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Subglacial lake

A subglacial lake is a lake that is found under a glacier, typically beneath an ice cap or ice sheet. Subglacial lakes form at the boundary between ice and the underlying bedrock, where pressure decreases the pressure melting point of ice. Over time, the overlying ice gradually melts at a rate of a few millimeters per year. Meltwater flows from regions of high to low hydraulic pressure under the ice and pools, creating a body of liquid water that can be isolated from the external environment for millions of years.

Since the first discoveries of subglacial lakes under the Antarctic Ice Sheet, more than 400 subglacial lakes have been discovered in Antarctica, beneath the Greenland Ice Sheet, and under Iceland's Vatnajökull ice cap. Subglacial lakes contain a substantial proportion of Earth's liquid freshwater, with the volume of Antarctic subglacial lakes alone estimated to be about 10,000 km3, or about 15% of all liquid freshwater on Earth.

As ecosystems isolated from Earth's atmosphere, subglacial lakes are influenced by interactions between ice, water, sediments, and organisms. They contain active biological communities of extremophilic microbes that are adapted to cold, low-nutrient conditions and facilitate biogeochemical cycles independent of energy inputs from the sun. Subglacial lakes and their inhabitants are of particular interest in the field of astrobiology and the search for extraterrestrial life.

Physical characteristics
The water in subglacial lakes remains liquid since geothermal heating balances the heat loss at the ice surface. The pressure from the overlying glacier causes the melting point of water to be below 0 °C. The ceiling of the subglacial lake will be at the level where the pressure melting point of water intersects with the temperature gradient. In Lake Vostok, the largest Antarctic subglacial lake, the ice over the lake is thus much thicker than the ice sheet around it. Hypersaline subglacial lakes remain liquid due to their salt content.

Not all lakes with permanent ice cover can be called subglacial, as some are covered by regular lake ice. Some examples of perennially ice-covered lakes include Lake Bonney and Lake Hoare in Antarctica's McMurdo Dry Valleys as well as Lake Hodgson, a former subglacial lake.

Hydrostatic seals
The water in a subglacial lake can have a floating level much above the level of the ground threshold. In fact, theoretically a subglacial lake can even exist on the top of a hill, provided that the ice over it is thin enough to form the required hydrostatic seal. The floating level can be thought of as the water level in a hole drilled through the ice into the lake. It is equivalent to the level at which a piece of ice over it would float if it were a normal ice shelf. The ceiling can therefore be conceived as an ice shelf that is grounded along its entire perimeter, which explains why it has been called a captured ice shelf. As it moves over the lake, it enters the lake at the floating line, and it leaves the lake at the grounding line.

A hydrostatic seal is created when the ice is so much higher around the lake that the equipotential surface dips down into impermeable ground. Water from underneath this ice rim is then pressed back into the lake by the hydrostatic seal. The ice rim in Lake Vostok has been estimated to a mere 7 meters, while the floating level is about 3 kilometers above the lake ceiling. If the hydrostatic seal is penetrated when the floating level is high, the water will start flowing out in a jökulhlaup. Due to melting of the channel the discharge increases exponentially, unless other processes allow the discharge to increase even faster. Due to the high hydraulic head that can be achieved in some subglacial lakes, jökulhlaups may reach very high rates of discharge. Catastrophic drainage from subglacial lakes is a known hazard in Iceland, as volcanic activity can create enough meltwater to overwhelm ice dams and lake seals and cause glacial outburst flooding.

Influence on glacier movement
The role of subglacial lakes on ice dynamics is unclear. Certainly on the Greenland Ice Sheet subglacial water acts to enhance basal ice motion in a complex manner. The "Recovery Lakes" beneath Antarctica's Recovery Glacier lie at the head of a major ice stream and may influence the dynamics of the region. A modest (10%) speed up of Byrd Glacier in East Antarctica may have been influenced by a subglacial drainage event. The flow of subglacial water is known in downstream areas where ice streams are known to migrate, accelerate or stagnate on centennial time scales and highlights that subglacial water may be discharged over the ice sheet grounding line.

History and expeditions
Russian revolutionary and scientist Peter A. Kropotkin first proposed the idea of liquid freshwater under the Antarctic Ice Sheet at the end of the 19th century. He suggested that due to the geothermal heating at the bottom of the ice sheets, the temperature beneath the ice could reach the ice melt temperature, which would be below zero. The notion of freshwater beneath ice sheets was further advanced by Russian glaciologist Igor A. Zotikov, who demonstrated via theoretical analysis the possibility of a decrease in Antarctic ice because of melting of ice at a lower surface. As of 2019, there are over 400 subglacial lakes in Antarctica, and it is suspected that there is a possibility of more. Subglacial lakes have also been discovered in Greenland, Iceland, and northern Canada.

Early exploration
Scientific advances in Antarctica can be attributed to several major periods of collaboration and cooperation, such as the four International Polar Years (IPY) in 1882-1883, 1932-1933, 1957-1958, and 2007-2008. The success of the 1957-1958 IPY led to the establishment of the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) and the Antarctic Treaty System, paving the way to formulate a better methodology and process to observe subglacial lakes.

In 1959 and 1964, during two of his four Soviet Antarctic Expeditions, Russian geographer and explorer Andrey P. Kapitsa used seismic sounding to prepare a profile of the layers of the geology below Vostok Station in Antarctica. The original intent of this work was to conduct a broad survey of the Antarctic Ice Sheet. The data collected on these surveys, however, was used 30 years later and led to the discovery of Lake Vostok as a subglacial lake.

Beginning in the late 1950s, English physicists Stan Evans and Gordon Robin began using the radioglaciology technique of radio-echo sounding (RES) to chart ice thickness. Subglacial lakes are identified by (RES) data as continuous and specular reflectors which dip against the ice surface at around x10 of the surface slope angle, as this is required for hydrostatic stability. In the late 1960s, they were able to mount RES instruments on aircraft and acquire data for the Antarctic Ice Sheet. Between 1971 and 1979, the Antarctic Ice Sheet was profiled extensively using RES equipment. The technique of using RES is as follows: 50-meter deep holes are drilled to increase the signal-to-noise ratio in the ice. A small explosion sets off a sound wave, which travels through the ice. This sound wave is reflected and then recorded by the instrument. The time it takes for the wave to travel down and back is noted and converted to a distance using the known speed of sound in ice. RES records can identify subglacial lakes via three specific characteristics: 1) an especially strong reflection from the ice-sheet base, stronger than adjacent ice-bedrock reflections; 2) echoes of constant strength occurring along the track, which indicate that the surface is very smooth; and 3) a very flat and horizontal character with slopes less than 1%. Using this approach, 17 subglacial lakes were documented by Kapista and his team. RES also led to the discovery of the first subglacial lake in Greenland and revealed that these lakes are interconnected.

Systematic profiling, using RES, of the Antarctic Ice Sheet took place again between 1971–1979. During this time, a US-UK-Danish collaboration was able to survey about 40% of East Antarctica and 80% of West Antarctica – further defining the subglacial landscape and the behavior of ice flow over the lakes.

Satellite exploration
In the early 1990s, radar altimeter data from the European Remote-Sensing Satellite (ERS-1) provided detailed mapping of Antarctica through 82 degrees south. This imaging revealed a flat surface around the northern border of Lake Vostok, and the data collected from ERS-1 further built the geographical distribution of Antarctic subglacial lakes.

In 2005, Laurence Gray and a team of glaciologists began to interpret surface ice slumping and raising from RADARSAT data, which indicated there could be hydrologically “active” subglacial lakes subject to water movement.

Between 2003 and 2009, a survey of long-track measurements of ice-surface elevation using the ICESat satellite as a part of NASA's Earth Observing System produced the first continental-scale map of the active subglacial lakes in Antarctica. In 2009, it was revealed that Lake Cook is the most hydrologically active subglacial lake on the Antarctic continent. Other satellite imagery has been used to monitor and investigate this lake, including ICESat, CryoSat-2, the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer, and SPOT5.

Gray et al. (2005) interpreted ice surface slumping and raising from RADARSAT data as evidence for subglacial lakes filling and emptying - termed "active" lakes. Wingham et al. (2006) used radar altimeter (ERS-1) data to show coincident uplift and subsidence, implying drainage between lakes. NASA's ICESat satellite was key in developing this concept further and subsequent work demonstrated the pervasiveness of this phenomenon. ICESat ceased measurements in 2007 and the detected "active" lakes were compiled by Smith et al. (2009) who identified 124 such lakes. The realisation that lakes were interconnected created new contamination concerns for plans to drill into lakes (see the Sampling expeditions section below).

Several lakes were delineated by the famous SPRI-NSF-TUD surveys undertaken until the mid-seventies. Since this original compilation several smaller surveys has discovered many more subglacial lakes throughout Antarctica, notably by Carter et al. (2007), who identified a spectrum of subglacial lake types based on their properties in (RES) datasets.

Sampling expeditions
In March 2010, the sixth international conference on subglacial lakes was held at the American Geophysical Union Chapman Conference in Baltimore. The conference allowed engineers and scientists to discuss the equipment and strategies used in ice drilling projects, such as the design of hot-water drills, equipment for water measurement and sampling and sediment recovery, and protocols for experimental cleanliness and environmental stewardship. Following this meeting, SCAR drafted a code of conduct for ice drilling expeditions and in situ (on-site) measurements and sampling of subglacial lakes. This code of conduct was ratified at the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM) of 2011. By the end of 2011, three separate subglacial lake drilling exploration missions were scheduled to take place.

In February 2012, Russian ice-core drilling at Lake Vostok accessed the subglacial lake for the first time. Lake water flooded the borehole and froze during the winter season, and the sample of re-frozen lake water (accretion ice) was recovered in the following summer season of 2013. In December 2012, scientists from the UK attempted to access Lake Ellsworth with a clean access hot-water drill; however, the mission was called off because of equipment failure. In January 2013, the US-led Whillans Ice Stream Subglacial Access Research Drilling (WISSARD) expedition measured and sampled Lake Whillans in West Antarctica for microbial life. On 28 December 2018, the Subglacial Antarctic Lakes Scientific Access (SALSA) team announced they had reached Lake Mercer after melting their way through 1,067 m (3,501 ft) of ice with a high-pressure hot-water drill. The team collected water samples and bottom sediment samples down to 6 meters deep.

