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Electronic literature

Electronic literature or digital literature is a genre of literature where digital capabilities such as interactivity, multimodality or algorithmic text generation are used aesthetically. Works of electronic literature are usually intended to be read on digital devices, such as computers, tablets, and mobile phones. They cannot be easily printed, or cannot be printed at all, because elements crucial to the work cannot be carried over onto a printed version.

The first literary works for computers, created in the 1950s, were computer programs that generated poems or stories, now called generative literature. In the 1960s experimental poets began to explore the new digital medium, and the first early text-based games were created. Interactive fiction became a popular genre in the late 1970s and 1980s, with a thriving online community in the 2000s. In the 1980s and 1990s hypertext fiction begun to be published, first on floppy disks and later on the web. Hypertext fictions are stories where the reader moves from page to page by selecting links. In the 2000s digital poetry became popular, often including animated text, images and interactivity. In the 2010s and 2020s, electronic literature uses social media platforms, with new genres like Instapoetry or Twitterature as well as literary practices like netprov. Although web-based genres like creepypasta and fan fiction are not always thought of as electronic literature (because they usually manifest as linear texts that could be printed out and read on paper) other scholars argue that these are born digital genres that depend on online communities and thus should be included in the field.

There is an extensive body of scholarship on electronic literature. In 1999 the Electronic Literature Organization was established, which through annual conferences and other events supports both the publishing and study of electronic literature. One focus of academic study has been the preservation and archiving of works of electronic literature. This is challenging because works become impossible to access or read when the software or hardware they are designed for becomes obsolete. In addition, works of electronic literature are not part of the established publishing industry and so do not have ISBN numbers and are not findable in library catalogues. This has led to the establishment of a number of archives and documentation projects.

Definitions
The literary critic and professor N. Katherine Hayles defines electronic literature as "'digital born' (..) and (usually) meant to be read on a computer", clarifying that this does not include e-books and digitised print literature.

A definition offered by the Electronic Literature Organization (ELO) states that electronic literature "refers to works with an important literary aspect that takes advantage of the capabilities and contexts provided by the stand-alone or networked computer". This can include hypertext fiction, animated poetry (often called kinetic poetry) and other forms of digital poetry, literary chatbots, computer-generated narratives or poetry, art installations with significant literary aspects, interactive fiction and literary uses of social media.

For example, a hypertext fiction is a story where the reader chooses a path through the story by clicking on links that connect fragments of text, often called lexias. In digital poetry the words in the poem may move across the screen or may involve game-like interactivity. In generative literature a single work can generate many different poems or stories. Until the early 2000s electronic literature works tended to be published on floppy disk, CD-ROM, in online literary journals or on dedicated websites. However since around 2010 literary genres on social media platforms - such as Instapoetry, Twitterature or netprov - have come to be seen as electronic literature. The literary critic Leonardo Flores called these third generation electronic literature, following the first generation of pre-web works and the second generation of web-based works. Flores uses an inclusive definition of electronic literature, which can include social media posts with literary qualities even if the authors do not themselves think of it as literature. Fan fiction and creepypasta have also been analysed as electronic literature.

The definition of electronic literature is controversial within the field, with strict definitions being criticised for excluding valuable works, and looser definitions being so murky as to be useless. A work of electronic literature can be defined as "a construction whose literary aesthetics emerge from computation", "work that could only exist in the space for which it was developed/written/coded—the digital space". In his book Electronic Literature, the author and scholar Scott Rettberg argues that an advantage of a wide definition is its flexibility, which allows it to include new genres as new platforms and modes of literature emerge. Screenwriter and author Carolyn Handler Miller characterizes works of electronic literature as nonlinear and non chronological where the user experiences and co-creates the story, and where contradictory events and different outcomes are possible.

Precursors
Scholars have discussed a range of pre-digital precursors to electronic literature, from the ancient Chinese book the I Ching, to inventor John Clark's mechanical Latin Verse Machine (1830-1843) to the Dadaist movement's cut-up technique. Print novels that were designed to be read non-linearly, such as Julio Cortázar's Hopscotch (1963) and Vladimir Nabokov's Pale Fire (1962), are cited as "print antecedents" of electronic literature.

1950s
The 1952 love letter generator that the British computer scientist Christopher Strachey wrote for the Manchester Mark 1 computer is probably the first example of literature that requires a computer to be generated or read. The work generates short love letters, and is an example of combinatory poetry, also called generative poetry. The original code has been lost, but digital poet and scholar Nick Montfort has reimplemented it based on remaining documentation of its output, and this version can be viewed in a web browser.

In 1959 the German computer scientist wrote Stochastic Texts, which "for many years was considered the first digital literary text." Stochastic Texts was a program written for a Z22 computer that "produced random short sentences based on a corpus of chapter titles and subjects from Franz Kafka's novel The Castle. Lutz's work has been discussed both as a very early work of electronic literature and as an important precursor to current AI-generated literature. The German philosopher and media scholar Hannes Bajohr writes that Stochastic Texts is an example of the "sequential paradigm" in generative literature, in opposition to newer examples of a "connectionist paradigm": "Instead of hoping to recreate intuition, genius, or expression, the logic of the machine itself – that is, the logic of deterministically executed rule steps – becomes aesthetically normative in Stochastische Texte."

1960s
The 1960s were a time of literary experimentation, and there were strong connections between the art and technology scenes and concrete poetry. The Italian poet and artist Nanni Balestrini's poem Tape Mark I was composed in 1961 on an IBM 7070, and output from the poetry generator was published in a special issue of a journal edited by the novelist and scholar Umberto Eco and artist Bruno Munari, thus standing as the first Italian work of electronic literature. Auto-Beatnik (1961) was a program by R. M. Worthy and colleagues at the computer manufacturing company Librascope. Auto-Beatnik generated poems on an LGP-30 computer to mimic the style of Beat poetry.

Games designers Mabel Addis and William McKay's text-based narrative game The Sumerian Game (1964–66) was probably the first narrative computer game, although it was not widely distributed. The computer scientist Joseph Weizenbaum programmed the chatbot ELIZA in 1966, establishing a new genre of conversational literary artefacts or bots. This was the decade when the sociologist and philosopher Ted Nelson coined the terms hypertext and hypermedia.

1970s
Writers and artists continued to experiment with combining art, technology and literature. An example is the installation Blikk (1970) by a Norwegian trio: artist Irma Salo Jæger, composer Sigurd Berge and poet Jan Erik Vold. Vold's readings of his poems were mixed as sound montages by Berge and combined with Jæger's kinetic sculptures in an exhibition at the Henie Onstad Art Center. The work was recreated in 2022 by the composer and curator Jøran Rudi and is now part of the permanent collection of the Norwegian National Museum.

Another important development in the 1970s was the popularity of text adventure games, now more commonly known as interactive fiction. In 1975–76, Will Crowther programmed a text game named Colossal Cave Adventure (also known as Adventure or ADVENT). It possessed a story that had the reader make choices on which way to go. These choices could lead the reader to the end, or to their untimely death. It is often regarded as the first work of interactive fiction, although others have argued that the simulated microworld SHRDLU or Mabel Addis's The Sumerian Game were earlier and should be considered interactive fiction. Historians agree that Colossal Cave Adventure made a "significant cultural impact" in the 1970s. It has been called a "classic" "so foundational it started a genre", "the Gilgamesh of video games", and is credited with having "informed and inspired generations of players." Colossal Cave Adventure was played on mainframe computers, and spread rapidly through the ARPANET. Colossal Cave inspired many other games, including the text adventure game Zork (1977) which was regarded as one of the best known.

1980s
With the advent of personal computers, interactive fiction became a commercially successful genre, driven by companies like Infocom. Companies hired authors and programmers to write text adventure games, as Veronika Megler, who wrote The Hobbit video game in 1982, described in an interview with The Guardian.

For hypertext fiction and digital poetry, the eighties were a time of experimentation in separate communities that were not necessarily aware of each other. In Canada, the poet Bp Nichol published First Screening: Computer Poems, written in BASIC, in 1984. The Californian writer Judy Malloy published Uncle Roger on the online community The WELL in 1986/87. On the East Coast, hypertext fiction was being explored by academics and writers who met at the ACM Hypertext conference, which held its inaugural meeting in 1987. Michael Joyce's afternoon, a story, one of the most cited works of hypertext fiction, was demonstrated at the 1987 conference, and Mark Bernstein published this work at Eastgate Systems. The hypertext author Stuart Moulthrop described discovering writer and visual artist Judy Malloy's work at this time, not having realised that there were other people writing literature for computers: "I can remember coming away from that moment thinking that, you know, there might be a real hope for what we were trying to do because other people were doing it".

In France at this time, literature numérique (digital literature) was connected to the Oulipo literary movement, and poetry was more central to the French writers than the narrative genres like hypertext fiction that were popular in the United States. Generative poetry could be seen as a particuarly European genre at the time. In 1981 the Portuguese author Pedro Barbosa (writer) published the combinartory work THE ALAMO, and explicitly made the claim that computationally generated works could be literary.

Not only writers, but also digital artists created works with strong literary components that have had an influence on the field of electronic literature. An example is the Australian artist Jeffrey Shaw and Dirk Groeneveld's The Legible City, which was first exhibited at ZKM Center for Art and Media Karlsruhe in 1988. The Legible City is an art installation where the visitor rides a stationary bicycle through a simulated city displayed as computer-generated text. Buildings and streets are shown as 3D shapes consisting of letters and words, allowing the reader to "read" the city as they pedal through it.

1990s
The "Storyspace school" characterised the early 1990s in the United States, consisting of works created using Storyspace, hypertext authoring software developed by the literary scholar Jay David Bolter and the author Michael Joyce in the 1980s. Bolter and Joyce sold the Storyspace software in 1990 to Eastgate Systems, a small software company that became a publishing house and the main distributor of hypertext fiction in the 1990s, particularly in the early 1990s before it was possible to publish works on the web. Eastgate has maintained and updated the code in Storyspace up to the present. Storyspace and similar programs use hypertext to create links within text. Literature using hypertext is frequently referred to as hypertext fiction. Originally, these stories were often disseminated on discs and later on CD-ROM. Hypertext fiction is still being created today using not only Storyspace, but other programs such as Twine.

