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European exploration of Africa

The geography of North Africa has been reasonably well known among Europeans since classical antiquity in Greco-Roman geography. Northwest Africa (the Maghreb) was known as either Libya or Africa, while Egypt was considered part of Asia.

European exploration of sub-Saharan Africa begins with the Age of Discovery in the 15th century, pioneered by the Kingdom of Portugal under Henry the Navigator. The Cape of Good Hope was first reached by Bartolomeu Dias on 12 March 1488, opening the important sea route to India and the Far East, but European exploration of Africa itself remained very limited during the 16th and 17th centuries. The European powers were content to establish trading posts along the coast while they were actively exploring and colonizing the New World. Exploration of the interior of Africa was thus mostly left to the Muslim slave traders, who in tandem with the Muslim conquest of Sudan established far-reaching networks and supported the economy of a number of Sahelian kingdoms during the 15th to 18th centuries.

At the beginning of the 19th century, European knowledge of the geography of the interior of sub-Saharan Africa was still rather limited. Expeditions exploring Southern Africa were made during the 1830s and 1840s, so that around the midpoint of the 19th century and the beginning of the colonial Scramble for Africa, the unexplored parts were now limited to what would turn out to be the Congo Basin and the African Great Lakes. This "Heart of Africa" remained one of the last remaining "blank spots" on world maps of the later 19th century (alongside the Arctic, Antarctic, and interior of the Amazon Basin). It was left for 19th-century European explorers, including those searching for the famed sources of the Nile, notably John Hanning Speke, Richard Francis Burton, David Livingstone, and Henry Morton Stanley, to complete the exploration of Africa by the 1870s. After this, the general geography of Africa was known, but it was left to further expeditions during the 1880s onward, notably, those led by Oskar Lenz, to flesh out more detail such as the continent's geological makeup.

Antiquity
The Phoenicians explored North Africa, establishing a number of colonies, the most prominent of which was Carthage. Carthage itself conducted exploration of West Africa. The first alleged circumnavigation of the African continent attested to was made by Phoenician sailors, in an expedition commissioned by Egyptian pharaoh Necho II, c. 600 BC which took three years. A report of this expedition is provided by Herodotus (4.37). They sailed south, rounded the Cape heading west, made their way north to the Mediterranean, and then returned home. He states that they paused each year to sow and harvest grain. Herodotus himself is sceptical of the historicity of this feat, which would have taken place about 120 years before his birth; however, the reason he gives for disbelieving the story is the sailors' reported claim that when they sailed along the southern coast of Africa, they found the Sun stood to their right, in the north; Herodotus, who was unaware of the spherical shape of the Earth found this impossible to believe. Some commentators took this circumstance as proof that the voyage is historical, but one scholar still dismiss the report as unlikely.

Euthymenes of Massalia explored the coast of West Africa in the early sixth century BC.

The West African coast may have been explored by Hanno the Navigator in an expedition c. 500 BC. The report of this voyage survives in a short Periplus in Greek, which was first cited by Greek authors in the 3rd century BC. There is some uncertainty as to how far precisely Hanno reached; he may have sailed as far as Sierra Leone, Guinea or even Gabon. However, Robin Law notes that some commentators have argued that Hanno's exploration may have taken him no farther than southern Morocco. Africa is named for the Afri people who settled in the area of current-day Tunisia. The Roman province of Africa spanned the Mediterranean coast of what is now Libya, Tunisia, and Algeria. The parts of North Africa north of the Sahara were well known in antiquity. However, the Romans never seem to have explored the Sahara itself, or the lands South of it.

Prior to the 2nd century BC, however, Greek geographers were unaware that the landmass then known as Libya expanded south of the Sahara, assuming that the desert bounded on the outer Ocean. Indeed, Alexander the Great, according to Plutarchus' Lives, considered sailing from the mouths of the Indus back to Macedonia passing south of Africa as a shortcut compared to the land route. Even Eratosthenes around 200 BC still assumed an extent of the landmass no further south than the Horn of Africa.

By the Roman imperial period, the Horn of Africa was well-known to Mediterranean geographers. The trading post of Rhapta, described as  "the last marketplace of Azania," may correspond to the coast of Tanzania. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, dated to the 1st century AD, appears to extend geographical knowledge further south, to Southeast Africa. Ptolemy's world map of the 2nd century is well aware that the African continent extends significantly further south than the Horn of Africa, but has no geographic detail south of the equator (it is unclear whether it is aware of the Gulf of Guinea).

Middle Ages
Between 859 and 861 a Viking fleet of 62 ships, led by Hastein and Björn Ironside sailed from the Loire to raid in the Mediterranean, including North Africa.

From 1146 to 1148 the Norseman, Roger II of Sicily, established the Kingdom of Africa.

In May 1291 the Genoese brothers, Vandino and Ugolino Vivaldi, commanded the first known expedition in search of a sea route to India around Africa, but went lost. A few years later, in 1312, possibly in search of the Vivaldi brothers, a fellow Genoese, Lancelotto Malocello rediscovered the Canary Islands. Lanzarote is named after him.

Jaume Ferrer sailed from Majorca down the West African coast to find the legendary "River of Gold" in 1346, but the outcome of his quest and his fate are unknown.

Early Portuguese expeditions

Portuguese explorer Prince Henry, known as the Navigator, was the first European to methodically explore Africa and the oceanic route to the Indies. From his residence in the Algarve region of southern Portugal, he directed successive expeditions to circumnavigate Africa and reach India. In 1420, Henry sent an expedition to secure the uninhabited but strategic island of Madeira. In 1425, he tried to secure the Canary Islands as well, but these were already under firm Castilian control. In 1431, another Portuguese expedition reached and annexed the Azores.

Naval charts of 1339 show that the Canary Islands were already known to Europeans. In 1341, Portuguese and Italian explorers prepared a joint expedition. In 1342 the Catalans organized an expedition captained by Francesc Desvalers to the Canary Islands that set sail from Majorca. In 1344, Pope Clement VI named French admiral Luis de la Cerda Prince of Fortune, and sent him to conquer the Canaries. In 1402, Jean de Bethencourt and Gadifer de la Salle sailed to conquer the Canary Islands but found them already plundered by the Castilians. Although they did conquer the isles, Bethencourt's nephew was forced to cede them to Castile in 1418.

In 1455 and 1456 two Italian explorers, Alvise Cadamosto from Venice and Antoniotto Usodimare from Genoa, together with an unnamed Portuguese captain and working for Prince Henry of Portugal, followed the Gambia River, visiting the land of Senegal, while another Italian sailor from Genoa, Antonio de Noli, also on behalf of Prince Henry, explored the Bijagós islands, and, together with the Portuguese Diogo Gomes, the Cape Verde archipelago. Antonio de Noli, who became the first governor of Cape Verde (and the first European colonial governor in Sub-Saharan Africa), is also considered the discoverer of the First Islands of Cape Verde.

Along the western and eastern coasts of Africa, progress was also steady; Portuguese sailors reached Cape Bojador in 1434 and Cape Blanco in 1441. In 1443, they built a fortress on the island of Arguin, in modern-day Mauritania, trading European wheat and cloth for African gold and slaves. It was the first time that the semi-mythic gold of the Sudan reached Europe without Muslim mediation. Most of the slaves were sent to Madeira, which became, after thorough deforestation, the first European plantation colony. Between 1444 and 1447, the Portuguese explored the coasts of Senegal, Gambia, and Guinea. In 1456, the Venetian captain Alvise Cadamosto, under Portuguese command, explored the islands of Cape Verde. In 1462, two years after Prince Henry's death, Portuguese sailors explored the Bissau islands and named Serra Leoa (Lioness Mountains).

In 1469, Fernão Gomes rented the rights of African exploration for five years. Under his direction, in 1471, the Portuguese reached modern Ghana and settled in A Mina (the mine), today's Elmina. They had finally reached a country with an abundance of gold, hence the historical name of "Gold Coast" that Elmina would eventually receive.

In 1472, Fernão do Pó discovered the island that would bear his name for centuries (now Bioko) and an estuary abundant in shrimp (camarão,), giving its name to Cameroon.

Soon after, the equator was crossed by Europeans. Portugal established a base in Sāo Tomé that, after 1485, was settled with criminals. After 1497, expelled Spanish and Portuguese Jews were also sent there.

In 1482, Diogo Cão found the mouth of a large river and learned of the existence of a great kingdom, Kongo. In 1485, he explored the river upstream as well.

But the Portuguese wanted, above anything else, to find a route to India and kept trying to circumnavigate Africa. In 1485, the expedition of João Afonso d'Aveiros, with the German astronomer Martin of Behaim as part of the crew, explored the Bight of Benin (Kingdom of Benin), returning information about African king Ogane.

In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias and his pilot Pêro de Alenquer, after putting down a mutiny, turned a cape where they were caught by a storm, naming it Cape of Storms. They followed the coast for a while realizing that it kept going eastward with even some tendency to the north. Lacking supplies, they turned around with the conviction that the far end of Africa had finally been reached. Upon their return to Portugal, the promising cape was renamed Cape of Good Hope.

Some years later, Christopher Columbus landed in America under rival Castilian command. Pope Alexander VI decreed the Inter caetera bull, dividing the non-Christian parts of the world between the two rival Catholic powers, Spain and Portugal.

Finally, in the years 1497 to 1498, Vasco da Gama, again with Alenquer as a pilot, took a direct route to Cape of Good Hope, via St. Helena. He went beyond the farthest point reached by Dias and named the country Natal. Then he sailed northward, making land at Quelimane (Mozambique) and Mombasa, where he found Chinese traders, and Malindi (both in modern Kenya). In this town, he recruited an Arab pilot who led the Portuguese directly to Calicut. On 28 August 1498, King Manuel of Portugal informed the Pope of the good news that Portugal had reached India.

Egypt and Venice reacted to this news with hostility; from the Red Sea, they jointly attacked the Portuguese ships that traded with India. The Portuguese defeated these ships near Diu in 1509. The Ottoman Empire's indifferent reaction to Portuguese exploration left Portugal in almost exclusive control of trade through the Indian Ocean. They established many bases along the eastern coast of Africa except for Somalia (See Ajuran-Portuguese wars). The Portuguese also captured Aden in 1513.