Antarctica
The majority of the nearly 400 Antarctic subglacial lakes are located in the vicinity of ice divides, where large subglacial drainage basins are overlain by ice sheets. The largest is Lake Vostok with other lakes notable for their size being Lake Concordia and Aurora Lake. An increasing number of lakes are also being identified near ice streams. An altimeter survey by the ERS-2 satellite orbiting the East Antarctic Ice Sheet from 1995 to 2003 indicated clustered anomalies in ice sheet elevation indicating that the East Antarctic lakes are fed by a subglacial system that transports basal meltwater through subglacial streams. The largest Antarctic subglacial lakes are clustered in the Dome C-Vostok area of East Antarctica, possibly due to the thick insulating ice and rugged, tectonically influenced subglacial topography. In West Antarctica, subglacial Lake Ellsworth is situated within the Ellsworth Mountains and is relatively small and shallow. The Siple Coast Ice Streams, also in West Antarctica, overlie numerous small subglacial lakes, including Lakes Whillans, Engelhardt, Mercer, Conway, accompanied by their lower neighbours called Lower Conway (LSLC) and Lower Mercer (LSLM). Glacial retreat at the margins of the Antarctic Ice Sheet has revealed several former subglacial lakes, including Progress Lake in East Antarctica and Hodgson Lake on southern Alexander Island near the Antarctic Peninsula.

Greenland
The existence of subglacial lakes beneath the Greenland Ice Sheet has only become evident within the last decade. Radio-echo sounding measurements have revealed two subglacial lakes in the northwest section of the ice sheet. These lakes are likely recharged with water from the drainage of nearby supraglacial lakes rather than from melting of basal ice. Another potential subglacial lake has been identified near the southwestern margin of the ice sheet, where a circular depression beneath the ice sheet evidences recent drainage of the lake caused by climate warming. Such drainage, coupled with heat transfer to the base of the ice sheet through the storage of supraglacial meltwater, is thought to influence the rate of ice flow and overall behavior of the Greenland Ice Sheet.

Iceland
Much of Iceland is volcanically active, resulting in significant meltwater production beneath its two ice caps. This meltwater also accumulates in basins and ice cauldrons, forming subglacial lakes. These lakes act as a transport mechanism for heat from geothermal vents to the bottom of the ice caps, which often results in melting of basal ice that replenishes any water lost from drainage. The majority of Icelandic subglacial lakes are located beneath the Vatnajökull and Mýrdalsjökull ice caps, where melting from hydrothermal activity creates permanent depressions that fill with meltwater. Catastrophic drainage from subglacial lakes is a known hazard in Iceland, as volcanic activity can create enough meltwater to overwhelm ice dams and lake seals and cause glacial outburst flooding.

Grímsvötn is perhaps the best known subglacial lake beneath the Vatnajökull ice cap. Other lakes beneath the ice cap lie within the Skatfá, Pálsfjall and Kverkfjöll cauldrons. Notably, subglacial lake Grímsvötn's hydraulic seal remained intact until 1996, when significant meltwater production from the Gjálp eruption resulted in uplift of Grímsvötn's ice dam.

The Mýrdalsjökull ice cap, another key subglacial lake location, sits on top of an active volcano-caldera system in the southernmost part of the Katla volcanic system. Hydrothermal activity beneath the Mýrdalsjökull ice cap is thought to have created at least 12 small depressions within an area constrained by three major subglacial drainage basins. Many of these depressions are known to contain subglacial lakes that are subject to massive, catastrophic drainage events from volcanic eruptions, creating a significant hazard for nearby human populations.

Canada
Until very recently, only former subglacial lakes from the last glacial period had been identified in Canada. These paleo-subglacial lakes likely occupied valleys created before the advance of the Laurentide Ice Sheet during the Last Glacial Maximum. However, two subglacial lakes were identified via RES in bedrock troughs under the Devon Ice Cap of Nunavut, Canada. These lakes are thought to be hypersaline as a result of interaction with the underlying salt-bearing bedrock, and are much more isolated than the few identified saline subglacial lakes in Antarctica.

Ecology
Unlike surface lakes, subglacial lakes are isolated from Earth's atmosphere and receive no sunlight. Their waters are thought to be ultra-oligotrophic, meaning they contain very low concentrations of the nutrients necessary for life. Despite the cold temperatures, low nutrients, high pressure, and total darkness in subglacial lakes, these ecosystems have been found to harbor thousands of different microbial species and some signs of higher life. Professor John Priscu, a prominent scientist studying polar lakes, has called Antarctica's subglacial ecosystems "our planet's largest wetland.”

Microorganisms and weathering processes drive a diverse set of chemical reactions that can drive a unique food-web and thus cycle nutrients and energy through subglacial lake ecosystems. No photosynthesis can occur in the darkness of subglacial lakes, so their food webs are instead driven by chemosynthesis and the consumption of ancient organic carbon deposited before glaciation. Nutrients can enter subglacial lakes through the glacier ice-lake water interface, from hydrologic connections, and from the physical, chemical, and biological weathering of subglacial sediments.

Biogeochemical cycles
Since few subglacial lakes have been directly sampled, much of the existing knowledge about subglacial lake biogeochemistry is based on a small number of samples, mostly from Antarctica. Inferences about solute concentrations, chemical processes, and biological diversity of unsampled subglacial lakes have also been drawn from analyses of accretion ice (re-frozen lake water) at the base of the overlying glaciers. These inferences are based on the assumption that accretion ice will have similar chemical signatures as the lake water that formed it. Scientists have thus far discovered diverse chemical conditions in subglacial lakes, ranging from upper lake layers supersaturated in oxygen to bottom layers that are anoxic and sulfur-rich. Despite their typically oligotrophic conditions, subglacial lakes and sediments are thought to contain regionally and globally significant amounts of nutrients, particularly carbon.

At the lake-ice interface
Air clathrates trapped in glacial ice are the main source of oxygen entering otherwise enclosed subglacial lake systems. As the bottom layer of ice over the lake melts, clathrates are freed from the ice's crystalline structure and gases such as oxygen are made available to microbes for processes like aerobic respiration. In some subglacial lakes, freeze-melt cycles at the lake-ice interface may enrich the upper lake water with oxygen concentrations that are 50 times higher than in typical surface waters.

Melting of the layer of glacial ice above the subglacial lake also supplies underlying waters with iron, nitrogen, and phosphorus-containing minerals, in addition to some dissolved organic carbon and bacterial cells.

In the water column
Because air clathrates from melting glacial ice are the primary source of oxygen to subglacial lake waters, the concentration of oxygen generally decreases with depth in the water column if turnover is slow. Oxic or slightly suboxic waters often reside near the glacier-lake interface, while anoxia dominates in the lake interior and sediments due to respiration by microbes. In some subglacial lakes, microbial respiration may consume all of the oxygen in the lake, creating an entirely anoxic environment until new oxygen-rich water flows in from connected subglacial environments. The addition of oxygen from ice melt and the consumption of oxygen by microbes may create redox gradients in the subglacial lake water column, with aerobic microbial mediated processes like nitrification occurring in the upper waters and anaerobic processes occurring in the anoxic bottom waters.

Concentrations of solutes in subglacial lakes, including major ions and nutrients like sodium, sulfate, and carbonates, are low compared to typical surface lakes. These solutes enter the water column from glacial ice melting and from sediment weathering. Despite their low solute concentrations, the large volume of subglacial waters make them important contributors of solutes, particularly iron, to their surrounding oceans. Subglacial outflow from the Antarctic Ice Sheet, including outflow from subglacial lakes, is estimated to add a similar amount of solutes to the Southern Ocean as some of the world's largest rivers.

The subglacial water column is influenced by the exchange of water between lakes and streams under ice sheets through the subglacial drainage system; this behavior likely plays an important role in biogeochemical processes, leading to changes in microbial habitat, particularly regarding oxygen and nutrient concentrations. Hydrologic connectivity of subglacial lakes also alters water residence times, or amount of time that water stays within the subglacial lake reservoir. Longer residence times, such as those found beneath the interior Antarctic Ice Sheet, would lead to greater contact time between the water and solute sources, allowing for greater accumulation of solutes than in lakes with shorter residence times. Estimated residence times of currently studied subglacial lakes range from about 13,000 years in Lake Vostok to just decades in Lake Whillans.

The morphology of subglacial lakes has the potential to change their hydrology and circulation patterns. Areas with the thickest overlying ice experience greater rates of melting. The opposite occurs in areas where the ice sheet is thinnest, which allows re-freezing of lake water to occur. These spatial variations in melting and freezing rates lead to internal convection of water and circulation of solutes, heat, and microbial communities throughout the subglacial lake, which will vary among subglacial lakes of different regions.

In sediments
Subglacial sediments are primarily composed of glacial till that formed during physical weathering of subglacial bedrock. Anoxic conditions prevail in these sediments due to oxygen consumption by microbes, particularly during sulfide oxidation. Sulfide minerals are generated by weathering of bedrock by the overlying glacier, after which these sulfides are oxidized to sulfate by aerobic or anaerobic bacteria, which can use iron for respiration when oxygen is unavailable.

The products of sulfide oxidation can enhance the chemical weathering of carbonate and silicate minerals in subglacial sediments, particularly in lakes with long residence times. Weathering of carbonate and silicate minerals from lake sediments also releases other ions including potassium (K+), magnesium (Mg2+), sodium (Na+), and calcium (Ca2+) to lake waters.

Other biogeochemical processes in anoxic subglacial sediments include denitrification, iron reduction, sulfate reduction, and methanogenesis (see Reservoirs of organic carbon below).

Reservoirs of organic carbon
Subglacial sedimentary basins under the Antarctic Ice Sheet have accumulated an estimated ~21,000 petagrams of organic carbon, most of which comes from ancient marine sediments. This is more than 10 times the amount of organic carbon contained in Arctic permafrost and may rival the amount of reactive carbon in modern ocean sediments, potentially making subglacial sediments an important but understudied component of the global carbon cycle. In the event of ice sheet collapse, subglacial organic carbon could be more readily respired and thus released to the atmosphere and create a positive feedback on climate change.

The microbial inhabitants of subglacial lakes likely play an important role in determining the form and fate of sediment organic carbon. In the anoxic sediments of subglacial lake ecosystems, organic carbon can be used by archaea for methanogenesis, potentially creating large pools of methane clathrate in the sediments that could be released during ice sheet collapse or when lake waters drain to ice sheet margins. Methane has been detected in subglacial Lake Whillans, and experiments have shown that methanogenic archaea can be active in sediments beneath both Antarctic and Arctic glaciers.

