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Radical polymerization

In polymer chemistry, free-radical polymerization (FRP) is a method of polymerization by which a polymer forms by the successive addition of free-radical building blocks (repeat units). Free radicals can be formed by a number of different mechanisms, usually involving separate initiator molecules. Following its generation, the initiating free radical adds (nonradical) monomer units, thereby growing the polymer chain.

Free-radical polymerization is a key synthesis route for obtaining a wide variety of different polymers and materials composites. The relatively non-specific nature of free-radical chemical interactions makes this one of the most versatile forms of polymerization available and allows facile reactions of polymeric free-radical chain ends and other chemicals or substrates. In 2001, 40 billion of the 110 billion pounds of polymers produced in the United States were produced by free-radical polymerization.

Free-radical polymerization is a type of chain-growth polymerization, along with anionic, cationic and coordination polymerization.

Initiation
Initiation is the first step of the polymerization process. During initiation, an active center is created from which a polymer chain is generated. Not all monomers are susceptible to all types of initiators. Radical initiation works best on the carbon–carbon double bond of vinyl monomers and the carbon–oxygen double bond in aldehydes and ketones. Initiation has two steps. In the first step, one or two radicals are created from the initiating molecules. In the second step, radicals are transferred from the initiator molecules to the monomer units present. Several choices are available for these initiators.

Types of initiation and the initiators

 * Thermal decomposition: The initiator is heated until a bond is homolytically cleaved, producing two radicals (Figure 1). This method is used most often with organic peroxides or azo compounds. Initiation - thermal decomp.png]]
 * Photolysis: Radiation cleaves a bond homolytically, producing two radicals (Figure 2). This method is used most often with metal iodides, metal alkyls, and azo compounds. Initiation - photolysis.png Photoinitiation can also occur by bi-molecular H abstraction when the radical is in its lowest triplet excited state. An acceptable photoinitiator system should fulfill the following requirements:
 * High absorptivity in the 300–400 nm range.
 * Efficient generation of radicals capable of attacking the alkene double bond of vinyl monomers.
 * Adequate solubility in the binder system (prepolymer + monomer).
 * Should not impart yellowing or unpleasant odors to the cured material.
 * The photoinitiator and any byproducts resulting from its use should be non-toxic.
 * Redox reactions: Reduction of hydrogen peroxide or an alkyl hydrogen peroxide by iron (Figure 3). Other reductants such as Cr2+, V2+, Ti3+, Co2+, and Cu+ can be employed in place of ferrous ion in many instances.
 * Persulfates: The dissociation of a persulfate in the aqueous phase (Figure 4). This method is useful in emulsion polymerizations, in which the radical diffuses into a hydrophobic monomer-containing droplet. Initiation - persulfates.png
 * Ionizing radiation: α-, β-, γ-, or x-rays cause ejection of an electron from the initiating species, followed by dissociation and electron capture to produce a radical (Figure 5). Initiation - ionizing radiation.png
 * Electrochemical: Electrolysis of a solution containing both monomer and electrolyte. A monomer molecule will receive an electron at the cathode to become a radical anion, and a monomer molecule will give up an electron at the anode to form a radical cation (Figure 6). The radical ions then initiate free radical (and/or ionic) polymerization. This type of initiation is especially useful for coating metal surfaces with polymer films. Initiation - electrochemical.png
 * Plasma: A gaseous monomer is placed in an electric discharge at low pressures under conditions where a plasma (ionized gaseous molecules) is created. In some cases, the system is heated and/or placed in a radiofrequency field to assist in creating the plasma.
 * Sonication: High-intensity ultrasound at frequencies beyond the range of human hearing (16 kHz) can be applied to a monomer. Initiation results from the effects of cavitation (the formation and collapse of cavities in the liquid). The collapse of the cavities generates very high local temperatures and pressures. This results in the formation of excited electronic states, which in turn lead to bond breakage and radical formation.
 * Ternary initiators: A ternary initiator is the combination of several types of initiators into one initiating system. The types of initiators are chosen based on the properties they are known to induce in the polymers they produce. For example, poly(methyl methacrylate) has been synthesized by the ternary system benzoyl peroxide and 3,6-bis(o-carboxybenzoyl)-N-isopropylcarbazole and di-η5-indenylzirconium dichloride (Figure 7). [[File:Benzoyl peroxide + 3,6-bis(o-carboxybenzoyl)-N-isopropylcarbazole + di-η5-indenylzicronium dichloride.svg|center|thumb|300x300px|Figure 7: benzoyl peroxide + 3,6-bis(o-carboxybenzoyl)-N-isopropylcarbazole + di-η5-indenylzicronium dichloride]]This type of initiating system contains a metallocene, an initiator, and a heteroaromatic diketo carboxylic acid. Metallocenes in combination with initiators accelerate polymerization of poly(methyl methacrylate) and produce a polymer with a narrower molecular weight distribution. The example shown here consists of indenylzirconium (a metallocene) and benzoyl peroxide (an initiator). Also, initiating systems containing heteroaromatic diketo carboxylic acids, such as 3,6-bis(o-carboxybenzoyl)-N-isopropylcarbazole in this example, are known to catalyze the decomposition of benzoyl peroxide. Initiating systems with this particular heteroaromatic diket carboxylic acid are also known to have effects on the microstructure of the polymer. The combination of all of these components—a metallocene, an initiator, and a heteroaromatic diketo carboxylic acid—yields a ternary initiating system that was shown to accelerate the polymerization and produce polymers with enhanced heat resistance and regular microstructure.

Initiator efficiency
Due to side reactions, not all radicals formed by the dissociation of initiator molecules actually add monomers to form polymer chains. The efficiency factor f is defined as the fraction of the original initiator which contributes to the polymerization reaction. The maximal value of f is 1, but typical values range from 0.3 to 0.8.

The following types of reactions can decrease the efficiency of the initiator.
 * Primary recombination: Two radicals recombine before initiating a chain (Figure 8). This occurs within the solvent cage, meaning that no solvent has yet come between the new radicals.
 * Other recombination pathways: Two radical initiators recombine before initiating a chain, but not in the solvent cage (Figure 9).
 * Side reactions: One radical is produced instead of the three radicals that could be produced (Figure 10).

Propagation
During polymerization, a polymer spends most of its time in increasing its chain length, or propagating. After the radical initiator is formed, it attacks a monomer (Figure 11). In an ethene monomer, one electron pair is held securely between the two carbons in a sigma bond. The other is more loosely held in a pi bond. The free radical uses one electron from the pi bond to form a more stable bond with the carbon atom. The other electron returns to the second carbon atom, turning the whole molecule into another radical. This begins the polymer chain. Figure 12 shows how the orbitals of an ethylene monomer interact with a radical initiator. Once a chain has been initiated, the chain propagates (Figure 13) until there are no more monomers (living polymerization) or until termination occurs. There may be anywhere from a few to thousands of propagation steps depending on several factors such as radical and chain reactivity, the solvent, and temperature. The mechanism of chain propagation is as follows:

Termination
Chain termination is inevitable in radical polymerization due to the high reactivity of radicals. Termination can occur by several different mechanisms. If longer chains are desired, the initiator concentration should be kept low; otherwise, many shorter chains will result.
 * Combination of two active chain ends: one or both of the following processes may occur.
 * Combination: two chain ends simply couple together to form one long chain (Figure 14). One can determine if this mode of termination is occurring by monitoring the molecular weight of the propagating species: combination will result in doubling of molecular weight. Also, combination will result in a polymer that is C2 symmetric about the point of the combination. Termination - combination.png
 * Radical disproportionation: a hydrogen atom from one chain end is abstracted to another, producing a polymer with a terminal unsaturated group and a polymer with a terminal saturated group (Figure 15). Termination - disproportionation.png
 * Combination of an active chain end with an initiator radical (Figure 16). Termination - with initiator.png
 * Interaction with impurities or inhibitors. Oxygen is the common inhibitor. The growing chain will react with molecular oxygen, producing an oxygen radical, which is much less reactive (Figure 17). This significantly slows down the rate of propagation. Termination - with impurity.png Nitrobenzene, butylated hydroxyl toluene, and diphenyl picryl hydrazyl (DPPH, Figure 18) are a few other inhibitors. The latter is an especially effective inhibitor because of the resonance stabilization of the radical. Termination - with impurity 2.png

Chain transfer

Contrary to the other modes of termination, chain transfer results in the destruction of only one radical, but also the creation of another radical. Often, however, this newly created radical is not capable of further propagation. Similar to disproportionation, all chain-transfer mechanisms also involve the abstraction of a hydrogen or other atom. There are several types of chain-transfer mechanisms.
 * To solvent: a hydrogen atom is abstracted from a solvent molecule, resulting in the formation of radical on the solvent molecules, which will not propagate further (Figure 19). Termination - chain transfer - solvent.png The effectiveness of chain transfer involving solvent molecules depends on the amount of solvent present (more solvent leads to greater probability of transfer), the strength of the bond involved in the abstraction step (weaker bond leads to greater probability of transfer), and the stability of the solvent radical that is formed (greater stability leads to greater probability of transfer). Halogens, except fluorine, are easily transferred.
 * To monomer: a hydrogen atom is abstracted from a monomer. While this does create a radical on the affected monomer, resonance stabilization of this radical discourages further propagation (Figure 20). Termination - chain transfer - monomer.png
 * To initiator: a polymer chain reacts with an initiator, which terminates that polymer chain, but creates a new radical initiator (Figure 21). This initiator can then begin new polymer chains. Therefore, contrary to the other forms of chain transfer, chain transfer to the initiator does allow for further propagation. Peroxide initiators are especially sensitive to chain transfer. Termination - chain transfer - initiator2.png to di-t-butyl peroxide initiator.]]
 * To polymer: the radical of a polymer chain abstracts a hydrogen atom from somewhere on another polymer chain (Figure 22). This terminates the growth of one polymer chain, but allows the other to branch and resume growing. This reaction step changes neither the number of polymer chains nor the number of monomers which have been polymerized, so that the number-average degree of polymerization is unaffected. Termination - chain transfer - polymer.png

Effects of chain transfer: The most obvious effect of chain transfer is a decrease in the polymer chain length. If the rate of transfer is much larger than the rate of propagation, then very small polymers are formed with chain lengths of 2-5 repeating units (telomerization). The Mayo equation estimates the influence of chain transfer on chain length (xn): $$\frac{1}{x_n}=\left(\frac{1}{x_n}\right)_o+\frac{k_{tr}[solvent]}{k_p[monomer]}$$. Where ktr is the rate constant for chain transfer and kp is the rate constant for propagation. The Mayo equation assumes that transfer to solvent is the major termination pathway.

Methods
There are four industrial methods of radical polymerization: Other methods of radical polymerization include the following:
 * Bulk polymerization: reaction mixture contains only initiator and monomer, no solvent.
 * Solution polymerization: reaction mixture contains solvent, initiator, and monomer.
 * Suspension polymerization: reaction mixture contains an aqueous phase, water-insoluble monomer, and initiator soluble in the monomer droplets (both the monomer and the initiator are hydrophobic).
 * Emulsion polymerization: similar to suspension polymerization except that the initiator is soluble in the aqueous phase rather than in the monomer droplets (the monomer is hydrophobic, and the initiator is hydrophilic). An emulsifying agent is also needed.
 * Template polymerization: In this process, polymer chains are allowed to grow along template macromolecules for the greater part of their lifetime. A well-chosen template can affect the rate of polymerization as well as the molar mass and microstructure of the daughter polymer. The molar mass of a daughter polymer can be up to 70 times greater than those of polymers produced in the absence of the template and can be higher in molar mass than the templates themselves. This is because of retardation of the termination for template-associated radicals and by hopping of a radical to the neighboring template after reaching the end of a template polymer.
 * Plasma polymerization: The polymerization is initiated with plasma. A variety of organic molecules including alkenes, alkynes, and alkanes undergo polymerization to high molecular weight products under these conditions. The propagation mechanisms appear to involve both ionic and radical species. Plasma polymerization offers a potentially unique method of forming thin polymer films for uses such as thin-film capacitors, antireflection coatings, and various types of thin membranes.
 * Sonication: The polymerization is initiated by high-intensity ultrasound. Polymerization to high molecular weight polymer is observed but the conversions are low (<15%). The polymerization is self-limiting because of the high viscosity produced even at low conversion. High viscosity hinders cavitation and radical production.

Reversible deactivation radical polymerization
Also known as living radical polymerization, controlled radical polymerization, reversible deactivation radical polymerization (RDRP) relies on completely pure reactions, preventing termination caused by impurities. Because these polymerizations stop only when there is no more monomer, polymerization can continue upon the addition of more monomer. Block copolymers can be made this way. RDRP allows for control of molecular weight and dispersity. However, this is very difficult to achieve and instead a pseudo-living polymerization occurs with only partial control of molecular weight and dispersity. ATRP and RAFT are the main types of complete radical polymerization.
 * Atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP): based on the formation of a carbon-carbon bond by atom transfer radical addition. This method, independently discovered in 1995 by Mitsuo Sawamoto and by Jin-Shan Wang and Krzysztof Matyjaszewski, requires reversible activation of a dormant species (such as an alkyl halide) and a transition metal halide catalyst (to activate dormant species).
 * Reversible Addition-Fragmentation Chain-Transfer Polymerization (RAFT): requires a compound that can act as a reversible chain-transfer agent, such as dithio compound.
 * Stable Free Radical Polymerization (SFRP): used to synthesize linear or branched polymers with narrow molecular weight distributions and reactive end groups on each polymer chain. The process has also been used to create block co-polymers with unique properties. Conversion rates are about 100% using this process but require temperatures of about 135 °C. This process is most commonly used with acrylates, styrenes, and dienes. The reaction scheme in Figure 23 illustrates the SFRP process. CRP - scheme.png TEMPO.svg Because the chain end is functionalized with the TEMPO molecule (Figure 24), premature termination by coupling is reduced. As with all living polymerizations, the polymer chain grows until all of the monomer is consumed.

Kinetics
In typical chain growth polymerizations, the reaction rates for initiation, propagation and termination can be described as follows:

 * $$v_i={\operatorname{d}[M\cdot]/\operatorname{d}t}=2k_df[I]$$

 * $$v_p=k_p[M][M\cdot]$$

 * $$v_t={-\operatorname{d}[M\cdot]/\operatorname{d}t}=2k_t[M\cdot]^2$$

where f is the efficiency of the initiator and kd, kp, and kt are the constants for initiator dissociation, chain propagation and termination, respectively. [I] [M] and [M•] are the concentrations of the initiator, monomer and the active growing chain.

Under the steady-state approximation, the concentration of the active growing chains remains constant, i.e. the rates of initiation and of termination are equal. The concentration of active chain can be derived and expressed in terms of the other known species in the system.

