when the Apache never returned from their hunt. The surviving mission closed in January 1766, after a force of 400 natives from the northern tribes attacked, killing 6 Apaches and taking 25 captives as well as all the livestock in the valley. Forty-one Spanish troops and their small cannon ambushed the northern tribes as they returned to East Texas. Before the Spanish were forced to retreat, over 200 Indians and 12 Spanish soldiers died. After the battle, the Apache refused to return to the mission and returned to raiding near San Antonio. Raids by the northern tribes decreased, however.

Comanche

The first recorded contact between the Comanche and the Spanish in Texas was in 1743 when a small band of Comanche visited San Antonio. The Comanche were expanding southward from Colorado and pushing the Apache off the Great Plains. About 1750 they became the dominant power in the northwestern one-half of Texas, called the Comanchería (Spanish for "Comanche lands"), and maintained their dominance for 100 years. Through a combination of diplomacy and war, the Comanche established an extensive long-distance trade network and spread their language and culture among allied Indian tribes. Initially, the Spanish in Texas called them the norteños (northerners) a collective term for the Wichita and other Indian tribes in northern Texas.

The Comanche were divided into the western bands which primarily raided and traded in New Mexico and the eastern banks which primarily raided and traded in Texas. For much of the 1770s, the Comanche raided in New Mexico. The Comanche were defeated in a battle in Colorado in 1779 by a Spanish army led by New Mexico governor Juan Bautista de Anza and redirected their activities to the weakly defended Texas. During the same time period the Apaches, who had been stockpiling guns received from the Karankawas, returned to raiding settlements in Texas, violating their peace treaty. The Comanche promptly declared war on the Apache.

Gálvez became the viceroy of New Spain in 1785. Gálvez ordered that the Native Americans be encouraged to use alcohol, which they could only get through trading, and that the firearms they were traded be poorly made so that they would be awkward to use and easy to break. His policies were never implemented, as Spain did not have the money to provide gifts such as those to the tribes. Instead, the Spanish negotiated a treaty with the Comanche in late 1785. The treaty promised annual gifts to the Comanches, and the peace it brought lasted for the next 30 years. By late 1786, northern and western Texas were secure enough that Pedro Vial and a single companion safely "pioneered a trail from San Antonio to Santa Fe," a distance of 700 mi.

The Comanches were willing to fight the enemies of their new friends, and soon attacked the Karankawa. Over the next several years, the Comanches killed many of the Karankawa in the area and drove the others into Mexico. By 1804, very few natives lived on the barrier islands, where the Karankawa had made their home. In January 1790, the Comanche also helped the Spanish fight a large battle against the Mescalero and Lipan Apaches at Soledad Creek west of San Antonio. Over 1,000 Comanche warriors participated in raids against the Apache in 1791 and 1792, and the Apache were forced to scatter into the mountains in Mexico. In 1796, Spanish officials began an attempt to have the Apache and Comanche coexist in peace, and over the next ten years the intertribal fighting declined.

Karankawa difficulties
In 1776, Native Americans at the Bahia missions told the soldiers that the Karankawas had massacred a group of Europeans who had been shipwrecked near the mouth of the Guadalupe River. After finding the remains of an English commercial frigate, the soldiers warned the Karankawa to refrain from attacking seamen. The soldiers continued to explore the coast, and reported that foreign powers could easily build a small settlement on the barrier islands, which were difficult to access from the mainland, and then ascend the Trinity or San Jacinto Rivers into the heart of Texas. Captain Luis Cazorla, the commander of the La Bahía presidio, recommended that Spain build a small fort on the barrier islands and provide a shallow-draft vessel to continually reconnoiter the coast. The fort would be both a deterrent to the more bloodthirsty tribes and to the English. The Spanish government, fearful of smuggling, declined to give permission for a port or a boat on the Texas coast.

De Croix was unimpressed with his new province, complaining that,

"A villa without order, two presidios, seven missions, and an errant population of scarcely 4,000 persons of both sexes and all ages that occupies an immense desert country, stretching from the abandoned presidio of Los Adaes to San Antonio, ... does not deserve the name of the Province of Texas ... nor the concern entailed in its preservation."

Despite his distaste for the area, he increased the number of troops in the interior provinces by 50% and created units of "light troops" which did not carry all of the heavy gear and could fight on foot. His administration also attempted to build alliances with native troops, and planned to work with the Comanche and the Wichita to wipe out the Apache raiders. The plan was shelved when Spain entered the American Revolution as an ally of the French and the American revolutionaries and money and troops were diverted to attacking Florida instead of exterminating the Apaches. After soldiers in Coahuila aligned with the Mescaleros against the Lipan Apaches, however, Spain was able to sign a peace treaty with the Lipans. The Comanches were also becoming more brazen, attacking Presidio La Bahía in 1781, where they were repulsed.

After hearing that Englishman George Gauld had surveyed the Gulf Coast all the way to Galveston Bay in 1777, Bernardo de Gálvez appointed a French engineer, Luis Antonio Andry, to conduct a similar survey for Spain. Andry finished his survey in March 1778, and anchored off Matagorda Bay after running dangerously low on provisions. Over a period of days, the Karankawa lured a few men at a time from the ship with offers of assistance and killed all but one, a Mayan sailor named Tomás de la Cruz. The Karankawa also burned the ship and the newly created map, possibly the first detailed Spanish map of the Texas-Louisiana coast. Several months later, the Native Americans living at Mission Rosario, near La Bahía, escaped to join the Karankawa, and together they began raiding livestock and harassing settlers. The governor pardoned many of the fugitives, and most of them returned to the mission. The Karankawa continued to cause difficulties for the Spanish, and in 1785 the interim commandant-general, Joseph Antonio Rengel, noted that they were unable to explore in the Matagorda Bay region as long as the Karankawa held it.

The Spanish again arranged for their coastline to be mapped, and in September 1783, José de Evia left Havana to chart the coastline between Key West and Matagorda Bay. During his journey, Evia gave Galveston Bay its name, in honor of his sponsor, De Gálvez. Evia later mapped the Nuevo Santander coast between Matagorda Bay and Tampico, part of which later belonged to Texas.

In 1791 and 1792, Fray José Francisco Garza befriended some of the Karankawa and other native peoples. Their friendship allowed Garza to explore much of the coastal areas that had been too dangerous to visit. The Native Americans requested that Garza build a mission at the junction of the San Antonio and Guadalupe Rivers, and in February 1793 Mission Nuestra Señora del Refugio opened near Mission Lake at the head of San Antonio Bay. Over 230 Native Americans lived at the mission initially, but within two years they were forced to move to a less flood-prone site, which became known as Refugio. By the end of the eighteenth century, only a small number of the hunting and gathering tribes within Texas had not been Christianized.