This period is often termed the first generation hypertext era, as N. Katherine Hayles notes that these works used lexia or separate screens in a similar manner to books and pages. In a 1993 article for the New York Times Book Review, "Hyperfiction: Novels for the Computer", the novelist and professor Robert Coover noted the new possibilities for exploring these various storyworlds: "[I]t is a strange place, hyperspace, much more like inner space than outer, a space not of coordinates but of the volumeless imagination". Key works from this period include Stuart Moulthrop's Victory Garden, Shelley Jackson's Patchwork Girl (1995) and Deena Larsen's work.

Towards the middle of the decade, authors began writing on the web. Stuart Moulthrop's Hegirascope was published in 1995. Early web-based hypertext fictions include Olia Lialina's My Boyfriend Came Back from the War, Adrienne Eisen's Six Sex Scenes and Robert Arellano's Sunshine '69, all published in 1996. Scott Rettberg, William Gillespie, Dirk Stratton, and Frank Marquadt's sprawling hypertext novel The Unknown won the trAce/Alt-X Hypertext Competition in 1998. It was featured in the Electronic Literature Collection Vol. 2, and has been analysed by a number of scholars.

The Electronic Literature Organization (the ELO) was founded in 1999 by hypertext author Scott Rettberg, the author and teacher of creative writing Robert Coover and internet investor Jeff Ballowe, with the mission "to facilitate and promote the writing, publishing, and reading of literature in electronic media". The ELO is still active today, with annual conferences, online discussions and publications.

2000s

In Japan, cell phone novels became popular from the early 2000s. Similar genres emerged in other countries where text messaging was well-established, including India and Europe. The first work of Indian electronic literature is probably the 2004 SMS novel Cloak Room, whose author used the pseudonym RoGue. Cloak Room invited readers to engage with the story by answering texts or leaving comments on the blog that was used in tandem with the text messages.

In North America the web was becoming the main platform for electronic literature. The Canadian author Caitlin Fisher's These Waves of Girls (2001) was a hypermedia novella telling stories of girlhood, using images and sounds as well as links and text. The American author Talan Memmott's Lexia to Perplexia (2000) offered complex visual and textual layers that sometimes confuse and occlude themselves, and is described by the literary critic Lisa Swanstrom as a "beautifully intricate piece of electronic literature". Kate Pullinger's Inanimate Alice is an example of a work that began as a web novel and then saw versions across several media, including a screenplay and a VR experience. Works like The Impermanence Agent, by author and scholar Noah Wardrip-Fruin and collaborators, explored the web's ability to customise a story for the reader.

An analysis of 44 PhD dissertations about electronic literature published between 2002 and 2013 found a clear shift in the genres referenced by the authors of the dissertations during this period. Between 2002 and 2008, the referenced works clustered in four distinct genre groups: interactive fiction, generative literature, classic hypertext fiction (mostly published on disk or in print) and web hypertexts, including more experimental works and some poetry.

Blog fiction and fan fiction are born-digital literary genres that became popular in this period. Blog fictions have been a particularly popular genre of electronic literature in Africa. The literary orality of blogs has also been analysed as a feature of African American blogs.

2010s
The spread of smartphones and tablets led to literary works that explored the touchscreen, such as Samantha Gorman and Danny Cannizarro's Pry (2014) or Kate Pullinger's Breathe: A Ghost Story. Netprov, improvisational and collaborative networked writing was another genre that developed during the 2000s and 2010s, with projects like. Instapoetry, a visual style of poetry native to Instagram became a popular success.

The web-based hypertext authoring tool Twine became increasingly popular this decade. This "Twine revolution" led to a resurgence of interactive fiction and hypertext, which now became "a mainstream form of literary game production and interaction". Notable works written in Twine that are frequently discussed as electronic literature include Anna Anthropy's Queers in Love at the End of the World (2013) and Dan Hett's autobiographical C ya laterrrr about losing his brother in the Manchester Arena bombing (2017).

As machine learning made rapid advances with natural language processing and deep learning, authors began to experiment and write with AI. David Jhave Johnston's ReRites is an example of this new kind of generative literature and is a poetic work written as a human-AI collaboration. A GPT-2 language model was trained on a corpus of contemporary poetry and set to generate new poems every night. Each morning, Jhave Johnston would rewrite the poems as a daily ritual: hence the title ReRites.

Dissertations published between 2009 and 2013 still cite many works in the genres of hypertext fiction, interactive fiction, experimental webtexts and generative texts. Digital poetry also emerged as a significant genre, with dissertation authors writing about two distinct clusters of digital poetry: kinetic poetry and poetic installations in art galleries. Many of these works were from the 1980s to the early 2000s, so this may indicate an uptake in scholarly interest rather than a large change in what kinds of creative works were actually published in the 2010s.

2020s
Electronic literature spread internationally. The Electronic Literature Collection Volume 4, published in 2022, showcases 132 works from 42 different countries in 31 languages. The first volume of the Indian Electronic Literature Anthology, published in 2024, showcases 17 works of electronic literature written in Hindi and English.

Histories and timelines
Various histories of electronic literature and its subgenera have been written. Scott Rettberg's Electronic Literature provides a broad overview, while more specialised books discuss the history of specific genres or periods, like Chris Funkhouser's Prehistoric Digital Poetry and Astrid Ensslin's Pre-web Digital Publishing and the Lore of Electronic Literature.

As mentioned above in the section on Definitions, the literary critic Leonardo Flores proposes a generational understanding of electronic literature, where the first generation is pre-web, the second uses the web, and the third generation uses social media, web APIs and mobile devices. However, not all works fit within this structure, as Spencer Jordan notes, writing that "A work such as The Unknown, for example, sits uneasily between second and third generation definitions."

Reader interaction and nonlinearity
Digital literature tends to require a user to traverse through the literature through the digital setting, making the use of the medium part of the literary exchange. Espen J. Aarseth wrote in his book Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic Literature that "it is possible to explore, get lost, and discover secret paths in these texts, not metaphorically, but through the topological structures of the textual machinery". Espen Aarseth defines "ergodic literature" as literature where "nontrivial effort is required to allow the reader to traverse the text". George Landow explains that following hypertext links merges the traditional expectations of reader and writer roles as the reader constructs the text by following links.

Astrid Ensslin and Alice Bell note that electronic literature works can embody central contradictions in ways that differ from print literature. They cite examples such as afternoon, a story (a car accident that may not or may occur), Victory Garden (a character both dies and lives), and Patchwork Girl (a character is real or imagined). Plot lines, emotional intensity, character traits and attributions can vary depending on a reader's chosen path. J Yellowlees Douglas shows an early example of this in Michael Joyce's 1991 hypertext fiction WOE where romances would occur between different characters, depending on a reader's path. Encountering a node (or lexia) in different contexts can convey impressions of larger databases as information seems to differ depending on the context that the user is coming from, as J Yellowlees Douglas explains about The Election of 1912, by Mark Bernstein and Erin Sweeney.

Preservation and archiving
Because electronic literature is made to be read on computers, works often become unreadable when the software platforms or technologies they are designed for become obsolete. This may have made it more difficult for electronic literature to build the "traditions associated with print literature", as literary critic N. Katherine Hayles has argued.

Several organizations are dedicated to preserving works of electronic literature. The UK-based Digital Preservation Coalition aims to preserve digital resources in general, while the Electronic Literature Organization's PAD (Preservation / Archiving / Dissemination) initiative gave recommendations on how to think ahead when writing and publishing electronic literature, as well as how to migrate works running on defunct platforms to current technologies. The British Library archives winners of the New Media Writing Prize in the UK Web Archive. The NEXT, run by Dene Grigar for the Electronic Literature Organization, hosts source files and documentation of many works of electronic literature and digital writing. The Electronic Literature Knowledge Base (ELMCIP) is a research resource for electronic literature, with 3,875 records of creative works as of February 11, 2024. The Electronic Literature Directory focuses on peer-reviewed descriptions or reviews of works. The Multilingual African Electronic Literature Database & African Diasporic Electronic Literature Database (MAELD & ADELD) is a project focusing on the African region. The Maryland Institute for Technologies in the Humanities and the Electronic Literature Lab at Washington State University Vancouver work towards the documentation and preservation of electronic literature and hypermedia. In Canada, the Laboratory NT2 hosts research and a database on electronic literature and digital art.

The Electronic Literature Collection is a series of anthologies of electronic literature published by the Electronic Literature Organization, both on CD/DVD and online, and this is another strategy in working to make sure that electronic literature is available for future generations.

Major awards
Annual awards for electronic literature include the Electronic Literature Organization awards and the New Media Writing Prize.

Previous awards included the trAce-Alt X Competition. In 1998, two works shared the 1,000 English pound prize: The Unknown by William Gillespie; Scott Rettberg; Dirk Stratton and Rice by Jenny Weight (Australia). Three sites received Honorable Mentions: Kokura by Mary-Kim Arnold, **** by Michael Atavar, and water always writes in plural by Linda Carroli and Josephine Wilson. In 2001, Lexia to Perplexia by Talan Memmott won the trAce/Alt-X New Media Writing Award. In 2004, the prize had four major categories for articles about hypertext (reviews, opinion, and editor's choice. The only multimedia work mentioned was Postcards From Writing by Sally Prior.

title: Electronic literature


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User talk:Lynserella

I think the title pretty much covers it all: Talk.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Lynserella


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Screenshot from the Apple II version of SunDog: Frozen Legacy.

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Portal:Aviation/Anniversaries/June 9

June 9

 * 2009 – A Vietnamese People's Air Force Sukhoi Su-22M3/4 Fitter J/K crashes into a cornfield near Chieng Bay Hill, Thanh Hóa Province, Vietnam killing the pilot. The aircraft from the 923rd Fighter Regiment was on a routine training flight and suffered mechanical failure.

 * 2009 – An Indian Air Force Antonov An-32 Cline transport aircraft crashes near a village in West Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh killing 13 defence personnel. The aircraft crashed over the Rinchi Hill above Heyo village, about 30 km from Mechuka advance landing ground in the district located about 60 km from the Indo-Chinese Line of Actual Control. Among the seven IAF men and six Army personnel on board the ill-fated aircraft were two wing commanders, two squadron leaders and a flight lieutenant.