One of the ships under command of Diogo Dias arrived at a coast that was not in East Africa. Two years later, a chart already showed an elongated island east of Africa that bore the name Madagascar. But only a century later, between 1613 and 1619, did the Portuguese explore the island in detail. They signed treaties with local chieftains and sent the first missionaries, who found it impossible to make locals believe in Hell, and were eventually expelled.

Portuguese
The Portuguese presence in Africa soon interfered with existing Arab trade interests. By 1583, the Portuguese established themselves in Zanzibar and on the Swahili coast. The Kingdom of Congo was converted to Christianity in 1495, its king taking the name of João I. The Portuguese also established their trade interests in the Kingdom of Mutapa in the 16th century, and in 1629 placed a puppet ruler on the throne.

The Portuguese (and later also the Dutch) also became involved in the local slave economy, supporting the state of the Jaggas, who performed slave raids in the Congo.

They also used the Kongo to weaken the neighboring realm of the Ndongo, where Queen Nzinga put up a fierce but eventually doomed resistance to Portuguese and Jagga ambitions. Portugal intervened militarily in these conflicts, creating the basis for their colony of Angola. In 1663, after another conflict, the royal crown of Kongo was sent to Lisbon. Nevertheless, a diminished Kongo Kingdom would still exist until 1885, when the last Manicongo, Pedro V, ceded his almost non-existent domain to Portugal.

The Portuguese dealt with the other major state of Southern Africa, the Monomotapa (in modern Zimbabwe), in a similar manner: Portugal intervened in a local war hoping to get abundant mineral riches, imposing a protectorate. But with the authority of the Monomotapa diminished by the foreign presence, anarchy took over. The local miners migrated and even buried the mines to prevent them from falling into Portuguese hands. When in 1693 the neighboring Cangamires invaded the country, the Portuguese accepted their failure and retreated to the coast.

Dutch
Beginning in the 17th century, the Netherlands began exploring and colonizing Africa. While the Dutch were waging a long war of independence against Spain, Portugal had temporarily united with Spain, starting in 1580 and ending in 1640. As a result, the growing colonial ambitions of the Netherlands were mostly directed against Portugal.

For this purpose, two Dutch companies were founded: the West Indies Company, with power over all the Atlantic Ocean, and the East Indies Company, with power over the Indian Ocean.

The West India Company conquered Elmina in 1637 and Luanda in 1640. In 1648, they were expelled from Luanda by the Portuguese. Overall the Dutch built 16 forts in different places, including Gorée in Senegal, partly overtaking Portugal as the main slave-trading power. The Dutch Gold Coast and Dutch Slave Coast were successful.

But in the colony of Dutch Loango-Angola, the Portuguese managed to expel the Dutch.

In Dutch Mauritius the colonization started in 1638 and ended in 1710, with a brief interruption between 1658 and 1666. Numerous governors were appointed, but continuous hardships such as cyclones, droughts, pest infestations, lack of food, and illnesses finally took their toll, and the island was definitively abandoned in 1710.

The Dutch left a lasting impact in South Africa, a region ignored by Portugal that the Dutch eventually decided to use as a station in their route to East Asia. Jan van Riebeeck founded Cape Town in 1652, starting the European exploration and colonization of South Africa.

Other early modern European presence

Almost at the same time as the Dutch, other European colonial powers attempted to create their own outposts in West Africa, following in the footsteps of the Portuguese.

During the Tudor period, English merchant adventurers started trading in West Africa, coming into conflict with Portuguese troops. In 1581, Francis Drake reached the Cape of Good Hope. In 1660, the Royal African Company was founded. In 1663, the English built Fort James in Gambia. One year later, another English colonial expedition attempted to settle southern Madagascar, resulting in the death of most of the colonists. The English forts on the West African coast were eventually taken by the Dutch.

In 1626, the French Compagnie de l'Occident was created. This company expelled the Dutch from Senegambia (Senegal), making it the first French domain in Africa, they also conquered the island of Arguin.

France also set her eyes on Madagascar, the island that had been used since 1527 as a stop in travels to India. In 1642, the French East India Company founded a settlement in southern Madagascar called Fort Dauphin. The commercial results of this settlement were scarce and, again, most of the settlers died. One of the survivors, Etienne de Flacourt, published a History of the Great Island of Madagascar and Relations, which was for a long time the main European source of information about the island. Further settlement attempts had no more success but, in 1667, François Martin led the first expedition to the Malagasy heartland, reaching Lake Alaotra. In 1665, France officially claimed Madagascar, under the name of Île Dauphine. However, little colonial activity would take place in Madagascar until the 19th century.

In 1651, the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (a vassal of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) gained a colony in Africa on St. Andrew's Island at the Gambia River and established the Jacob Fort there. The Duchy also took other local lands including St. Mary Island (modern-day Banjul) and Fort Jillifree

In 1650, Swedish merchants founded Swedish Gold Coast in modern Ghana following the foundation of the Swedish Africa Company (1649). In 1652 the foundations were laid of the fort Carlsborg.In 1658 Fort Carlsborg was seized and made part of the Danish Gold Coast colony, then to the Dutch Gold Coast. Later on the local population started a successful uprising against their new masters and in December 1660 the King of the Akan people subgroup-Efutu again offered Sweden control over the area, but in 1663 were seized by the Danish after a long defense of Fort Christiansborg.

The Dano-Norwegian colonized the Danish Gold Coast, from 1674 to 1755 the settlements were administered by the Danish West India-Guinea Company. From December 1680 to 29 August 1682, the Portuguese occupied Fort Christiansborg. In 1750 it was made a Danish crown colony. From 1782 to 1785 it was under British occupation. From 1814 it was made part of the territory of Denmark.

In 1677, King Frederick William I of Prussia sent an expedition to the western coast of Africa. The commander of the expedition, Captain Blonk, signed agreements with the chieftains of the Gold Coast. There, the Prussians built a fort named Gross Friederichsburg and restored the abandoned Portuguese fort of Arguin. But in 1720, the king decided to sell these bases to the Netherlands for 7,000 ducats and 12 slaves, six of them chained with pure gold chains.

In 1777, the Spanish Empire and Portuguese Empire signed the Treaty of San Ildefonso in which Portugal give the islands of Annobón and Fernando Poo in waters of the Gulf of Guinea, as well as the Guinean coast between the Niger River and the Ogooué River, to Spain.

The British expressed their interest by the formation in 1788 of The Association for Promoting the Discovery of the Interior Parts of Africa. The individuals who formed this club were inspired in part by the Scotsman James Bruce, who had ventured to Ethiopia in 1769 and reached the source of the Blue Nile.

Overall, the European exploration of Africa in the 17th and 18th centuries was very limited. Instead, they were focused on the slave trade, which only required coastal bases and items to trade. The real exploration of the African interior would start well into the 19th century.

The 19th century
Although the Napoleonic Wars distracted the attention of Europe from exploratory work in Africa, those wars nevertheless exercised great influence on the future of the continent, both in Egypt and South Africa. The occupation of Egypt (1798–1803), first by France and then by Great Britain, resulted in an effort by the Ottoman Empire to regain direct control over that country. In 1811, Mehemet Ali established an almost independent state, and from 1820 onward established Egyptian rule over eastern Sudan. In South Africa, the struggle with Napoleon caused the United Kingdom to take possession of the Dutch settlements at the Cape. In 1814, Cape Colony, which had been continuously occupied by British troops since 1806, was formally ceded to the British crown.

Meanwhile, considerable changes had been made in other parts of the continent. The occupation of Algiers by France in 1830 put an end to the piracy of the Barbary states. Egyptian authority continued to expand southward, with the consequent additions to knowledge of the Nile. The city of Zanzibar, on the island of that name, rapidly attained importance. Accounts of a vast inland sea, and the discovery of the snow-clad mountains of Kilimanjaro in 1840–1848, stimulated the desire for further knowledge about Africa in Europe.

In the mid-19th century, Protestant missions were carrying on active missionary work on the Guinea coast, in South Africa and in the Zanzibar dominions. Missionaries visited little-known regions and peoples, and in many instances became explorers and pioneers of trade and empire. David Livingstone, a Scottish missionary, had been engaged since 1840 in work north of the Orange River. In 1849, Livingstone crossed the Kalahari Desert from south to north and reached Lake Ngami. Between 1851 and 1856, he traversed the continent from west to east, discovering the great waterways of the upper Zambezi River. In November 1855, Livingstone became the first European to see the famous Victoria Falls, named after the Queen of the United Kingdom. From 1858 to 1864, the lower Zambezi, the Shire River and Lake Nyasa were explored by Livingstone. Nyasa had been first reached by the confidential slave of António da Silva Porto, a Portuguese trader established at Bié in Angola, who crossed Africa during 1853–1856 from Benguella to the mouth of the Rovuma. A prime goal for explorers was to locate the source of the River Nile. Expeditions by Burton and Speke (1857–1858) and Speke and Grant (1863) located Lake Tanganyika and Lake Victoria. It was eventually proved to be the latter from which the Nile flowed.

Henry Morton Stanley, who had in 1871 succeeded in finding and succouring Livingstone (originating the famous line "Dr. Livingstone, I presume"), started again for Zanzibar in 1874. In one of the most memorable of all exploring expeditions in Africa, Stanley circumnavigated Victoria Nyanza (Lake Victoria) and Lake Tanganyika. Striking farther inland to the Lualaba, he followed that river down to the Atlantic Ocean—which he reached in August 1877—and proved it to be the Congo.

In 1895, the British South Africa Company hired the American scout Frederick Russell Burnham to look for minerals and ways to improve river navigation in the central and southern Africa region. Burnham oversaw and led the Northern Territories British South Africa Exploration Company expedition that first established that major copper deposits existed north of the Zambezi in North-Eastern Rhodesia. Along the Kafue River, Burnham saw many similarities to copper deposits he had worked in the United States, and he encountered native peoples wearing copper bracelets. Copper rapidly became the primary export of Central Africa and it remains essential to the economy even today.

The emergence of modern cartography, and placing it at the heart of the approach to scientific exploration, meant that a new drive to explore Africa began in Europe, particularly Britain. According to John Barrow, undersecretary to the Admiralty in the early 1800s, described British knowledge of the African continent as "retrograded" and "almost blank", and pushed for further explorations of the continent. This cartographic approach "emptied African space of prior political and ethnic identifications" in Europeans' eyes.