Conflict with the United States
The Second Treaty of Paris in 1783 ended the American Revolution and established the United States of America. The treaty extended the new country's western boundary to the Mississippi River and within the first year after it was signed 50,000 American settlers crossed the Appalachian Mountains. As it was difficult to return east across the mountains, the settlers began looking toward the Spanish colonies of Louisiana and Texas to find places to sell their crops. Spain closed the mouth of the Mississippi to foreigners from 1784 until 1795 despite Thomas Jefferson's 1790 threat to begin an Anglo-Spanish war over the matter. Americans risked arrest to come to Texas, many of them desiring to capture wild mustangs in West Texas and trade with the Indians. In 1791, Philip Nolan became the first Anglo-American known to pursue horse-trading in Texas, and he was arrested several times for being within Spain's borders. The Spanish feared that Nolan was a spy, and in 1801 they sent 150 troops to capture Nolan and his party of 6 men; Nolan was killed during the ensuing battle. By 1810, many Americans were trading guns and ammunition to the Texas Indians, especially the Comanche, in return for livestock. Although some chiefs refused to trade with them and reported their movements to Spanish authorities, other bands welcomed the newcomers. A drought made rangeland scarce and stopped the Comanche's herds from increasing. To meet the American demand for livestock, the Comanche turned to raiding the area around San Antonio.

The Spanish government believed that security would come with a larger population, but was unable to attract colonists from Spain or from other New World colonies. By the late 18th century, Texas was one of the least populated regions of New Spain, with fewer than two inhabitants per square league. The population was relatively stagnant, having grown only to 3,169 individuals in 1790 from 3,103 in 1777. Over half of the population was classified as Spaniards, with settled Indians making up the next largest category. Blacks, mostly slaves, made up less than 1% of the population in 1777, and only 2.2% of the 1793 census. Over two-thirds of the adults in Texas were married, and single men outnumbered single women, although there was a high percentage of widows. Intermarriage was fairly common, mostly between white men and women of mixed origin. Children from these unions often passed as whites. Illegitimate births increased steadily throughout the century, reaching 20% of all births in 1799. Despite the small population, however, Spain actively discouraged immigration to Texas, and a permanent garrison was placed in Nacogdoches in 1790 to keep foreigners from settling in the area. Immigrants from the United States were allowed to settle in Louisiana and Florida after taking an oath of allegiance, but were not required to convert to Roman Catholicism.

In 1799, Spain gave Louisiana back to France in exchange for the promise of a throne in central Italy. Although the agreement was signed on October 1, 1800, it did not go into effect until 1802. The following year, Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States. Many of the Spaniards who had moved to the colony left for Texas, Florida, or other Spanish-held lands. The original agreement between Spain and France had not explicitly specified the borders of Louisiana, and the descriptions in the documents were ambiguous and contradictory. Even when both territories had been under Spanish control, there was disagreement on where the border should be. In 1793, the King of Spain decided that there was no need to move the boundary from Natchitoches to the Sabine River, as had been recommended by some Frenchmen.

The United States insisted that its purchase also included most of West Florida and all of Texas. Thomas Jefferson claimed that Louisiana stretched west to the Rocky Mountains and included the entire watershed of the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers and their tributaries, and that the southern border was the Rio Grande. Spain maintained that Louisiana extended only as far as Natchitoches, and that it did not include West Florida or the Illinois Territory.

Texas was again considered a buffer province, this time between New Spain and the United States. In 1804, Spain planned to send thousands of colonists to increase the number of residents in Texas (then at 4,000 Hispanic inhabitants). The plan was cancelled as the government did not have the money to relocate the settlers. The responsibility for defending Texas now rested with Nemesio Salcedo, who held the newly reopened position of Commandant General of the Internal Provinces. Salcedo promoted immigration to Texas, and a new town, Trinidad de Salcedo, was founded where the Trinity River intersected the road from San Antonio to Nacogdoches. For a brief time, Salcedo also allowed former Spanish subjects from Louisiana to come to Texas. A few Americans who had become naturalized Spaniards settled in Texas during that time. Salcedo warned, however, that "'the foreigners are not and will not be anything but crows to pick out our eyes.'"

King Charles IV of Spain ordered data compiled to determine the true boundary. Before the border was settled, both sides led armed excursions into the disputed areas, and Spain began increasing the number of troops stationed in Texas. By 1806, the number had doubled, with over 883 stationed in and around Nacogdoches. At the end of 1806, local commanders negotiated a temporary agreement in which neither the Spanish nor the Americans would venture into the area between the Sabine River and Arroyo Hondo. This neutral ground quickly became a haven for lawlessness and it did not stop individuals from crossing the boundary. While on a mission for the United States Army to explore some of the disputed areas of the Louisiana Purchase Zebulon Pike was arrested by the Spanish while camping on the Rio Grande and escorted back to Natchitoches. Although his maps and notes were confiscated, Pike was able to recreate most of it from memory. His glowing comments about Texas lands and animals made many Americans yearn to control the territory.

End of Spanish period
In May 1808, Napoleon forced King Ferdinand VII to abdicate the Spanish throne. His replacement, Napoleon's elder brother Joseph Bonaparte (Joseph I), was appointed King of Spain, to violent protests from the Spanish citizens. The uprisings continued for the next six years, until his abdication in 1814 and the return of Ferdinand VII. During the time, there was little oversight of the New World colonies. A shadow government operated out Cádiz during Joseph's reign, operating under the Spanish Constitution of 1812. The constitutional government included representatives from the colonies, including Texas and New Mexico in New Spain. When King Ferdinand VII resumed his throne, he refused to recognize the new constitution or the representative government. He was forced to change his mind in 1820 as the only way to avert a military coup.

During this time of turmoil, it was unclear who actually governed the colonies: Joseph I, the shadow government representing Ferdinand VII, the colonial officials, or revolutionaries in each province. The Mexican War of Independence began in 1810 at the instigation of Miguel Hidalgo. Fearing that the revolution would reach colonial Texas, governor Manuel María de Salcedo ordered the Texas borders closed to all foreigners. He was soon reversed by his uncle, the Commandant General. Revolutionaries soon overthrew and imprisoned Salcedo, and a new government was established in Texas. Salcedo persuaded Ignacio Elizondo (his jailer) to return to the royalist cause and the two organized a counter-coup. Hidalgo was captured and executed in 1811. Although officially neutral during the Mexican War of Independence, the United States allowed rebels to trade at American ports and much of the weaponry and ammunition used by the rebels came from the United States. Americans also provided manpower for the conflict, with Natchitoches serving as a launching point for several expeditions into Texas. In 1812, Mexican insurgent Bernardo Gutiérrez de Lara led a small force of Americans into Texas. Indians from the eastern part of Texas quickly joined the insurgency. Calling themselves the Republican Army of the North, the group captured San Antonio in 1813, assassinated the governor, Manuel María de Salcedo, and proclaimed Texas independent from Spain. The death of the governor caused many of the Anglo-Americans to desert the cause, but on April 17, 1813, the Gutiérrez–Magee Expedition members composed Texas's first constitution, which provided for a centralized form of government. Spanish forces recaptured the province later that year at the Battle of Medina, and killed 1300 and executed any Tejanos accused of having Republican tendencies. Within 2 weeks almost 400 rebels were executed and their wives and daughters were imprisoned for 2 months. Royalist soldiers even chased many of the women and children who had fled San Antonio, killing 200–300. Captured Americans were given an opportunity to take an oath of loyalty to Spain, and those who refused were escorted back to the United States. Fearing that the Comanche would still constitute a threat, Spanish general Arredondo ordered all ranchers to move temporarily to San Antonio to help defend the city. When they returned to their ranches several months later, they found that the Comanche had slaughtered all of the livestock, leaving most of the carcasses where they fell. The Spanish army looted the rest of Texas too, and by 1820 fewer than 2000 Hispanic citizens remained in Texas. "Spanish Texas, or what remained of it, had become a desolate, unprotected land that could not feed itself."