 * 2005 – Logan Airport runway incursion: After air traffic controllers at Logan International Airport in Boston, Massachusetts, give them clearance to take off simultaneously on intersecting runways, US Airways Flight 1170, a Boeing 737-3B7 with 109 people on board, and Aer Lingus Flight 132, an Airbus A330-301 with 272 people onboard, nearly collide on takeoff. Disaster is averted when the US Airways first officer sees the approaching A330, realizes the aircraft could collide if they both become airborne, and pushes the control column forward to keep the 737 on the ground until the A330 passes 170 feet (52 m) overhead. The 381 people on the two planes suffer no injuries.

 * 1997 – Air Malta Flight KM 830, a Boeing 737-200, registration 9 H-ABF, named Zurrieq, was a flight bound for Istanbul with 80 passengers and crew on board when it was hijacked 20 min after take off and diverted to Cologne. The Air Malta aircraft was hijacked by two men, one of the men went into the cockpit and showed the pilot what looked like sticks of dynamite strapped to his chest. Once in Cologne they asked for a doctor, a Turkish interpreter and a television crew to release a statement. The hijackers demanded the release of Turkish gunman Mehmet Ali Ağca, who at the time was serving a life sentence in Italy after trying to assassinate Pope John Paul II in 1981. However three hours after landing, the men left the plane with their hands in the air. German police found no explosives on the aircraft and all passengers were released unharmed.

 * 1996 – Eastwind Airlines Flight 517, a Boeing 737-200, loses rudder control while on approach to Richmond International Airport and makes an emergency landing; no fatalities.

 * 1996 – The Swedish Air Force opens a new pilot training centre at Såtenäs

 * 1995 – First flight of the Eurocopter EC120 Colibri

 * 1995 – Ansett New Zealand Flight 703, a de Havilland DHC-8, crashes during a landing approach near the Tararua Range s, New Zealand, killing four of the 21 people on board and a dog.

 * 1994 – An Antonov An-124 carries a 109-tonne diesel locomotive from London, ON (YXU), to Dublin (DUB), Ireland.

 * 1989 – Jane Foster and Deanna Brasseur passed a course to become Canada’s first two female fighter pilots available for combat roles; possibly the world’s first.

 * 1974 – The first flight of Northrop YF-17 experimental lightweight fighter is made. It is built to test what might be called the aerodynamics of agility, with all of the factors of weight, materials, and design geared to making it as agile as possible.

 * 1964 – United Airlines Flight 823 was a scheduled flight from Philadelphia International Airport, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to Huntsville International Airport, Huntsville, Alabama with 39 on board. At approximately 18:15 EST it crashed 2 miles northeast of Parrottsville, Tennessee after experiencing an uncontrollable fire on board, killing all 39. The fire of unknown origin initiated below the passenger floor and eventually involved the passenger cabin. One passenger attempted to abandon the aircraft through the No.4 escape window prior to impact but did not survive the free-fall. The ignition source was never determined, but it is thought the plane’s battery overheated or something in a passenger’s luggage caused the fire. According to NTSB investigators, lethal amounts of CO2 were present in the cockpit, explaining witnesses’ reports of the aircraft seen flying erratically. The fire eventually burned through the cockpit and it is likely the crew was unconscious by that time.

 * 1958 – First flight of the Agusta AZ8-L

 * 1958 – London Gatwick Airport opens after two years of extensive reconstruction. It is the first multimodal airport in the world, with direct rail connections from the main terminal to London and Brighton.

 * 1956 – A Grumman F9F-4 Panther fighter jet of VMF-213, flown by a USMC Reserve pilot crashes into a row of houses near Wold-Chamberlain Field, striking the home at 5820 46th Avenue South, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States. In addition to killing the pilot, Maj. George E. Armstrong, the crash kills five and injures twelve on the ground, most of whom are young children. This is the second time in five days that a military jet operating from this airport crashes and kills multiple civilians on the ground.

 * 1953 – An Argentine Air Force Vickers VC.1 Viking T-6 crashed at Praderes, Buenos Aires, Argentina.

 * 1944 – Mid-air collision between two Naval Auxiliary Air Facility Lewiston-based Vought F4U Corsair fighters over Lewiston, Maine; both are able to land and crews are uninjured.

 * 1944 – Allied land-based aircraft strike Japanese airfields on Peleliu, Woleai, and Yap.

 * 1944 – First flight of the Avro Lincoln.

 * 1939 – The Heinkel He 100C V6, first flown in February 1939, after some test flights at the factory is flown to Erprobungstelle Rechlin on 25 April, where it spends most of its time as an engine testbed. On this date, the gear fails in flight, but the pilot manages to land the aircraft with little damage, and it is returned to flying condition in six days.

 * 1938 – Nationalist aircraft bomb Granollers, Spain, a town without military significance, killing about 100 people. Most of the dead are women and children.

 * 1938 – The Nicaraguan Air Force is formed as the Fuerza Aérea de la Guarda Nacional.

 * 1936 – Sole Kellett YG-1 gyrocopter, 35-278, of the Material Division, Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio, acquired by the U.S. Army Air Corps for evaluation, is moderately damaged in a takeoff accident at Pope Army Airfield, Fort Bragg, North Carolina. Pilot was Erickson Nichols.

 * 1931 – First rocket-powered aircraft design patented (R Goddard).

 * 1928 – Charles Kingsford Smith and his crew make the first flight across the Pacific Ocean in the Fokker F.VIIb-3 m Southern Cross. They left Oakland, California on May 31 and reach Brisbane via Honolulu and Fiji. The flight takes 83 hours.

 * 1916 – Lt.j.g. Richard Caswell Saufley of the U.S. Navy, designated Naval Aviator No. 14, is killed in the crash of a Curtiss Model E hydro-plane (seaplane), AH-8, over Santa Rosa Island near Pensacola, Florida at the 8 hr., 51 min. mark of an attempted long-duration flight.  Saufley Field, north of NAS Pensacola, is subsequently named for him.

 * 1916 – With an envelope capacity of 170,000 cu. ft. and an endurance of 11 hours, the first of 45 Coastal (C)-type, nonrigid British airships ordered for the Royal Naval Air Service makes its first flight from the airship station at Pembroke.

 * 1914 – Using a ramp constructed over the foredeck of the seaplane carrier Foudre, French Navy Lieutenant de Vaisseau Jean de Laborde attempts France’s second airplane takeoff from a ship and the first by a French naval aviator, but crashes.

 * 1908 – The Aeronautical Society of the United States is established in New York.

 * 1861 – Two members of the First Rhode Island Regiment, James Allen and Dr. William H. Helme, make the first U. S. Army trial captive balloon ascent.

title: Portal:Aviation/Anniversaries/June 9


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Miscut keys

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. — Xezbeth 08:04, Jun 17, 2005 (UTC)

Miscut keys
Band vanity. Most of the 28 Google hits this name gets are for... well... keys that have been miscut. Delete. -- BD2412 talk 03:18, 2005 Jun 7 (UTC)
 * Delete Doesn't look like a band that has done much yet MarkS 19:49, 7 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete     22:29, 7 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete band vanity. --Etacar11 00:31, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages.  Please do not edit this page .


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Plant Proteome Database

The Plant Proteome Database is a National Science Foundation-funded project to determine the biological function of each protein in plants. It includes data for two plants that are widely studied in molecular biology, Arabidopsis thaliana and maize (Zea mays). Initially the project was limited to plant plastids, under the name of the Plastid PDB, but was expanded and renamed Plant PDB in November 2007.

title: Plant Proteome Database


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Bergamot mint

Bergamot mint may refer to either of two fragrant herbs in the mint family, Lamiaceae:

 * Eau de Cologne mint, probably a cultivar of Mentha aquatica
 * Monarda didyma, an aromatic herb in the family Lamiaceae

title: Bergamot mint


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Minam, Oregon

Minam is an unincorporated community in northwestern Wallowa County, Oregon, United States. It is located at the confluence of the Minam and Wallowa rivers, north of the Wallowa Mountains on Oregon Route 82. Minam is approximately 20 miles (32 km) Northeast of La Grande.

Minam was named after the Minam River, which in turn was named for the Native American name for the locality E-mi-ne-mah, which described a valley or canyon where a plant used for food that resembled a small sunflower was abundant. The form "Minam River" was used as early as 1864. Minam post office was established in 1890, closed in 1891, and was reestablished in 1910. Minam was platted in 1907; a railroad branch through the community to Joseph, completed in 1908, probably prompted the reopening of the post office.

Climate
This region experiences warm (but not hot) and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above 71.6 °F. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Minam has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csb" on climate maps.

title: Minam, Oregon


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Screenshot from the Apple II version of SunDog: Frozen Legacy.

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Martin Broszat

Martin Broszat (14 August 1926 – 14 October 1989) was a German historian specializing in modern German social history. As director of the Institut für Zeitgeschichte (Institute for Contemporary History) in Munich from 1972 until his death, he became known as one of the world's most eminent scholars of Nazi Germany.

Broszat joined the Institut für Zeitgeschichte in 1955 after obtaining his PhD from the University of Cologne. His work at the Institute included serving as an expert witness for the prosecution at the 1963–1965 Frankfurt Auschwitz Trials, and helping to debunk the forged Hitler Diaries in 1983. He also held an honorary professorship at the University of Konstanz.

According to Ian Kershaw, Broszat made important contributions in four areas. From the late 1950s, he worked on the history of Eastern Europe, especially Poland, and on Nazi concentration camps. This led to his exploration of the structure of the Nazi German state, which resulted in his book Der Staat Hitlers (1969), published in English as The Hitler State (1981). In the 1970s he became interested in Alltagsgeschichte and examined everyday life under the Nazis, developing the concept of "Resistenz" (immunity) and co-editing a six-volume work about Bavaria under National Socialism, Bayern in der NS-Zeit (1977–1983). In 1985, he began the debate about the historicization of Nazi Germany, arguing that it should be studied like any other period of history, without moralizing and with recognition of its complexity.

Military service and studies
Born in Leipzig, Germany (the Weimar Republic), to a Protestant family, the second son of a postmaster, Broszat attended the Königin-Carola Gymnasium from 1937 and completed his Abitur there in 1944. Adolf Hitler had become Chancellor of Germany in January 1933, when Broszat was six, and World War II (1939–1945) had started when Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, and France and the United Kingdom declared war on Germany, as they had warned they would. After leaving school, Broszat enlisted and completed basic military training with the Wehrmacht (Stammkompanie des Panzergrenadier-Ersatzbataillons 108, Dresden), followed by officer training, then service at the front.