Explorers were also active in Southern Morocco, the Sahara and the Sudan, which were traversed in many directions between 1860 and 1875 by Georg Schweinfurth and Gustav Nachtigal. These travellers not only added considerably to geographical knowledge, but obtained invaluable information concerning the people, languages and natural history of the countries in which they sojourned. Among the discoveries of Schweinfurth was one that confirmed Greek legends of the existence beyond Egypt of a "pygmy race". But the first western discoverer of the pygmies of Central Africa was Paul Du Chaillu, who found them in the Ogowe district of the west coast in 1865, five years before Schweinfurth's first meeting with them. Du Chaillu had previously, through journeys in the Gabon region between 1855 and 1859, made popular in Europe the knowledge of the existence of the gorilla, whose existence was thought to be as legendary as that of the Pygmies of Aristotle.

15th century

 * 🇵🇹 Diogo Cão
 * 🇵🇹 Diogo de Azambuja
 * PortugueseFlag1485.svg Bartolomeu Dias
 * PortugueseFlag1485.svg Pêro de Alenquer
 * PortugueseFlag1485.svg João Infante
 * PortugueseFlag1485.svg João Grego
 * 🇵🇹 Álvaro Martins
 * PortugueseFlag1485.svg Pêro Dias
 * 🇵🇹 Gil Eanes
 * 🇵🇹 Nuno Tristão
 * 🇵🇹 Antão Gonçalves
 * 🇵🇹 Dinis Dias
 * 🇵🇹 Álvaro Fernandes
 * 🇵🇹 Pêro de Sintra
 * 🇵🇹 Fernão do Pó
 * 🇵🇹 Alvise Cadamosto (Venetian born)
 * 🇵🇹 António de Noli (Genoese born)
 * 🇵🇹 Diogo Gomes
 * PortugueseFlag1485.svg Álvaro Caminha
 * 🇵🇹 João de Santarém
 * 🇵🇹 Pedro Escobar
 * PortugueseFlag1485.svg Duarte Pacheco Pereira
 * 🇵🇹 Lopes Gonçalves (and Atlantic Ocean)

15th/16th century

 * 🇵🇹 Vasco da Gama (and discovered sea route to India)
 * 🇵🇹 Diogo Dias (and Indian Ocean, discovered Madagascar)
 * PortugueseFlag1485.svg Pêro da Covilhã (15th/16th century diplomat and explorer in Ethiopia)
 * 🇵🇹 Pedro Álvares Cabral (discovered Brazil, explored India along the African coast)
 * 🇵🇹 Sancho de Tovar and Vicente Pegado among others (also among the first Europeans ever to contemplate and to describe the ruins of Great Zimbabwe, then referred to by the Portuguese as Monomotapa).

16th century

 * Flag Portugal (1521).svg Paulo Dias de Novais
 * Flag Portugal (1521).svg António Fernandes (he travalled to Monomotapa and beyond, exploring most of the present day Zimbabwe and possibly northeastern South Africa)
 * Flag Portugal (1521).svg Lourenço Marques (trader and explorer in East Africa)
 * 🇵🇹 Francisco Álvares (missionary and explorer in Ethiopia)
 * Flag Portugal (1521).svg Gonçalo da Silveira (jesuit missionary, travalled up the Zambezi River to the capital of the Monomotapa which appears to have been the N'Pande kraal, close by the M'Zingesi River, a southern tributary of the Zambezi)

18th century

 * 🇵🇹 Francisco de Lacerda (explorer in Zambia)
 * Mungo Park (explored Niger River in 1790s)

19th century

 * 🇫🇷 Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie (1810–1897) (Irish born), explored Ethiopia
 * Heinrich Barth
 * 🇫🇷 Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza (Italian born)
 * 🇨🇭 Johann Ludwig Burckhardt
 * 🇬🇧 Frederick Russell Burnham (1861-1947), an American explorer of south, west, central, and east Africa.
 * 🇬🇧 Richard Francis Burton (1821–1890) (African Great Lakes)
 * 🇫🇷 René Caillié
 * 🇵🇹 Hermenegildo Capelo
 * 🇵🇹 Roberto Ivens
 * 🇵🇹 Candido José da Costa Cardoso (visited Lake Malawi [also known as Lake Nyasa or Lake Niassa] in 1846)
 * 🇺🇸 Paul Du Chaillu
 * 🇬🇧 Hugh Clapperton (1788–1827), explored west and central Africa
 * 🇫🇷 Victor de Compiègne (1846–1877), explored Gabon
 * 🇬🇧 Dixon Denham (1786–1828), explored west central Africa.
 * 🇬🇧 James Frederic Elton (1840–1877)
 * Emil Holub
 * Ignatius Knoblecher (1819–1858), explored the White Nile basin
 * 🇬🇧 Alexander Gordon Laing (1793–1826)
 * 🇬🇧 Macgregor Laird (1808–1861)
 * 🇬🇧 Richard Lemon Lander (1804–1834)
 * 🇬🇧 Harry Johnston (1858–1927)
 * 🇬🇧 Frederick John Jackson (1860–1929), explored Uganda
 * Oskar Lenz (1848–1925), expeditions in 1879-80 (trans-Sahara) and 1885-87 (Congo)
 * 🇬🇧 David Livingstone (1813–1873)
 * 🇬🇧 John Kirk (1832–1922
 * 🇬🇧 Frederick Lugard (1858–1945)
 * 🇬🇧 Joseph Thomson (1858–1895) (African Great Lakes)
 * 🇬🇧 Samuel Baker (1821–1893) (explored Uganda and the Sudan)
 * 🇬🇧 Arthur Henry Neumann (1850-1907) (explored what has since become Kenya and Uganda)
 * 🇫🇷 Charles-Henri Pobéguin (1856–1951), explored French Africa
 * Luigi Robecchi Bricchetti (1855–1926)
 * Carlo Piaggia
 * 🇵🇹 Serpa Pinto (soldier and colonizer of Africa)
 * 🇵🇹 António da Silva Porto
 * 🇬🇧 Arthur Henry Neumann (1850-1907)
 * 🇪🇸 Manuel Iradier (1854-1911) (Explorer of Equatorial Guinea)
 * Vittorio Bottego (1860–1897)
 * Giuseppe Maria Giulietti (1847-1881)
 * Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi (1873-1933)
 * Georg Schweinfurth (Latvian born)
 * 🇬🇧 Frederick Courtney Selous (1851-1917)
 * 🇺🇸 Henry Morton Stanley (1841–1904) (Welsh born)
 * 🇺🇸 William Edgar Geil (1 October 1865, Doylestown, Pennsylvania – 11 April 1925, Venice)
 * 🇬🇧 John Hanning Speke (1827–1864) (discovered the source of the Nile)
 * 🇬🇧 James Hingston Tuckey (1776–1816) (Irish born)
 * 🇬🇧 Robert Bruce Napoleon Walker (1832–1901), explored Gabon as a trader for Hatton & Cookson

Early 20th century

 * 🇵🇱 Jan Czekanowski
 * 🇺🇸 William Edgar Geil
 * 🇵🇱 Kazimierz Nowak

title: European exploration of Africa


text: Category:Marquesses in the Peerage of the United Kingdom

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text: User talk:70.20.83.120

title: User talk:70.20.83.120


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/On The Playground

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE. Golbez 01:06, Jun 20, 2005 (UTC)

On The Playground
Claims to be published in one local paper. That's more than most web comics can claim, but there are only about 40 Google hits outside its own site. I'd say that it's not notable at this point. --Xcali 03:21, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * Keep It certainly has been published in that paper. I'd say just for that it should be allowed its own entry. Also, (if this is a factor,) it's been Websnarked. Jigglyman 14:11, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * The above is the creator of the article in question. User's ID was created in July of 2004, but made only one edit between then and today, when all edits have been to this page or the article.  RickK 21:41, Jun 14, 2005 (UTC)

 * Weak delete: A single paper picking it up is webcomix*infinity, granted, but it's a single paper. My view is that it should be syndicated or at least of regional, rather than local, importance before it is an encyclopedia topic. Geogre 14:14, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Concur with Geogre, weak delete. Radiant_ >|< 14:36, Jun 14, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. It's a local paper. The local paper near me occasionally prints the drawings fourth-graders from the local middle school draw. 'nuff said. jglc | t | c 20:12, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Note: Oh holy hell. I read the article, and the creator of the strip in question is actually 12.  I was just joking when I made my first comment about fourth-graders, but this has got to go, now. jglc | t | c 13:55, 15 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Does not meet the notability guidelines at WikiProject Webcomics. --Carnildo 21:13, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. nonnotable. mikka (t) 22:58, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. nonnotable. carmeld1 01:14, 17 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages.  Please do not edit this page .


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George C. Peery

George Campbell Peery (October 28, 1873 – October 14, 1952) was an American Democratic politician, and was the 52nd governor of Virginia from 1934 to 1938. He became the second governor to be selected, at least partially, by the soon to be very powerful Byrd Organization, led by Senator Harry F. Byrd, Sr.

Early life and education
Peery was born in Cedar Bluff, in Tazewell County, Virginia, in the far southwest portion of the state. His father, Dr. James Peery, had been a surgeon in Derrick's Battalion of the Confederate States Army. He attended local schools while working on his father's farm and at the family store as well as the Tazewell County Clerk's office. He graduated from Emory & Henry College in 1894, winning medals in oratory and science. Peery then became principal of Tazewell High School for two years, before resigning and traveling to earn his LL.B. degree from Washington & Lee University in 1897 after a single year's study.

In 1907 he married Nancy Bane Gillespie, daughter of a prominent Tazewell attorney, Albert P. Gillespie, and they had three children, Albert G. Peery, George C. Peery, Jr., and Nancy Peery Whitley.

Career
Peery then returned to Southwestern Virginia to practice law, first setting up a practice in Tazewell, but after two years moving across the mountains to Wise, Virginia. he returned to Tazewell in 1915 to settle his father in law's estate and soon joined Gillespie's former partners A.C. Buchanan and Archibald C. Chapman to form Chapman, Peery, and Buchanan. he also began political involvement, chosen as Democratic elector at large on the Wilson-Marshall ticket in 1916 and in 1920 became chairman of the Ninth District Democratic committee.

Peery was elected to the Congress, representing the 9th Congressional district of Virginia in 1922. His victory was considered an early test of the Byrd Organization. Peery served from 1923 to 1929 and was a delegate to the Democratic National Convention in 1920 and 1924.

Peery resigned in 1929 to become a member of the State Corporation Commission, serving from 1929 to 1933. Then newly elected Senator Byrd approached him to run for governor in 1933. Peery accepted and won the November election.