 * $$[M\cdot]=\left(\frac{k_d[I]f}{k_t}\right)^{1/2}$$

In this case, the rate of chain propagation can be further described using a function of the initiator and monomer concentrations

 * $$v_p={k_p}\left(\frac{fk_d}{k_t}\right)^{1/2}[I]^{1/2}[M]$$

The kinetic chain length v is a measure of the average number of monomer units reacting with an active center during its lifetime and is related to the molecular weight through the mechanism of the termination. Without chain transfer, the kinetic chain length is only a function of propagation rate and initiation rate.

 * $$\nu = \frac{v_p}{v_i}=\frac{k_p[M][M\cdot]}{2fk_d[I]}=\frac{k_p[M]}{2(fk_dk_t[I])^{1/2}}$$

Assuming no chain-transfer effect occurs in the reaction, the number average degree of polymerization Pn can be correlated with the kinetic chain length. In the case of termination by disproportionation, one polymer molecule is produced per every kinetic chain:

 * $$ x_n = \nu $$

Termination by combination leads to one polymer molecule per two kinetic chains:

 * $$ x_n = 2\nu $$

Any mixture of both these mechanisms can be described by using the value $δ$, the contribution of disproportionation to the overall termination process:

 * $$ x_n = \frac{2}{1+\delta} \nu$$

If chain transfer is considered, the kinetic chain length is not affected by the transfer process because the growing free-radical center generated by the initiation step stays alive after any chain-transfer event, although multiple polymer chains are produced. However, the number average degree of polymerization decreases as the chain transfers, since the growing chains are terminated by the chain-transfer events. Taking into account the chain-transfer reaction towards solvent S, initiator I, polymer P, and added chain-transfer agent T. The equation of Pn will be modified as follows:

 * $$ \frac{1}{x_n} = \frac{2k_{t,d}+k_{t,c}}{{k_p}^2[M]^2}v_p + C_M +C_S \frac{[S]}{[M]}+C_I \frac{[I]}{[M]}+C_P \frac{[P]}{[M]}+C_T \frac{[T]}{[M]}$$

It is usual to define chain-transfer constants C for the different molecules

 * $$ C_M=\frac{k^M_{tr}}{k_p} $$, $$ C_S=\frac{k^S_{tr}}{k_p} $$, $$ C_I=\frac{k^I_{tr}}{k_p} $$, $$ C_P=\frac{k^P_{tr}}{k_p} $$, $$ C_T=\frac{k^T_{tr}}{k_p} $$

Thermodynamics
In chain growth polymerization, the position of the equilibrium between polymer and monomers can be determined by the thermodynamics of the polymerization. The Gibbs free energy (ΔGp) of the polymerization is commonly used to quantify the tendency of a polymeric reaction. The polymerization will be favored if ΔGp < 0; if ΔGp > 0, the polymer will undergo depolymerization. According to the thermodynamic equation ΔG = ΔH – TΔS, a negative enthalpy and an increasing entropy will shift the equilibrium towards polymerization.

In general, the polymerization is an exothermic process, i.e. negative enthalpy change, since addition of a monomer to the growing polymer chain involves the conversion of π bonds into σ bonds, or a ring–opening reaction that releases the ring tension in a cyclic monomer. Meanwhile, during polymerization, a large amount of small molecules are associated, losing rotation and translational degrees of freedom. As a result, the entropy decreases in the system, ΔSp < 0 for nearly all polymerization processes. Since depolymerization is almost always entropically favored, the ΔHp must then be sufficiently negative to compensate for the unfavorable entropic term. Only then will polymerization be thermodynamically favored by the resulting negative ΔGp.

In practice, polymerization is favored at low temperatures: TΔSp is small. Depolymerization is favored at high temperatures: TΔSp is large. As the temperature increases, ΔGp become less negative. At a certain temperature, the polymerization reaches equilibrium (rate of polymerization = rate of depolymerization). This temperature is called the ceiling temperature (Tc). ΔGp = 0.

Stereochemistry
The stereochemistry of polymerization is concerned with the difference in atom connectivity and spatial orientation in polymers that has the same chemical composition.

Hermann Staudinger studied the stereoisomerism in chain polymerization of vinyl monomers in the late 1920s, and it took another two decades for people to fully appreciate the idea that each of the propagation steps in the polymer growth could give rise to stereoisomerism. The major milestone in the stereochemistry was established by Ziegler and Natta and their coworkers in 1950s, as they developed metal based catalyst to synthesize stereoregular polymers. The reason why the stereochemistry of the polymer is of particular interest is because the physical behavior of a polymer depends not only on the general chemical composition but also on the more subtle differences in microstructure. Atactic polymers consist of a random arrangement of stereochemistry and are amorphous (noncrystalline), soft materials with lower physical strength. The corresponding isotactic (like substituents all on the same side) and syndiotactic (like substituents of alternate repeating units on the same side) polymers are usually obtained as highly crystalline materials. It is easier for the stereoregular polymers to pack into a crystal lattice since they are more ordered and the resulting crystallinity leads to higher physical strength and increased solvent and chemical resistance as well as differences in other properties that depend on crystallinity. The prime example of the industrial utility of stereoregular polymers is polypropene. Isotactic polypropene is a high-melting (165 °C), strong, crystalline polymer, which is used as both a plastic and fiber. Atactic polypropene is an amorphous material with an oily to waxy soft appearance that finds use in asphalt blends and formulations for lubricants, sealants, and adhesives, but the volumes are minuscule compared to that of isotactic polypropene.

When a monomer adds to a radical chain end, there are two factors to consider regarding its stereochemistry: 1) the interaction between the terminal chain carbon and the approaching monomer molecule and 2) the configuration of the penultimate repeating unit in the polymer chain. The terminal carbon atom has sp2 hybridization and is planar. Consider the polymerization of the monomer CH2=CXY. There are two ways that a monomer molecule can approach the terminal carbon: the mirror approach (with like substituents on the same side) or the non-mirror approach (like substituents on opposite sides). If free rotation does not occur before the next monomer adds, the mirror approach will always lead to an isotactic polymer and the non-mirror approach will always lead to a syndiotactic polymer (Figure 25). However, if interactions between the substituents of the penultimate repeating unit and the terminal carbon atom are significant, then conformational factors could cause the monomer to add to the polymer in a way that minimizes steric or electrostatic interaction (Figure 26).

Reactivity
Traditionally, the reactivity of monomers and radicals are assessed by the means of copolymerization data. The Q–e scheme, the most widely used tool for the semi-quantitative prediction of monomer reactivity ratios, was first proposed by Alfrey and Price in 1947. The scheme takes into account the intrinsic thermodynamic stability and polar effects in the transition state. A given radical $$M_i^o$$ and a monomer $$M_j$$ are considered to have intrinsic reactivities Pi and Qj, respectively. The polar effects in the transition state, the supposed permanent electric charge carried by that entity (radical or molecule), is quantified by the factor e, which is a constant for a given monomer, and has the same value for the radical derived from that specific monomer. For addition of monomer 2 to a growing polymer chain whose active end is the radical of monomer 1, the rate constant, k12, is postulated to be related to the four relevant reactivity parameters by

 * $$ k_{12} = P_1Q_2 \exp(-e_1e_2) $$

The monomer reactivity ratio for the addition of monomers 1 and 2 to this chain is given by

 * $$ r_1 = \frac{k_{11}}{k_{12}} = \frac{Q_1}{Q_2} \exp(-e_1(e_1-e_2)) $$

For the copolymerization of a given pair of monomers, the two experimental reactivity ratios r1 and r2 permit the evaluation of (Q1/Q2) and (e1 – e2). Values for each monomer can then be assigned relative to a reference monomer, usually chosen as styrene with the arbitrary values Q = 1.0 and e = –0.8.