After the war, Broszat studied history at the University of Leipzig in the Soviet occupation zone, later East Germany, from 1946. He graduated in 1949, then undertook graduate studies at the University of Cologne. He obtained his PhD in 1952, supervised by Theodor Schieder, for a thesis on German antisemitism, Die antisemitische Bewegung im Wilhelminischen Deutschland ("The antisemitism movement in Germany during the Wilhelmine period").

Party membership
As a teenager, Broszat joined the Hitler Youth in Großdeuben (now part of Böhlen), at a time when membership was mandatory for "Aryans". In 1944 a membership card for the Nazi Party was issued for him. Broszat acknowledged having joined the Hitler Youth, but that a Nazi Party card existed in his name was first made public after his death. It is not known whether he applied to join the party, or whether the card was issued to him automatically as a Hitler Youth member who had come of age; at that point, members were admitted from age 17. His card (number 9994096) is one of ten million held by the German Bundesarchiv. When he applied to study at the University of Leipzig in 1946, he answered no to the question on the form: "Were you a member of the NSDAP?" By then, Leipzig had fallen under the control of the Soviet Union and had been annexed to East Germany. The historian Norbert Frei writes that making a false statement would have been risky, and concludes that Broszat probably did not know that a membership card had been issued in his name.

Institut für Zeitgeschichte
After university, Broszat worked with Theodor Schieder on the eight-volume Dokumentation der Vertreibung der Deutschen aus Ost-Mitteleuropa (1954–1957), and in 1955 he joined the Institut für Zeitgeschichte in Munich. The Institute had been founded to study the Nazi era; the head of its advisory board at the time was Hans Rothfels, who also edited its journal, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte.

Initially Broszat's work focused on German Ostpolitik (policy in the east), and antisemitism and fascism in south-eastern and eastern Europe. During this period he wrote two books about German involvement in Poland, Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik (1961), which examined the German occupation of Poland, and Zweihundert Jahre deutscher Polenpolitik (1963). The work won him accolades in Poland as one of the first German historians to offer an honest account of German–Polish relations.

A recurring interest for Broszat was why and how National Socialism had taken hold in Germany. "Broszat's driving incentive was to help an understanding of how Germany could sink into barbarity," Kershaw wrote. "That he himself had succumbed to the elan of the Nazi Movement was central to his motivation to elucidate for later generations how it could have happened." In his book Der Nationalsozialismus (1960), published in English as German National Socialism 1919–1945 (1966), Broszat examined Nazi ideology, which he regarded as incoherent. For Broszat, the constants were anti-communism, antisemitism and a perceived need for Lebensraum. In his view, these were a cloak for the essence of National Socialism: an intense desire to realize the "rebirth" of "the German nation", and irrational hatred of those considered Volksfeinde (enemies of the German people) and Volksfremde (those foreign to the German "race"). Broszat saw the primary supporters of the Nazis as the middle classes, who turned to Nazism to alleviate their anxieties about impoverishment and "proletarianization" in the wake of hyperinflation in the early 1920s and the mass unemployment that began with the Great Depression.

Letter about Dachau (1962)
In 1962 Broszat wrote a letter to the Die Zeit newspaper to "hammer home, once more, the persistently ignored or denied difference between concentration and extermination camps". The Germans had built concentration camps in Germany, but their six extermination camps—built for the purpose of gassing Jews—were in occupied Poland. (The death toll in the concentration camps was high nevertheless, from starvation, disease, beatings, and forced labour.) Holocaust deniers such as Paul Rassinier, Harry Elmer Barnes and David Hoggan made much of the fact in the 1960s that there had been no functioning gas chamber at the Dachau concentration camp in Germany. Broszat noted in the letter that a gas chamber was built there shortly before the end of the war to convert Dachau into a death camp, but it was never used. He argued that the confusion in the public's mind between concentration and death camps, and the tendency erroneously to describe Dachau as a death camp, was aiding the deniers.

Broszat–Wulf letters (1963)
When the German-Jewish historian Joseph Wulf accused a prominent German doctor, Wilhelm Hagen, a senior official in the West German Ministry of Health, of having helped to liquidate Jews in the Warsaw Ghetto, Broszat and other experts from the Institut für Zeitgeschichte tried to silence him during an exchange of letters in 1963. Hagen, who had worked during the war in the health department of the General Government area of German-occupied Poland, insisted he had done everything in his power to save the Jews of the Warsaw Ghetto and asked the Institut für Zeitgeschichte to support his version of events. Broszat wrote a letter to Wulf demanding that he retract his allegations against Hagen "in the interest of the tidiness of the historical document". Ian Kershaw wrote that the correspondence between Broszat and Wulf did not present Broszat in the best light. Broszat accepted Wulf's version of events only after Wulf produced a war-time memo written by Hagen urging that sick Jews "wandering around" be shot down.

Auschwitz trials; Anatomie des SS-Staates (1965)
At the 1963–1965 Frankfurt Auschwitz Trials, in which 20 of those involved with Auschwitz were prosecuted, Broszat and two other researchers from the Institut für Zeitgeschichte—Helmut Krausnick and Hans Buchheim—served as expert witnesses for the prosecution. Their 300-page report, "Nationalsozialistische Konzentrationslager", became the basis of their two-volume book (with Hans-Adolf Jacobsen), Anatomie des SS-Staates (1965), published in English as Anatomy of the SS State (1968). It was the first comprehensive study of Auschwitz and the SS.

Der Staat Hitlers (1969)
In Der Staat Hitlers (The Hitler State) Broszat argued against characterizing Nazi Germany as a totalitarian regime and criticized Karl Dietrich Bracher and Ernst Nolte for advancing such a notion. With Hans Mommsen, Broszat developed a "structuralist" or "functionalist" interpretation of Nazi Germany, arguing in his 1969 book Der Staat Hitlers (The Hitler State) that the government had consisted of a welter of competing institutions and power struggles, and that this internal rivalry, not Adolf Hitler, had been the driving force behind the regime. In Broszat's view, Hitler had been a "weak dictator" (to use Mommsen's phrase) and the government of Nazi Germany a polycracy (rule by many), not a monocracy (rule by one). It was the chaos of the government that led to the collapse of the state and what Kershaw called the "accelerating progression into barbarism". Broszat wrote:

"Because of the multiplicity of conflicting forces the Fuhrer's will (even when Hitler had something different in mind) was ultimately only able to influence events in this or that direction in an uncoordinated and abrupt fashion, and it was certainly not in a position to watch over and curb the new organizations, authorities and ambitions which developed as a result. The institutional and legal results of the intermittent orders and decrees of the Fuhrer became increasingly unfathomable and clashed with later authorizations granted by him."

That the Nazi state was a jumble of competing bureaucracies has been widely accepted by historians. The second element, that Hitler was a "weak dictator", is less accepted. The argument is that, although Hitler did not involve himself much in daily administration, this stemmed not from an inability to do so (as Broszat suggested), but from a lack of interest in the quotidian.

"Hitler and the Genesis of the 'Final Solution'" (1977)
In his essay "Hitler und die Genesis der 'Endlösung': Aus Anlaß der Thesen von David Irving" (1977), Broszat criticized the English author David Irving's argument in the latter's Hitler's War (1977) that Hitler had wanted to expel the Jews and make Europe judenfrei ("free of Jews") but had not known about the Holocaust until autumn 1943. The genocide of the Jews, Irving wrote, had been ordered by Heinrich Himmler and other senior Nazis. Broszat's essay was first published in the Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte journal in 1977 and later in English as "Hitler and the Genesis of the 'Final Solution': An Assessment of David Irving's Theses".

Broszat did accept that there was no evidence of a written order from Hitler to enact the "Final Solution to the Jewish Question". When faced with the stalemate on the Eastern Front, the overwhelming of the European rail system by successive deportations of Jews to Poland, and the self-imposed "problem" of the three million Polish Jews the Germans had forced into ghettos, German officials in Poland had embarked on improvised killing schemes on their own initiative, he argued. The genocide of the Jews had developed "stück- und schubweise" ("bit by bit"), he wrote, because the Germans had led themselves into a "Sackgasse" ("blind alley").

Broszat's essay was the first account of the origins of the Holocaust by a respected historian in which responsibility for the genocide was not assigned entirely to Hitler. Christopher Browning wrote that, after Broszat's essay, "the floodgates opened", and the issue of when and whether Hitler had made a decision to kill the Jews became for a time the key issue of Holocaust historiography.

Criticism of David Irving
In the same essay, Broszat was extremely critical of Irving's handling of sources, accusing him of repeatedly seeking to distort the historical record in Hitler's favour. He complained that Irving focused too much on military events at the expense of the broader political context, and that he accepted Nazi claims at face value, such as accepting the claim that the Action T4 "euthanasia" program of the "incurably sick" began in September 1939 to free up hospital space for wounded German soldiers, when in fact it began in January 1939. Broszat criticized Irving's claim that one telephone note written by Himmler stating "No liquidation" with regard to a train convoy in November 1941 of German Jews passing through Berlin to Riga (whom the SS intended to have shot on arrival) was proof that Hitler did not want the Holocaust. Broszat argued that the "No liquidation" comment referred only to that train and was probably related to concerns that American reporters had been asking about the fate of German Jews deported to Eastern Europe.

Broszat criticized Irving for accepting the "fantastic" claims of the SS Obergruppenführer Karl Wolff that he did not know about the Holocaust (Irving's argument was that if Wolff did not know about it, how could Hitler?), despite the fact that Wolff was convicted of war crimes in 1963 on the basis of documentary evidence implicating him in the Holocaust. Broszat also accused Irving of seeking to generate a highly misleading impression of a conference between Hitler and the Hungarian Regent, Admiral Miklós Horthy, in April 1943 by re-arranging the words to make Hitler appear less brutally antisemitic than the original notes showed.