As governor, he created unemployment insurance and, after the repeal of prohibition, he created Virginia's Alcohol Beverage Control board. In 1936, Governor Peery signed into law the act that created the Virginia State Parks.

After his retirement as governor, Peery joined the board of trustees of both Washington and Lee University and Hollins College.

Peery died in 1952, at the age of 78, two weeks short of his 79th birthday, in Richlands, Virginia. He was buried in Maplewood Cemetery in Tazewell, Virginia.

Electoral history
1933; Peery was elected Governor of Virginia with 73.74% of the vote, defeating Republican Fred W. McWane, Prohibitionist Andrew J. Dunning, Jr., Socialist George C. White, and Independents John Moffett Robinson and W. A. Rowe.

title: George C. Peery


text: User talk:24.44.37.202

title: User talk:24.44.37.202


text:
Woodford, County Galway

Woodford is a village in the south-east of County Galway, Ireland. It is situated between the River Shannon and the Slieve Aughty mountains.

History
The village's industrial history is indicated by a variant of its Irish name, Gráig na Muilte Iarainn, meaning 'village of the iron mills'. It is probable that the village started as a place to house and provide services for the iron workers on the 17th century. The surrounding hills have iron ore deposits; the abundant oak woods were used as a fuel for smelting. These had a lasting effect on the landscape; as the furnaces needed up to one hectare of mature woodland per day. The iron foundry had ceased operation by the late 18th or early 19th century.

The village also had a watermill in the valley, and in order for this to operate the river was dammed. This is what now appears as a small lake below the village.

Woodford Bay
The Woodford River is a tributary of the Shannon River. The river is dammed and broadens out into a small artificial lake called Woodford Bay. This reservoir was in the 17th century to power the blast furnace. Later, it was used as a source power for the corn mill and electric light energy for the town. While the bay is no longer used for these reasons, repairs have been undertaken to restore its aesthetic rather than commercial value.

Tourism
Woodford's amenities include a playground, tourist accommodation, a restaurant, several pubs and grocery and hardware shops. There are three nature reserves within 5 km of the village at Pollnaknockaun, Derrycrag and Rosturra. Two of these are in Special Areas of Conservation. Derrygill Millennium Oaks Forest is also within walking distance of the village and is one of only fourteen Millennium Oak Forests established in the Republic of Ireland in the year 2000 when the government gifted an oak tree to every family in Ireland at the turn of the millennium. Cycle routes in the surrounding hinterland have views of Lough Derg and the River Shannon. There is also fishing and boating on the Shannon. In the vicinity of the town are the ruins of a ring-fort over a thousand years old.

Every year, in late August, a "Furnace Festival" is held in Woodford to celebrate its ironworking history.

title: Woodford, County Galway


text:
User talk:Jessielange

Welcome!

Hi! Welcome to Wikipedia. Thanks for your help! I hope you stay around for a while and help contribute some more. Here are a few pages that are good references as you get used to making edits on Wikipedia:
 * The Five Pillars of Wikipedia
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 * Picture tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style
 * If you want a larger set of articles to look through, feel free to browse the Topical index.
 * If you are experimenting with wikitext and want a place to test how your edits look, you should check out the sandbox.

I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! When you leave messages on Talk pages or when voting, you can sign your name by leaving three tildes: ~~~. Four tildes (~~~~) leaves your user name and a timestamp. If you have any questions, you can look through the help pages, post a question at the village pump or leave me a question on my talk page.

Thanks again, and welcome to Wikipedia! -JJLeahy

Ferrari Testarossa
I'm sorry but I had to remove your contributions to the Testarossa article. I really didn't want to do it because you're new and it was a lot of great stuff. But it was a copy and paste from another web site, and Wikipedia doesn't allow that (see Copyrights). I invite you to re-add any original text by you, since the article does need improving, but please be careful of the copyright situation. Thanks again. --SFoskett 13:36, Jun 14, 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jessielange


text:
Talk:Messenger Plus! Live

Page focus
Reading the article, I can only assume that MPL is something to do with Windows Live Messenger, but this is purely guesswork...  As the author's name is not 'Messenger Plus! Live', then the page's relevant content would seem to be limited to the (broken) info box at the top. The author's MVP status or lack thereof is not relevant in the slightest. --212.178.222.21 12:56, 9 October 2007 (UTC)

On the contrary, it is as relevant as the petition. Shani Gerti (talk) 01:07, 26 September 2008 (UTC)

Update
Sine Plus! live was released today i added more content and updated a few of things. it looks all good now keep updating it!

History
Think we need a section on the history (how it started, milestones, blah). Who wants to write it? - b3virq3b 09:29, Jun 14, 2005 (UTC)

This looks like cheap advertising to me...

It is a major add-on for a major messaging system used by enormous numbers of people so I think it would be fair to say that IM & Messenger Plus are part of the culture of the early 21st century and as such it is reasonable to have some information about it in Wikipedia. /\/\

Neutrality
"...making the impact on the user as slight as possible and adding functionality while avoiding a separate interface where possible."

That sounds more like a sales pitch than something that should be in an encyclopedia article. ApocalypseCow 00:39, 21 January 2006 (UTC)
 * I have made some improvements to the wording, I also added for instance the part about how there was no EULA for Plus! when users were getting confused with the sponsor agreement. It still isn't entirely neutral, and someone needs to add something about how although you can uninstall the sponsor from Plus' uninstall there still isn't a clear separate uninstaller with the company's name on it. 61.69.0.246 08:17, 26 October 2006 (UTC)Contributor

Im going to write a history bit for it soon i have a big page.

Messenger Plus Live!
MPL! (Messenger Plus Live!) is now due for release in te next week or two now that Windows Live Messenger is public beta. This should get added to the Msgplus page. If anyone wants screen shots I have them too. It works full features with WLM now and shall be released soon too public. I have the 4.0.0.214 version that was leaked a day or two ago, not the virus that has been going around. If no one objects I'll add it and someone can touch it up for me. There is an article about it at Mess.be, betaxp, and msgshit razorwave 11:04pm, Mar 27, 2006 (UTC)
 * No it isn't, It will be released when WLM reaches a final release version (or thereabouts). It is currently in closed beta. Check the news on the official site. According to Patchou, the version that was "leaked" was not created by him, it is probably a virus of some kind. Aldoliel 22:58, 30 March 2006 (UTC)

Incorrect. There is a virus version, but this is a beta that wasn't supposed to get out that did. The version 4.0.0.214, the one that works, is virus free and all features work with WLM. I was cautious of it too because its not directly from msgplus, but if you look in their forums there is topics of it everywhere, same with mess.be and msgshit.com, in-fact, all sites even show how to make it enabled past the beta closed so it works harm-free. However, if you're using Windows Live Onecare the firewall wont allow it to open.-- razorwave 20:16, 30 March 2006 (UTC)

Question
Does MPL v3.63.148 have a virus? Random the Scrambled 11:52, 1 May 2006 (UTC)

No GiantSpider 14:21, 22 June 2006 (UTC)

Citation, or deletion, needed
I quote:

"Nonetheless, some users harshly criticize Patchou for including adware that they believe has been installed without any consent ... This has proved not to be true ... by a detailed reverse engineering of the installation executable ."

This seems to me to be more than just a needed citation - anyone claiming that a reverse engineering shows this must have some evidence that this reverse engineering has taken place. I'm removing the text unless someone can justify it.

Jameshfisher 10:53, 10 August 2006 (UTC)

From Gigabytemon Oct 26 2006, 22:01 (+0800)

I quote :

"In October 2006, Patchou was awarded the Microsoft MVP award in the Windows Live Developers group, sparking controversy that someone who includes adware in his programs was given this name."

Sure, there was adware in the programs that he released - but Ptchou still gave it clear that you can still choose to not install it during the installation process.

Original research/Neutrality/Weasel Words - This article has it all
I don't like biased articles - That's a fact. But, as others have pointed out before, this reads like an advertisment for M+!

I move we completely rip this article to shreds, and rebuild it with just the facts. Below is a justification for the edits I have just made.

Thanks. Welshy 00:36, 26 October 2006 (UTC)

Original
Misconceptions (Weasel title)

Nonetheless (Weasel word), some(Weasel word) users harshly(Weasel word) criticize Patchou for including adware that they believe has been installed without any consent (i.e., the acceptance screen never appeared for them). This has proved not to be true(Weasel words) by the many(Weasel word) testers(Original research as no citation is posted) (who make sure that all features work as expected by the author(Weasel words/PR)), and an executable with the acceptance screen disabled has never been found, let alone(Weasel words) one signed by Patchou's digital certificate and/or downloaded from the official site.

 * Hi, I went on and improved the article a little. Maybe you can take a look and say what else needs to be rewritten, before going on and deleting it completely? Thank you ;) Teo64x 14:48, 5 April 2007 (UTC)

Patchou and the MVP Award
I have removed any mention of the award being revoked, as there are various contradictory sources on the Net. Until this is resolved, I encourage people to leave the current mention of the award in place. RaceProUK 10:49, 12 December 2006 (UTC)

I have reinstated the information about the award being revoked. Patchou's MVP Profile has been removed from the official MVP Web Site and as quoted in the text that you removed Microsoft has issued a statement saying that the award had been revoked. Some are taking part in semantic arguments about the meaning of "active MVP status" but the fact remains that the profile is gone, and the statement was issued, and Microsoft used the word "revoked". --Shani Gerti 11:51, 13 December 2006 (UTC)

Known issue that failed to be mentioned in the article
There was a known issue with earlier versions of Messenger Plus that caused the spyware to be installed when the user upgraded the application (using the software's own update tool) without the users' consent and I really think this is important to be mentioned in the article, showing some of the application authors "ill-faith" in addition to the ad-ware "justification"

(This actually happened to ME and I was quite bothered by the fact)

Also the interesting fact that Pachouli's websites are using a "Domain Name Shield" service preventing his accountability is a curious fact (DNS provider is Domains by Proxy, which is affiliated with GoDaddy if I recall correcty)

70.22.173.110 19:47, 26 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Source it. 82.32.40.219 16:24, 14 June 2007 (UTC)