Applications
Free radical polymerization has found applications including the manufacture of polystyrene, thermoplastic block copolymer elastomers, cardiovascular stents, chemical surfactants and lubricants. Block copolymers are used for a wide variety of applications including adhesives, footwear and toys.

Academic research
Free radical polymerization allows the functionalization of carbon nanotubes. CNTs intrinsic electronic properties lead them to form large aggregates in solution, precluding useful applications. Adding small chemical groups to the walls of CNT can eliminate this propensity and tune the response to the surrounding environment. The use of polymers instead of smaller molecules can modify CNT properties (and conversely, nanotubes can modify polymer mechanical and electronic properties). For example, researchers coated carbon nanotubes with polystyrene by first polymerizing polystyrene via chain radical polymerization and subsequently mixing it at 130 °C with carbon nanotubes to generate radicals and graft them onto the walls of carbon nanotubes (Figure 27). Chain growth polymerization ("grafting to") synthesizes a polymer with predetermined properties. Purification of the polymer can be used to obtain a more uniform length distribution before grafting. Conversely, “grafting from”, with radical polymerization techniques such as atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) or nitroxide-mediated polymerization (NMP), allows rapid growth of high molecular weight polymers.

Radical polymerization also aids synthesis of nanocomposite hydrogels. These gels are made of water-swellable nano-scale clay (especially those classed as smectites) enveloped by a network polymer. Aqueous dispersions of clay are treated with an initiator and a catalyst and the organic monomer, generally an acrylamide. Polymers grow off the initiators that are in turn bound to the clay. Due to recombination and disproportionation reactions, growing polymer chains bind to one another, forming a strong, cross-linked network polymer, with clay particles acting as branching points for multiple polymer chain segments. Free radical polymerization used in this context allows the synthesis of polymers from a wide variety of substrates (the chemistries of suitable clays vary). Termination reactions unique to chain growth polymerization produce a material with flexibility, mechanical strength and biocompatibility.

title: Radical polymerization


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Rishon model

The Harari–Shupe preon model (also known as rishon model, RM) is the earliest effort to develop a preon model to explain the phenomena appearing in the Standard Model (SM) of particle physics. It was first developed independently by Haim Harari and by Michael A. Shupe and later expanded by Harari and his then-student Nathan Seiberg.

Model
The model has two kinds of fundamental particles called rishons (ראשון, rishon means "first" in Hebrew). They are T ("Third" since it has an electric charge of +$1⁄3$ e, or Tohu and V ("Vanishes", since it is electrically neutral, or Vohu. The terms tohu and vohu are picked from the Biblical phrase Tohu va-Vohu, for  which the King James Version translation is "without form, and void". All leptons and all flavours of quarks are three-rishon ordered triplets. These groups of three rishons have spin-$1⁄2$. They are as follows:
 * TTT = positron (anti-electron);
 * VVV = electron neutrino;
 * TTV, TVT and VTT = three colours of up quarks;
 * VVT, VTV and TVV = three colours of down antiquarks.

Each rishon has a corresponding antiparticle. Hence:
 * $\overline{TTT}$ = electron;
 * $\overline{VVV}$ = electron antineutrino;
 * $\overline{TTV}$, $\overline{TVT}$, $\overline{VTT}$ = three colours of up antiquarks;
 * $\overline{VVT}$, $\overline{VTV}$, $\overline{TVV}$ = three colours of down quarks.

The W+ boson = TTTVVV; The W− boson = $\overline{TTTVVV}$.

Note that:
 * Matter and antimatter are equally abundant in nature in the RM. This still leaves open the question of why $\overline{TTT}$, $\overline{TVV}$, and TTV etc. are common whereas TTT, TVV, and $\overline{TTV}$ etc. are rare.
 * Higher generation leptons and quarks are presumed to be excited states of first generation leptons and quarks, but those states are not specified.
 * The simple RM does not provide an explanation of the mass-spectrum of the leptons and quarks.

Baryon number ($B$) and lepton number ($L$) are not conserved, but the quantity $B − L$ is conserved. A baryon number violating process (such as proton decay) in the model would be

In the expanded Harari–Seiberg version the rishons possess color and hypercolor, explaining why the only composites are the observed quarks and leptons. Under certain assumptions, it is possible to show that the model allows exactly for three generations of quarks and leptons.

Evidence
Currently, there is no scientific evidence for the existence of substructure within quarks and leptons, but there is no profound reason why such a substructure may not be revealed at shorter distances. In 2008, Piotr Zenczykowski (Żenczykowski) has derived the RM by starting from a non-relativistic O(6) phase space. Such model is based on fundamental principles and the structure of Clifford algebras, and fully recovers the RM by naturally explaining several obscure and otherwise artificial features of the original model.

In popular culture

 * Science fiction author Vonda McIntyre, in her novelizations of the scripts of the movies Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan and Star Trek III: The Search for Spock suggested that the Genesis effect was a result of a newly discovered rishon-like substructure to matter.
 * Science fiction author James P. Hogan in his novel Voyage from Yesteryear explicitly postulated a rishon-like model in the development of antimatter weapons and energy sources.

title: Rishon model


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User talk:WriterHound

Welcome!

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Image use
Please be careful about this sort of thing; these images are nonfree and their use is only really justifiable on the article about the album. Thanks, --John (talk) 19:41, 10 May 2009 (UTC)

 * GNU isn't free?
 * WriterHound (talk) 21:42, 10 May 2009 (UTC)

 * File:99.9F - Suzanne Vega.jpg is a nonfree (copyright) image. We can only use it here under a claim of fair use. --John (talk) 01:53, 11 May 2009 (UTC)

 * Oh, O.K. I thought you meant the picture of Tom's Restaurant, which had GNU on it.

 * WriterHound (talk) 02:50, 11 May 2009 (UTC)

 * No, that one is totally fine. Image use is a minefield here; let me know if you have any other queries regarding it. --John (talk) 03:20, 11 May 2009 (UTC)

Federal Reserve
FYI, all members of the Board of Governors are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Terms are 14 years. For vacated appointments, new appointees fill the remaining time of the original 14 year appointment. Not sure why you wrote that Governors are "partially" appointed by the President. Reconfirmer444 (talk) 01:39, 29 July 2009 (UTC)
 * Thank you for catching that. Sorry, I became confused later in the article by the FOMC, which it says is partially (7/12) appointed by the president.
 * WriterHound (talk) 16:26, 29 July 2009 (UTC)

Marfan syndrome
I've noticed your helpful work at Marfan syndrome. Good links to read when working on medical articles are WP:MEDMOS and WP:MEDRS. Good luck! Sandy Georgia (Talk) 19:39, 29 August 2009 (UTC)
 * Thanks!
 * WriterHound (talk) 20:04, 29 August 2009 (UTC)

Response and review article at my talk page, Sandy Georgia (Talk) 21:39, 1 September 2009 (UTC)

Denialism
Hi, you added an AfD notice to this page, but from your edits I couldn't find a matching AfD debate. The one linked to was from 2007. If you think there are issues with the article, could you please debate them on the talk page before renominating the page. Thanks, Verbal chat  19:48, 22 September 2009 (UTC)

AfD nomination of Denialism
An article that you have been involved in editing, Denialism, has been listed for deletion. If you are interested in the deletion discussion, please participate by adding your comments at Articles for deletion/. Thank you.Please contact me if you're unsure why you received this message.