Alltagsgeschichte and the Bavaria Project (1977–1983)
Broszat was a pioneer of Alltagsgeschichte (history of everyday life). He led the "Bavaria Project" between 1977 and 1983, a comprehensive look at Alltagsgeschichte in Bavaria between 1933 and 1945. The six-volume Bayern in der NS-Zeit ("Bavaria in the National Socialist Era") depicted actions such as refusal to give the Nazi salute as a form of resistance. The emphasis upon resistance in "everyday life" portrayed Widerstand (resistance) in shades of grey, noting that people who refused to behave as the Nazi regime wanted in one area often conformed in others. For example, the Bavarian peasants who did business with Jewish cattle dealers in the 1930s, despite the efforts of the Nazi regime to stop them, often expressed approval of the antisemitic laws.

Through his work on the Bavaria Project, Broszat formed the concept of Resistenz (immunity), which differs from resistance in the sense of Widerstand. Resistenz referred to the ability of institutions such as the Wehrmacht, the Roman Catholic Church and the bureaucracy to enjoy "immunity" from the Nazis' claims to total power, and to continue functioning according to their traditional values, without having to challenge the regime's political monopoly. Broszat used the Resistenz concept to advance the view that at the local level, there was much continuity in Germany between the Weimar and Nazi eras.

"A Plea for a Historicization of National Socialism" (1985)
In "A Plea for a Historicization of National Socialism", an essay published in Merkur in May 1985, Broszat argued that historians should approach Nazi Germany as they would any other period of history, without moralizing. Recommending an Alltagsgeschichte approach that would allow shades of gray by examining both the normality of everyday life and the barbarity of the regime, he wrote that "not all those historically significant developments which occurred in Germany during the Nazi period merely served the regime's goals of inhuman and dictatorial domination". Broszat used as an example the wide-ranging reform of the German social insurance system proposed in 1940 by the DAF, which he argued was in many ways the forerunner of the West German social insurance plan of 1957, with such features as pensions guaranteed by the state indexed to the level of GNP (which was not surprising given that many of the same people worked on both plans).

Broszat's "historicization" concept was criticized by the Israeli historian Omer Bartov, who accused Broszat of attempting to white-wash the German past and of trying to diminish Jewish suffering. Bartov argued that Broszat was calling on German historians to show more empathy for their own history. In Bartov's view, empathy was never lacking; rather, it was empathy for the victims that was lacking. Historians distanced themselves from the perpetrators, but they did not distance themselves from the German people, "the (often complicit) bystanders". Showing empathy for the victims would "block the option of empathy for oneself, creating thereby an unbearable psychological burden". Against this, the German historian Rainer Zitelmann suggested that Broszat's approach was a fruitful one, arguing that just as not everything was evil in the Soviet Union, not everything was evil in Nazi Germany, and that the Nazi regime had accomplished many successful social reforms. Several other scholars supported Broszat's arguments, including the American historian John Lukacs (who said the process of historization had, in fact, begun over 30 years ago), the German philosopher Jürgen Habermas, the German historian Hans Mommsen, and the British historian Richard J. Evans.

"Wo sich die Geister scheiden" (1986)
The Historikerstreit ("historians' dispute") of 1986–1988 was triggered by an article the German historian Ernst Nolte wrote for the conservative newspaper Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (FAZ) in June 1986: "The past that will not pass". Rather than being studied as any other historical period would, Nolte wrote, the Nazi era hung over Germany like a sword. Comparing Auschwitz to the Gulag, he suggested that the Holocaust had been a response to Hitler's fear of the Soviet Union. Although parts of Nolte's argument sounded similar to Broszat's, Broszat strongly criticized Nolte's views in an essay entitled "Wo sich die Geister scheiden" ("Where the Roads Part") in October 1986, also in Die Zeit. He was particularly critical of an earlier claim of Nolte's that Chaim Weizmann, president of the Zionist Organization during World War II, had effectively declared war on Germany in 1939, on behalf of world Jewry. Broszat wrote that Weizmann's letter to Neville Chamberlain promising the support of the Jewish Agency against Hitler was not a "declaration of war", nor did Weizmann have the legal power to declare war on anyone: "These facts may be overlooked by a right-wing publicist with a dubious educational background but not by the college professor Ernst Nolte." He argued that Andreas Hillgruber had come close to being a Nazi apologist and that Nolte's arguments had, indeed (without any intention on his part), turned into apologetics. He ended his essay by arguing that, to ensure the German people a better future, they should not be persuaded to become less critical of their past.

Debate with Saul Friedländer
Broszat's call for the "historicization" of the Nazi era involved him in a vigorous debate with three Israeli historians in the latter half of the 1980s: Otto Dov Kulka, Dan Diner, and above all the Franco-Israeli historian Saul Friedländer. The debate between Broszat and Friedländer was conducted through a series of letters between 1987 until Broszat's death in 1989. In 1990 the Broszat-Friedländer correspondence was translated into English and published in Reworking the Past: Hitler, The Holocaust and the Historians' Debate, edited by Peter Baldwin.

Personal life
Broszat married Alice Welter in 1953; the couple had three children.

Selected works

 * (1957). "Die Memeldeutschen Organisationen und der Nationalsozialismus". Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 5(3), July, 273–278.
 * (1960). "Die Anfänge der Berliner NSDAP, 1926/27". Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 8, 85–118.
 * (1960). Der Nationalsozialismus: Weltanschauung, Programmatik und Wirklichkeit. Hannover: Funke.
 * (1961). Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik, 1939–1945. Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt.
 * (1961). "Betrachtungen zu Hitlers Zweitem Buch". Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 9, 417–430.
 * with Ladislaus Hory (1964). Der kroatische Ustascha-Staat, 1941–1945. Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt.
 * (1966). German National Socialism, 1919–1945. English translation of Der Nationalsozialismus: Weltanschauung, Programmatik und Wirklichkeit. Translated by Kurt Rosenbaum & Inge Pauli Boehm, Santa Barbara, CA: Clio Press. ISBN 978-0874360516
 * (1966). "Faschismus und Kollaboration in Ostmitteleuropa zwischen dem Weltkriegn". Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 14(3), July, 225–251.
 * (1968). "Deutschland-Ungarn-Rumänien, Entwicklung und Grundfaktoren nationalsozialistischer hegemonial-Bündnispolitik 1938–41". Historische Zeitschrift, 206(1), February, 45–96.
 * with Helmut Krausnick, Hans Buchheim and Hans-Adolf Jacobsen (1968). Anatomy of The SS State. Collins: London.
 * (1969). Der Staat Hitlers: Grundlegung und Entwicklung seiner inneren Verfassung. ISBN 0-582-48997-0
 * (1981). The Hitler State: The Foundation and Development Of The Internal Structure Of The Third Reich. London: Longman. ISBN 0-582-49200-9
 * (1970). "Soziale Motivation und Führer-Bindung im Nationalsozialismus". Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 18, 392–409.
 * with Elke Fröhlich, Falk Wiesemann, et al. (eds.) (1977–1983). Bayern in der NS-Zeit. Volumes I–VI. Munich and Vienna: R. Oldenbourg Verlag.
 * (1977). "Hitler und die Genesis der 'Endlösung'. Aus Anlaß der Thesen von David Irving". Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 25(4), 739–775.
 * (1979). "Hitler and the Genesis of the 'Final Solution': An Assessment of David Irving's Theses". Yad Vashem Studies, 13, 73–125.
 * (1985). Reprinted in H. W. Koch (ed.). Aspects of the Third Reich. London: Macmillan, 390–429. ISBN 0-333-35272-6.
 * (1983). "Zur Struktur der NS-Massenbewegung". Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 31, 52–76.
 * with Norbert Frei (eds.) (1983). Das Dritte Reich: Ursprünge, Ereignisse, Wirkungen. Würzburg: Ploetz. ISBN 978-3876400839
 * (1983). Also published as Das Dritte Reich im Überblick: Chronik, Ereignisse, Zusammenhänge. Munich and Zürich: Piper, 1983. ISBN 9783492110914
 * (1984). Die Machtergreifung: der Aufstieg der NSDAP und die Zerstörung der Weimarer Republik. ISBN 0-85496-517-3
 * (1987). Hitler and the Collapse of Weimar Germany. Leamington Spa: Berg. ISBN 0-85496-509-2
 * (1986). Nach Hitler: der schwierige Umgang mit unserer Geschichte. Munich: Oldenbourg. ISBN 978-3486538823
 * (1986). "Wo sich die Geister scheiden. Die Beschwörung der Geschichte taugt nicht als nationaler Religionsersatz". Die Zeit 3 October.
 * (1993). "Where the Roads Part: History Is Not a Suitable Substitute for a Religion of Nationalism", in James Knowlton and Truett Cates (translators). Forever In The Shadow of Hitler? Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1993, 125–129. ISBN 0-391-03784-6

title: Martin Broszat


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Charring

Charring is a chemical process of incomplete combustion of certain solids when subjected to high heat. Heat distillation removes water vapour and volatile organic compounds (syngas) from the matrix. The residual black carbon material is char, as distinguished from the lighter colored ash. By the action of heat, charring removes hydrogen and oxygen from the solid, so that the remaining char is composed primarily of carbon. Polymers like thermoset, or most solid organic compounds like wood or biological tissue, exhibit charring behaviour.

Charring means partially burning so as to blacken the surface.

Charring can result from naturally occurring processes like fire; it is also a deliberate and controlled reaction used in the manufacturing of certain products. The mechanism of charring is part of the normal burning of certain solid fuels like wood. During normal combustion, the volatile compounds created by charring are consumed at the flames within the fire or released to the atmosphere, while combustion of char can be seen as glowing red coals or embers which burn without the presence of flames.

Production of char
Coke and charcoal are both produced by charring, whether on an industrial scale or through normal combustion of coal or wood. Normal combustion consumes the char as well as the gases produced in its creation, while industrial processes seek to recover the purified char with minimal loss to combustion. This is accomplished by either burning the parent fuel (wood or coal) in a low-oxygen environment or by heating it to a high temperature without allowing combustion to occur. In industrial production of coke and charcoal, the volatile compounds driven off during charring are often captured for use in other chemical processes.

A "coal burning" blacksmith's forge actually produces the heat necessary for high-temperature metalworking by the continuous production and consumption of coke within a carefully managed fire. An inner ring of burning coke provides heat which converts the encircling coal into coke, which is then itself fed into the center of the fire to provide the required heat and to create more coke; coal itself is incapable of producing the heat required for some blacksmithing operations.