 * Indeed. Please back up the statement that it was a known issue. I am a beta tester since years, and any other tester, including Patchou, will be happy to proove you wrong. There was never an issue in this regards. The sponsor was/is never ever installed without the user explicitly agreeing to the sponsor licence agreement. The update via the program and the installer you manually download from the site are always the same; the updater downloads from the exact same link as the manual download. It are exactly such rumours and conspiracy theorists which lead to misinformation. Also "the author's ill-faith"? Again an extremely biased hearsay fact. If you actually follow the development of Plus!, read the many news articles and participate a bit in the forums you'll notice that Patchou is far from oblivious to user's requests, questions, etc. He also has regulary contests with big prices. He is far from greedy, ill-faith, or whatever else people might call him out of frustration. These things can be verified by anyone who wants to. -- 87.64.222.203 (talk) 03:38, 25 December 2007 (UTC)

I had the issue and thats good enough for me to say its a problem... Its amazing how detrimental information "doesnt happen" when its not in the authors best interest. also the description tag for freeware should be altered to "ad-ware" since there is no full registration option as of the last time I checked. 70.19.237.249 (talk) 22:19, 23 March 2009 (UTC)

 * That's not a good enough reason according to Wikipedia's rules, hence the reply above from another users, find a proper source. Also, freeware doesn't need a "full registration option", it think you got it confused with shareware. Menthix (talk) 17:22, 14 April 2009 (UTC)

Whole program is malware if you ask me- it really messed up my computer when i installed it when it was fairly new. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.22.250.185 (talk) 11:35, 17 May 2009 (UTC)

 * This shouldn't even be up for discussion. MPL is malware, ipso facto. The software industry abandoned the dodgy innocent program that ships with 'optional' adware / spyware distribution model years ago. It died with Kazaa, et al, and is now utterly discredited as a reputable software marketing tool. MPL is in the same bracket as other trojans such as My Web Search / Smiley Central. forget the 'op-out'; most of my clients neither read nor understand the agreement they are presented with, which is precisely the intention. And in my book, any product that begs me not to un-install it is by definition as dodgy as hell. There is no longer a legitimate need for this lazy and discredited business model. The industry has moved on; I just wish some of the dodgier software publishers would do the same. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Blitterbug (talk • contribs) 20:00, 18 July 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Messenger Plus! Live


text:
Grossmont Union High School District

The Grossmont Union High School District (GUHSD) is a public school district located in eastern San Diego County, California, and serves high school, adult school, and Regional Occupational Program (ROP) students in the cities of El Cajon, Lemon Grove, and Santee; the unincorporated communities of Alpine, Casa de Oro, Crest, Dehesa, Dulzura, Jamul, Lakeside, Mount Helix, Rancho San Diego, and Spring Valley; most of La Mesa, and parts of San Diego.

Formed in June 1920, the union high school district is overseen by a five-member governing board and operates 13 high schools (nine regular, three charter, and one continuation); a regional occupational program (ROP); and special education and adult education services. The day-to-day operations are managed by the superintendent, who is appointed by the board.

The Grossmont Union High School District utilizes a strategic plan that includes a mission statement, district guidelines, core values, and annual goals and objectives. The district's schools are accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC).

Four of the district's high schools—Helix, Mount Miguel, Santana, and Valhalla (twice)—have been recognized as a California Distinguished School by the California Department of Education.

In March 2001, the district and two of its high schools—Santana and Granite Hills—made nationwide headlines in the US when, in a span of seventeen days, a total of two students were killed and twenty students and two teachers were wounded when two students, in separate incidents, opened fire at their schools.

History
Grossmont Union High School District was formed in 1920 and its first high school, Grossmont High School, built in 1922, served the cities of La Mesa and El Cajon. At the time of its construction, this region of eastern San Diego County was much more rural and isolated from the city of San Diego. La Mesa and El Cajon were, in fact, only newly incorporated cities, as of 1912. Grossmont remained the region's only high school for 30 years. In 1939, Grossmont High School was rebuilt. Beginning in 1952, the school district underwent an expensive, rapid period of development to accommodate for the suburbanization and consequent growth in population of the area. Six more schools were established in a period of ten years. A further four schools were subsequently built. Most recently, the district opened Steele Canyon High School in Spring Valley in 2000.

CARD
There are many military families present in the school district. Marine Corps Air Station Miramar and Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego are both nearby. North of San Diego is Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton.

In October 1982, the San Diego Committee Against Registration and the Draft (CARD), later renamed the Committee Opposed to Militarism and the Draft, sought to purchase advertising space from five student newspapers published by high schools within the district. CARD, a non-profit organization, provides counseling services to young men and women on alternatives to military service. Members include both students and non-students. The advertisement was intended to provide information to students on such alternatives.

Depicting a ghost-like figure, stating "Don't Let the Draft Blow You Away!" the advertisement contained the following statements:

Know Your Rights Know Your Choices!

If the draft starts tomorrow, you could be in boot camp 11 days later.

Call or Write Committee Against Registration and the Draft

In November 1982, Acting Assistant Superintendent Bob King issued a directive instructing that all principals reject CARD's requests. In January 1983, CARD filed an administrative claim with the governing board so as to reverse the Superintendent's decision. The board rejected the claim in February and on March 16, 1983, CARD filed a lawsuit against the board, alleging that the board's actions and policies had deprived CARD of its rights under the First and Fourteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution.

In June 1986, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals stated that the question of voluntary and compulsory military service is a controversial political issue, ruling that if a school establishes a forum for one side to prevent its views, it must provide equal access to opponents. CARD v. GUHSD has since become a major legal precedent with regards to military recruitment. In the nine Western states within the boundaries of the Ninth Circuit, the ruling can be cited by counter-militarism activists in order to demand the opportunity to address students in public schools, an opportunity previously granted solely to recruiters and the Selective Service System. In addition, the Court's ruling clarifies the legal definition of school newspapers, mainly as "limited public forums." The governing board had argued that the newspapers were "non-public" and therefore completely under its control.

March 2001 school shootings
On March 5, 2001, Charles "Andy" Williams, 15, shot and killed two students and wounded 13 others at Santana High School in Santee. On August 15, 2002, Williams was sentenced to 50 years to life in prison for the shootings. His defense attorneys had filed a 200-page report arguing for more lenient sentencing. The report included excerpts from Williams' interview with University of California, Davis psychiatrist Dr. Charles Scott. Williams told Scott that taunting and bullying by his peers had depressed him and led him to consider suicide. He also told Scott that he thought someone would stop him from bringing his father's .22 calibre gun to school.

Less than three weeks later, on March 22, 2001, Jason Hoffman, 18, armed with a .22 calibre handgun and a 12-gauge pump-action shotgun, shot and wounded three students and two teachers at Granite Hills High School in nearby El Cajon. The shooting ended in a gun battle with local police near the campus administration building. Before the incident, Hoffman allegedly made references to the 1999 massacre at Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado. Hoffman reportedly had a history of mental illness and discipline problems and was ordered to attend an anger management class several years before. The San Diego Union-Tribune also reported that Hoffman had been rejected by the Navy a day before the shooting because he was 25 pounds overweight, had a skin condition and had been convicted of assault. After pleading guilty to one count of premeditated attempted murder and five counts of assault, Hoffman hanged himself in his segregation cell at the county jail on October 29, 2001.

2006 immigration policy protests
Students throughout San Diego County joined the nationwide protests over immigration policies in March 2006. Hundreds of students walked out of El Cajon Valley High School and marched in the streets carrying signs and flags. Granite Hills High School went into morning lockdowns to prevent students from coming into contact with marchers from the neighboring school. Student walkouts also occurred at Mount Miguel High School and Monte Vista High School.

GUHSD sent out an automated phone message to parents, urging them to keep their children at school. The bilingual message warned that students who are arrested could face a $250 fine. The district cautioned parents that any students who missed class or left the campus without permission would be marked truant and receive zero grades.

Charter schools
In 1998, Helix High School became the district's first charter high school. Steele Canyon became the second charter school on July 1, 2007. Liberty Charter High School was founded in 2008. Although affiliated with GUHSD, Helix High School has its own independent school board. Liberty Charter is operated by Literacy First inc.

Schools
The GUHSD has the following thirteen high school campuses (listed in order of year opened):
 * 1922 – Grossmont High School, La Mesa/El Cajon
 * 1952 – Helix High School (Originally a member now a Sponsored charter), La Mesa
 * 1955 – El Cajon Valley High School, El Cajon
 * 1957 – Mount Miguel High School, Spring Valley
 * 1959 – El Capitan High School, Lakeside
 * 1960 – Granite Hills High School, El Cajon
 * 1961 – Monte Vista High School, Spring Valley
 * 1965 – Santana High School, Santee
 * 1972 – Chaparral High School (continuation), El Cajon
 * 1974 – Valhalla High School, El Cajon
 * 1987 – West Hills High School, Santee
 * 2000 – Steele Canyon High School (charter), Spring Valley
 * 2008 – Liberty Charter High School (sponsored charter), La Mesa
 * 2015 – IDEA Center High School (alternative), El Cajon

Programs and services
In addition to its high schools, the districts operates:
 * Grossmont Middle College High School, Grossmont College, El Cajon
 * East County Career Center
 * East County Regional Education Center (ECREC)
 * East County Regional Occupational Program (ROP)
 * Foothills Adult School
 * Grossmont Work Training Center
 * REACH Academy (Continuation)/ Frontier (special education)
 * Viking Center (special education – severely disabled)
 * Work Training Center (Job skills training for special needs students)

Governing board and superintendent
Governing board

 * Chris Fite, member (elected 2016)
 * Gary Woods, member (elected 2008)
 * Robert Shield, member (elected 2006)
 * Elva Salinas, member (elected 2016)
 * Jim Kelly, member (elected 2002)

Superintendent Ms. Smith was an internal hire.
 * Jo Ann Smith, superintendent (appointed 1990)

Mr. Godley was a former superintendent of the San Marino Unified School District.
 * Thomas Godley, superintendent (appointed 1997)

Mr. Ward worked as an administrator for New York City Schools.
 * Granger Ward, Superintendent (appointed 1999)

Mr. Ryan worked for the County Office.
 * Terry Ryan, Superintendent (appointed 2003)

Mr. Collins had worked 39 years for LA Unified.
 * Robert Collins, superintendent (appointed 2007)

Mr. Swenson was the superintendent of the Nevada Joint Union High School District in metropolitan Sacramento.
 * Ralf Swenson, superintendent (appointed 2010)

Tolerance policies
In the mid-1980s, sophomore Karen Davis requested that a district policy preventing girls from participating in "contact sports" (e.g. wrestling, football and boxing) be changed. It is "outright discrimination," Davis argued, to exclude any capable girl from playing any particular sport. Initially, the board rejected her request, voting 4–1 in favor of prohibiting Davis from playing on the Helix High School football team. Davis threatened to sue the board and, in September 1985, the state legislative council ruled that she should be allowed to play on the team. Finally, the board changed the policy to allow girls to try out for contact sports.