Another revolutionary, José Manuel Herrera, created a government on Galveston Island in September 1816 which he proclaimed part of a Mexican Republic. A group of French exiles in the United States attempted to create their own colony on the Trinity River, known as Le Champ d'Asile. The exiles planned to use the colony as a base to liberate New Spain and then free Napoleon from St. Helena. They abandoned the colony shortly and returned to Galveston.

On February 22, 1819, Spain and the United States reached agreement on the Transcontinental Treaty, which ceded Florida to the United States in return for the United States relinquishing its claim on Texas. The official boundary of Texas was set at the Sabine River (the current boundary between Texas and Louisiana), then following the Red and Arkansas Rivers to the 42nd parallel (California's current northern border). For the next two years, until early February 1821, Spain delayed ratification of the treaty, using it as leverage to prevent the United States from formally recognizing one of the rebellious Spanish colonies as an independent nation. During this period many Americans spoke out against the treaty and the renunciation of the claim to Texas. An essay in the City of Washington Gazette denounced the treaty, claiming that "'a league'" of the land in Texas was worth more to the United States "'than the whole territory west of the Rocky Mountains'".

In 1819, James Long led the Long Expedition to invade Texas. He declared Texas an independent republic, but by the end of the year his rebellion had been quelled by Colonel Juan Ignacio Pérez and his Spanish troops. The following year Long established a new base near Galveston Bay "to free Texas from 'the yoke of Spanish authority... the most atrocious despotism that ever disgraced the annals of Europe.'" His basis for a rebellion was soon gone, however.

On February 24, 1821, Agustín de Iturbide launched a drive for Mexican Independence. Texas became a part of the newly independent nation without a shot being fired.

Legacy
Spanish control of Texas was followed by Mexican control of Texas, and it can be difficult to separate the Spanish and Mexican influences on the future state. The most obvious legacy is that of the language; the state's name comes from the Spanish rendering of an Indian word. Every major river in modern Texas, except the Red River, has a Spanish or Anglicized name, as do 42 of the state's 254 counties and numerous towns also bear Spanish names. Even many of the words that have been incorporated into American English, such as barbecue, canyon, ranch, and plaza, come from Spanish words. An additional obvious legacy is that of Roman Catholicism. At the end of Spain's reign over Texas, virtually all inhabitants practiced the Catholic Christian religion, and it is still practiced in Texas by a large number of people. The Spanish missions built in San Antonio to convert Indians to Catholicism have been restored and are a National Historic Landmark.

The landscape of Texas was changed as a result of some Spanish policies. As early as the 1690s, Spaniards brought European livestock, including cattle, horses, and mules, with them on their expeditions throughout the province. Some of the livestock strayed or stayed behind when the Spanish retreated from the territory in 1693, allowing the Indian tribes to begin loosely managing herds of the animals. These herds grazed heavily on the native grasses, allowing mesquite, which was native to the lower Texas coast, to spread inland. Although the introduced livestock were able to adapt to the changing conditions, the buffalo had a more difficult time grazing among the new vegetation, beginning the decline in their numbers. Spanish farmers also introduced tilling and irrigation to the land, further changing the landscape. Spanish architectural concepts were also adopted by those in Texas, including the addition of patios, tile floors and roofs, arched windows and doorways, carved wooden doors, and wrought iron grillwork.

Although Texas eventually adopted much of the Anglo-American legal system, many Spanish legal practices were retained. Among these was the Spanish model of keeping certain personal property safe from creditors. Texas implemented the first homestead exemption in the United States in 1839, and its property exemption laws are now the most liberal state in the United States. Furthermore, Spanish law maintained that both husband and wife should share equally in the profits of marriage, and, like many other former Spanish provinces, Texas retained the idea of community property rather than use the Anglo laws in which all property belonged to the husband. Furthermore, Spanish law allowed an independent executor to be named in probate cases who is not required to gain court permission for each act not explicitly listed in the testament. Texas retained this idea, and it has eventually spread to other states, included Arizona, Washington, and Idaho. In other legal matters, Texas kept the Spanish principle of adoption, becoming the first U.S. state to allow adoption.

title: Spanish Texas


text: File:Akaguitars.jpg

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: File:Akaguitars.jpg


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As low as reasonably practicable

As low as reasonably practicable (ALARP), or as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA), is a principle in the regulation and management of safety-critical and safety-involved systems. The principle is that the residual risk shall be reduced as far as reasonably practicable. In UK and NZ Health and safety law, it is equivalent to so far as is reasonably practicable (SFAIRP). In the US, ALARA is used in the regulation of radiation risks.

For a risk to be ALARP, it must be possible to demonstrate that the cost involved in reducing the risk further would be grossly disproportionate to the benefit gained. The ALARP principle arises from the fact that infinite time, effort and money could be spent in the attempt of reducing a risk to zero; not the fact that reducing the risk in half would require a finite time, effort and money. It should not be understood as simply a quantitative measure of benefit against detriment. It is more a best common practice of judgement of the balance of risk and societal benefit.

Factors
In this context, risk is the combination of the frequency (likelihood) and the consequence of a specified hazardous event.

Several factors are likely to be considered when deciding whether or not a risk has been reduced as far as reasonably practicable:
 * Health and safety guidelines and codes of practice
 * Manufacturer's specifications and recommendations
 * Industry practice
 * International standards and laws
 * Suggestions from advisory bodies
 * Comparison with similar hazardous events in other industries
 * Cost of further measures would be disproportionate to the risk reduction they would achieve

Another factor is often the cost of assessing the improvement gained in an attempted risk reduction. In extremely complex systems, this can be very high, and could be the limiting factor in practicability of risk reduction, although according to UK HSE guidance, cost alone should never be a justification for taking extra safety risks.

Determining that a risk has been reduced to ALARP involves an assessment of the risk to be avoided, of the sacrifice (in money, time and trouble) involved in taking measures to avoid that risk, and a comparison of the two. This is a cost–benefit analysis (CBA). A difficulty arising in CBAs is assigning a meaningful and agreed financial value to human life. A CBA exercise, in the context of ALARP, must have a means of assigning financial values to impacts to the environment, physical assets, production stoppage, company reputation, etc., which also presents significant challenges to the analyst.