Unsourced
Hi WriterHound! You added some content to Hearing impairment without adding any sources. Please, always add sources, especially in medical articles or sections. Thank you! Lova Falk    talk   17:46, 9 June 2010 (UTC)
 * Yeah, sorry. I did read the info previously, though. Thanks for your nice work on the article!
 * WriterHound (talk) 19:36, 9 June 2010 (UTC)

You are now a Reviewer
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looks good
your edit is accurate, thanks. -Shootbamboo (talk) 19:45, 27 November 2010 (UTC)

Notification: changes to "Mark my edits as minor by default" preference
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Chernobyl disaster
Flags in infoboxes are deprecated; see WP:MOSFLAG. --John (talk) 07:34, 11 April 2011 (UTC)
 * Thank you!
 * WriterHound (talk) 23:29, 11 April 2011 (UTC)

Invitation for a short research survey
Hi, I am a PhD student at Carnegie Mellon University doing some research into editing and reverts on Wikipedia. I am looking for editors who have done some editing to Genetics articles on Wikipedia in the past as participants in a short survey. The survey will take about 10-15 minutes, and will help me model what sorts of things are reverted on Wikipedia so that I can develop interfaces and tools for newcomers and administrators. If you would like to participate, please complete the survey on SurveyMonkey here. You can find out more about me on my user page and personal home page. I'm more than happy to talk more about this research on my talk page, and thank you for your time. JeffRz (talk) 19:56, 29 May 2011 (UTC)

Thanks!

 * Thank you! WriterHound (talk) 19:37, 2 March 2012 (UTC)

Disambiguation link notification for April 11
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Science lovers wanted!
{|style="background:#ccc; border:1px solid #6881b9; margin:0.5em; padding:0.5em;border-radius: 8px;" !colspan=2 style="font-size:150%;"|Science lovers wanted!
 * Smithsonian logo color.svg
 * Hi! I'm serving as the wikipedian-in-residence at the Smithsonian Institution Archives until June! One of my goals as resident, is to work with Wikipedians and staff to improve content on Wikipedia about people who have collections held in the Archives - most of these are scientists who held roles within the Smithsonian and/or federal government. I thought you might like to participate since you are interested in the sciences! Sign up to participate here and dive into articles needing expansion and creation on our to-do list. Feel free to make a request for images or materials at the request page, and of course, if you share your successes at the outcomes page you will receive the SIA barnstar! Thanks for your interest, and I look forward to your participation! Sarah (talk) 01:17, 19 April 2012 (UTC)|}
 * Hi! I'm serving as the wikipedian-in-residence at the Smithsonian Institution Archives until June! One of my goals as resident, is to work with Wikipedians and staff to improve content on Wikipedia about people who have collections held in the Archives - most of these are scientists who held roles within the Smithsonian and/or federal government. I thought you might like to participate since you are interested in the sciences! Sign up to participate here and dive into articles needing expansion and creation on our to-do list. Feel free to make a request for images or materials at the request page, and of course, if you share your successes at the outcomes page you will receive the SIA barnstar! Thanks for your interest, and I look forward to your participation! Sarah (talk) 01:17, 19 April 2012 (UTC)|}

WP:MEDRS
Per the above please use secondary sources. Doc James (talk · contribs · email) (if I write on your page reply on mine) 06:34, 16 November 2012 (UTC)

Disambiguation link notification for October 7
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Breast cancer - cannabis
Hi. I noticed your edits to Breast cancer, Male breast cancer and Breast cancer treatment were reverted. Just to let you know, we don't as a rule include in vitro results in overview articles like those. For such articles we generally rely on sources that conform to this guideline: WP:MEDRS; essentially, reviews, textbooks and scholarly or professional guidelines or position statements. Those findings may be appropriate for a more focussed article such as Frontiers in breast cancer research or the like, provided it has been evaluated and put in context by a WP:MEDRS-compliant source. --Anthonyhcole (talk) 11:18, 16 November 2012 (UTC)
 * Thanks for the info! WriterHound (talk) 11:54, 16 November 2012 (UTC)

Disambiguation link notification for December 21
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Good article reassessment
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Global account
Hi WriterHound! As a Steward I'm involved in the upcoming unification of all accounts organized by the Wikimedia Foundation (see m:Single User Login finalisation announcement). By looking at your account, I realized that you don't have a global account yet. In order to secure your name, I recommend you to create such account on your own by submitting your password on Special:MergeAccount and unifying your local accounts. If you have any problems with doing that or further questions, please don't hesitate to contact me on my talk page. Cheers, —DerHexer (Talk) 23:58, 18 January 2015 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
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Merger discussion for Vachellia farnesiana var. farnesiana
An article that you have been involved in editing—Vachellia farnesiana var. farnesiana—has been proposed for merging with another article. If you are interested, please participate in the merger discussion. Thank you. 86.83.56.115 (talk) 10:08, 4 July 2018 (UTC) Cheers, Leo

title: User talk:WriterHound


text:
User talk:Weihao.chiu~enwiki

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Where to ask a question, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome! -- Longhair | Talk 03:01, 27 May 2005 (UTC)
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Hello Weihao Chiu
Hello Weihao Chiu,

You appear to be the user who, on October 8, added the following text at the top of the article entitled "Sun Yat-sen University":

 * There are National Sun Yat-sen University in Taiwan, Republic of China.

-- I just have deleted this addition, and I would like to explain to you why I did so.

The article is about the university which is located in the PRC, not the one in the ROC, as you obviously are aware. The differences between the two, and the very complicated politics involved, are well-known to any Wikipedia reader -- so that pointing them out here as you have is simply a political statement, I believe, and detracts from the "encyclopedia" nature of the article. The article already contains a link to the other article describing the ROC's National Sun Yat-sen University, so the distinction between the two already is clearly made. By positioning your text at the top, then, you add purely-political emphasis to your statement.

I encourage you not to do this again, here or elsewhere on Wikipedia. There are few people in the world now who do not appreciate the very sensitive politics in the relationship between the ROC and the PRC, and most of us have great sympathy for both sides and not simply for one or the other. But by violating the NPOV policies here, you not only confuse the entries on Wikipedia but you also alienate those of us who are friendly to Taiwan and wish the ROC well. If you sincerely believe there might be confusion, between the two names, I suggest that you use a Wikipedia "disambiguation" procedure instead.

--Kessler 16:39, 23 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I just have followed my own advice, in the above, and added the following text at the top of the article:

 * "(This article is about the Sun Yat-sen University located in the People's Republic of China; see also National Sun Yat-sen University in Taiwan, Republic of China.)"

 * -- with links... -- on reflection it seems to me there might be simply a language mixup here, and your original intention may have been to do exactly this, simply link to the ROC institution's article.

 * If there were more than just these two "Sun Yat-sen Universities" -- I don't know of any others, do you? -- then I would argue for leaving the links down below at the article's end, where they already are, and perhaps providing a separate disambiguation page. But as there are only two "Sun Yat-sen Universities", the only confusion would be between these two, and there might be much confusion, so you were correct in positioning the link more prominently, at the top of the page. I think the English syntax I have used clarifies this intention a bit.