Charring and fire protection
Charring is an important process in the combustion ignition of solid fuels and in smouldering. In construction of heavy-timbered wood buildings the predictable formation of char is used to determine the fire rating of supporting timbers and is an important consideration in fire protection engineering. If a wood column is of large enough diameter, during a structure fire its exposed surface will be converted to char until the thickness of char provides sufficient insulation to prevent additional charring. This layer then serves to protect the remaining structurally sound core of wood, which can continue to carry the building loads if appropriately designed.

Wood preservation
Charring is also a technique used for wood preservation. In Japan this traditional technique is called yakisugi or shō sugi ban.

Legal definitions
Charring had a special meaning under the common law of England. Under that system, the crime of arson required charring of a dwelling—actual damage to the fiber of the material from which the structure was built—and not mere "scorching" or damage to the surface, or to surface coverings such as carpets and wallpaper.

title: Charring


text:
Minam River

The Minam River is a tributary of the Wallowa River, 51 mi long, in northeastern Oregon in the United States. It drains a rugged wilderness area of the Wallowa Mountains northeast of La Grande.

It rises in the Wallowas in the Eagle Cap Wilderness of the Wallowa–Whitman National Forest, just south of the Wallowa–Union border approximately 25 mi southeast of La Grande at Blue Lake. It flows generally northwest through the mountains along the Wallowa–Union county line. It joins the Wallowa from the south at the community of Minam near Oregon Route 82. Its headwaters include springs stemming from outflow from Minam Lake, also the source of the Lostine River.

From its headwaters to the Eagle Cap Wilderness boundary downstream of Cougar Creek, a distance of 39 mi, the Minam River was declared part of the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System in 1988. Accessible mainly by United States Forest Service trails, the river basin supports diverse wildlife, including wolverine, bighorn sheep, elk, American black bear, and cougar.

The Minam, except for the lower 8 mi, where the surrounds have been heavily logged and otherwise altered, is largely pristine. It and the Wenaha River are the two largest rivers in Oregon that are nearly pristine.

Tributaries
From source to mouth, the named tributaries of the Minam River are Pop and Trail creeks, which enter from the left; Lowry Gulch, left; Wild Sheep Creek, right; Granite Gulch, right; Elk Creek, left; and Last Chance Gulch, right. Then Cap, Rock, and Lackey creeks, all from the left; Pole Creek, right, Pot Creek, left; North Minam River, right, and Little Pot and Jerry creeks, left.

Then Threemile, Garwood, Whoopee, Chaparral, Wallowa, Horseheaven, and Horse Basin creeks, all from the right; the Little Minam River, left; Faun Creek, right, and Lobo and Eagle creeks, left. Then Murphy, Trout, Cougar, Gunderson, and Squaw creeks, all from the right.

title: Minam River


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Daniel bimpson

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE. JeremyA 14:34, 19 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Daniel bimpson
Looks to me like a hoax, nothing comes of the searches I did. In fact that name doesn't return any results at all. All in all it doesn't make a lot of sense. delete Rx StrangeLove 03:25, 7 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages.  Please do not edit this page .


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Darth Dubyous

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. Sjakkalle (Check!)  10:29, 19 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Darth Dubyous
Content is duplicated here; Google on phrase shows repeated citations and republishing of David Edelstein movie review Daniel Case 03:25, 7 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Sorry, but I find this etymology highly dubious. Delete --Simon Cursitor 07:12, 7 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete non notable phrase. JamesBurns 07:33, 7 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete --Melaen 19:20, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge --Arbiteroftruth 05:45, 13 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete Its an insult to Sith Lords. :P--Kross 23:22, Jun 16, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. This is just stupid and partisan; plus I hate stubs. --maru 05:14, 17 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages.  Please do not edit this page .


text:
Boston (Hasidic dynasty)

Boston is a Hasidic dynasty, originally established in 1915 by Rabbi Pinchas David Horowitz, a scion of the Nikolsburg Hasidic dynasty. Following the custom of European Chassidic Courts, where the Rebbe was called after the name of his city, the Bostoner branch of Hasidic Judaism was named after Boston, Massachusetts. The most senior and well-known of the Bostoner Rebbes in contemporary times was Grand Rabbi Levi Yitzchak Horowitz, who died in December 2009.

Amid a spectrum of notable accomplishments and "firsts in America," Bostoner Hasidim claim to be skilled in applying ancient Jewish values in modern society, engaging in outreach to students, and providing tangible help for the sick and their families during crucial times of need. Bostoner Hasidim also pride themselves on their musical tradition.

The worldwide community of Bostoner Hasidism has headquarters in Brookline, Massachusetts and Har Nof, Israel, with additional branches in Beit Shemesh, Israel; Beitar Illit, West Bank; Flatbush, Brooklyn; Highland Park, New Jersey; Lawrence, Nassau County, New York; and Monsey, New York.

Origins
Grand Rabbi Pinchas David Horowitz, the first Bostoner Rebbe, a scion of Shmelke of Nikolsburg and the Lelov dynasty, was born in Jerusalem in Ottoman Syria. He first arrived in Boston in 1915 from the Russian Empire, where he had gone to collect charity.

Shortly after his arrival, Rabbi Pinchas David was accepted as Rebbe by a group of followers he attracted from within the Boston Jewish community. However, in 1939, he left Boston and moved to Brooklyn where he opened the Bostoner beth midrash of Williamsburg, Brooklyn. After his death in 1941, his older son, Rav Moshe, succeeded him in New York, while his younger son, Levi Yitzchak Horowitz, moved back to Boston in 1943 and built the New England Chassidic Center.

In his lifetime, Reb Moshe founded the Bostoner beth midrash of Crown Heights, Brooklyn and the Bostoner beth midrash of Borough Park, Brooklyn. In 1985, upon the passing of Reb Moshe, his eldest son, Chaim Avrom Horowitz, succeeded him as Bostoner Rebbe of New York. In 1989, Reb Moshe's younger son, Pinchas Dovid, moved to Flatbush, Brooklyn to establish a community there. He eventually accepted the mantle of Bostoner Rebbe of Flatbush. In 2006, Rav Chaim Avrom moved to Beit Shemesh in Israel to establish a community there. He died in 2016 while visiting America for his granddaughter's wedding to the grandson of the Skverer and Rachmanstrifker Rebbes. He was succeeded by his sons, Rabbi Yaakov Yitzchak Horowitz of Lawrence, NY, And Rav Yisrael Yona Horowitz of Boro Park.

In the mid-1980s, Levi Yitzchak Horowitz established another Boston community in Har Nof, Jerusalem, and would spend half of the year in Boston and half of the year in Jerusalem. On Saturday, December 5, 2009, Levi Yitzchok Horowitz died in Jerusalem, survived by his three sons and two daughters. In his spiritual will, the title of Grand Rabbi of Boston was bestowed upon all three surviving sons. Pinchas Dovid Horowitz, the Chuster Rebbe of Borough Park, the oldest, serves as Bostoner Rebbe in New York; Mayer Alter Horowitz serves as Bostoner Rebbe in Har Nof; and Naftali Yehuda Horowitz, the youngest, serves as Bostoner Rebbe in Boston.

Lineage of the Boston dynasty

 * Grand Rabbi Pinchos Duvid Horowitz (1876–1941) first Bostoner Rebbe
 * Grand Rabbi Moshe Horowitz (died 1985) Bostoner Rebbe of New York – Born in Jerusalem, he was the elder son of Rabbi Pinchas and the first Chasidic Rebbe to succeed his father in America, establishing a Bostoner Beis Medrash in Crown Heights, Brooklyn and later in Borough Park, Brooklyn. He was active in the formation of Agudath Israel of America and a member of its Moetzes Gedolei HaTorah (Council of Torah Sages), and was a founder of Yeshiva Torah Vodaas. He worked with the Vaad Hatzalah to help settle Jewish refugees in America during and after World War II.
 * Grand Rabbi Chaim Avrohom Horowitz, Bostoner Rebbe of Borough Park 1985 to 2016 and Ramat Beit Shemesh
 * Rabbi Yaakov Yitzchak Horowitz of Lawrence, NY – son of Grand Rabbi Chaim Avrohom
 * Rabbi Yisroel Yona Horowitz Bostoner Rebbe of Boro Park – son of Grand Rabbi Chaim Avrohom
 * Grand Rabbi Pinchas Duvid Horowitz (Niftar in 2023/5783) )Bostoner Rebbe of Flatbush – son of Grand Rabbi Moshe Horowitz
 * Grand Rabbi Mordechai Ziskind Horowitz Admur M'Boston Flatbush Shlita oldest son of Grand Rabbi Pinchos Dovid of Flatbush (Crowned as Grand Rabbi Shabbos Kodesh Parshas Shelach 5783/2023
 * Rabbi Chaim Avrohom Horowitz of Monsey Admur M'Boston Monsey Shlita – second son of Grand Rabbi Pinchos Duvid of Flatbush
 * Rabbi Levi Yitzchok Horowitz of Montreal Admur M'Boston Montreal Shlita – third son of Grand Rabbi Pinchos Duvid of Flatbush
 * Rabbi Yisroel Horowitz of Montreal Admur M'Boston Lakewood Shlita – fourth son of Grand Rabbi Pinchos Duvid of Flatbush
 * Rabbi Alter Yehuda Tzvi Horowitz of Boro Park – fifth son of Grand Rabbi Pinchos Duvid of Flatbush
 * Rabbi Moshe Horowitz of Boro Park – sixth and youngest son of Grand Rabbi Pinchos Duvid of Flatbush
 * Grand Rabbi Levi Yitzchak Horowitz, (1921–2009) the Bostoner Rebbe in Brookline and Har Nof – son of Rabbi Pinchas David Horowitz
 * Rabbi Pinchas Duvid Horowitz (1943–2021 ), Chuster Ruv – eldest son of Grand Rabbi Levi Yitzchok, successor to his father as Bostoner–Chuster Rebbe of New York, and Chuster–Bostoner Rebbe of Betar Illit
 * Rabbi Moshe Shimon Horowitz, Bostoner Ruv of Betar Illit - eldest son of the Chuster–Bostoner Rebbe
 * Rabbi Yisroel Aharon Horowitz – son of the Chuster–Bostoner Rebbe and son-in-law of Rabbi Yitzchok Arie Weiss, Horodonka Rebbe of Manchester, England
 * Reb Shia'le Horowitz, Bostoner Ruv of Monsey, New York – son of the Chuster–Bostoner Rebbe
 * Rabbi Yechiel Mechel Horowitz, Bostoner Ruv of Highland Park, New Jersey – son of the Chuster–Bostoner Rebbe
 * Rabbi Mayer Alter Horowitz of Jerusalem – middle son of Grand Rabbi Levi Yitzchok, successor to his father as Bostoner Rebbe in the Har Nof section of Jerusalem.
 * Rabbi Naftali Yehuda Horowitz, Bostoner Rebbe (Boston) – youngest son of Grand Rabbi Levi Yitzchok, successor to his father as the Bostoner Rebbe of Boston.
 * Rabbi Meilich Horowitz Rav – son of current Rebbe Naftoli Yehuda Horowitz

title: Boston (Hasidic dynasty)


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Dangerdoom

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was speedied. — Xezbeth 07:36, Jun 18, 2005 (UTC)

Dangerdoom
''Dangerdoom is a collaboration between rapper MF Doom and producer DJ Dangermouse. It is set to be released in late 2005.'' We infer from further down the article that the collaboration is an album.