In 1999, the school board approved expanding the district's anti-discrimination policy to include sexual orientation.

In 2002, the GUHSD board decided to censor a film promoting tolerance of gay, lesbian and bisexual students.

In October 2007, Governor Schwarzenegger signed an anti-discrimination law aiming to provide protection for gay, lesbian and transgender students. The following month, four of the five board members joined a federal lawsuit that challenged the new state education law as "unconstitutionally vague and a violation of privacy rights."

The school board publicly voted in 2008 on a resolution endorsing Proposition 8 which would effectively ban same-sex marriage in California. The Governing Board voted 4–0 with 1 abstention by board member Hoy (who cited that the proposition had nothing to do with schools) to endorse the amendment of the California State Constitution. Many students, teachers and community members spoke out against the boards action during the public comment period. They felt the message they were sending to students was one of discrimination and felt the support of prop 8 had nothing to do with the education and students of the district. Grossmont Union School board was the only school board in the State to make such a resolution in support of prop. 8

Advanced placement
Most high schools in the district offer advanced placement (AP) courses. The percent of students in AP courses varies from school to school.

Demographic profile
With 2,300 employees and hundreds more hourly employees, GUHSD is the largest employer of eastern San Diego County. GUHSD is also very ethnically diverse. Of the 24,000 students that attend schools in the district, approximately 53% are white, while 47% identify as one or more of the following: Latino, African-American, Asian, Filipino, Pacific Islander, and Native American. At the school level, these statistics change significantly. In fact, some schools comprise minority-majority populations. While non-Hispanic whites represent over 75% of the Santana High School student body, they make up only 16% at Mount Miguel High School.

A 1992 UC Santa Barbara-University of British Columbia-University of Edinburgh study examined the extent and impact of ethnic and racial segregation on the achievement gap in California's six largest school districts, including GUHSD, during the 1988–1989 school year. Within these districts, the study found that GUHSD had the highest concentration of white students, while San Francisco Unified School District and Los Angeles Unified School District had the lowest. The study suggested that such widespread segregation may have led to significant differences in achievement levels across schools and among ethnic groups.

Average class size in the district varies by grade level, subject area and school. The district, however, reports that it provides staffing resources at a ratio of 35 students to one teacher. Based on audited financial statements for the 2006–2007 fiscal year, the district spent an average of $9,030 to educate each student.

Socioeconomic backgrounds vary across student populations as well. The district reports relatively large percentages of socioeconomically disadvantaged students at several schools. During the 2005–2006 school year, 50% of students were considered disadvantaged at Mount Miguel High School, while 62%, 48% and 42% were deemed so at El Cajon Valley High School, Helix High School and Monte Vista High School, respectively. Valhalla High School had the lowest proportion of socioeconomically disadvantaged students, with only 12%.

Chaparral High School is the main continuation/alternative school of the district. Comprehensive schools may refer students to Chaparral for reasons involving poor attendance, lack of academic success and/or behavioral issues.

Feeder school districts

 * Cajon Valley Union School District
 * La Mesa-Spring Valley School District
 * Lakeside Union School District
 * Lemon Grove School District
 * Santee School District

Notable alumni

 * Khalif Barnes, Mount Miguel, 2000, National Football League offensive tackle, Jacksonville Jaguars
 * Leon Bender, Santana, 1992, National Football League defensive lineman, Oakland Raiders
 * Reggie Bush, Helix, 2002, National Football League running back, New Orleans Saints
 * Nick Cannon, Monte Vista, 1998, rapper and actor
 * Chuck Cecil, Helix, former National Football League strong safety for the Green Bay Packers, Arizona Cardinals and Houston Oilers, Currently safeties and nickelbacks coach for the Tennessee Titans
 * Eric Close, Valhalla, 1985, actor
 * Sharon Davis, Santana, 1972, former First Lady of California
 * Karl Dorrell, Helix, 1981, college football head coach, University of California, Los Angeles Bruins
 * Terry Forster, Santana, 1970, retired Major League Baseball relief pitcher, Chicago White Sox, Los Angeles Dodgers
 * Geoff Geary, Grossmont, 1994, Major League Baseball relief pitcher, Philadelphia Phillies
 * Brian Giles, Granite Hills, 1989, Major League Baseball right fielder, San Diego Padres and previously Cleveland Indians and Pittsburgh Pirates, brother of Marcus Giles
 * Marcus Giles, Granite Hills, 1996, Major League Baseball second baseman, San Diego Padres, brother of Brian Giles
 * Dennis Hopper, Helix, 1954, actor and film director
 * Jimmie Johnson, Granite Hills, 1993, NEXTEL Cup Champion
 * David Leisure, Grossmont, 1968, actor, Empty Nest and fictional Isuzu spokesman Joe Isuzu
 * Greg Louganis, Valhalla, 1976, former four-time Olympic gold medalist in diving
 * Mark Malone, El Cajon Valley, 1976, sportscaster and former National Football League quarterback, Pittsburgh Steelers, San Diego Chargers, and New York Jets
 * Kevin McCadam, El Capitan, 1997, Virginia Tech, National Football League, Atlanta Falcons, Carolina Panthers
 * Glen Morgan, El Cajon Valley, television producer, writer, and film director, often with business partner James Wong
 * Ellen Ochoa, Grossmont, 1975, astronaut
 * Mary Jo Ondrechen, Mount Miguel, 1970, scientist, educator, community activist
 * Hayden Penn,Santana, 2002, Major League Baseball pitcher, Baltimore Orioles
 * Julia Schultz, Granite Hills, 1997, model and actress
 * Brian Sipe, Grossmont, former National Football League MVP quarterback, Cleveland Browns and United States Football League New Jersey Generals and Jacksonville Bulls
 * Alex Smith, Helix, National Football League quarterback, San Francisco 49ers
 * Shane Spencer, Granite Hills, 1990, Nippon Professional Baseball outfielder, Hanshin Tigers and previously Major League Baseball New York Yankees, Toronto Blue Jays, Texas Rangers, Cleveland Indians, and New York Mets
 * Stephen Strasburg, West Hills, 2006 the "most-hyped pick in draft history" selected first overall in the 2009 Major League Baseball draft by the Washington Nationals
 * Frederick W. Sturckow, Grossmont, 1978, astronaut
 * Jim Tatum, Santana High School, 1985 drafted by San Diego Padres
 * Bill Walton, Helix, 1970, sportscaster and former National Basketball Association Hall of Fame center, Portland Trail Blazers and San Diego Clippers (now the Los Angeles Clippers)
 * James Wong, El Cajon Valley, television producer, writer and film director, often with business partner Glen Morgan

Notable faculty

 * Cathy Zemlick, 2001, Founder GMCHS
 * Roy Anthony, Valhalla, 1995 California Teacher of the Year, Instrumental Music 9–12
 * Robin Ballarin, West Hills, 2004 San Diego County Teacher of the Year
 * Marjorie Sue Blass, 1980 San Diego County Teacher of the Year
 * Barry Bosworth, 1994 San Diego County Teacher of the Year
 * Margaret Ruth Chaimson, 1981 San Diego County Teacher of the Year
 * Nadia Maria Quintana Davies, 1982 San Diego County Teacher of the Year
 * Charles Robert Downing, 1985 San Diego County Teacher of the Year
 * Susan Emerson, 1997 San Diego County Teacher of the Year
 * Lewis V. Freed, 1985 San Diego County Teacher of the Year
 * Myrra L. Lee, Helix, 1977 National Teacher of the Year
 * June M. Mott, 1979 San Diego County Teacher of the Year
 * Jane Collins Schaffer, 1982 San Diego County Teacher of the Year
 * Elinor Van Den Akker, 1975 San Diego County Teacher of the Year

Additional references

 * California Teachers of the Year Program award winners for 1990 through 2005, cde.ca.gov
 * History of the Schools of El Cajon Valley, k12.ca.us
 * List of California Distinguished Schools in San Diego County, cde.ca.gov
 * San Diego County Teachers of the Year award winners 1974–2006, k12.ca.us
 * Western Association of Schools and Colleges Directory of Accredited Schools 2005–2006 (PDF), acswasc.org

title: Grossmont Union High School District


text:
Hey Mama (Black Eyed Peas song)

"Hey Mama" is a song by American musical group the Black Eyed Peas with additional vocals provided by British reggae singer Tippa Irie. It was released in 2004 as the third single from their 2003 album, Elephunk, and became a top-10 hit in 14 countries, including Australia, Canada, Germany, New Zealand, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.

Recording and release
The song was recorded from March 7 to 8, 2003, at The Stewchia in Los Feliz, Los Angeles. The single version of the song differs from the album version in that it cuts a verse from the end of the song and replaces it with an entirely new one performed by members Taboo and apl.de.ap (both of whom did not perform on the original album version), changes some of the lyrics by removing references to the Middle East due to the Iraq War at the time and slightly alters the instrumental.

"Hey Mama" reached No. 3 in Switzerland and No. 4 in Australia, Austria, and New Zealand. In the United Kingdom, it peaked No. 6, becoming their third top-ten hit there, and was also a success in Canada and the United States, reaching No. 9 on the Canadian Singles Chart and No. 23 on the US Billboard Hot 100.

Though not included on its soundtrack album, the song was used to promote the 2004 film Garfield: The Movie, which stars Bill Murray voicing the titular role. In the film, Garfield has a dance-off with Odie to the song, which was used in the advertisements for the film.

Music video

The music video features three main locations, the first shown being a psychedelic limbo, where the Black Eyed Peas do breakdancing and the main verse of the song is sung. The color scheme is mostly yellow, red, brown and off-white. The second is the vertically-black-and-white striped canvas-room. A few parts are sung in here, but the main one is the one featuring Fergie. The third is the club dance scene, which has many background characters dancing.

Two versions of the video were made: one with apl.de.ap's and Taboo's rap verses and one without. Both versions add an instrumental breakdown to the end of the song.