 * --Kessler 16:59, 23 October 2005 (UTC)

Pyroelectric coefficient of ZnO
Hi,

you added the pyroelectric coefficients of ZnO to the Zinc oxide article. Can you comment a bit on these coefficients? I believe that they are notable: so are they very large compared to other chemical compounds? (Unfortunately the article Pyroelectricity isn't very good). Thank you, Kusma (talk) (contribs) 23:09, 9 November 2005 (UTC)

Yb:LuVO4 article
I was wondering if you could add little more detail about Yb:LuVO4. I gather that it is a laser. It would be helpful for the article to have information about the uses of this laser. Please see the discussion page for the article for more info.

Thanks! Epolk 00:08, 16 December 2005 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:The_absorption_spectrum_of_Nd-YCOB_crystal.jpg
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list of laser types
Hi, your various Nd:whatever laser material additions are great! Could you help me add them to the article List of laser types?--Deglr6328 10:06, 8 March 2006 (UTC)

Image Tagging for Image:Intel_80486DX-33.jpg
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Image copyright problem with Image:Absorption_spectrum_of_a_Nd-doped_GdVO4_crystal.jpg
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Image copyright problem with Image:Energy_level_diagram_of_Nd-doped_YAB.jpg
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Aluminium acetat
The small table for inorganic comounds is sufficent if it is nothing more than a stub.--Stone 10:49, 5 April 2006 (UTC)

The MSD has to go into the table and is no supplementary data!--Stone 10:53, 5 April 2006 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:Fluorescence_spectrum_of_a_Nd-doped_GdVO4.jpg
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Image:NLO Properties of CLBO.jpg listed for deletion
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Request for edit summary
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Non-free use disputed for Image:Cold Creek Manor DVD cover.jpg
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Non-free use disputed for Image:NM cover.jpg
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EPRS
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Cold Creek Manor
Hello! I know you have written an article about "Cold Creek Manor" movie. There is a phrase by some of the characters of the movie there about "black hammer" or something like that. I watched the movie in Russian, but I want to learn how this phrase sounds in English. It must be something like "The black hammer seeks for the weak ones, he will crush all the skulls". Please, tell me the original variant of this phrase. Thanx. --Andysoft 08:15, 10 July 2007 (UTC)

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If it is determined that the image does not qualify under fair use, it will be deleted within a couple of days according to our criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the media copyright questions page. Thank you.BetacommandBot (talk) 19:51, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

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Non-free rationale for File:The Cover of Materials Today in DEC 2003.JPG
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POTD notification

Hi Weihao,

Just to let you know that the Featured Picture File:ShiFengWaterFall 002.jpg is due to make an appearance as Picture of the Day on September 2, 2013. If you get a chance, you can check and improve the caption at Template:POTD/2013-09-02. Thank you for all of your contributions! — Crisco 1492 (talk) 22:43, 18 August 2013 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Weihao.chiu. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Weihao.chiu~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

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Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 03:23, 20 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
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Morphine (data page) listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has asked for a discussion to address the redirect Morphine (data page). Since you had some involvement with the Morphine (data page) redirect, you might want to participate in the redirect discussion if you have not already done so.

 * Also nominated, . -DePiep (talk) 11:22, 8 June 2015 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
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title: User talk:Weihao.chiu~enwiki


text:
User talk:Ohwilleke

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Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Where to ask a question, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome! -- Longhair | Talk 03:02, 27 May 2005 (UTC)
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Qualified intermediary
Hi, I was wondering if you could point me to sources in regards to the relevant code for Qualified intermediaries, the regulations and/or actual practice. A policies and procedures document would be great. Thank you ! 10:04, 23 January 2020 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 23x2 (talk • contribs)

Neutrino
Hi, I was wondering if you could point me to some sources for the material you just added to neutrino. It does, I think, contain one mistake: the neutralino is a mix of the supersymmetric partners of the Z boson, the photon, and the Higgs boson, and doesn't have anything to do with the neutrino at all. The other stuff I just haven't heard of, and I'm curious. Thanks. -- SCZenz 00:21, 19 August 2005 (UTC)

preon
Hey Andrew, would you like to donate your summary of Yershov's preon model http://washparkprophet.blogspot.com/2005/08/modern-physics-preons.html to wiki?

http://washparkprophet.blogspot.com/2005/08/modern-physics-introduction.html

Wiki is welcome to them. I wrote them pursuant to a "Steal All You Want" type of license, so I can't give the Wiki exclusive rights to them, but Wiki is welcome to use the text without or without attribution. Ohwilleke 02:39, 11 December 2006 (UTC)

Speedy deletion of Vladimir Yershov
A tag has been placed on Vladimir Yershov, requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done for the following reason:

It's a very short article, that doesn't assert the subject's notability, nor does it even contain enough context for someone to attempt to decide the question of notability. (WP:CSD A1, A7)

Under the criteria for speedy deletion, articles that do not meet very basic Wikipedia criteria may be deleted at any time. Please see the guidelines for what is generally accepted as an appropriate article, and if you can indicate why the subject of this article is appropriate, you may contest the tagging. To do this, add  on the top of the page and leave a note on the article's talk page explaining your position. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag yourself, but don't hesitate to add information to the article that would confirm its subject's notability under the guidelines.

For guidelines on specific types of articles, you may want to check out our criteria for biographies, for web sites, for bands, or for companies. Feel free to leave a note on my talk page if you have any questions about this. --adavidw 22:14, 22 January 2007 (UTC)

Bagheera kiplingi
I recently started an article on the spider species Bagheera kiplingi, and I think it could make a nice DYK, but I'm sure it could use a lot of improvement. Since you recently added a paragraph about it to Spider and Jumping spider, perhaps you might be interested in helping to expand it. —Ilmari Karonen (talk) 23:07, 20 August 2008 (UTC)

March 2009
Please do not add original research or novel syntheses of previously published material to our articles. Please cite a reliable source for all of your information. Also, read Afroyim v. Rusk (American citizenship can not be revoked). SMP0328. (talk) 01:58, 6 March 2009 (UTC)

I disagree and have explained why on your talk page. Afroyi v. Rusk does not support the position that you claim that it does. In particular, acceptance of a foreign title of nobility is generally considered a voluntary act that is intended as a renunciation of citizenship. Ohwilleke (talk) 19:06, 5 May 2009 (UTC)

Using references
Hi, I noticed you recently made a set of edits to jury and jury trial. As far as I can tell, you used no references. Your edits seem accurate, but I'm afraid references are required at this point. Can you provide them and be sure to use them going forward? If you cannot, I may have to revert - I will make an effort to find references, but I am not an attorney. II | (t - c) 08:58, 20 March 2010 (UTC)

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text:
Hinduism in Cambodia

Hinduism is a minority religion in Cambodia which is followed by about 1,000 to 15,000 individuals. Even being a small minority in the Buddhist majority nation it highly influences the vast culture and history of Cambodia with being prominent religion under the Khmer Empire. Today most of the Cambodian Hindus are Indians in Cambodia. Cambodia had always been a Buddhist nation since its conception, but before its independence from French Indochina, it had a significant Hindu minority, and several hundred years before that, it had been the most dominant religion in Cambodia as well as Southeast Asia.

History
Hinduism has been said to be present in Cambodia from c. 500 AD through the trade routes and networks by traders from India and expansion of Greater India. Hindu culture is said to have influenced the Cambodia and had been an important part of the Funan polity with Indosphere and it was characterised as: "high population and urban centers, the production of surplus food...socio-political stratification [and] legitimized by Indian religious ideologies". There was also present of Purohita for the religious traditions and customs with mention of the land as 'Kambujadesha'. Many Hindu cults were established with the patronisation of Hinduism in the Chenla Kingdom.