Fine. Then let's wait till late 2005 when it comes out. Till it does so, it's merely DoomDangermouseCruft, with a (perhaps unintentional) whiff of promotion. (This is not a vote, for which see below.) -- Hoary 03:25, 2005 Jun 7 (UTC)

 * Delete this article as about mere vaporware, without prejudging the worthiness of an article about this album if/when the album actually appears. -- Hoary 03:25, 2005 Jun 7 (UTC)
 * Delete, unless notability is established. --Sn0wflake 01:53, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete promo for a future album - notability not established. JamesBurns 06:21, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. The album will likely be fairly significant when it comes out, but the official title hasn't even been announced yet.  Jasonglchu 14:47, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete speculation — Chameleon 20:06, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages.  Please do not edit this page .


text:
Reggie Sanders

Reginald Laverne Sanders (born December 1, 1967) is an American former right fielder in Major League Baseball. He batted and threw right-handed. He played professionally with the Cincinnati Reds, St. Louis Cardinals, Pittsburgh Pirates, Atlanta Braves, San Francisco Giants, San Diego Padres and Kansas City Royals, and was a member of the Arizona Diamondbacks' 2001 World Series championship over the New York Yankees. Sanders possessed a rare capacity for power and speed and is one of only eight MLB players to record over 300 home runs and 300 steals.

Early career
Sanders was 23 years old when he made his major league debut on August 22,, after being selected in the seventh round of the 1987 amateur draft by the Cincinnati Reds. He attended Spartanburg Methodist College before beginning his pro career with the Rookie-level Billings Mustangs of the Pioneer League in 1988.

Baseball career
Sanders gained some notoriety during the 1994 season when Pedro Martínez hit him with a pitch to end his bid for a perfect game with one out in the eighth inning. Sanders responded by charging the mound and igniting a bench-clearing brawl. He was ridiculed by some in the press for believing that a pitcher would abandon an attempt at a perfect game to intentionally hit a batter.

On August 20, 2003, Sanders became the fortieth player in MLB history to hit two home runs in an inning, doing so for the Pittsburgh Pirates against the St. Louis Cardinals in the top of the 5th inning. He was only the third Pirates player to accomplish the feat. Sanders' first home run of the inning came as the third in a back-to-back-to-back string for the Pirates; the second was a grand slam.

With the Cardinals, Sanders had a breakout of sorts during the 2005 National League Division Series against the San Diego Padres. In a three-game sweep of the Padres, Sanders had 10 runs batted in, a new record for a division series. In Game 1 of the 2005 NLCS, Sanders hit a two-run home run to give the Cardinals a two-run lead, making it his seventh career postseason home run. However, the Cardinals would lose the series in six games, giving the Houston Astros their first NL pennant and trip to the World Series.

On June 10,, as a member of the Royals, Sanders hit his 300th home run. This made him the fifth member of Major League Baseball's 300-300 club, as he had stolen the 300th base of his career on May 1. He became the first player in history to join the club at his home stadium. Steve Finley of the San Francisco Giants joined the 300-300 club as its sixth member on June 14, four days after Sanders achieved the feat. Sanders hit 20 or more home runs in one season for six different teams. He hit at least 10 home runs in a season for every major league team he played for (seven in all).

Sanders missed the majority of the 2007 season due to an injury and became a free agent after the season.

Career statistics
In 64 postseason games, Sanders batted .195 (43-for-221) with 24 runs, 7 home runs, 25 RBI, 9 stolen bases and 26 walks.

title: Reggie Sanders


text:
Louise Harel

Louise Harel (born April 22, 1946) is a Quebec politician. In 2005 she served as interim leader of the Parti Québécois following the resignation of Bernard Landry. She was also interim leader of the opposition in the National Assembly of Quebec. She represented the riding of Hochelaga-Maisonneuve in the Montreal region, and its predecessors, from 1981 to 2008. She ran for Mayor of Montreal as the representative of the Vision Montreal municipal political party in the 2009 election, but was defeated by incumbent Gérald Tremblay. In the 2013 Montreal election, Harel supported federalist Marcel Côté for mayor but failed to be elected to her own council seat.

Life and career
Harel was born in Sainte-Thérèse-de-Blainville, Quebec. She graduated in 1977 from the Université de Montréal with a law degree and was admitted to the bar in 1978. She worked at the national secretariat, the Centre des services sociaux de Montréal and the Social Development Council of Metropolitan Montreal as a staff member. She has been a member of the Parti Québécois (PQ) since 1970 and was the president of the party in Montreal-Centre in the 1970s and the vice-president of the party province wide from 1979 to 1981.

She was first elected to the National Assembly in the 1981 election as the Member of the National Assembly (MNA) for Maisonneuve. In 1984, she was appointed Minister of Cultural Communities and Immigration by Quebec Premier René Lévesque, and served until the government's electoral defeat in the 1985 election. She retained her seat that year and in 1989 (when it was renamed Hochelaga-Maisonneuve), however, and served in opposition for the next five years.

When the PQ returned to power in the 1994 election under the leadership of Jacques Parizeau, she returned to cabinet as Minister of Employment and minister responsible for immigration.

After being re-elected in 1998, she later served as Minister of Municipal Affairs. During her tenure as minister, she tabled a bill which forced the merger of several small municipalities into one entity and affected all key cities such as Gatineau, Montreal, Quebec City, Trois-Rivières, Saguenay, Longueuil and Sherbrooke. The project, which was implemented in 2002 was met with mixed reviews and later become a key issue during the 2003 provincial elections.

In 2002, she became the first woman to serve as Speaker of the National Assembly, and remained in that capacity until the 2003 election, after which she joined the PQ on the opposition benches.

Harel served as interim PQ leader and leader of the opposition until a leadership election chose André Boisclair as leader on November 15, 2005. She was not a candidate in the leadership election. She continued to serve as leader of the opposition until PQ leader André Boisclair won his seat in the National Assembly on August 14, 2006.

She was re-elected in the 2007 elections and named the PQ critic in social services and later she was also giving the portfolio of Status of Women. In October 2008, she announced that she would not seek another mandate.

Montreal mayoralty campaign 2009
Harel ran for mayor of Montreal for the November 1, 2009 Montreal municipal election on behalf of the municipal Vision Montréal party. To that end, she studied to improve her poor English, a liability in a city where almost 20% the population is Anglophone. She has stated that the rise of "ethnic neighbourhoods" in the city is an undesirable situation, because she believes that Montrealers should feel part of the whole city, not just of their own borough. A central aspect of her campaign has been to centralize municipal government.

She came in second in the mayoralty race, and became city councillor for the district of Maisonneuve–Longue-Pointe. She announced she would remain leader of Vision Montréal and opposition leader at City Hall.

Montreal municipal election 2013
In early July 2013, Harel allied Vision Montreal with mayoral hopeful Marcel Côté. She opted against another mayoral run in her own right after recognizing that given her massive unpopularity among anglophones it was impossible for her to become mayor.

After her own district was abolished, Harel ran for councillor in Sainte-Marie, the eastern section of Ville-Marie, but lost to Projet Montreal's Valérie Plante. Côté came a distant fourth in the mayoral race at the head of a new party called Coalition Montréal Marcel Côté.

In January 2014 Harel announced her intention to revive Vision Montreal but not to run for office again herself. She has also begun a weekly broadcast on Radio Ville-Marie.

title: Louise Harel


text:
Blue Sky Mausoleum

Blue Sky Mausoleum, in Forest Lawn Cemetery in Buffalo, New York, is the 2004 completion of a 1928 design by Frank Lloyd Wright as a commercial cemetery project. The design was completed by a one-time apprentice to Wright, Anthony Puttnam.

Puttnam was also responsible for the posthumous completion of Wright's Monona Terrace building in Madison, Wisconsin in modified form, and he has defended both projects against accusations that they are inauthentic.

The Mausoleum was the last of four projects Darwin D. Martin commissioned from Wright; the others were his residential complex, the Larkin Administration Building, and Graycliff, their summer house.

title: Blue Sky Mausoleum


text:
William Guilfoyle

William Robert Guilfoyle (8 December 1840 – 25 June 1912) was an English landscape gardener and botanist in Victoria, Australia, acknowledged as the architect of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne and was responsible for the design of many parks and gardens in Melbourne and regional Victoria.

Early life and family
Guilfoyle was born in Chelsea, England, to Charlotte (née Delafosse) and Michael Guilfoyle (1809–1884), a landscape gardener and nurseryman. William was one of four children. The family migrated to Sydney in 1849 on board the Steadfast. Later after arriving, Michael Guilfoyle established Guilfoyle's Exotic Nursery in Double Bay on land owned by Thomas Sutcliffe Mort. Here he was a leading supplier of the exotic Jacaranda tree using his own grafting methods.