Origin in UK law
The term ALARP arises from UK legislation, particularly the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974, which requires "Provision and maintenance of plant and systems of work that are, so far as is reasonably practicable, safe and without risks to health". The phrase So Far As is Reasonably Practicable (SFARP) in this and similar clauses is interpreted as leading to a requirement that risks must be reduced to a level that is As Low As is Reasonably Practicable (ALARP).

The key question in determining whether a risk is ALARP is the definition of reasonably practicable. This term has been enshrined in the UK case law since the case of Edwards v. National Coal Board in 1949. The ruling was that the risk must be significant in relation to the sacrifice (in terms of money, time or trouble) required to avert it: risks must be averted unless there is a gross disproportion between the costs and benefits of doing so.

Including gross disproportion means that an ALARP judgement in the UK is not a simple cost benefit analysis, but is weighted to favour carrying out the safety improvement. However, there is no broad consensus on the precise factor that would be appropriate: the HSE recommends that the bias towards safety "has to be argued in the light of all the circumstances applying to the case and the precautionary approach that these circumstances warrant".

Use outside the UK
The ALARP or ALARA principle is mandated by particular legislation in some countries outside the UK, including Australia, the Netherlands and Norway. Where the ALARP principle is used, it may not have the same implications as in the UK, as "reasonably practicable" may be interpreted according to the local culture, without introducing the concept of gross disproportionality.

The term ALARA, or "as low as reasonably achievable" is used interchangeably in the United States of America. It is used in the field of radiation protection. Its application in the regulation of radiation risk in some areas has been challenged.

Health Canada's Medical Devices Directorate is transitioning from the ALARP standard to AFAP ("As Far As Possible") in the regulation of risk of medical devices. The ALARP concept can be interpreted to promote financial consideration in higher regard than of the requirements of safety and performance of medical devices. Contradicting this approach, AFAP requires that all ventures of safety must be addressed in the intent of the consumer and effectiveness of the product rather than capital gain of the corporation. Risks previously deemed 'negligible' may be ignored under the old standard but must be taken into account and included in risk analysis under the newer AFAP-based standard. Under AFAP standards there are two defined justifications for the lack of implementation of risk-preventative measures. The first indicates that the additional risk control will not provide additional support for the system, such as an additional alarm when a previous alarm is functioning. The second states that a risk control system does not have to be implemented if there is a more effective risk control that can not be simultaneously executed due to various scenarios such as spatial boundaries. By implementing this new standard of risk mitigation, companies must demonstrate that they have considered and implemented all necessary means of addressing risk of a product or developed system.

In Australia the Work Health & Safety Act 2011 introduced the term So Far As Is Reasonably Practical (SFAIRP) based on the UK legislation. In some industry sectors the term SFARIP has become the common usage and can be used interchangeably with ALARP, but some people believe that SFAIRP and ALARP are two different legal tests.

Legal challenge
A two-year legal battle in the European Court of Justice resulted in the SFAIRP principle being upheld on 18 January 2007.

The European Commission had claimed that the SFAIRP wording in the Health & Safety at Work Act did not fully implement the requirements of the Framework Directive. The Directive gives employers an absolute duty "to ensure the safety and health of workers in every aspect related to the work", whereas the Act qualifies the duty "So Far As is Reasonably Practicable". The court dismissed the action and ordered the commission to pay the UK's costs.

Had the case been upheld, it would have called into question the proportionate approach to safety risk management embodied in the ALARP principle.

Carrot diagrams
'Carrot diagrams' show high (normally unacceptable) risks at the upper/wider end and low (broadly acceptable) risks at the lower/narrower end, with a 'tolerable' or 'ALARP' region in between. They were originally developed by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) to illustrate their framework for the Tolerability of Risk (TOR), which set out the HSE's approach to regulating safety risks. While the ALARP principle applies at all levels of risk under UK health and safety law, the TOR framework captures the concept that some risks are too great to be acceptable, whatever the benefit; while others are so low as to be insignificant. The HSE, as regulators, would not usually require further action to reduce these broadly acceptable risks unless reasonably practicable measures were available, although they would still take into account that duty holders must reduce risks wherever it is reasonably practicable to do so. Between the two extremes, risks can be tolerated in order to secure benefits, so long as they have been risk assessed and are kept ALARP.

Carrot diagrams are sometimes known as 'ALARP Triangles'. However, this can be misleading because they illustrate the Tolerability of Risk framework rather than the ALARP principle itself, and can be misinterpreted as meaning either that ALARP legally applies only in the tolerable region, or that risks in tolerable region are automatically ALARP.

title: As low as reasonably practicable


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Mateo Pumacahua

Mateo García Pumacahua (September 21, 1740 – March 17, 1815) simply known as Pumacahua, modern spelling variants Pumakawa or Pumaqawa (meaning "he who stalks with the stealth of a puma", from Quechua Puma cougar, puma, Qawa sentinel, serene, "he who observes or monitors shrewdly") was a Royalist commander later turned into a Peruvian revolutionary who led the Cuzco Rebellion of 1814 in the War of Independence.

Biography
Pumakawa was the kuraka (Quechua for cacique) of Chinchero, soldier of the militia of the Viceroyalty of Peru, and interim president of the Audiencia of Cuzco. Pumaqawa was a member of the Inca nobility of Ayarmaca descent, who also has some Spanish ancestry.

He was appointed commander of the Royalist Army militias against Túpac Amaru II. Reason for this is because Amaru's uprising caught off guard colonial authorities and caused major tumult in Lima, as the colonial authorities were largely unprepared and scarce of troops in order to deal with the revolt, for this reason, Spanish colonial authorities decided to organize an army composed largely of native conscripts, a tactic repeated in the Peruvian independence wars where the Spanish royalist army of Peru was composed, outside of commanding leaders, almost entirely of levy indigenous soldiers.

As Pumakawa became head of the Royal Army indigenous militias, he persecuted José Gabriel Condorcanqui (Tupac Amaru II) during his rebellion of 1780 and 1781, Pumakawa made major contributions to the royal cause with accouterments and men. He gained prestige among the Inca nobility of Cuzco, being elected Real Ensign of Noble Indians of Cuzco in 1802.

Pumacahua defeated the rebel army of Tupac Amaru II in 1781, an event depicted in a mural at the church of Chinchero, although he received fame and prestige for Amaru's capture, his role was little acknowledged outside of Cuzco and Peru in spite of the fact that it was Pumaqawa, more than anyone, who defeated Tupac Amaru II. Higher-rank Spanish authorities such as the Viceroy Agustín de Jáuregui, who resided in Lima for all the duration of the conflict, received most of the credit and praise for the capture and defeat of Tupac Amaru II.