Most of the methane that escapes storage in subglacial lake sediments appears to be consumed by methanotrophic bacteria in oxygenated upper waters. In subglacial Lake Whillans, scientists found that bacterial oxidation consumed 99% of the available methane. There is also evidence for active methane production and consumption beneath the Greenland Ice Sheet.

Antarctic subglacial waters are also thought to contain substantial amounts of organic carbon in the form of dissolved organic carbon and bacterial biomass. At an estimated 1.03 x 10−2 petagrams, the amount of organic carbon in subglacial lake waters is far smaller than that contained in Antarctic subglacial sediments, but is only one order of magnitude smaller than the amount of organic carbon in all surface freshwaters (5.10 x 10−1 petagrams). This relatively smaller, but potentially more reactive, reservoir of subglacial organic carbon may represent another gap in scientists’ understanding of the global carbon cycle.

Biology
Subglacial lakes were originally assumed to be sterile, but over the last thirty years, active microbial life and signs of higher life have been discovered in subglacial lake waters, sediments, and accreted ice. Subglacial waters are now known to contain thousands of microbial species, including bacteria, archaea, and potentially some eukaryotes. These extremophilic organisms are adapted to below-freezing temperatures, high pressure, low nutrients, and unusual chemical conditions. Researching microbial diversity and adaptations in subglacial lakes is of particular interest to scientists studying astrobiology, as well as the history and limits of life on Earth.

Food web structure and sources of energy
In most surface ecosystems, photosynthetic plants and microbes are the main primary producers that form the base of the lake food web. Photosynthesis is impossible in the permanent darkness of subglacial lakes, so these food webs are instead driven by chemosynthesis. In subglacial ecosystems, chemosynthesis is mainly carried out by chemolithoautotrophic microbes.

Like plants, chemolithoautotrophs fix carbon dioxide (CO2) into new organic carbon, making them the primary producers at the base of subglacial lake food webs. Rather than using sunlight as an energy source, chemolithoautotrophs get energy from chemical reactions in which inorganic elements from the lithosphere are oxidized or reduced. Common elements used by chemolithoautotrophs in subglacial ecosystems include sulfide, iron, and carbonates weathered from sediments.

In addition to mobilizing elements from sediments, chemolithoautotrophs create enough new organic matter to support heterotrophic bacteria in subglacial ecosystems. Heterotrophic bacteria consume the organic material produced by chemolithoautotrophs, as well as consuming organic matter from sediments or from melting glacial ice. Despite the resources available to subglacial lake heterotrophs, these bacteria appear to be exceptionally slow-growing, potentially indicating that they dedicate most of their energy to survival rather than growth. Slow heterotrophic growth rates could also be explained by the cold temperatures in subglacial lakes, which slow down microbial metabolism and reaction rates.

The variable redox conditions and diverse elements available from sediments provide opportunities for many other metabolic strategies in subglacial lakes. Other metabolisms used by subglacial lake microbes include methanogenesis, methanotrophy, and chemolithoheterotrophy, in which bacteria consume organic matter while oxidizing inorganic elements.

Some limited evidence for microbial eukaryotes and multicellular animals in subglacial lakes could expand current ideas of subglacial food webs. If present, these organisms could survive by consuming bacteria and other microbes.

Nutrient limitation
Subglacial lake waters are considered to be ultra-oligotrophic and contain low concentrations of nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus. In surface lake ecosystems, phosphorus has traditionally been thought of as the limiting nutrient that constrains growth in the ecosystem, although co-limitation by both nitrogen and phosphorus supply seems most common. However, evidence from subglacial Lake Whillans suggests that nitrogen is the limiting nutrient in some subglacial waters, based on measurements showing that the ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus is very low compared to the Redfield ratio. An experiment showed that bacteria from Lake Whillans grew slightly faster when supplied with phosphorus as well as nitrogen, potentially contradicting the idea that growth in these ecosystems is limited by nitrogen alone.

Biological diversity in explored subglacial lakes
Biological exploration of subglacial lakes has focused on Antarctica, but the financial and logistical challenges of drilling through the Antarctic Ice Sheet for sample collection have limited successful direct samplings of Antarctic subglacial lake water to Lake Whillans and Lake Mercer. Volcanic subglacial lakes under Iceland's Vatnajökull ice cap have also been sampled.

Antarctica
In subglacial Lake Whillans, the WISSARD expedition collected sediment cores and water samples, which contained 130,000 microbial cells per milliliter and 3,914 different bacterial species. The team identified active bacteria that were metabolizing ammonia, methane, and sulfur from the 120,000-year-old sediments. The most abundant bacteria identified were related to Thiobacillus, Sideroxyans, and pscyhrophilic Polaromonas species.

In January 2019, the SALSA team collected sediment and water samples from subglacial Lake Mercer and found diatom shells and well-preserved carcasses from crustaceans and a tardigrade. Although the animals were dead, the team also found bacterial concentrations of 10,000 cells per milliliter, suggesting the potential for animals to survive in the lake by consuming bacteria. The team will continue analyzing the samples to further investigate the chemistry and biology of the lake.

Lake Vostok is the best-studied Antarctic subglacial lake, but its waters have only been studied through analysis of accretion ice from the bottom of ice cores taken during Russian drilling efforts above the lake. Actively growing bacteria and thousands of unique DNA sequences from bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes have been found in Lake Vostok's accretion ice. Some DNA appeared to come from multicellular eukaryotes, including species seemingly related to freshwater Daphnia, tardigrades, and mollusks. These species may have survived in the lake and slowly adapted to the changing conditions since Vostok was last exposed to the atmosphere millions of years ago. However, the samples were likely contaminated by drilling fluid while being collected, so some of the identified organisms probably did not live in the lake. Other subglacial sampling efforts in Antarctica include the subglacial pool of anoxic, hypersaline water under Taylor Glacier, which harbors a microbial community that was sealed off from the atmosphere 1.5 to 2 million years ago. Bacteria under Taylor Glacier appear to have a novel metabolic strategy that uses sulfate and ferric ions to decompose organic matter.

Greenland
No direct sampling of subglacial lakes has been attempted on the Greenland Ice Sheet. However, subglacial outflow waters have been sampled and found to contain methanogenic and methanotrophic microbes. Bacteria have also been discovered within the ice sheet itself, but they are unlikely to be active within the ice.

Iceland
Subglacial lakes under Iceland's Vatnajökull ice cap provide unique habitats for microbial life because they receive heat and chemical inputs from subglacial volcanic activity, influencing the chemistry of lower lake waters and sediments. Active psychrophilic, autotrophic bacteria have been discovered in the lake below the Grímsvötn volcanic caldera. A low-diversity microbial community has also been found in the east Skaftárketill and Kverkfjallalón subglacial lakes, where bacteria include Geobacter and Desulfuosporosinus species that can use sulfur and iron for anaerobic respiration. In the western Skaftá lake, the anoxic bottom waters appear to be dominated by acetate-producing bacteria rather than methanogens.

Refugia for ancient life
In some cases, subglacial lake waters have been isolated for millions of years, and these “fossil waters” may harbor evolutionarily distinct microbial communities. Some subglacial lakes in East Antarctica have existed for about 20 million years, but the interconnected subglacial drainage system between lakes under the Antarctic Ice Sheet implies that lake waters have probably not been isolated over the entire lifespan of the lake.

During the proposed Snowball Earth period of the late Proterozoic, extensive glaciation could have completely covered Earth's surface in ice for 10 million years. Life would have survived primarily in glacial and subglacial environments, making modern subglacial lakes an important study system for understanding this period in Earth's history. More recently, subglacial lakes in Iceland may have provided a refuge for subterranean amphipods during the Quaternary glacial period.

Implications for extraterrestrial life
Subglacial lakes are an analog environment for extraterrestrial ice-covered water bodies, making them an important study system in the field of astrobiology, which is the study of the potential for life to exist outside Earth. Discoveries of living extremophilic microbes in Earth's subglacial lakes could suggest that life may persist in similar environments on extraterrestrial bodies. Subglacial lakes also provide study systems for planning research efforts in remote, logistically challenging locations that are sensitive to biological contamination.

Jupiter's moon Europa and Saturn’s moon Enceladus are promising targets in the search for extraterrestrial life. Europa contains an extensive ocean covered by an icy crust, and Enceladus is also thought to harbor a subglacial ocean. Satellite analysis of an icy water vapor plume escaping from fissures in Enceladus' surface reveals significant subsurface production of hydrogen, which may point towards the reduction of iron-bearing minerals and organic matter.

A subglacial lake on Mars was discovered in 2018 using RES on the Mars Express spacecraft. This body of water was found beneath Mars’ South Polar Layered Deposits, and is suggested to have formed as a result of geothermal heating causing melting beneath the ice cap.

title: Subglacial lake


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Hokkaido Shinkansen

The Hokkaido Shinkansen (北海道新幹線) is a Japanese high-speed Shinkansen rail line that links up with the Tōhoku Shinkansen in northern Aomori Prefecture in Honshu and continues on into the interior of Hokkaido through the undersea Seikan Tunnel. Construction started in May 2005; the initial Shin-Aomori to Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto section opened on 26 March 2016. The section of the line to Sapporo is scheduled to open by fiscal year 2030. The line is operated by the Hokkaido Railway Company (JR Hokkaido).

Associated actions
In preparation for the opening of the Hokkaido Shinkansen, the Seikan Tunnel (Kaikyō Line) and associated approaches (approximately 82 km in total) were converted to dual gauge, with both the Shinkansen standard and  narrow gauge tracks.

Upon the opening of the Shinkansen line the section of the conventional (narrow gauge) Esashi Line approximately paralleling the same route between Goryōkaku and Kikonai was transferred from the control of JR Hokkaido to a newly established third-sector railway operating company, South Hokkaido Railway Company, becoming the Isaribi Line.

Service types
Two train service types operate on the Hokkaido Shinkansen: limited-stop Hayabusa services between Tokyo or Sendai and Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto, and semi-fast Hayate services between Morioka or Shin-Aomori and Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto.

Under the initial timetable, ten return Hayabusa services operate daily between Tokyo and Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto and one return service operates daily between Sendai and Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto. One return Hayate service operates daily between Morioka and Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto, and one return service daily operates between Shin-Aomori and Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto.