Track listings
UK CD1 and Australian CD single
 * 1) "Hey Mama" – 3:48
 * 2) "Positivity" (live from House of Blues, Chicago) – 4:58
 * 3) "Release" (live from House of Blues, Chicago) – 3:07
 * 4) "Hey Mama" (video)

UK CD2 and European CD single
 * 1) "Hey Mama" – 3:48
 * 2) "Positivity" (live from House of Blues, Chicago) – 4:58

UK 12-inch single
 * A1. "Hey Mama" – 3:46
 * B1. "Hey Mama" (instrumental) – 3:30
 * B2. "The Boogie That Be" – 5:12

Personnel
Personnel are lifted from the Elephunk album booklet.

The Black Eyed Peas
 * will.i.am – vocals, Moog synthesizer, drum programming, Wurlitzer electric piano, production, engineering
 * Fergie – vocals
 * Taboo – vocals (only on the single/radio version)
 * apl.de.ap – vocals (only on the single/radio version)

Additional musicians
 * Tippa Irie – vocals
 * Dante Santiago – backing vocals

Production personnel
 * Tony Maserati – mixing

title: Hey Mama (Black Eyed Peas song)


text:
Miss Universe Canada

The Miss Universe Canada or "The Beauties of Canada" is a national beauty pageant in Canada, which sends its winners to the Miss Universe pageant.

The Beauties of Canada Organization gained the exclusive rights to send a Canadian representative to the Miss Universe Pageant in 2002. The company President is Nicaraguan-born Canadian Denis Dávila.

The Miss Universe Canada contest was first held in 2003, with the first winner being Leanne Marie Cecile. Cecile made the Top 10 in Miss Universe 2003.

Natalie Glebova was crowned the winner in 2005 and went on to become Miss Universe 2005. Glebova's successor Alice Panikian was viewed as a strong contender to win the 2006 Miss Universe crown and placed in the Top 10.

As of 2022, Canada along with France remain the only countries to send a delegate to every edition of Miss Universe since its inaugural year. Germany shared this distinction until 2020, when it withdrew due to the COVID-19 pandemic

International Crowns
Winner Of International Crowns:

(2005) Natalie Glebova
 * One-Miss Universe Crown
 * One-Reinado Internacional del Café Crown (2006)
 * Alice Panikian
 * One- Miss Eco International Crown ( 2017 )
 * Amber Bernachi
 * One- Virreina Internacional del Café Crown ( 2018 )
 * Marta Stępień
 * One- Miss Intelligence World Miss University ( 2022 )
 * Dominique Doucette

Controversy
In 2010, Miss Universe Canada made headlines when Maria Al-Masani, the first beauty pageant contestant of Yemeni origin, competed. This was controversial due to accommodating her religious beliefs by allowing her to wear a semi-transparent sarong over her swimsuit. In 2012, CNN World News named her one of its eight "agents of change" to follow, the only Canadian to receive that designation.

The 2012 contest was accused of transphobia after disqualifying a transgender contestant, Jenna Talackova (Jana Talačková), for not being a "naturally born female". A spokesperson from Miss Universe Canada released a statement saying she was disqualified because on her entry form she stated she was born a female, which was not the case. Eventually, Talackova was let back into the competition.

After this, Sahar Biniaz dropped out of the Miss Universe pageant a few days prior to it starting, having allegedly hurt her foot. Adwoa Yamoah, the first runner-up, replaced her and competed in Miss Universe 2012.

On May 27, 2013, two days after the Miss Universe Canada 2013 pageant, it was announced that Denise Garrido was the winner. As it turned out, Garrido was actually 3rd runner-up and due to a mathematical error was named the winner. Calgary's Riza Santos was the actual winner. During the validation of the computerized scoring results (which occurred the following day), a typo was discovered in the top five entries, which significantly impacted the final results of the competition.

Due to the pandemic, the 2021 Miss Universe Canada pageant was cancelled and the titles Miss Universe Canada 2021 and Miss International Canada 2021 were appointed to the delegates next in line. Therefore, Miss Universe Canada 2020's first runner-up Tamara Jemuovic was awarded the title of Miss Universe Canada 2021 and competed in Eilat, Israel at the 70th Miss Universe pageant. Respectively, Miss Universe Canada 2020's second runner-up Jaime VandenBerg was awarded the title of Miss International Canada 2021, although the 2020 & 2021 Miss International pageants were cancelled.

Miss Universe Canada

Note: Sahar Biniaz did not compete at Miss Universe 2012 due to a foot injury.

Miss International Canada

The following is a list of all Miss International Canada titleholders in under Beauties of Canada or Miss Universe Canada since 2003.

Miss Canada 1952—2002

1993–2002
The Canadian Search Miss Universe or Miss Canadian Universe was hosted by Chan International Models of Edmonton until 2002. While the 2002 event was held in August 2001 in Toronto, all previous events from 1993 to 2001 were held in Edmonton.

1979—1992
The Miss Canada pageant obtained the franchise for the Miss Universe Pageant in 1978, when that year's first runner-up, Andrea Leslie Eng, competed internationally. From 1979 to the final contest, the winners of Miss Canada went on to compete. Miss Canada 1982, Karen Baldwin, being the only Miss Canada to also win Miss Universe. The show was popular in the 1970s, with up to 5 million viewers, but declined in the 1980s, until the franchise holders, Cleo Productions, closed in early 1992. Producers of the show cited mounting production costs, as the reason for cancellation. The last winner was Miss Canada 1992, Nicole Dunsdon, from Summerland, British Columbia, a speech pathology student at the University of Alberta.

1959—1977
Between 1969 and 1977 the Miss Dominion of Canada pageant originated when the Bruno family of Ancaster, Ontario obtained franchise rights to select and send Canada's exclusive representatives to Miss Universe. The winner of Miss Dominion of Canada competed in Miss Universe, Miss World, and often both Miss International and Queen of the Pacific. The Miss Universe franchise in Canada was taken over by the nationally televised Miss Canada contest in 1978.

1952—1958
In 1952, Miss Toronto 1951 competed to Miss Universe 1952. Between 1952 and 1958 Miss Universe Canada was selected by a photo contest and/or casting by Silknit Ltd. of Toronto, Canada. Most winners were former Miss Toronto Pageant winners or participants.

title: Miss Universe Canada


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/The Vultar Cataclysm

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was SPEEDIED   — Gwalla | Talk 22:10, 17 Jun 2005 (UTC)

The Vultar Cataclysm
Marked for speedy but isn't a candidate. Appears to be some event in the Star Wars "Expanded Universe". Article is a mess.  — Gwalla | Talk 03:28, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete without source. Google finds 632 hits for Vultar, but none that appear to be related to Star Wars.-LtNOWIS 03:44, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete: Pretend that you don't know Star Wars Expanded Universe of Marketing and read the article. It'll look exactly like nonsense.  Anyway, such are the perils of fictions written without indication.  Geogre 14:51, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete Appears to be real in the Star Wars Universe:, but this is just badly written cruft. --Etacar11 18:00, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Speedy delete as patent nonsense. Look at that last paragraph -- "His middle name was Luke Warm Skywalker", "Luke Skywalker invented a time-machine and took it back to the Ajunta Paul times and was killed by him, but Luke was half cat and had 4 1/2 lives" --Carnildo 21:17, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, though I admit the parts I could make sense of were moderately interesting, then again, the intriguing ideas of Yoda possibly being a former dark jedi floated out of my head upon reading that Luke Warm Skywalker is really half cat. StopTheFiling 00:02, Jun 15, 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages.  Please do not edit this page .


text:
User talk:24.22.249.15

Imaginary Number Project listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has asked for a discussion to address the redirect Imaginary Number Project. Since you had some involvement with the Imaginary Number Project redirect, you might want to participate in the redirect discussion if you wish to do so. ZXCVBNM (TALK) 13:34, 4 July 2019 (UTC)

title: User talk:24.22.249.15


text:
Cleggan

Cleggan is a fishing village in County Galway, Ireland. The village lies 10 km (7 mi) northwest of Clifden and is situated at the head of Cleggan Bay.

A focal point of the village is the pier, built by Alexander Nimmo in 1822 and extended in 1908. Ferries leave the pier daily for Inishbofin there is also a ferry to Inishturk.

History
An Cloigeann means head or skull, apparently referring to the coastal headland. Legend, however, provides a different origin of the name. St. Ceannanach is said to have been beheaded by a pagan chief. Lore has it that the chief then picked up his head and took it to the Holy Well in Clooncree where he washed it before lying down to die. At the top of Cleggan head, which gives a commanding view of the harbour, is the remains of a watchtower constructed during the Napoleonic wars.

In 1927, in what became known as the Cleggan Bay Disaster, 25 fishermen from the local area drowned during a great gale which arose without warning while they were mackerel fishing in the bay. The nearby village of Rossadilisk lost sixteen men and was subsequently abandoned. Nine men from Inishbofin and twenty men from County Mayo were also lost. Due to the death of so many breadwinners, the area was devastated. The disaster and the devastation visited on the local families made international news and funds were raised from as far away as the U.K., U.S. and Australia. The disaster is remembered in stories, poems and on stone markers. It was recorded by local Marie Feeney in her book "The Cleggan Bay Disaster", by TG4 Documentary "The Cleggan Disaster" / "An Báthadh Mór" directed by Petra Conroy, and remembered in Richard Murphy's poem "The Cleggan Disaster", from his 1963 book "Sailing to an Island". Irish singer/songwriter Saoirse Mhór wrote the song "The Cleggan Bay Disaster" (Greenhill Media 2013) which was the title track of the 2013 release by the German/Irish Folk band Fleadh.

Offshore, the island of Inishbofin can be reached by boat from Cleggan pier. Inishbofin has a population of about 200 people. In 665 St. Coleman founded a monastery on the island. A roofless thirteenth century chapel in the present day graveyard is believed to be the site of his monastery. The harbour entrance of the island is dominated by the Cromwellian fort which was a prison camp for Catholic priests. The island also holds the remains of castle built by the "pirate queen" Gráinne O'Malley.

A notable feature of the physical geography around Cleggan is blanket bog. Few plant species can live in the acid condition of the bog, but those that can form a vegetation not found outside Ireland.

Near Cleggan is a collection of prehistoric monuments including tombs, standing stones and walls.

Economy
Cleggan now receives more tourists, but traditionally the main source of income in the village has been fishing, supplemented by farming, which is difficult in the area's soil. Fishing continues to be an important industry. The village has four bars, one grocer and a sit-down restaurant, as well as a seasonal take-out. In addition to trips to the local islands, leisure activities for visitors include horseback riding and fishing.