After the formation of Khmer Empire, the founder Jayavarman II in the 9th-century titled him as 'Devaraja' and declared as himself as 'Chakravartin' as per Hindu rituals, Hinduism was at the peak with construction of many Hindu temple in Khmer architecture and Sanskrit was used as sacred language. Hinduism was at the peak under the Khmer Empire and was the official religion of the state, until the 14th-century after the conversion of the royal family to Theravada Buddhism and slowly causing the decline of the Hindu population in country replaced by Buddhism from Shaivism.

Angkor Wat, one of the largest temple complexes in the world, was built in the 12th century by King Suryavarman II, and it was dedicated to Lord Vishnu, one of the principal deities of Hinduism.

title: Hinduism in Cambodia


text:
Talk:Laurence Fishburne

Removed link
I removed the link to Always Outnumbered, Always Outgunned (1998), as it was not a movie article. Is this a movie? --ДрakюлaTalk 00:52, 17 January 2006 (UTC)

Language is too simple
I'd rather put this on simple english wikipedia. Theres barely any details about him or the use of english is not complex!

--[[User:Storkian|Storkian] 17:44, 11 November 2006 (UTC)

Photo
If there is someone who knows how to add a photo, i really think this article would benefit from it.

Done :) --Стайко 14:57, 6 March 2007 (UTC)
 * I've found a freely licensed photo and added it to the article. It is rather small and not the best image, but it works nicely here.  If someone can find a better image, that is also freely licensed, then by all means replace this one, Image:Laurence Fishburne fences.jpg.  -- malo (tlk) (cntrbtns) 00:52, 8 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Surely a better picture of him exists... at least in higher resolution.

130.64.152.163 21:20, 16 September 2007 (UTC)

Movie
I think Fishburne could have been in The Warriors (1979). I'm not sure. You can see a picture at [] —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Special:Contributions/ (talk)

Mistake.
"Fishburne started acting at age thirty-five getting his big break in 1973 portraying ..." despite being born in 1961. I don't know the factual details to correct this.

He also never was on the Mod Squad. So was he 12 when he was on One Life to Live? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 138.78.109.30 (talk) 20:06, 11 December 2011 (UTC)

Fishburne repeatedly mispronounces Nevada on CSI Las Vegas. That would not happen in real life without those around him correcting him. It is neh-VAD-uh ('a' as in dad). —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.108.55.184 (talk) 18:43, 1 February 2009 (UTC)

Best?
"Fishburne is best known for his role as Morpheus... in the The Matrix science fiction film trilogy." I can't see how anyone could substantiate this statement, and personally doubt that it is the case. I cannot cite an alternate best-known-for, however.

I removed the word "best" from this sentence, and this sentence is now at least a statement that is true.

Dissidia?
Uh, it says that he's voicing Vayne Solidor in Dissidia: Final Fantasy. To my knowledge, that character hasn't been confirmed to be in the game. The game's page does not appear to have any information, so I'm thinking it's false.24.117.136.10 (talk) 14:57, 7 December 2008 (UTC)

Leaving CSI
I read somewhere that it was his decision to leave CSI. It was answering someones question and said something about his name not appearing on the casting list. If I find a link, would it go here, or go on the page for CSI?P3771 (talk) 21:16, 2 October 2011 (UTC)

Discrepancies in sections of this page
In the introduction it states

"Fishburne became the first African-American to portray Othello in a motion picture by a major studio when he appeared "

Then

"He played the title role in Othello, the second African-American actor, after Paul Robeson,[20] to perform the role.[21][22]"

One says First the other says Second — Preceding unsigned comment added by 62.189.175.100 (talk) 16:59, 2 September 2016 (UTC)

I remember him at graduation, and he is a fine Shakespearean actor, as well as playing the multitude of roles he has over the years. One of my older "brothers" in school, and I believe him to be one of the role models I had at LSA over the years. He's one of the few people who has helped shape me into a thinking person, not merely a follower. - Steve S. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.166.55.113 (talk) 20:01, 4 October 2016 (UTC)

About his hand preference
I've added that he is left handed two times, but they both got reverted with reasons, "not important" and "Not really part of his ""personal life"".

As he is an actor, I think it is important that it should be documented he is left handed where most of the humans on earth are right handed. Barrack Obama's page has the data that he is left handed, if his page can contain this information Mr.Fishburne's page should too. It is more important to document that Mr.Fishburne is left handed because Mr.Fishburne is an actor. So I'd like to get some comment and solve the issue. --- Paseyn msg 18:47, 23 February 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
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Semi-protected edit request on 7 June 2020
Laurence Fishburn has 3 children as stated on his website on the biography sections last line.

http://www.laurence-fishburne.com/ 2409:4063:4E16:B513:0:0:7609:D20A (talk) 02:21, 7 June 2020 (UTC)
 * Yes check.svg Done – robertsky (talk) 17:54, 11 June 2020 (UTC)

His first acting job was in 1973? Or 1972?
Current version of the article says Fishburne's first acting role was in 1973, in One Life to Live. But the infobox says he was active "1972–present". And various sources say that he was in the 1972 TV movie If You Give a Dance[,] You Gotta Pay the Band (I'm not sure whether there is a comma in the title, see my note on the article's talk page). At least two other Wikipedia articles already assert that Fishburne was in that production: Most of the sources indicate that one of the two stars of that production was "Larry Fishburn" (spelled without an "e"): Those are not all reliable sources; when I began composing this message I thought it was entirely possible that the ABC movie starred a different kid who happened to be named Larry Fishburn (with no "e"). It sometimes happens that IMDb will have some erroneous information and then lots of other sites reprint it as fact. But here, looking at the photo in Getty Images, you can see it's the same guy. Therefore I am going to edit the article to say that his first acting job was ABC Theater in 1972, not One Life to Live in 1973. (It seems that this odd inconsistency in the Wikipedia article, with the infobox saying he started in 1972 but the article text saying 1973, has been there since 2008 . Mathew5000 (talk) 04:22, 26 December 2021 (UTC)
 * ABC Theater
 * Laurence Fishburne filmography

john wick year range
"and "The Bowery King" in the John Wick film series (2017–present)." Though he doesn't appear in the first film, shouldn't it still include 2014 as part of its range? Spunkedout (talk) 16:42, 8 February 2024 (UTC)

Locked in errors
Somebody pointed this out already in 2016!!:

'In the introduction it states "Fishburne became the first African-American to portray Othello in a motion picture by a major studio when he appeared" Then "He played the title role in Othello, the second African-American actor, after Paul Robeson,[20] to perform the role.[21][22]" One says First the other says Second' I had come here in 2024 to say the same (and the reply button under the 2016 comment doesn't work). If none of the "protectors" (acting "owners"??) of this article are willing to work on it anymore, not even to make such an easy correction, it might be a better idea to remove the lock, so that readers aren't stuck with this state forever and can just do it themselves?

title: Talk:Laurence Fishburne


text: Template:Unimage

title: Template:Unimage


text:
Hinduism in Myanmar

Hinduism is the Fourth-largest religion in Myanmar, being practised by 1.7% of the population of Myanmar. Hinduism is practised by about 890,000 people in Myanmar, and has been influenced by elements of Buddhism, with many Hindu temples in Myanmar housing statues of the Buddha. There are also a large population of Hindus in which the Myanmar Tamils and minority Bengali Hindus having the biggest population share.