Operating speed
Upon commencement of services in 2016 the maximum speed on the approximately 82 km dual gauge section of the Hokkaido Shinkansen (including through the Seikan Tunnel) was 140 km/h, increased to 160 km/h in March 2019. There are approximately 50 freight trains using the dual gauge section each day, so limiting the travel of such trains to times outside of Shinkansen services is not an option. Because of this and other weather-related factors cited by JR East and JR Hokkaido, the fastest journey time between Tokyo and Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto is currently 3 hours, 57 minutes.

During the 2020-21 New Year Holiday period when fewer freight trains were operating, certain Shinkansen services were operated at 210 km/h on the dual gauge section and this is proposed again for the Golden Week Holiday period from 3–6 May 2021

This raising of the maximum speed during major travel periods has been repeated every year since. In January 2024, JR Hokkaido announced that the speed would be raised to 260 km/h) during major holidays going forward. To achieve the full benefit of Shinkansen trains travelling on the dual gauge section at 260 km/h (the maximum speed proposed through the tunnel), alternatives are being considered, such as a system to automatically slow Shinkansen trains to 200 km/h when passing narrow-gauge trains, and/or loading freight trains onto special "Train on Train" standard-gauge trains (akin to a covered piggyback flatcar train) built to withstand the shock wave of oncoming Shinkansen trains traveling at full speed. This would enable a travel time from Tokyo to Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto of 3 hours and 45 minutes, a saving of 12 minutes on the current timetable.

In May 2019, JR Hokkaido announced that it had requested permission from the MLIT to increase the speed limit on the 212 km of new track to be constructed between Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto and Sapporo to 320 km/h. This would involve the extension of buffers on about 170 km of tunnels, installation of sound barriers on about 30 km of the remaining 42 km of surface track and strengthening of viaducts.

Effects of winter weather on train operation
Operating in areas that see significant snowfall during the winter months, accumulation of snow has effects on various train operations. It can cause damage to equipment or can cause a moving train to miss a switch. In particular, accretion of snow in the bogies of the train has been shown to be significant, causing damage or causing schedule delays. Methods have been used to estimate snow accumulation on trains running up to 130 km/h, and newer estimates based on weather data can predict accumulation of up to 3 cm in bogies upon arrival at a station.

The winter season also adversely impacts the occupancy rates of the rail line, with recorded occupancy reaching a low of 19% in the months of January and February.

Stations
Legend:

Rolling stock
All services are formed of 10-car JR East E5 or JR Hokkaido H5 series trainsets.

In February 2014, JR Hokkaido placed an order for four 10-car H5 Series Shinkansen trainsets for use on Hokkaido Shinkansen services from March 2016. Based on the E5 series trainsets operated by JR East since 2011, the order for 40 vehicles cost approximately 18 billion yen. The first two sets of the order are scheduled to be delivered to Hakodate Depot by road from Hakodate Port in October 2014, with test running commencing before the end of the year. The remaining two sets on order were scheduled to be delivered in 2015. The vehicles feature the usual upper green and lower white livery, with a purple stripe in the middle. The color purple was chosen to represent the purple flowers of Hokkaido: lilacs, lupine and lavender. Inside, the ordinary-class cars feature wood paneling and carpet with a snowflake motif. Green class features cream-colored walls representing the local dairy industry and carpet with a drift-ice motif. Gran class features dark blue carpets, said to be modeled after the shimmering lakes and bodies of water along the route.

History
In the early 1970s, two other Shinkansen routes were proposed for Hokkaido: Sapporo – Asahikawa (Hokkaido Shinkansen extension) and Oshamambe – Muroran – Sapporo (Hokkaido South Route). There were also further unofficial plans to connect to Abashiri, Kushiro and Nayoro/Wakkanai. These plans have been indefinitely shelved.

On 1 November 2014, a ceremony was held at Kikonai Station to mark the completion of track-laying for the line between Shin-Aomori and Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto. Test-running on the Hokkaido Shinkansen tracks within Hokkaido commenced from 1 December 2014, initially at low speeds, with the speed raised to the maximum of 260 km/h later that month. Test-running was extended through the Seikan Tunnel to Oku-Tsugaru-Imabetsu in December 2014. Test-running south of Oku-Tsugaru-Imabetsu commenced on 21 April 2015, with the first train reaching Shin-Aomori Station from the north in the early hours of 24 May.

Future plans
JR Hokkaido is extending the Hokkaido Shinkansen from Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto to Sapporo, planned to open by 2030. Tunneling work on the 5265 m Murayama Tunnel, situated about 1 km north of Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto station commenced in March 2015; it is scheduled to be completed by March 2021. The 211.3 km extension will be approximately 76% in tunnels, including major tunnels such as Oshima (26.5 km), Teine (18.8 km) and Shiribeshi (18 km). When the section to Sapporo opens, the estimated journey time from Tokyo to Sapporo will be at most 5 hours and 1 minute, but the goal is for it to be below 4 hours.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Hokkaido Shinkansen


text: Talk:Marshall Middle School (San Diego)

title: Talk:Marshall Middle School (San Diego)


text:
Geum urbanum

Geum urbanum, also known as wood avens, herb Bennet, colewort and St. Benedict's herb (Latin herba benedicta), is a perennial plant in the rose family (Rosaceae), which grows in shady places (such as woodland edges and near hedgerows) in the temperate regions of Eurasia and North America.

Description
A downy perennial herb with a short thick rhizome and thin wiry stems, usually reaching a height between 20 and 60 cm, wood avens blooms between May and August. However, the flowers can remain into the autumn and sometimes as late as December. The flowers are 1 – 2 cm in diameter, having five bright yellow petals clearly separated from a calyx divided into 5 large and 5 small segments. The hermaphrodite flowers, which are relatively small in relation to the size of the plant, are scented and are pollinated by bees.

The fruiting head consists of many zigzag-shaped hairy achenes measuring 5 - 10 mm long. In fruit, the lower part of each style has a burr that can hook on to the fur of rabbits and other animals for dispersal.

The leaves, which vary considerably in form depending on their position and local growth conditions, are pinnate, with 2 – 3 pairs of unequal lateral leaflets measuring 5 – 10 mm long, and one large terminal three-lobed leaflet that is cuneate to cordate at the base. The upper leaves on the stem are trifoliate, consisting of three long narrow leaflets, or undivided.

The stipules, measuring 4 x 3 cm, are as wide as long.

The rhizome is purple in cross section

Distribution
Geum urbanum is found throughout Europe (its areas are more scattered in southern Iberia and in Russia, and it is completely absent from northern Scandinavia, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Shetland, Malta, the Balearic and the Aegean islands). It also occurs in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, in Turkey and the Levant, the Caucasus and the Armenian Highlands, around the Alborz mountains in Iran, and less extensively in western Siberia and in the mountains of Central Asia up to the Western Himalayas.

Etymology and taxonomy
The common name avens is derived from the Latin Avencia, in turn from the medieval Latin avantia or avence. The other English name Herb Bennet is a corruption of the old herbalist name Herba benedicta, meaning blessed herb.

The generic name Geum originated from the Greek geno, a word meaning to yield a pleasant aroma, in reference to the root’s strong clove-like smell when freshly dug up. The specific epithet urbanum means ‘of towns’.

Geum urbanum hybridizes fairly regularly with Geum rivale (water avens), as they are closely related and cooccur. In fact, the phenomenon is so conspicuous that hybrids were once treated as a separate species named Geum intermedium Ehrh.

It has been introduced in North America, where it forms natural hybrids with Geum canadense (= Geum ×catlingii J.-P. Bernard & R. Gauthier ).

Both G. urbanum and its hybrids show hexaploidy, with chromosome number 2n = 42.

Ecology
G. urbanum is a common, typically lowland plant favouring dry semi-natural broadleaved woodland, scrub, hedgerows, and waysides on well-drained soils. It sometimes also grows in open disturbed habitats rich in soil nitrogen, occurring as a garden weed. It grows on mildly acidic to calcareous soils in the pH range 5.4 – 7.7. The plant has a moderate shade tolerance and is absent from open grassland communities where it appears unable to compete with other species

It has short rhizomes that support production of flowering stems and potentially viable axillary buds for several years after the buds have been produced The plant is usually sparsely distributed in its habitat since new plants mostly originate from scattered propagules. Vegetative spread is relatively rare. Some of its basal rosette leaves are produced in October, overwinter in the vegetative state, remain green and are photosynthetically active during winter.

G. urbanum occurs in a range of woodland and scrub communities, such as Fraxinus excelsior – Acer campestris – Mercurialis perennis – Glechoma hederacea subcommunity (W8) on base-rich soils and the F. excelsior – Sorbus aucuparia – M. perennis community (W9) in the cooler and wetter parts of Britain in the northwest. It occasionally occurs in Alnus glutinosa – Urtica dioica woodland (W6). It is widespread but local in Rubus fruticosus – Holcus lanatus scrub (W24).

G. urbanum has been observed to be infected by various fungal pathogens, including downy mildew species in Peronospora, powdery mildew Sphaerotheca alchemillae, and Ramularia species, of which the latter causes the formation of pale spots on the leaves.

In folklore
In folklore, wood avens is credited with the power to drive away evil spirits, and worn as an amulet to protect against rabid dogs and venomous snakes. The Ortus Sanitatis, printed in 1491, states:

'Where the root is in the house, Satan can do nothing and flies from it, wherefore it is blessed before all other herbs, and if a man carries the root about him no venomous beast can harm him.'

It was associated with Christianity because its leaves grew in threes and its petals in fives (reminiscent of, respectively, the Holy Trinity and the Five Wounds). Astrologically, it was said to be ruled by Jupiter.

In herbal medicine and other uses
Herbalists use wood avens to treat various diseases, but there is no evidence that it makes any difference.

The roots contain the compound eugenol (which is also present in cloves), and are used as a spice in soups and also for flavouring ale. For example, the Augsburg Ale is said to owe its peculiar flavour to the addition of a small bag of avens inside each cask. The fresh root imparts a pleasant clove-like flavour to the liquor, preserves it from turning sour, and adds to its wholesome properties.