Three decades later, despite being in his seventies, Pumakawa led the — essentially indigenous — militias of the Royal Army of Peru, the bulk of the army, in the expeditions of the Peruvian viceroy José Fernando de Abascal sent against the junta of La Paz in Upper Peru during 1811. Despite having won the battle of Guaqui as colonel of the Royal Army, he and a portion of his troops joined the insurrection of central and southern of Viceroyalty of Peru (Cuzco, Huamanga, Arequipa and Puno) started in Cuzco on August 3, 1814, demanding the full implementation of the Spanish Constitution of 1812 in Peru. Pumacahua was appointed member of the governing junta. Pumacahua led the forces that occupied Arequipa on November 10. On November 30, Pumacahua's troops retreated from Arequipa to the Cuzco and Puno regions. On March 11, 1815, Pumacahua and his troops were defeated in the battle of Umachiri. He was captured and executed in May by the royal army militias.

title: Mateo Pumacahua


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User talk:X-43D

What are you trying to do with Physical space? Even though I agree that it should be redirected to space, why not wait for the VfD discussion to conclude? Jitse Niesen 11:28, 15 Jun 2005 (UTC)

I was trying to redirect it to space. I believe the article will be removed from wikipedia because it does not conform to wikipedia NPOV policy. -- X-43D 11:34, 15 Jun 2005 (UTC)

The page is up for VfD. Why do you keep removing the tag and making it a redirect?Steve block 11:38, 15 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Because the article will be removed as soon as an admin sees it due to wikipedia NPOV policy. -- X-43D 11:42, 15 Jun 2005 (UTC)

The notice on top of the article says "You are welcome to edit this article, but please do not blank, merge, or move this article, nor remove this notice, while the discussion is in progress." So please stop it. Thanks, Jitse Niesen 11:40, 15 Jun 2005 (UTC)

How does it fall foul of NPOV? Steve block 12:08, 15 Jun 2005 (UTC)

With regards to physical space, please see the Wikipedia votes-for-deletion policy. Surfice it to say that the administrators are well aware of this page, and will deal with it one the deletion discussion is concluded by them. The VFD notice means that it is their job to take care of it, not yours. With regrads to Talk:General_relativity, it is bad form to remove dialog from these pages. Given what you removed, I must wonder if you are the entity being refered to in that section. At the least, you are obviously a newbie. Please be advised that what you are doing is at best vigiliante-ism, and in the eyes of others is vandalism. In either case, your work is being undone because of it. Unless I misunderstand this place, you are free to express your personal opinions on your user page. What you are not free to do is to impose them wholesale on the articles. The best way of describing Wikipedia is a place where the current state of our knowledge is documented. That is not necessarily the same thing as the truth, and in fact the Wikipedia NPOV policy states that:
 * If a viewpoint is held by an extremely small (or vastly limited) minority, it doesn't belong in Wikipedia (except perhaps in some ancillary article) regardless of whether it's true or not; and regardless of whether you can prove it or not.

Please remember that. --EMS | Talk 16:22, 15 Jun 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:X-43D


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Romania (disambiguation)

Romania is a country located in Central and Eastern Europe.

Romania or Rumania may also refer to:

 * Romania (European Parliament constituency)
 * Empire of Romania or Latin Empire, a Crusader state set up after the Fourth Crusade conquered the city-state of Constantinople
 * Kingdom of Romania, a constitutional monarchy in southeastern Europe from 1881 to 1947
 * Greater Romania, the borders of the Kingdom of Romania in the interwar period
 * Socialist Republic of Romania, a socialist Soviet satellite state that existed during the Cold War period
 * Byzantine Empire or Romania, the continuation of the Roman Empire in the East during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages
 * Roman Empire, also called Romania since the 4th century, as indicated by texts.
 * Romania (train), a Bucharest-Sofia passenger train
 * ST Rumania, a British tugboat previously named Empire Susan
 * Roumania, Roumania, a popular, nostalgic song in Yiddish by Aaron Lebedeff

title: Romania (disambiguation)


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Trump Card

Trump Card is an American syndicated game show that aired from September 10, 1990, to May 24, 1991, hosted by Jimmy Cefalo. Debi Massey served as hostess and Chuck Riley was the announcer. The show was produced by Telepictures Productions, Createl, Ltd., and Fiedler-Berlin Productions, with Warner Bros. Television distributing. It was based on the British game show Bob's Full House, which consisted of contestants trying to answer questions to fill up a 15-square bingo board.

The show was filmed at the Trump Castle (now known as "Golden Nugget Atlantic City") casino hotel in Atlantic City, New Jersey. Donald Trump made a cameo appearance on its premiere episode to inaugurate the show with Cefalo.

Launching the same day as The Quiz Kids Challenge and revivals of The Joker's Wild and Tic-Tac-Dough, Trump Card joined those series and The Challengers (which premiered a week before) as one of five new syndicated game shows for the 1990–91 television season. All five shows were cancelled after one single season. After the season concluded, reruns aired until September 6, 1991.

Front game
Three contestants were each given a bingo-style card with 15 numbers, arranged in three rows of five, and competed to fill in all the numbers. One contestant had the numbers 1-15; the second, 16-30; and the third, 31-45. These numbers were also used in an audience game, described below.

Round one
Four categories were displayed, each containing four questions, and the winner of a random backstage draw chose one to start the round. The host read a toss-up question; if a contestant buzzed-in with the correct answer, the number in one corner of his/her card was filled in and he/she chose the next category. An incorrect buzz-in answer froze the contestant out of the next question, whose category was chosen by the host. The first contestant to fill in all four corners won $750.

Round two
At the beginning of this round, the contestants were each given a Trump Card. After giving a correct answer, a contestant could play their Trump Card at any time during the match to impede the progress of one of his/her opponents. That contestant would have his/her card blocked with a giant letter T, which could only be removed with a correct answer.

Four new categories were displayed, each containing five questions, and the winner of the first round chose the first category. Gameplay proceeded as in the first round, but every correct answer now filled in a number on the middle row of the contestant's card. The first contestant to complete his/her row won $1,500.

Round three
The final round consisted of rapid-fire general knowledge questions, and each correct answer filled in one of the remaining numbers on the contestant's card. An incorrect response froze him/her out of the next question. The first contestant to complete his/her card won the match, plus $3,000, and advanced to the bonus round. If time ran out before a card was filled, the contestant who had the most numbers filled in and was not hindered by a Trump Card was declared the winner. In the event of a tie, a sudden-death toss-up question was asked of the tied contestants. The first player to answer correctly won the match while an incorrect answer eliminated the player.

All contestants kept any money won during individual rounds, and the runners-up received consolation prizes.

Bonus round
The numbers 1 through 25 were displayed on a 5-by-5 grid. The champion drew one card from a deck of 25, and the space with the chosen number was filled in. He/she drew a second card if their Trump Card was not used during the main game.