History
Hinduism, along with Buddhism, arrived in Burma during ancient times. Both names of the country are rooted in Hinduism; Burma is the British colonial officials' phonetic equivalent for the first half of Brahma Desha, the ancient name of the region. Brahma is part of Hindu trinity, a deity with four heads. The name Myanmar is the regional language transliteration of Brahma, where b and m are interchangeable.

Arakan (Rakhine) Yoma is a significant natural mountainous barrier between Burma and India, and the migration of Hinduism and Buddhism into Burma occurred slowly through Manipur and by South Asian seaborne traders. Hinduism greatly influenced the royal court of Burmese kings in pre-colonial times, as seen in the architecture of cities such as Bagan. Likewise, the Burmese language adopted many words from Sanskrit and Pali, many of which relate to religion.

While ancient and medieval arrival of ideas and culture fusion transformed Burma over time, it is in 19th and 20th century that over a million Hindu workers were brought in by British colonial government to serve in plantations and mines. The British also felt that surrounding the European residential centre with Indian immigrants provided a buffer and a degree of security from tribal theft and raids. According to 1931 census, 55% of Rangoon's (Yangon) population were Indian migrants, mostly Hindus.

After independence from Britain, ten years was under the Democratic government led by various leaders and fought for the stronghold of the power. While the country was still suffering from post-war economic downfall and constant attacks from insurgent groups supported by external influences, the power struggle between the two leading parties reached its peak. It resulted in the Prime Minister U Nu handing over the power to General Ne Win as the leader of the caretaker government in 1960. The situation was not improved as more resistance from the different parties and demands, General Ne Win formed the Resistance Council and lead the country since 1962. Later it changed the name of the party to Burma Socialist Programme Party. The government allowed all nationalities to register to become citizens since 1948 under The Union of citizenship Act 1948 and those who wanted to remain as foreigners are required to register under the Registration of foreigners rules 1948. Many of those who applied to become a naturalized citizen or registered as foreigners according to the acts but many were ignored to those requirements to remain in the country. When General Ne Win came into power he strongly implemented those acts. As a result, about 300,000 Indian ethnic people along with 100,000 Chinese left Burma between 1963 and 1967. There was no such thing against Indian ethnicity based on any political interest as claimed by some, but the policies were in place since before independence, and it was implemented when needed. The claim made against Burmese government support of left-leaning rebel groups in the northeastern state of India was also questionable as the left-leaning rebel groups were established before their independence and heavily supported by others Timeline of the Naxalite–Maoist insurgency in India.

Demography
The Burmese census data only reports individuals who stated Hinduism. Pew Research estimated a range of 820,000 to 840,000 Hindus in 2010.

Population by State/Region
Population of Hindus by State/Region, according to the 2014 census.

Ethnicity
Predominantly, Burmese Indians make up Myanmar's population of Hindus. The practice of Hinduism among Burmese Indians is also influenced by Buddhism. In addition to Hindu deities, the Buddha is also worshiped and many Hindu temples in Myanmar house statues of the Buddha. The Burmese Indians include Myanmar Tamils, Bengalis, Odias etc.

The majority of the Meitei (or Manipuri) in Myanmar practice Hinduism. They are descendants of forced labourers taken from Manipur during the Manipuri–Burmese war from 1819 to 1825. Manipuris are concentrated in about 13 villages in the Mandalay, Sagaing and Amarapura areas. Manipuri settlements are also found along the Ningthi river, and the areas sandwiched between the river and the boundary of Manipur.

Many Nepali-speaking Burmese Gurkha in Myanmar also practice Hinduism. Burmese Gurkha came along with British Army during colonial period. There are approximately 250 Hindu Temples build by Burmese Gurkha in and across country which of 30 temples are in Mandalay Region of Mogok City alone. Apparent there are three to five temples which are over 100 years old. A small minority of Bengali Hindus also practice Hinduism.

Ethnic data was last collected in Myanmar for the 1983 Census, and the census department didn't published stats related to ethnicity after that. Back in 1983, there were 428,428 Indians, 42,140 Pakistanis, 567,985 Rohingya and 28,506 Nepalis. Due to the mutual overlap in religious traditions, it is possible that some of the Hindus among these ethnicities reported as Buddhist during the 1983 Census. This may explain the low number of Hindus reported in 1983 (177,215).

As per the 1983 Census report, among the ethnic Indians 27.10% reported themselves as Buddhist, 33.64% as Hindu, 32.71% as Muslim, 4.44% as Christian and 2.10% as Others. Among the ethnic Burmese, the census reported three thousand Hindus. Out of the 174,401 Hindus reported in 1983, the ethnicity was as follows: Indian - 143,545, Chinese - 43, Mixed race - 4,882, Pakistani - 567, Bangladeshi - 865, Nepalese - 17,410, Other foreigners - 679, Kachin -48, Kayah - 3, Karen - 55, Chin - 155, Burmese - 2,988, Mon - 27, Rakhine - 99, Shan - 69 and other indigenous - 2,966.

Contemporary status
Aspects of Hinduism continue in Burma today, even in the majority Buddhist culture. For example, Thagyamin is worshipped whose origins are in the Hindu god Indra. Burmese literature has also been enriched by Hinduism, including the Burmese adaptation of the Ramayana, called Yama Zatdaw. Many Hindu gods are likewise worshipped by many Burmese people, such as Saraswati (known as Thuyathadi in Burmese), the goddess of knowledge, who is often worshipped before examinations; Shiva is called Paramizwa; Vishnu is called Withano, and others. Many of these ideas are part of thirty seven Nat or deities found in Burmese culture.

In modern Myanmar, most Hindus are found in the urban centres of Yangon and Mandalay. Ancient Hindu temples are present in other parts of Burma, such as the 11th century Nathlaung Kyaung Temple dedicated to Vishnu in Bagan.

ISKCON (Hare Krishna) has a presence in Myanmar. The largest Hare Krishna community is in Myitkyina which has about 400 followers.

Public holidays
Deepavali is a public holiday in Myanmar.

Persecution of Hindus
After independence from Britain, Burma Socialist Programme Party under Ne Win adopted xenophobic policies and expelled 300,000 Indian ethnic people (many of whom were Hindus and included Sikhs, Buddhists, and Muslims), along with 100,000 Chinese, from Burma between 1963 and 1967.

On 25 August 2017, the villages in a cluster known as Kha Maung Seik in northern Maungdaw District of Rakhine State in Myanmar were attacked by Rohingya Muslims of Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army (ARSA).This was called Kha Maung Seik massacre. Amnesty International said that about 99 Hindus were killed in that day. These Rohingya Hindus identify themselves as Chittagonian due to fear from Anti-Rohingya sentiment formed by Rohingya terrorists.

Hindu organisations and temples
Myanmar Hindu Central Council and Sanatan Dharma Swayamsevak Sangh are the two largest Hindu organizations in Myanmar.

All Myanmar Gurkha Hindu Religious Association is another Hindu organisation representing Gurkha Hindus. ISKCON has 12 centres in Myanmar and a school in Zayyawadi which provides religious education to brahmacharis

Temples

 * Nathlaung Kyaung Temple
 * Shri Kali Temple, Burma
 * Sri Varatha Raja Perumal Temple
 * Shree Maha Lakshmi Temple
 * Sri Kali Amman Temple
 * Kartayri Temple
 * Sri Radha Mandalayshwar Temple
 * Shree Ram Temple
 * Sri Ganesh Temple

title: Hinduism in Myanmar