A cordial against the plague was made by boiling the roots in wine. Gerard recommended a 'decoction made in wine against stomach ills and bites of venomous beasts'. Because of its digestive tonic properties, chewing of the root was also recommended for foul breath.

title: Geum urbanum


text:
User talk:Armistej

Welcome!
Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Where to ask a question, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome!
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Thanks for your work on the elevator page. Out of curiosity, what work do you do on elevators? Graham 12:25, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Thank you for your description of crosswind limits. But don't you think this would be better in an article about pilotage? From an airport's point of view, there will always be an active runway. Benet Allen 13:16, 21 January 2006 (UTC)

It's always hard to decide where to put information when there are multiple options - I think that my brief explanation of crosswind limits helps to explain the reason for having more than one runway, or why a pilot might choose one runway ahead of another. OZ_Rhett 13:20, 21 January 2006 (UTC)

Out of curiousity, how do you find templates in the SQL? I have a wiki and would like to find all the country_data templates. --Erstazi9_at_gmail.com 03:21, 15 March 2007 (UTC)

Big Banana
I am happy to keep an eye on the article, but when all the vandals are doing is swapping names, it is hard for me to identify if the change is an update or vandalism, so that list will help. The level of vandalism is probably insufficient for protection at this time, but I will keep an eye on it. -- Mattinbgn\talk 02:57, 3 May 2008 (UTC)

Nomination of UTC Climate, Controls & Security for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article UTC Climate, Controls & Security is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/UTC Climate, Controls & Security until a consensus is reached, and anyone, including you, is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. Störm  (talk)  00:17, 31 May 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:Armistej


text:
Jommeke

Jommeke is a Belgian comic strip series in publication since 1955. It was created by Jef Nys and can be defined as a humoristic children's adventure series. Jommeke, an 11-year-old boy, is the series' main protagonist. It was originally published in Kerk en Leven, before moving to Het Volk, where it ran until the newspaper ceased to exist in 2010. It is now published in Het Nieuwsblad, De Gentenaar and De Standaard.

Jommeke is very popular in Flanders and, together with Suske en Wiske, is the best-selling comic strip in the region. However, its success has always remained a phenomenon in Belgium and the Netherlands, and attempts at marketing foreign translations have all failed.

History
The first appearance of Jommeke was on 30 October 1955, as a gag-a-day strip in the Flemish magazine Kerk en Leven. After moving to another newspaper, Het Volk, in 1958, Jommeke became a full length adventure comic strip, while Nys also continued Jommeke gag pages in 't Kapoentje. Jommeke has sold 51 million albums in Belgium alone, which means an average of about 4.5 albums per person. This makes Jommeke the best-selling comic book series in Belgium behind Suske en Wiske. There's also a newspaper for children called "Jommekeskrant", which is delivered weekly together with popular Belgian newspaper "Het Nieuwsblad".

Main characters

 * Jommeke: An 11-year-old boy who lives with his parents in Zonnedorp. He has a parrot named Flip who accompanies him everywhere. He is clever, honest, brave, loves adventure, and is recognizable by his distinct blonde haircut.
 * Flip: A red-winged, green parrot who is Jommeke's pet. Flip is able to talk like a human and is highly intelligent, if somewhat arrogant. His real name is "Filipus", but he prefers "Flip". He is cool-headed and has on several occasions saved the day using his wit and his unique abilities as a bird such as flying, using his beak and taking advantage of his small size to spy and sneak. Although his age is unspecified, he has shown adult behavior, on a few rare occasions, by consuming alcohol and smoking cigars. He is also quite the womanizer, usually unsuccessfully, due to the fact he is a parrot and not a human.
 * Filiberke: Jommeke's best friend, Filiberke joins him on most of his adventures. His pitch-black hair color contrasts nicely with the protagonist. He is creative, and a bit odd too. Many albums start with Filiberke engaging in some crazy activity relating to the main story (e.g. he's "playing a cucumber" at the start of album 146 Komkommer in 't zuur). He also often pretends to be sick to the annoyance of the other characters.
 * Pekkie: Filiberke's black poodle.
 * Annemieke and Rozemieke: Two identical twin girls, notable for their pony-tails. Their names are often shortened to "The Miekes". They are also good friends with Jommeke. Annemieke even has somewhat of a crush on Jommeke, and Rozemieke on Filiberke. The Miekes are notable for their motherly traits, including cooking and washing.
 * Choco: Choco is a chimpanzee in a sailor suit. He is the Miekes' pet. He earned his nickname due to the fact that he loves to eat chocolate spread (or "choco", as it is named in Belgian Dutch.)
 * Professor Gobelijn: An absent-minded professor, notable for his large walrus moustache. He is good-hearted, but frequently makes mistakes because of his absent-mindedness. For instance, he states the exact opposite of what he means, only to correct it immediately afterwards: I.e. "We will arrive next year, I mean tomorrow", "I have completely forgotten, I mean I remember it now." His inventions include pills that make people fly, a car that runs on grass, a submarine in the shape of a whale etc. In "Purpere Pillen" (Purple Pills) Jommeke and Filiberke saved Gobelijn's life. A plaque on his mansion states that he is a "Professor in Everything", i.e. he has a degree on any subject imaginable.
 * Anatool: The main antagonist of the series. He is an untrustworthy butler who often resorts to theft and often fulfills the role of antagonist in the stories. He always wears old-fashioned shoes with elevated heels.
 * Kwak and Boemel: Two hoboes who live in an underground house in the middle of the forest. Sometimes they side with Jommeke and his friends, but most of the time they are their opponents. They don't shy away from stealing, kidnapping and collaborating with Anatool to get rich. Also notable are their speech impediments. Kwak makes unnecessary use of the letter "h" in front of words that start off with a syllable. Boemel switches the letters "b" and "p" and the letters "d" and "t" in every word he says.
 * De Koningin van Onderland: Prutelia van Achterberg, better known as "The Queen of Onderland", is a mentally ill woman who thinks she is a queen. She is Jommeke's most dangerous and ruthless opponent and the true villain of the series. She frequently escapes from her local asylum and then flees to her castle in Zonnedorp. In the third album "De Koningin van Onderland" (1959) she kidnapped all the children in Zonnedorp to become her personal slaves.

List of albums
As of June 2020, the following Jommeke albums exist: • #De jacht op een voetbal