The champion then had 45 seconds to complete a horizontal, vertical, or diagonal line of five spaces by answering general knowledge questions. He/she chose a space, and the host asked a question. A correct answer filled in the space, but a pass or incorrect answer blacked it out. Completing a line awarded an additional $10,000 and a berth at the end of the season to participate in a tournament of champions.

Three new contestants competed on each episode; there were no returning champions.

Audience game
Audience members were each given their own double-sided cards. The front of each card followed the pattern of those used by the contestants. When a contestant answered a question correctly and filled in a number, audience members marked it off on their cards as well. Any member who reached the goal of a round before the contestants won $10; this payout could be collected in one, two, or all three rounds, for a maximum of $30.

The other side of the card had a 3-by-3 grid of nine numbers to be used in the bonus round. If the number drawn by the champion appeared on this grid, the audience member's winnings were increased by 50% (e.g. from $20 to $30). If the champion drew a second number due to saving his/her Trump Card, and this number also appeared on the grid, the member's winnings were doubled (e.g. from $20 to $40). Members marked off numbers as the contestant gave correct answers, and any member who completed a line of three had his/her entire winnings total doubled.

Audience members could win up to $120, by winning $10 in each of the three rounds, doubling the money with two matching draws in the bonus round, and doubling again by completing a line of three numbers.

$100,000 Tournament of Champions
Trump Card ended its run with a tournament of champions played for a potential top prize of $100,000 in cash. The tournament took place over ten episodes spanning two weeks and featured twenty-one bonus round winners.

Seven preliminary matches were played with winners receiving $3,000, but no additional money awarded for winning either of the first two rounds. The bonus round was still played, with the same $10,000 prize awarded. After the preliminaries, the winner who performed the best was given the first berth in the final match. The other six winners played in two matches the following two days to determine the other two finalists.

The final match was played for $10,000, with the runners-up each receiving $2,500 for advancing that far. The winner then played the bonus round one final time. This time, he/she was given a choice of three different question packets to choose from before the game began. After choosing the packet and his/her free space(s), the round was played as it normally would be; the only difference was that if the tournament winner successfully completed it, he/she won $100,000. The prize went unclaimed, however, as the tournament winner was unable to complete the bonus round successfully.

title: Trump Card


text:
Talk:Avempace

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 20 August 2018 and 7 December 2018. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): LupusNocte, Merrsoon04, Notgiogonzalez, Moosecity, Guillaume1996.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 15:05, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

This is from Majid Fakhry
However, the first genuine philosopher of al-Andalus was Abu Bakr Ibn al-Sayigh, better known as Ibn Bajjah or Avempace (d. 1138). Unlike his Andalusian predecessors mentioned above, Avempace was thoroughly versed in philosophy, logic and medicine. He wrote paraphrases of Aristotle's Physics, Meteorology, Generation and Corruption, the Book of Animals, as Aristotle's zoological corpus was called in Arabic, and the spurious De Plantis. In addition, he wrote extensive glosses (ta`aliq) on the logical works of al-Farabi, for whom he had the highest regard, in addition to an original political treatise, modeled on al-Farabi's Virtuous City and entitled the Conduct of the Solitary (Tadbir al-Mutawahhid). . --Irishpunktom\talk 11:31, Jun 15, 2005 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one WikiProject had rated the article as stub, and the rating on other projects was brought up to Stub class. BetacommandBot 04:08, 10 November 2007 (UTC)

Velocity?
This:
 * was also equivalent to Galileo's definition of velocity:[9]: Velocity = Motive Power - Material Resistance

is a very strange definition of velocity. The page, however, was heavily edited by Jagged85, so is not reliable William M. Connolley (talk) 09:09, 4 October 2011 (UTC)
 * It was his, so I removed it William M. Connolley (talk) 10:23, 4 October 2011 (UTC)

Name
(a) Odd situation this: unlike his better-known brethren Avicenna and Averroes, Ibn Bajjah's Arabic name may now be more in English these days. A cursory ngram shows Ibn Bajja (no H) leading Avempace. On the other hand, Google Scholar shows Avempace well in the lead over all the combinations of Ibn(-)Bajja(h) combined. What I imagine is that some other "Bajja" or "Bajjas" are muddying the waters and it would take mucking through the much less reliable Book and vanilla Google results to figure out who's involved and how much they're swinging the numbers. I'll leave that for any future editors who want to start a move proposal: I'm fine with leaving it here to keep it in line with the other guys, whose English names remain well in the lead.

(b) But until the page does move, the article's should start with the article's title. Kindly maintain that format pending a move. If the page moves, continue to lead with the common, shorter version and not the off-putting and unhelpful full list of patronymics. It also helps to keep a link to Arabic name handy, so people can try to understand it if they want. (All of these articles could actually use "Name" sections explaining how the Latin terms derived from Hebrew transcriptions of the Arabic, giving lists of variant spellings, and explaining and linking to the parts of the patronymic list... but I'll leave that to others who understand it better.)

(c) I personally feel people who can't read the Arabic text can just zoom their browsers and it's not a good reason to muck with the English layout, but we should try to keep our style consistant across the Arabic pages. Since Muhammad and Avicenna have embiggened text, we should use it here until there's a community consensus to remove it.

(d) No idea why the short form of the name gives Bājjah for the exact same text given as Bâjja in the long form name, but I've adjusted it to the long form, pending improvement from someone more knowledgable.

(e) No idea whatsoever what this is talking about—"His beloved expressions were Gharib غريب and Mutawahhid متوحد, two approved and popular expressions of Islamic Gnostics. "—but it's removed pending sourcing and much, much clearer and explanatory phrasing. — Llywelyn II   10:20, 22 August 2014 (UTC)

Sources for article expansion
Not saying it isn't biased (it is) but "Avempace" at the EB 9th edition (1878) has some good treatment about the guy's influence and importance on the mediæval west, which deserves its own section here. — Llywelyn II   10:33, 22 August 2014 (UTC)

No section on his philosophy?
The introduction says his philosophy influenced Averroes and Albert Magnus and that he was a prominent figure in philosophy in his time. Yet there is no section about this philosophy. What did he say and how did he influence those people? LastDodo (talk) 08:49, 12 October 2016 (UTC)

Was he a sceptic
The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article claims "he was...apparently a sceptic. He is said to have rejected the Koran, to have denied the return to God, and to have regarded death as the end of existence" (but he still became a vizier). If true this would be an important part of his biography, but there is no specific citation to support the EB1911 claim (there is a list of general authorities), so I'm reluctant to assert it. I suspect there may be more modern scholarship that may shed more light? David Brooks (talk) 00:45, 22 April 2018 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion: You can see the reason for deletion at the file description page linked above. —Community Tech bot (talk) 11:08, 25 June 2020 (UTC)
 * ابن باجة - Avempace.jpg

title: Talk:Avempace


text:
Declan Curry

Declan Gerald Curry (born 5 September 1971) is a Northern Irish freelance journalist, news presenter and businessman, best known as the former business correspondent for BBC Breakfast.