Famous residents

 * James Morrissey, PR agent and spokesperson for Denis O'Brien, owns a house in Cleggan.
 * Micheál Mac Suibhne (1760-1842) poet who composed his work in Connacht Irish.

title: Cleggan


text:
Vekoslav Grmič

Vekoslav Grmič (4 June 1923 – 21 March 2005) was a Slovenian Roman Catholic bishop and theologian, known for his sympathy towards socialist ideas.

Biography
He was born in the Lower Styrian village of Sveti Jurij ob Ščavnici in what was then the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. He studied at a Roman Catholic priest seminary in Maribor. Already as a young man, he became influenced by the social thought of Janez Evangelist Krek, Edvard Kocbek and the German philosopher Romano Guardini. After the invasion of Yugoslavia and the Nazi occupation of northern Slovenia in April 1941, Grmič started collaborating with the Communist-led Liberation Front of the Slovenian People.

In 1950, he was ordained priest and between 1952 and 1958 he worked as a parish priest of Vransko. In 1961 he graduated from the Theological Faculty in Ljubljana with a thesis on the theological elements in the existentialist concept of angst. From 1962 until his retirement in 1991 he taught dogmatic theology at the same faculty.

In 1968 he was appointed auxiliary bishop of Maribor by Pope Paul VI. In 1980, he was removed from office by Pope John Paul II, although he nominally maintained the title of bishop and continued to teach at the Theological Faculty in Ljubljana.

Grmič was a strong supporter of the Liberation Theology and of the political-religious thought of the Swiss reformist theologian Hans Küng. Together with the fellow Slovene Roman Catholic theologian Janez Janžekovič, he became one of the supporters of a closer collaboration between Roman Catholics and Marxist in Yugoslavia. During his lifetime, Grmič published more than 40 books and several translation from German.

In the last decade of his life, he often voiced his opinion in public, thus becoming a somewhat controversial figure. He often held very different views from other members of the local Roman Catholic hierarchy on several issues of social and political matters.

He died in Maribor at the age of 82.

Main works

 * O Bogu (On God, Ljubljana, 1966)
 * Vprašanja našega časa v luči teologije: sodobna evangelizacija (The Issues of Our Time in the Light of Theology: Modern Evangelization. Tinje/Tainach, Carinthia], 1978)
 * Med vero in nevero (Between Faith and Infidelity, Celje, 1969)
 * Resnica iz ljubezni (Truth from Love, Ljubljana, 1979)
 * Teologija v službi človeka (Theology in the Service of Man, Tinje/Tainach, 1975)
 * Življenje iz upanja (Life from Hope, Ljubljana, 1981)
 * Humanizem problem našega časa (Humanism and the Problem of Our Time, Trieste, 1983)
 * V duhu dialoga: za človeka gre (In the Spirit of Dialogue: It's about Man, Ljubljana, 1986)
 * Kocbekova odločitev za OF in (njegov) krščanski etos (Kocbek's Decision for the Liberation Front and (His) Christian Ethos, Ljubljana, 1994)
 * Ušeničnikovo razumevanje umetnosti in literature (Ušeničnik's Conception of Art and Literature, Ljubljana, 1994)
 * Izzivi in odgovori (Challenges and Answers, Ljubljana, 2000)
 * Poslednji spisi: misli o sodobnosti (Last Writings: Thoughts on Modernity, Ljubljana, 2005)

title: Vekoslav Grmič


text:
Eyrecourt

Eyrecourt, historically known as Donanaghta, is a village in County Galway, Ireland. Eyrecourt is on the R356 regional road 12 km west of the Banagher bridge over the River Shannon.

History
The Eyres after whom the village is named, as well as other places such as Eyre Square in Galway City, were an English family who came over with Cromwell. Their former residence, Eyrecourt Castle (now a ruin), provides the large metal gateway at the eastern end of main street and the 100 acre castle lawn beyond. The family were for many years closely associated with the local hunt, the Galway Blazers.

Amenities
The village stands midway along the Beara-Breifne Way; a historic way-marked way for walking, cycling and heritage. Eyrecourt is served by two public houses, library, shop, garage and fast food outlet, pharmacy, tractor dealership, medical centre, primary school, several small enterprises and the Meelick-Eyrecourt GAA club. Various groups and classes use the village hall, including for Pilates, martial arts, scouting, art classes, badminton and other sports. Local sporting clubs include a kayaking club.

Every second year in June the village hosts a festival of early machinery, the "Eyrecourt Vintage Festival", when old tractors, steam-engines and early farm machines are displayed. Each September Eyrecourt also hosts an agricultural show, which includes livestock shows and baking and gardening competitions.

Eyrecourt is approximately 70 km (1 hour by car) from Galway and 150 km (2 hours by car) from Dublin.

International relations
Eyrecourt is twinned with the village of Gouesnach in Brittany.

Parish
The parish of Eyrecourt in south east County Galway incorporates the ancient ecclesiastical centres of Dunanaughta, Clonfert and Meelick and is bounded by the Rivers Shannon and Suck for 16 mi.

Within Dunanaughta there are two churches; the Catholic Church of St Brendan which has some notable stained glass windows, (the work of John Early of Dublin) and the Church of Ireland Church of St John the Baptist (an Anglo Gothic structure built in 1867). Meelick has the oldest Catholic church in Ireland with continuous use since 1414 AD. Clonfert has the grave of Saint Brendan "The Navigator" and Clonfert Cathedral (with its architecturally notable doorway), and a 14th-century statue of "Our Lady of Clonfert".

Transport
Eyrecourt is connected with one bus line. The local link line 547 connects Portumna and Ballinasloe with an intermediate stop in Eyrecourt. In Ballinasloe, the route ends at the train station where a connection can be made with trains for Galway and Dublin. Monday to Saturday, there are four journeys in each direction. On Sundays, only two journeys are made.

Notable people

 * Charles Burton, High Court judge
 * Cornelius Coughlan, Victoria Cross recipient
 * Roger Whittaker, singer-songwriter (born in Nairobi but lived in Eyrecourt)
 * Joe Salmon, Galway hurler grew up in Eyrecourt

title: Eyrecourt


text:
Dresiarz

Dres or dresiarz  (plural dresy  or dresiarze ) is a term used in Poland to describe a specific subculture or class of young males. Dresiarze stereotypically live in urban tower blocks or tenement houses. They are usually portrayed as undereducated, unemployed, aggressive, and anti-social. The dresiarz phenomenon was first observed in the 1990s and is sometimes compared to the British chavs, Scottish neds, Australian bogans or Russian gopniks. It would later partially merge with the hooligan subcultures and sometimes attributed to football hooligans.

The term refers to tracksuits, which in Polish is dres. Kark (pl. karki – napes) and blocker (pl. blokersi – block-people) are related but not synonymous terms; see below. The term has a pejorative connotation in Polish mass media.

Dorota Masłowska's novel White and Red is one of the first books published featuring the dresiarz phenomenon. Dresy have been a theme of (usually critical) songs by Dezerter and Big Cyc. They are also popular negative characters in the comic strip Jeż Jerzy.

Characteristics
The following traits are typically attributed to the dresiarz stereotype:
 * Taste in music usually encompassing Polish disco polo and rap, rarely techno, house genres or hardbass.
 * Wearing tracksuits along with a hoodie and trainers; usually cheap counterfeit imitations of popular brands.
 * Shaved head.
 * Weight lifting and/or strength training in gyms.
 * Affection for automobiles — at first they were stereotypically associated with heavily modified Fiat 126p cars (often with iconic Pioneer sticker covering the rear window), but recently they switched to older versions of BMW 3 and BMW 5 as well as Volkswagen Golf Mk2 and Opel Calibra, and recently their taste switched to Volkswagen Group automobiles, especially Audi. Apart from German cars, Japanese and East-Asian made cars such as the Honda Civic gained popularity due to the influence of the Fast & Furious franchise.
 * Keeping aggressive dog breeds, such as the Pit Bull or American Staffordshire Terrier as pets (sometimes used in dog fights).
 * Their female counterparts often have excessive solarium tans, bleached platinum blonde or pitch black dyed hair and wear artificial nails, mini-skirts, and crop tops.

Related terms

 * Kark, meaning "neck" and a short for byczy kark ("bull neck"), is most used in connection with weight lifting; a person perceived as a kark may be wearing neither trainers nor a tracksuit, but shares most other elements of stereotypical dres behavior. The term may also refer to lower-ranked members of gangster groups, i.e. "thugs".
 * Blokers – a term for a young person exhibiting anti-social behavior, living in commie blocks (blok in Polish, also known as Soviet Khrushchevka). This term was used first time circa 1995 by Robert Leszczyński, a Polish music critic and journalist.
 * ABS – an acronym for Absolutny Brak Szyi ("Total Lack of Neck"). See Kark. Often used pejoratively for heavily "pumped up" thugs and hooligans. The implied characteristic is anabolic steroid use.

title: Dresiarz


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/16 Days 'til the Rest of Your Life

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE. Golbez 01:06, Jun 20, 2005 (UTC)

16 Days 'til the Rest of Your Life
This film does not appear on the Internet Movie Database, nor do its director or its lead actor have IMDb entries. A Google search yields 28 hits, most of which appear to be either Wikipedia mirrors or resumes of the cast and crew. Even though the film exists, it appears too obscure to be encyclopedic. --Metropolitan90 03:34, Jun 14, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete - Smells like Vanity to me. Or a commercial. --feitclub 06:33, Jun 14, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete vanity/promotional piece. Mgm|(talk) 09:45, Jun 14, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete: Advertising. It looks too much like a real thing to be vanity, but it also looks too well done to be anything but advertising. Geogre 14:53, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete Ad. If it's only been at festivals and it's not in IMDB yet, that means no one has seen it and it hardly merits an article yet. --Etacar11 18:14, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * And 16 Days has been made a redirect to this article. --Etacar11 18:51, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, blatant advertising. StopTheFiling 00:04, Jun 15, 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages.  Please do not edit this page .


text:
Florida Northern Railroad

The following railroads have been called Florida Northern Railroad:
 * Florida Northern Railroad (defunct), a former railroad north of Jacksonville, Florida
 * Florida Northern Railroad (current), a short line railroad near Ocala, Florida

title: Florida Northern Railroad