• #De zingende aap

• #De koningin van Onderland

• #Purperen pillen

• #De muzikale Bella

• #Het hemelhuis

• #De zwarte bomma

• #De ooievaar van Begonia

• #De schildpaddenschat

• #De straalvogel

• #De zonnemummie

• #Paradijseiland

• #Het Jampuddingspook

• #Op heksenjacht

• #Het staartendorp

• #De gouden jaguar

• #Diep in de put

• #Met Fifi op reis

• #Wie zoekt die vindt

• #Apen in huis

• #Het verkeerde land

• #Het wonderdrankje

• #Dolle fratsen

• #De verloren zoon

• #De zeven snuifdozen

• #Kinderen baas

• #Geheime opdracht

• #De Samsons

• #De vliegende ton

• #Jommeke in de Far West

• #Knappe Mataboe

• #In Pimpeltjesland

• #Jacht op Gobelijn

• #Jommeke in de knel

• #Gekke grappen

• #Neuzen bij de vleet

• #De schat van de zeerover

• #Kaas met gaatjes

• #Lieve Choco

• #Anakwaboe

• #Twee halve lappen

• #De witte bolhoed

• #Filiberke gaat trouwen

• #De Jommekesclub

• #De zeepkoning

• #De tocht naar Asnapije

• #Diamanten in de zoo

• #De zilveren giraf

• #De groene maskers

• #De plastieken walvis

• #De fwietmachine

• #De zingende oorbellen

• #Het kristallen eendje

• #Broeder Anatolius

• #Tita Telajora

• #De vruchtenmakers

• #Het geheim van Macu Ancapa

• #De strijd om de Incaschat

• #De Kuko-eieren

• #Alarm in de rode baai

• #De hoed van Napoleon

• #Luilekkerland

• #Madam Pepermunt

• #De kristallen grot

• #De grasmobiel

• #De vrolijke bende

• #De slaapkop

• #De gele spin

• #Straffa Toebaka

• #De verborgen tempel

• #De sprekende ezel

• #Choco ontvoerd

• #De gekke wekker

• #De Kikiwikies

• #Prinses Pott

• #Het rode oog

• #Peuterweelde

• #Juffrouw Perlefinneke

• #Het plezante kliekske

• #De njam-njambloem

• #De luchtzwemmers

• #Opstand in Kokowoko

• #De stenen aapjes

• #De Plank van Jan Haring

• #De granda papiljan

• #De lustige slurvers

• #De stad in de vulkaan

• #Jommeke in Bobbejaanland

• #Het piepende bed

• #De kleine professor

• #Prins Filiberke

• #Het aards paradijs

• #De haaienrots

• #De supervrouw

• #Melanie

• #Paniek rond Odilon

• #De valse kameel

• #De kaart van Wawa Wang

• #De grote knoeiboel

• #Het jubilee

• #Het monster in de ruïne

• #De vampier van Drakenburg

• #De bron van El Razar

• #De vlucht van Bella

• #De knook van Azmor

• #Zoete Mosterd

• #De pestkopjes

• #De sidderplanten

• #Guitenstreken

• #De viool van Varazdina

• #De olijke oliemannen

• #Het ei van de smartlapvogel

• #In de greep van Mac Rum

• #Het kriebelkruid

• #De lappenpop van Anatool

• #De gelukzoekers

• #De stenen handdruk

• #De bedrogen miljonair

• #Het apencircus

• #De vlag van Lord Chester

• #De rare doedelzak

• #Het Boheems schommelpaard

• #De schat van Angkor

• #Het geheimzinnige eiland

• #Drie in een slag

• #Het bal van Mathilde

• #De watervallen van Svanjabak

• #De grote zeilrace

• #De whiskymaker

• #Het geheim van Ambiorix

• #De kippen van Gobelijn

• #De spookkrater

• #Het gekkegas

• #De prinsen van Snoby

• #De kruik van Aztrakan

• #Het monster uit de diepte

• #Apen te koop

• #De rib van Kalafar

• #De blauwe grot

• #De Chinese kast

• #De bruid van El Toro

• #De documenten van Langneus

• #Va Kwak en moe Boemel

• #De pijp van Geurig Gras

• #Het levenselixir

• #Komkommer in 't zuur

• #Het Yacochacabeeldje

• #De vliegende brigade

• #De grote puzzel

• #De gestoorde zeereis

• #Het meermonster

• #S.O.S. Benistal

• #Het hoofd van Samos

• #De hellestokers

• #De kleine vandaal

• #De superster

• #De koningin van Kachar El Nachar

• #Het probleem van Jeff Klaxon

• #De kokoskoe

• #De verdroogde bron

• #Drie toverstokjes

• #De zwarte parel

• #Het Midasmysterie

• #Het verdwenen kasteel

• #Spaghetti met kaas

• #De mandoline van Caroline

• #De appelvreters

• #Het heksenbal

• #De slangegodin

• #Het Chocokomplot

• #De goudvis van Filiberke

• #Fifi in de knoei

• #Het geheim van de hoefslag

• #Het zevende zwaard

• #De verdwaalde vuurtoren

• #De snoezige dino's

• #Kwistig kwissen

• #Het bedreigde paradijs

• #Paniek op de Akropolis

• #Filicasso

• #De valse papegaai

• #Het zingende moeras

• #Berta Gobelijn

• #De kroon van Kazimir

• #De modekoningin

• #De pruik van Anatool

• #De zwarte cactus

• #De vurige inktvis

• #De koppige cobra

• #Alarm in het begijnhof

• #De magische spiegel

• #De drietand van Neptunus

• #De zilveren traan

• #Dinopolis

• #Gerommel in de Far West

• #De Elfenbron

• #Het schuimspook

• #De Kraaienburcht

• #De vergeten mijn

• #Stefanie Stekkebeen

• #De Kovonita's

• #De panda van Wanda

• #De lachende mango's

• #De verdwenen tuinkabouter

• #De kopermicroben

• #De ring van Mac Rum

• #De geniale malloten

• #Het raadsel van Kiekebilleke

• #Blinkende knopen

• #Het pompoenenkasteel

• #De geest van Anakwaboe

• #De limonadelelies

• #Zeven sterren

• #Holeman

• #De kimono van Yamamatsu

• #De laatste viking

• #Zoektocht naar Sorab

• #Het blauwe prieeltje

• #Operatie Bonsaï

• #De frietbaron

• #Wowofski

• #Strijd om de bizon

• #De komkommerprinses

• #De rare kwibussen

• #De erfenis van Sorgeloos

• #Het luchtkasteel

• #Het brein van Gobelijn

• #De goudkoorts van Anatool

• #Het slimme varken

• #Pekkie in Hollywood

• #Het zeemeerdinges

• #Duel in Venetië

• #Paljaskof

• #De pechvogel

• #Mama Mataboe

• #De dobbelmannetjes

• #Het roze olifantje

• #Kamperen is plezant

• #Graaf Dondersteen

• #De beer op sokken

• #Nobelprijs voor Gobelijn

• #De puddingkoningin

• #Het zwarte prikgevaar

• #Groene Haring

• # Het vreemde avontuur

• # Filiberke en Biliferke

• # Krokodillentranen

• # Fifi kampioen

• # Het Oké-parfum

• # Savooien op de Galapagos

• # Schattenjagers in Bokrijk

• # Het Spookdorp

• # Choko verliefd

• # Paradijseiland in gevaar

• # De clanstrijd

• # De blauwe wenssteen

• # Tobias Snuffel

• # De kwakzalver

• # Storm aan zee

• # Oost west, thuis best

• # De recordjagers

• # De brulharp

• # De Keizer van Tuktut

• # De wens van Amma-Moai

• # De papegaaienbruiloft

• # Pannenkoeken van Pierehaar

• # Olmek en Toltek

• # Prins Carnaval

• # De lawaai-eter

• # De gestrande pennenzak

• # De koning van Bananopia

• # De boemerang van kirimbir

• # Odilon vermist

• # Baron Anatolsky

• # Chaos in Pimpeltjesland

• # De onderwatertoerist

• # De babbelpil

• # Het Nianmonster

• # Fifi de speurneus

• # De Vogelvriend

• # Bollywood in Bellewaerde

• # School op stelten

• # De notenkraker

• # De redding van Doris Dada

• # In de klauwen van Prutelia

• # Missie Middelkerke

• # Het kistje van Sir Pimpeldon

• # De zwarte diamant

• # De rondekoning

• # De ideeëndief

• # Pampa en de blauwe duif

• # De roodstaartpapegaai

• # Balletkoorts

• # De wraak van de mummies

• # De Jungfrau smelt!

• # De vuurdraak

• # Speelgoed overboord

• # De schrik van Onderland

• # De Flipposaurus

• # De plasticjagers

• # Feest in Zonnedorp

• # De sneeuwmaker

• # De atchoembloem

Translations
Apart from some editions for the Netherlands, Jommeke has been translated into French, English, Finnish and Swedish. These translations were not commercially successful.

A German edition was published from 1971 until around 1980 and lasted 32 volumes (the original comics were printed out of order and volumes 27-28 do not exist!) by Gemini Verlag (1-18) and Europress (19-26, 29-34). The series title was (Die tollen Abenteuer von) Peter + Alexander, obviously a play of words on Austrian actor and singer Peter Alexander.

In 2011, German editor began republishing the German version of Jommeke, keeping original names and places. As of April 2021, 26 titles have been published in this series.

The series was also published in translation as Jeremy in Indonesia, by children's book publisher BIP (Bhuana Ilmu Populer) in 2013.

In 2018, a Chinese translation was published in cooperation with Bright Media, with an initial run of 25 titles.

Jommeke in other media
In 1968, Jef Nys directed a live-action film called "De Schat van de Zeerover" ("The Pirate's Treasure"), which was a low-budget adaptation of the eponymous Jommeke album. It was essentially an amateur project, made by him and his family members and starred his own son in the main role.

Jommeke in popular culture

On 31 July 1997 Jommeke was the first comic book character to receive his own statue in Middelkerke, in front of the casino. It was sculpted by Valeer Peirsman. On 26 March 2014 Jommeke's statue became a victim of vandalism. It had to be restored and was placed back again on 28 June 2014. On 29 July 2006 Annemieke and Rozemieke also received a statue in Middelkerke, near the Theresiastraat. It was sculpted by Monique Mol. In 2015, it was announced that two other characters from the franchise, Filiberke and Pekkie, would also receive statues on the Zeedijk of Middelkerke.

On 18 June 2011 a wall depicting Jommeke characters was inaugurated near the Frans Halsplein in Antwerp.

On 27 May 2015 a special comic book wall was made in the Lokvogelstraat in Laeken, Belgium. It features a huge wall painting starring Jommeke and the main cast members.

title: Jommeke


text:
Miodrag Belodedici

Miodrag Belodedici (Миодраг Белодедић; born 20 May 1964) is a Romanian former professional footballer who played as a sweeper.

Nicknamed The Deer due to his elegant tackles, he spent the majority of his 19-year professional career with Steaua București (ten seasons), winning the European Cup with that team and Red Star Belgrade, thus becoming the first player (to play in the final) to win the trophy with two clubs and the only player to win the trophy with two different Eastern European teams. In 1991 he was nominated for the Ballon d'Or. Belodedici also played in Spain and Mexico.

Belodedici won 55 caps with Romania, representing the nation at the 1994 World Cup and two European Championships.

Early life and Steaua
Belodedici was born in a family of Serbian ethnicity in the village of Socol, near the border with Serbia.

Belodedici spoke only Serbian until elementary school, and completed his first four grades in that language. In the fifth he began learning Romanian, which he eventually mastered with the help from his Romanian junior national team team-mates Gavril Balint and Gheorghe Hagi. He joined the youth squad of Minerul Moldova Nouă in 1978, at the late age of 14, his first coach being Olimp Mateescu; three years later he moved to Luceafărul București, a team created by the Romanian Football Federation for the purpose of gathering all talented young players in the country in one squad.

In the summer of 1982, Belodedici was signed by Steaua București, being selected by the club's chairman Ion Alecsandrescu, who was in search for a high quality sweeper. He finished his first season with 17 Divizia A appearances, then proceeded to become a first-team regular in the following seasons as the club won five consecutive national championships, including four doubles.

Belodedici helped Steaua become the first Romanian – and Eastern European – club to win the European Cup in 1985–86, playing the full 120 minutes in the final against FC Barcelona in Seville. He also started in the subsequent UEFA Super Cup, won against Dynamo Kyiv.

Red Star Belgrade
In 1988, when Nicolae Ceauşescu was still in power, Belodedici defected from his home country to the neighbouring Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. He later gave an account of his escape to Belgrade: once he saw himself in the city, he contacted the president of Red Star Belgrade, but could not get through due to widespread commotion in the team over their defeat in the derby with FK Partizan. A Serbian friend attempted to have him agree to sign for Partizan instead, but the player insisted that he would only play for Red Star; the president interrupted their conversation and, when he realized that he was in fact a 1986 European Cup winner, he immediately signed him.

However, during his first year, Belodedici had to play without a legal contract, and only in friendly matches, as the Romanian authorities forged his professional player contract, and UEFA suspended him for one year on the basis of data furnished. The Ceaușescu regime found him guilty of treason and sentenced him to ten years of prison in absentia; after the Romanian Revolution of 1989, all charges were dropped, and Belodedici returned to Bucharest.

In 1989, Belodedici was given the green light to play for Red Star and, soon after, became a permanent fixture on the squad. In 1990–91 he won the European Cup for the second time, scoring in the final against Olympique de Marseille during the penalty shootout, and became the first player to conquer the tournament with two different clubs, by playing in both finals; amongst other accolades, he also won three Yugoslav First League championships in a row and one Cup.

Spain
Belodedici signed with Valencia CF for the 1992–93 season, being a starter in his second year as the Che finished in seventh position, with no fewer than four managers being used during the campaign, including Guus Hiddink twice.

He moved to Real Valladolid in 1994, with the team ranking 19th but avoiding relegation as La Liga was expanded from 20 to 22 clubs. He spent his last season in Spain with Villarreal CF from Segunda División, in a return to the Valencian Community.

Later years
Belodedici spent two years in Mexico with Atlante FC. In 1998, aged 34, he returned to his main club Steaua, still being a relatively important defensive unit and winning two major titles, including the 2001 national championship.

Belodedici retired from football in June 2001, having appeared in 235 games in Romania's top flight (21 goals) and winning 11 major titles. Subsequently, he worked with the Romanian Football Federation, coordinating national youth teams.

International career
Belodedici made his debut for Romania on 31 July 1984 – aged 20 – in a 1–0 friendly win over China. In 1987, he scored three of his five international goals, one in the UEFA Euro 1988 qualifiers against Albania (5–1 win in Bucharest).

Because of his escape to Yugoslavia, Belodedici was excluded from the national team during more than three years. He returned in time to be selected and play all the games at the 1994 FIFA World Cup in the United States as they exited in the quarter-finals, missing his attempt in the shootout against Sweden in the last-eight stage; additionally, he was selected for the Euro 1996 and Euro 2000 tournaments, totalling four appearances combined and reaching the quarter-finals in the latter.

Career statistics

 * Scores and results list Romania's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Belodedici goal.