Early life
Curry was born and raised in Strabane, County Tyrone, Northern Ireland.

Early career
Curry studied chemistry at Imperial College, London. There he reported for IC Radio and ICNN (Imperial College News Network), as well as the weekly paper Felix.

Curry has worked for and broadcast on ABC News and LBC, but has spent most of his career with the BBC.

BBC
Curry started working for the BBC in 1994. He worked on the BBC News Channel from the channel's inception in 1997. He has also worked for BBC World News, Radio 5 Live, and Radio 4. Curry is best known for his reporting of the happenings in the London Stock Exchange and other British economic news, particularly during the Breakfast programme on BBC One and BBC News Channel.

On 23 May 2005, Curry did not participate in a staff strike against announced pay cuts. He justified his stance by commenting: "I don't support the strike at all. The management have made a very strong case in my view as to why these cuts are necessary. It's other people's money that we are spending and we have to use it as wisely as we can."

On 6 October 2008, Curry began a new role as presenter of BBC Two's Working Lunch, alongside Naga Munchetty, replacing the previous team headed by Adrian Chiles and Adam Shaw. After the programme ended in July 2010 Curry was a regular host of Your Money on the BBC News Channel on Saturday mornings until August 2014.

Curry introduced the business and finance reports on Radio 5 Live's Drive programme, and has also presented the programme on occasions.

From 5 September 2010, Curry presented On the Money, a Sunday evening business programme on Radio 5 Live, and later hosting the business debate programme Show Me The Money on the News Channel, also on Sunday evening at 21.30.

At the end of summer 2014, Curry, who has been freelance for many years, decided to stop making long term programmes for the BBC. He now concentrates on print journalism, public speaking and acting as a business conference chair.

Awards
On 6 July 2009, Curry was awarded an honorary degree from Middlesex University.

Video clips

 * Visiting his home town in July 2009

title: Declan Curry


text:
Category:Bo-Bo-Bo locomotives

This category should contain various locomotives with a Bo-Bo-Bo wheel layout.

title: Category:Bo-Bo-Bo locomotives


text:
Heaton Mersey

Heaton Mersey is a suburb of Stockport, Greater Manchester, England. It is situated on the north-western border of Stockport, adjacent to Didsbury and Burnage which are in the City of Manchester.

The suburb is an affluent residential area and commuter zone of Manchester; part of it has been designated a conservation area to protect its heritage.

Heaton Mersey, together with its neighbouring suburbs, Heaton Norris, Heaton Chapel and Heaton Moor, are collectively known as the Four Heatons of Stockport.

Geography
Within the boundaries of the historic county of Lancashire, Heaton Mersey lies on the north bank of the River Mersey, just a few miles downstream from its source in Stockport town centre. The river acts as a boundary between Heaton Mersey and the areas of Cheadle Heath and Cheadle Village. Heaton Mersey is also bordered by the City of Manchester, by the following areas; East Didsbury to the west, Burnage to the north-west. Within the direct vicinity the other areas within Stockport are; Heaton Moor to the north/north-east and Heaton Norris to the east.

Heaton Mersey overlooks the Cheshire Plain, which can be clearly seen from the top part of Heaton Mersey park off Didsbury Road. At the bottom lies the valley of the River Mersey, where Heaton Mersey Bleachworks was situated (now demolished) as well as a business and industrial estate. Mersey Vale nature reserve and two ponds are also found here, one being a club-owned fishing pond. Just off Didsbury Road, opposite Heaton Mersey village, lies Heaton Mersey Bowl which is a large depression in the ground used as open green space.

Heaton Mersey Common, which is another local nature reserve with fields and woodland, is situated next to the former Cranford Golf range. It, too, contains a large pond.

Out of the four Heatons, Heaton Mersey has the most green space by area and is the only to be situated on a river or contain any substantial water body.

History
The settlement of Heaton Mersey is rooted in the local industry which developed in the late 18th and 19th centuries. Prior to this, the area was agricultural, with small hamlets along the route between Stockport and Didsbury.

Three of these hamlets, Grundy Hill, Top O' Th' Bank, and Parrs Fold eventually formed modern Heaton Mersey.

The main industrial change for the Heaton Mersey area was the development of the Upper and Lower Bleachworks. The first works were built by the industrialist Samuel Oldknow, and his brother, on the north bank of the River Mersey in 1785. Oldknow's influence had already been felt in other areas of Stockport, best known for industrial and canal building activities in Marple and Mellor.

Activities at the Bleachworks included the bleaching, dyeing and printing of cloth. The lower works had a five-storey spinning mill and extensive weaving shed, in addition to the bleachcroft and reservoirs to the east of the site. The upper works were built soon after the textile recession of 1793. The sites passed into the hands of several further owners after Oldknow.

Some housing was built as a consequence of the industry, such as the Barracks Square dwellings, where many young apprentices inhabited. Much of the housing has however since been demolished.

A number of villas were built beyond the main industrial village, and by the 1830s, Heaton Mersey was becoming a fashionable suburb among the industrial elite. Local churches opened in the 1840s and 1850s, the population grew significantly between the 1850s and 1880s, and the railway line from Tiviot Dale in Stockport extended out to Heaton Mersey and beyond into other southern Manchester suburbs (see below).

The railway station was demolished, as well as the Bleachworks themselves.

Buses
Bus services in Heaton Mersey are operated primarily by Stagecoach Manchester along the main thoroughfare, the A5145 Didsbury Road. Routes connect the suburb with Didsbury, Chorlton, the Trafford Centre, Altrincham and Piccadilly Gardens.

Roads
Road connections are available via the A5145 to the A34 at Parrs Wood and the A6 at Stockport. The M60 Manchester orbital motorway is also accessible at junctions 1, 2 and 3.

Trams
Local buses allow for connections to Manchester Metrolink at nearby East Didsbury tram stop, which is the southern terminus of a route to Rochdale, via the city centre.

Railway
The nearest National Rail stations are at:
 * East Didsbury, on the Styal Line, for Northern services between Manchester Airport and Manchester Piccadilly.
 * Stockport, which is sited on the West Coast Main Line between London Euston and Manchester Piccadilly; services on this line are operated by Avanti West Coast. There are also direct services to most regions of the country.

History
The suburb was once served by its own station; Heaton Mersey railway station was open between 1 January 1880 until 3 July 1961. It was built by the Midland Railway and was situated on the line from Cheadle Heath to Manchester Central. The station was situated in a cutting at the southern end of Station Road; it was demolished and filled-in shortly after its closure. The extension to Station Road, connecting it to the western end of Craig Road so as to create access for residential development, ran parallel to the old track bed of the Midland line from Stockport Tiviot Dale; this part of the route is now a footpath.

Whilst nearly all of the original railway structure has long been removed, small sections of previous railway bridges remain. One structure exists where Vale Road and Craig Road meet and the former bridge section acts as a retaining wall. Two other sections can be seen either side of the River Mersey upstream of the weir and opposite the nearby farm.