Honours
Steaua București
 * Divizia A: 1984–85, 1985–86, 1986–87, 1987–88, 1988–89, 2000–01
 * Cupa României: 1984–85, 1986–87, 1987–88, 1988–89, 1998–99
 * Supercupa României: 1998
 * European Cup: 1985–86
 * European Super Cup: 1986
 * Intercontinental Cup runner-up: 1986

Red Star Belgrade
 * Yugoslav First League: 1989–90, 1990–91, 1991–92
 * Yugoslav Cup: 1989–90
 * European Cup: 1990–91
 * European Super Cup runner-up: 1991
 * Intercontinental Cup: 1991

Individual
 * Gazeta Sporturilor Romanian Footballer of the Year runner-up: 1986; third place: 1987
 * Ballon d'Or: 1991 (8th place)

title: Miodrag Belodedici


text:
Jean Ribault High School

Jean Ribault High School is a public high school located in North Jacksonville, Florida. It is part of Duval County Public Schools.

Improvement
Ribault was one of 16 schools nationwide selected by the College Board for inclusion in the EXCELerator School Improvement Model program beginning the 2007-2008 school year. The project was funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

Athletics

 * The boys basketball team has won 4 State championships (1989, 1990, 1994, 1995).
 * 3rd Most Tournament Games Played 163––Miami, 123 wins, 40 losses.  125––Malone, 87 wins, 38 losses.  105––Ribault (Jacksonville), 74 wins, 31 losses
 * 3rd Most Tournament Games Won 123––Miami, 163 games.  87––Malone, 125 games.  74––Ribault (Jacksonville), 105 games
 * The girls' basketball team has won 12 State championships (1988, 1993, 1994, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2013, 2014, 2016 and 2017), the highest total in the state. The team also has the highest state totals for consecutive championships (5), tournament appearances, consecutive appearances, tournament games played, and tournament games won. In 2016 the Lady Trojans won the 2016 National High School Invitational.
 * The baseball team won the State championship in 1968.
 * The boys' cross country team won the State championship in 1961.
 * The boys' track and field team won the State championship in 1979 and 1991.
 * The girls' track and field team won the State championship in 1976, 1977, 1990, 1992, and 1993.
 * The Trojan Football team has made 12 appearances in the FHSAA Playoffs and have won numerous District Titles. The Trojan football team also plays in the Northwest Classic Football Game against arch rival William M. Raines High School each year in November.

Notable alumni

 * Chandra Cheesborough, Olympic champion sprinter in National Track and Field Hall of Fame
 * Laveranues Coles, wide receiver, Washington Redskins, New York Jets
 * Leon Gonzalez, wide receiver, Dallas Cowboys, Atlanta Falcons
 * Rod Jackson, quarterback, Florida A&M University, the school's all-time leading passer who led the school to its first playoff appearance in 1985
 * Kelvin Martin, wide receiver, Dallas Cowboys
 * Travis L. Taylor, wide receiver, member of the Super Bowl champion Baltimore Ravens
 * Chris Terry, offensive tackle, Kansas City Chiefs
 * Howard Smothers, football player, selected by Philadelphia Eagles with 248th pick in 1995 NFL Draft
 * Erica White, professional women's basketball player
 * James F. Rinehart, Dean, College of Arts and Sciences, Troy University
 * Longineu Parsons II, Trumpeter - Associate Professor of Music at Florida A&M University
 * Mike Campbell, musician, guitarist, Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers. Fleetwood Mac
 * Butch Trucks, musician, drummer, The Allman Brothers Band
 * Naz Worthen, football / track and field, Naz Worthen (All-American triple jumper) 60th pick in 1989 NFL draft by KC Chiefs out of NC State Univ.]]
 * Jakob Johnson, football player for the Las Vegas Raiders

title: Jean Ribault High School


text:
West Buckland School

West Buckland School is a private co-educational day and boarding school in West Buckland, Devon in the English public school tradition. It comprises a senior school, preparatory school, and a nursery. It is a relatively high performing school in Devon. It was one of eight schools shortlisted for 'Boarding School of the Year' in the TES Independent School Awards 2019, a category won by Cottesmore School.

The school facilitates 640 pupils of whom around 140 board; 16% of students are international. The day pupils and weekly boarders are drawn from a wide area of North Devon and beyond, many using the large school bussing operation in collaboration with local coach operators.

History
West Buckland School was founded as the Devon County School in 1858 by Rev. J.L. Brereton to provide a public school education for sons of farmers and the middle class. The foundation stone of the Gothic-style buildings was laid in October 1860 by Earl Fortescue, who had provided land and other support for the school.

Under the first headmaster, J.H. Thompson, numbers rose to 150 by 1876 and then declined as a consequence of agricultural depression and competition from other schools.

In the winter of 1912/13 the school was renamed West Buckland School.

During the 1950s it received increasing support from the Devon County Educational authority and became a direct grant school. In 1976, when direct grants were abolished, it finally became a fully independent school.

Expansion and development
Since 2008, the school has expanded its facilities, that year saw the completion of a sports hall behind the nineteenth century complex. In April 2010, the 150 Building opened, a combination of buildings containing modern art, design and technology workshops; a theatre which replaced an old theatre; an assembly space for the prep school and a quadrangle. In Autumn 2015, the 'Michael Morpurgo' library opened. In the building there is also the head of sixth form office; an English and economics classroom; the school library and a work area with computers for pupils. Also opened in 2015 was Parkers, a sixth form boarding house for boys and girls, with a downstairs lounge and kitchen for the use of day pupils as well.

West Buckland School has a four-house system, the houses being:
 * Brereton
 * Courtenay (named after the Earls of Devon)
 * Fortescue
 * Grenville (named after the ancient Grenville family, lords of the manor of Bideford)

Numerous inter-house competitions are held throughout the school year in music, drama and sport culminating in Sports Day held during the final week of the summer term. Points are awarded according to how well houses do in each competition. Whichever house has amassed the largest number of points after Sports' Day wins the coveted Southcomb Shield. The Grenville enjoyed an eight year winning streak keeping the shield from 2013 to 2020. After a one year hiatus due to Covid, the Courtenay won the competition in 2022. The Grenville regained the shield in 2023 after a magnificent performance on Sports Day.

The origins of the shield are detailed in an extract from ''West Buckland School 1858–1958. The First Hundred Years. A Review of a Century recorded by Friends and Pupils.''

"On July 31, 1917, there fell in action, E.H. Southcomb, then a Lieutenant in the Manchester Regiment. He was for many years a very cheerful member of the Brereton House, no great athlete but always ready to play his part to the best of his ability. On leaving West Buckland he went, by his father's wish, to Shrewsbury for two years, and then entered a bank, where he remained till war broke out. On his death it was found that he had left a legacy (£10 10s. 0d.) to the Sports Fund of his first school, and somewhat late it has at last been decided to perpetuate his memory by a Shield which will be held by the House which obtains the chief athletic cups in the School year, which starts in September. For this purpose, each of the Challenge Cups carries a definite mark. The allocation of marks for each cup was not an easy matter and even now the values may require re-adjustment in 1924. The Headmaster formed a committee consisting of Messrs. Corless, Taylor and Walton, and the list as issued by them will hold good at any rate till July, 1924. The winning House will hold the shield, which will be hung over their dining tables, and will also take the right of the line on ceremonial parades."

Boarding
There are currently three main boarding houses at West Buckland: Each of the boarding houses has its own houseparent.
 * Bamfylde – situated on the preparatory school site, and catering for girls aged 11 to 16. (named after the Bamfylde family, Barons Poltimore, historic lords of the manor of nearby North Molton)
 * Boyer House – for boys aged 11 to 16
 * Parkers – for sixth form boys and girls aged 16 to 18

Fees
Annual fees in 2024: Day £9,090 – £18,420; Boarding £24,480 – £38,340 pa.

Alumni

 * Brian Aldiss (1925–2017), author of science fiction and general fiction
 * John Ashworth (born 1940), former Director of the London School of Economics
 * R. F. Delderfield (1912–1972), playwright and novelist. His book To Serve Them All My Days was set at a school based on West Buckland School.
 * Jonathan Edwards (born 1966), triple jump world record holder, Olympic Games gold medalist and presenter
 * Harold Gimblett (1914–1978), former Somerset and England cricket player
 * Bertie Hill (1927–2005), equestrian, Olympic Games gold medalist
 * Harold Hilton (1869–1942), golf, won The Open Championship twice and member of the World Golf Hall of Fame
 * Harry Packer (1868-1946), former Newport and Wales rugby player, who managed the British Isles team on their 1924 tour of South Africa
 * Steve Ojomoh (born 1970), former Bath and England rugby player
 * Craig and Jamie Overton (twins, born 1994), current Somerset and England Lions cricket players
 * Victor Ubogu (born 1964), former Bath and England rugby player
 * Tim Wonnacott (born 1953), antiques expert and television presenter
 * George Friend, English professional footballer
 * General Satyawant Mallanna Shrinagesh (1903-1977), Chief of the Defence Staff Indian Army, Governor of Assam
 * Claudia Huckle, British operatic contralto

title: West Buckland School


text:
West-Veluws dialect

West-Veluws is a Low Franconian dialect of the Dutch province of Gelderland. It is spoken in several Veluwe municipalities and villages including: Nunspeet, Putten, Ermelo (Armelo), Harderwijk (Harderwiek), Uddel, Nijkerk (Niekark), Appel, Scherpenzeel (Schaarpezeel), the municipality of Barneveld (Barreveld) and some villages of the municipality of Ede.

West-Veluws is also spoken in the Utrecht village of Bunschoten (Bunsjoten) and originally in Leusden and Amersfoort as well, but here the dialect has almost died out. The border between West-Veluwe in the northeast and Utrecht and South Gelderland in the southwest is very frayed: even the dialects of, for instance, Soest, Eemnes, Huizen and Laren still have Lowlands Saxon characteristics. In the articles Goois, Eemlands and Geldersevalleis these transitional dialects are discussed in more detail.

Speakers
West-Veluws is mainly spoken by older people, the Low Saxon dialect is not very popular among the youth. This is true, incidentally, of many other areas in the Netherlands where dialects are largely being exchanged for Standard Dutch. The majority of the Veluwe youth today speak Standard Dutch, but there are still young people who speak the dialect from home, but often with more of a Dutch influence than their parents and grandparents. There is also a small number of second language speakers. In general, West-Veluws is fairly easy to understand for people whose mother tongue is Standard Dutch; the further north or east one goes, the more difficult it becomes for a speaker of Standard Dutch. On the whole, within the West-Veluwe language area, more dialect is spoken in the northern places than in the southern ones.

After the Second World War, Nijkerk developed into a commuter town for Amersfoort, an almost dialect-free city, so that the dialect-speaking community is strongly outnumbered. In fact, this situation applies to the entire border region of Utrecht and Gelderland, except for Bunschoten-Spakenburg. Places like Elburg and Oldebroek, on the other hand, lie deeper in the Lower Saxon language area, adjacent to the Salland and East Veluwe language area, where the dialect has a much larger place.

Dictionary of the dialects of Gelderland
The last part called Veluwe. ''De wereld. van het Woordenboek van de Gelderse dialecten (WGD)'' was published on 7 November 2008. This dictionary series includes words from West Veluwe, East Veluwe, Urkers and dialects from surrounding areas. A version for the river area of Gelderland is also available. In October 2005, the first volume ''Veluwe. Het huis van Harrie Scholtmeijer appeared and in November 2006, the second part Veluwe. De mens uit.''

Earlier, registration of local dialects has taken place on a small scale, for example in Putten, Nijkerk, Scherpenzeel, Bunschoten, Nunspeet and a book for the entire North-West Veluwe.

Spelling
Until recently, there was no standardised spelling for the Veluws dialect. However, the IJsselacademie has developed a spelling for the Overijssel and Veluwe dialects that is largely consistent with Standard Dutch and the other Low Saxon language varieties. Often people still use their own spelling, one of the reasons being that many people are unaware of the existence of the IJsselacademy spelling.

Features
A characteristic of Western Veluws is that it is a kind of transition area between Lowlands Saxon and Standard Dutch; the more northerly a place is situated, the smaller the Standard Dutch influence and the greater the Lower Saxon influence usually becomes. Veluws is usually considered Lower Saxon, since in terms of vocabulary and grammar it is more in line with Lower Saxon than with Standard Dutch, therefore it is originally a real Lower Saxon dialect. West-Veluws has different words and pronunciations per village, so in Nijkerk they say brocht and verlore/veleure, in Putten and Bunschoten brocht and verleuren and in Nunspeet bröch and verleuren (brachten (brought) and verloren (lost) in Standard Dutch).

Sounds
In West-Veluws, the vowel phenomena are strongly influenced by Dutch, more specifically the Hollandic dialects of the seventeenth century. West-Veluws shares this influence with Oost-Veluws, Sallaans, Stellingwarfs and Drèents, where these languages contrast with the more conservative Tweants and Achterhooks. However, the Dutch influence in West-Veluws is more far-reaching. Characteristic of West Veluws is the Dutch ou, which in other dialects is pronounced as ol (e.g. houwen instead of holden); in the border region with Oost-Veluws (e.g. in Nunspeet), these forms are sometimes both used, as well as houwen (to keep/hold), zollen (would). The Dutch ui is almost always pronounced as uu (so muus, huus etc.), however, there are a few exceptions such as: fluit(e), buis(e), spuit(e).

Dialect comparison

 * Notes

Other dialects

 * Noten

Grammar
In verbs, West-Veluws uses the Dutch suffix -en instead of the original Low Saxon -t, the West-Veluws variant having been blown over from (North) Hollandic with the Hollandic expansion. In Oost-Veluws, for example, one says wie denkt (who thinks) and wie heurt (who hears), while West-Veluws uses wie/wulie denken and wie/wulie heuren; this phenomenon also occurs in Stellingwarfs. There are also some differences between them, for example Nunspeets has more Oost-Veluws characteristics. For example, 'cheese' in Putten is keis or kees and in Nunspeet keze (or: kêeze) which is the same as in East Veluwe.

title: West-Veluws dialect


text:
Dennistoun Burney

Sir Charles Dennistoun Burney, 2nd Baronet (28 December 1888 – 11 November 1968, in Bermuda) was an English aeronautical engineer, private inventor and Conservative Party politician.

Early military career
Burney was the son of Admiral of the Fleet Sir Cecil Burney Bt. He was given a naval education, starting his training at HMS Britannia in 1903, and joining the battleship Exmouth as a midshipman in early 1905. He was posted to the destroyer HMS Crusader in 1909, which was being used for experimental anti-submarine work at the time.

In 1911, he came up with a novel seaplane design using a hydrofoil undercarriage. Further development was carried out by the Bristol and Colonial Aeroplane Company and two prototype designs, the X.2 and X.3, were produced, but were unsuccessful.

On the outbreak of World War I, Burney was given command of the destroyer HMS Velox, but shortly afterwards joined the research establishment at HMS Vernon. There he developed the paravane, an anti-mine device, for which he took out a number of patents in 1916. These were to earn him around £350,000 during the course of the war through their use by foreign merchant fleets. He was appointed CMG in the 1917 Birthday Honours. In 1920 Burney retired from the navy with the rank of lieutenant-commander, and was promoted on the retired list to commander.

Vickers and parliament
Burney then became a consultant with Vickers and came up with a plan for civil airship development which was to be carried out by Vickers with support from the Government. This evolved into the Imperial Airship Scheme which was to result in the R100 and R101 airships: Burney became managing director of the specially formed subsidiary of Vickers that built the R100 airship, where his design team, headed by Barnes Wallis, included Nevil Shute Norway, later to become known as a novelist.

In 1929, he published a book called The World, the Air and the Future.

His private interests led him to set up a company, Streamline Cars Ltd, to build technically advanced aerodynamic rear-engined cars from 1930 to 1934: this was taken up by Crossley Motors.

Burney was Member of Parliament (MP) for Uxbridge from 1922 until he retired in 1929.

World War II
In 1939, Burney was again joined by Nevil Shute in the development of an early air-launched gliding torpedo, the Toraplane, and the Doravane glide bomb. Despite much work and many trials the Toraplane could not be launched with repeatable accuracy and was finally abandoned in 1942. Among other military weapons, he was the inventor of the High Explosive Squash Head (HESH) shell and a British recoilless rifle, the "Burney gun". He demonstrated the advantages of the latter by constructing a recoilless shotgun with a 1 inch bore which he was able to shoot with no discomfort from the recoil. During World War II, he led development of a recoilless weapon for the British Army which entered service as Ordnance, RCL, 3.45 in, but too late to see service during the war.

Family
Burney, often called Dennis Burney, was the son of Admiral of the Fleet Sir Cecil Burney Bt. His sister was Sybil Katherine Neville-Rolfe.

In 1921, Burney married Gladys High, who was originally from Chicago. They had a son in 1923, Cecil Dennistoun Burney. Dennis Burney succeeded to the Baronetcy when his father died in 1929. His son succeeded his father in the Burney baronetcy in 1968.

title: Dennistoun Burney


text:
Bullet Joe Simpson

Harold Edward Joseph "Bullet Joe" Simpson (August 13, 1893 – December 26, 1973) was a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman who played for the Edmonton Eskimos and New York Americans between 1920 and 1931. He later served as coach of the Americans between 1932 and 1935. Simpson was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame.

Biography
Simpson was born in Selkirk, Manitoba. Nicknamed "Bullet" because of very fast skating ability, he started his career in the Canadian west. He learned the sport of ice hockey on a frozen slough, near his house, during the early 1900s. As Simpson once stated, Manitoba Avenue ran east and west in the middle of Selkirk. The boys living in the north end were the northern team and those south of Manitoba Avenue made up the southern team. After graduating from the Selkirk Fishermen Juniors, Simpson played senior ice hockey with the Winnipeg Victorias of the NHA in 1914–15.

On August 26, 1915 Simpson enlisted in the Canadian military, joining the 31st Battalion. Remaining in Canada, he transferred to the 61st Battalion and played the 1915–16 season with their hockey team, helping them win the 1916 Allan Cup, the amateur championship of Canada. Two weeks after winning the Cup Simpson was sent overseas, and arrived in the United Kingdom in early April 1916. He was hospitalized in August 1916 with gonorrhea, but was sent to the Western Front in time to take part in the Battle of Somme, where he was wounded in the left leg and back, being hospitalized again. In July 1917 Simpson was promoted to lieutenant, and in August 1917 was awarded the Military Medal. He was dismissed from the service on February 28, 1918 by finding of the General Court Martial, but no further details exist in his record, and five days later he was back in his position. He was wounded again in August 1918, in the right shoulder, and once again was sent back for hospitalization. He was discharged in early November 1918, just before the Armistice.

Back in Manitoba by early 1919, Simpson played the last four games of the ice hockey season for his hometown Selkirk Fisherman Seniors of the Manitoba Seniors League. He started again for the Seniors the following year. In 1920, at 5 ft and 175 lb, the right-handed defenceman's break came in a Winnipeg pool room when Kenny MacKenzie of the Big 4's Edmonton Eskimos offered him $3,000 to turn professional. Simpson joined the Eskimos in 1920, signing as a free agent on November 4.

In 1921–22, he won a Western Hockey League first team all-star berth. He was named to the first team on three occasions and to the second team once. At that time, Newsy Lalonde called Simpson the greatest living hockey player. His end-to-end rushes were legendary and without comparison.

When the Western Hockey League ceased operations at the end of the 1924–25 season, Simpson's contract was purchased by the New York Americans of the National Hockey League. Simpson, John Morrison and Roy Rickey were traded September 18, 1925 for $10,000. Simpson played six seasons with the Amerks and in 1931 took on the role of team coach for three years. He later managed the New Haven and Minneapolis teams.

Simpson moved to Florida in 1938 to promote ice hockey, becoming the head coach of the Miami Clippers of the short-lived Tropical Hockey League. He later suffered a heart attack that kept him inactive for two years. Another retired ice hockey player and Floridian came to his aid. Art Coulter hired him to work at the Coulter White's hardware store in Coral Gables, Florida, a position he held until 1965.

Simpson was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1963. He died December 25, 1973, in Coral Gables at the age of 80. In 1975, he was inducted into Canada's Sports Hall of Fame. Simpson was also inducted into the Manitoba Sports Hall of Fame in 2013.

In 1994, the Marine Museum of Manitoba in Selkirk restored a 1963 flat-bottomed freighter which is now on display and renamed the Harold Bullet Joe Simpson.

Awards and achievements

 * Allan Cup championship (1916)
 * WCHL First All-Star Team (1922)
 * Inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1963
 * Honoured Member of the Manitoba Hockey Hall of Fame

title: Bullet Joe Simpson