From January 1889 until 4 May 1968, there was a steam locomotive depot named Heaton Mersey TMD, coded 9F. It lay on the north bank of the Mersey and was reached by a footbridge, still extant, leading from Gorsey Bank Road.

Education
Schools include the primary schools: Tithe Barn, Didsbury Road, Mersey Vale and Saint Winifred's RC Primary School, famous for St Winifred's School Choir and chart hits in the 1980s, all rated outstanding; other schools include Stella Maris School, an independent primary school, and St. John's Church of England, which are both rated good. The local comprehensive is Priestnall School, formerly rated outstanding, however dropping to a requires improvement rating in 2019. Pre-schools are Freshfield (rated good ), Didsbury Road and Mersey Vale.

Community facilities
The area has a Sea Scout base on Didsbury Road, with beaver scouts, cub scouts and sea scouts currently active. It also hosts regular harvest farmer's markets, car boot sales and family fun days. The Moorfest music festival was held at the Heaton Mersey Bowl in 2005, which included appearances from Badly Drawn Boy and Howard Marks. Local attractions include the River Mersey, around which there is a nature park and trail. Heaton Mersey Common with its several pubs, delis, restaurants and shops supply the local amenities to the area. Heaton Mersey Park has a local fishing pond and further down station road is day-ticket fishing pond. Heaton Mersey is also home to the Heaton Mersey Lacrosse Team, who play in England's Northern Lacrosse division.

In media
The Stockport-based band Blossoms used Heaton Mersey Bowl and the adjacent Vale Close to film sections of the music video for the song "Honey Sweet".

Notable people

 * Tom Chorlton (1880–1947), Liverpool F.C footballer.
 * Michael Keane (born 11 January 1993), Everton F.C. footballer.
 * Will Keane (born 11 January 1993), Wigan Athletic and Republic of Ireland national footballer.
 * Sally Lindsay (born 8 July 1973), actress known for her role as Shelley Unwin in Coronation Street.

title: Heaton Mersey


text:
Feindflug

Feindflug is a German electro-industrial band founded in 1995 by DJ Felix and DJ Banane. Translated, der Feindflug (literally "the foe-flight") corresponds in military use to the French/English word "sortie."

Style and themes
Feindflug's music is entirely instrumental. The only vocals that can be heard are in samples, mostly taken from movies dubbed in German or excerpts of Adolf Hitler or Klaus Kinski.

The band is characterized by Jeffrey Andrew Weinstock and Isabella van Elferen as martial industrial and neo-folk, "negotiating the role of the past in the present." Recurring themes and topics are authoritarian regimes, the death-penalty and total war, especially World War II and the Third Reich.

Critics have associated the band with the German Neo-Nazi scene, due to the themes presented in their music and their album cover graphics. The band-members oppose this critique and have stated that their music is intended as a reflection of the issues it describes, not as support. The band's motto is "Use your brain and think about it!" Feindflug has stated that "any form of glorification/trivialization of the Second World War contradicts the intention of this project. Rather, it aims to make it clear that this era of history represents the beginning of a new technological warfare, in which the individual became/becomes the victim millions of times over" and that their goal is to "try to crush the taboo in Germany, since the war is a great part of the German history."

Career highlights
In 1999, the band had their first official performance at the 8th Wave-Gotik-Treffen music festival in Leipzig, Germany.

In 2004, the band was invited to perform at the 13th Wave-Gotik-Treffen music festival in Leipzig, Germany.

In 2006, the band performed at the 15th Wave-Gotik-Treffen music festival in Leipzig, Germany.

In 2010, the band performed at the E-tropolis music festival in Berlin, Germany.

In 2011, the band performed at the 20th edition of Wave-Gotik-Treffen in Leipzig, Germany, and at the 6th edition of the Amphi Festival in Köln, Germany.

Albums

 * Feindflug ("First version", CD-R, 1997), limited private release
 * Feindflug (Zweite / Dritte Version) ("Second / Third version", CD-R, 1997), limited private re-release of above
 * Feindflug (Vierte Version) ("Fourth version", CD, 1999), re-release of above
 * Hirnschlacht (CD, 2002)
 * Volk und Armee (CD, 2005)
 * Feindflug (Dritte Version) ("Third version", 2009), limited picture vinyl re-release

Singles and EPs

 * I. / St. G. 3 (MCD, 1998)
 * Im Visier (MCD, 1999)
 * Sterbehilfe (EP, 2000)
 * I. / St. G. 3 (Phase 2) (MCD, 2003, rerelease of 1998 version with 1 extra track)
 * Kollaboration (Vinyl, 2004, only available on tour)

Video

 * ...hinter feindlichen Linien (DVD, Boxset version available) (2006)

Collaborative releases

 * We'll F*** You Up!; Supreme Court feat. Feindflug'' (2006)

Feindflug's first official release, I. / St. G. 3, was released on the radical right-wing VAWS label. They say that they regret this, and didn't know what VAWS was about, but that no one else was willing to release their work due to the controversial name, imagery, and use of samples.

All subsequent releases have been made on the Black Rain label, but not without trouble. The Dutch producer for the Sterbehilfe EP refused production because of explicit images of an execution with an electrical chair, and the Austrian producer for Hirnschlacht refused production later because of the national-socialist accusations.

title: Feindflug


text:
Talk:Ibn Tufayl

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 24 August 2020 and 20 December 2020. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Roro1022.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 00:13, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

This is From Majid Fakhry
The second major figure in the history of Andalusian philosophy was Abu Bakr Ibn Tufayl (d. 1185), a close friend and associate of Averroes. His only extant work, Hayy Ibn Yaqzan, is a philosophical novel which embodies the substance of Islamic Neoplatonism, tempered by certain Sufi tendencies, which al-Ghazali had popularized in the East. --Irishpunktom\talk 11:35, Jun 15, 2005 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one WikiProject had rated the article as start, and the rating on other projects was brought up to start class. BetacommandBot 22:11, 9 November 2007 (UTC)

he is arab
he's an Arab. He's not berber His family name al-Qaisi, he belongs to Arabian tribe Qais

source:
 * 1001 Inventions
 * D. Mohammed Faris .. Encyclopedia Muslim and Arab scholars
 * Baqir al-Amir roses ..Arab scholars — Preceding unsigned comment added by 94.97.81.226 (talk) 07:16, 29 November 2012 (UTC)
 * I had to revert your addition, because we need the full source information. For a book, that means the title, author, publisher, and year of publication. If you have that information, feel free to put it here, and I can get the formatting right. Qwyrxian (talk) 00:31, 30 November 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20070208170508/http://umcc.ais.org/~maftab/ip/pdf/bktxt/hayy.pdf to http://umcc.ais.org/~maftab/ip/pdf/bktxt/hayy.pdf

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title: Talk:Ibn Tufayl