William Guilfoyle was privately educated at Lyndhurst College, Glebe where he received botanical instruction by William Woolls, William Sharp MacLeay (1792–1865) and John MacGillivray (1821–1867), who all encouraged him to follow in his father's career. In 1868 William Guilfoyle was appointed to the scientific staff of HMS Challenger that travelled around the Pacific Ocean. He recorded the voyage with a series of watercolour sketches and a detailed account in the Sydney Mail. Guilfoyle settled in the Tweed River valley where he grew tobacco and sugar cane and first met the noted German botanist, Ferdinand von Mueller.

Melbourne Botanic Gardens
In April 1873 Mueller created the genus Guilfoylia and described William Guilfoyle as "distinguished as a collector [who] evidenced great ardour" and held high hopes for his collecting ability. Mueller's opinion changed when Guilfoyle was appointed to take his place as Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne on 21 July 1873. He accused Guilfoyle of being a "nurseryman [with] no claims to scientific knowledge whatever" and of getting the job due to being related to the wife of the responsible Minister. Mueller subsequently abolished Guilfoylia as part of the genus of Cadellia in his botanical census of 1882.

Mueller had adopted a scientific and educational approach to the Botanic Gardens, which had come in for criticism by influential Melburnians, who wanted a more aesthetic gardens for recreational use. William Guilfoyle set about creating the Gardens' world-famous "picturesque" landscape style. Over the next 35 years, Guilfoyle sculpted sweeping lawns, meandering paths and glittering lakes, creating a series of vistas offering a surprise around every corner. The swamp and lagoon were separated from the Yarra River under the direction of Carlo Catani (1852–1918), a civil engineer with the Public Works Department, allowing Guilfoyle to create the chain of ornamental lakes further adding to the beauty of the gardens.

A feature of Guilfoyle's designs were the erection of over a dozen structures in the Gardens, including pavilions, summer houses, rotundas and 'temples'. These structures were generally located at junctions along the path system and took advantage of an attractive view. They were also practical buildings providing much needed shelter from Melbourne's hot summer sun and unpredictable rain. The Rose Pavilion, for instance, was used for band recitals during the summer months. Another, the "Temple of the Winds" monument was dedicated to Governor Charles La Trobe and erected by William Guilfoyle in the Botanical Gardens. The temple is composed of 10 columns instead of the normal 8 or 12 which are more easily divisible by the four points of the compass. According to historian Ken Duxbury, such structures added a picturesque charm to the landscape, highlighting points of visual interest along the trail of the paths and serving a role not dissimilar to the grottos, classical temples, follies, hermitages and pagodas along the circuit walks of the classic 'English Landscape School' gardens such as Stourhead. In addition to these structures, Guilfoyle added a series of large iron archways to highlight entry to the rest houses and to mark points of transition like 'doorways'. About ten of these archways still remain. He also established an extensive medicinal garden in the 1880s at the Gardens and opened a Museum of Economic Botany and Plant Products in 1892.

Public parks in Melbourne
Other public work included additional tree planting and landscaping of Kings Domain and refining the original garden design of Government House "with many fine mature trees, including conifers, Australian rainforest species and deciduous trees, which are characteristic of the era and which also reflect Guilfoyle's personal taste" (Victorian Heritage register). The Carlton Gardens, now a World Heritage Site, was landscaped for the Melbourne International Exhibition held in 1880 by several leading landscape designers and horticulturists including Clement Hodgkinson, William Sangster, Nicholas Bickford, and William Guilfoyle.

The gardens at Aspendale Racecourse were designed by William Guilfoyle.

In 1902 William Guilfoyle transformed the ornamental pond in the Treasury Gardens into a Japanese Garden, however the garden was demolished after the Second World War.

Regional botanic gardens
Shortly after completing the major landscaping of the Royal Botanic Gardens in Melbourne in 1879, Guilfoyle designed several Botanic gardens in regional Victorian towns:

 * Camperdown Botanic gardens which now features an arboretum, rare examples of Himalayan oak and a statue of Scottish poet Robbie Burns, which once stood at Tydenham Castle, near London. Several street-tree elm plantings in Camperdown were designed by Guilfoyle.
 * Colac Botanic gardens in Queen street located on the shores of Lake Colac, were established in 1868, remodelled in 1910 by Guilfoyle and include a huge diversity of plants with many old and rare trees and a rose arbour.
 * Hamilton Botanic gardens from 1881. Set in four acres (16,000 m²), the gardens are distinguished by rare botanic species, a superbly restored rotunda, a small zoo and playground and the ornate Thomson Fountain. The National Trust of Australia classified the gardens in 1990 with eight tree species listed on the Register of Significant Trees in Victoria.
 * Horsham botanic gardens located by the Wimmera River.
 * Koroit botanic gardens form part of a large, central recreational area.
 * Warrnambool's botanic gardens featured wide curving paths, rare trees, a lily pond with ducks, a fernery and a band rotunda.

Private Gardens
He also undertook private landscape design work which included Nellie Melba's Coombe Cottage at Coldstream; Moritz Michaelis's Linden in Acland Street, Mawallok between Skipton and Beaufort for Philip and Mary Russell in 1909, St Kilda; Werribee Park for the Chirnside brothers; and two gardens near Birregurra, "Mooleric" – a four-acre (16,000 m²) private garden registered under the Heritage Act as being of state and national significance and "Turkeith" for Mr. And Mrs. Urquhart Ramsay.

The gardens around Parliament House, Melbourne were designed by Clement Hodgkinson and William Guilfoyle and feature the Parliament Gardens, a small triangular park which features the Coles Fountain and provides pleasant views of Parliament House, St Patrick's Cathedral, the Old Synagogue, the Old Baptist Church and the Eastern Hill Fire Station. They became a public reserve in 1934.

The Parliament House Gardens, designed by Guilfoyle, have restricted access and are used by parliamentarians and guests, and for official garden parties. The garden contains The Federal Oak which was planted in 1890 by Sir Henry Parkes; a plaque recognising the efforts of Vida Goldstein; and an 'oriental-style' pavilion.

Guilfoyle also wrote extensively for the Bankers' Magazine of Australasia, the Victorian Naturalist, and two guide books (1902, 1908) to the Melbourne Botanic Gardens. He also wrote on Australian plants, including Australian Plants Suitable for Gardens, Parks, Timber Reserves etc (1911). Guilfoyle retired from landscape design in 1909, living at Chatsworth in Jolimont Road, Jolimont and died on 25 June 1912.

Legacy
Eucalyptus guilfoylei was named in honour of Guilfoyle. Also from the family Surianaceae, Guilfoylia monostylis.

The Guilfoyle Lawn in the Melbourne Botanic Gardens and more recently in 2013 with the construction of an apartment tower opposite the Botanic Gardens in nearby Coventry Street SouthBank called The Guilfoyle.

title: William Guilfoyle


text:
List of Neo Geo Pocket Color games

The Neo Geo Pocket Color is a handheld video game console released by SNK in 1999.

Games
There are currently  games on this list. Games that can be played on the monochrome Neo Geo Pocket are noted as backwards compatible.

title: List of Neo Geo Pocket Color games


text:
File:SundogWarping.gif

Screenshot of the Apple II version of SunDog: Frozen Legacy.

title: File:SundogWarping.gif


text:
Werrington railway station

Werrington railway station is located on the Main Western line, serving the Sydney suburb of Werrington. It is served by Sydney Trains T1 Western line services.

History
Werrington station opened on 2 May 1868 as a private platform on the Main Western line for Henry Parkes named Parkes Platform. It opened for public use in 1878 and was renamed Werrington on 25 March 1893.

In June 2008, the station was upgraded with a new footbridge and lifts. It was fitted with solar panels at the same time, being the first CityRail station fitted. An upgrade to the commuter car park was completed in June 2010.

On 18 August 2011, a boy was hit by an express heading to city after dangerously crossing the tracks. The boy's leg and elbow were broken as well as sustaining serious injury. Transit officers arrived soon to call emergency services. The boy was then transported to the Royal Alexandra Hospital for Children for treatment. It was revealed that the boy had survived by hiding in the 'lip' of the platform where the train had injured but not killed him.

The main array of 42 solar panels (7.35 kW capacity) appears to be no longer working since late 2012. As of August 2014, the system has not been repaired and no plans to fix it have been announced.

Transport links
Busways operates two bus routes via Werrington station, under contract to Transport for NSW:
 * 782: Penrith station to St Marys station
 * 785: to Penrith station

Werrington is served by one NightRide route approximately one kilometre from Werrington station on the Great Western Highway:
 * N70: Penrith station to Town Hall station

Western Sydney University runs a free Shuttle Bus every 10 minutes from the station to the Werrington North and South Campus.

title: Werrington railway station


text:
Talk:Battle of Cowpens

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 5 one external links on Battle of Cowpens. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20070809234459/http://www.nps.gov:80/archive/cowp/bearss/chap1.htm to http://www.nps.gov/archive/cowp/bearss/chap1.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20060808192724/http://www.nps.gov/cowp/dmorgan.htm to http://www.nps.gov/cowp/dmorgan.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20070624212824/http://www.usachcs.army.mil/TACarchive/Acwin98i/Hourihan.htm to http://www.usachcs.army.mil/TACarchive/Acwin98i/Hourihan.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20130621174308/http://www.history.army.mil:80/books/RevWar/KM-Cpns/AWC-KM-FM.htm to http://www.history.army.mil/books/RevWar/KM-Cpns/AWC-KM-FM.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20070101013027/http://cgsc.leavenworth.army.mil:80/carl/resources/csi/Moncure/moncure.asp to http://cgsc.leavenworth.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/Moncure/moncure.asp

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Patriot
Please stop throwing around the word "Patriot," it is extremely inaccurate as a descriptor for Colonists who were fighting at the time. The people in what would become America in the 18th century were just as complex as we are, they had multiple reasons for joining the militia or army - much of which was the pay. The idea that a slave was a Patriot (note capitalization) is at best not amusing, but at worst deeply offensive. Grouchy highlander (talk) 04:23, 1 November 2017 (UTC)

 * Someone claims that IF YOU LOOK ON THE TALK PAGE YOU WILL FIND THERE IS A CONSENSUS, STOP CHANGING THIS! As can be seen, its only a statement of one editor; no trace of a consensus.

 * I am changing to Patriot, because there was Americans on both sides. You wouldn't label the Battle of Gettysburg and American victory, would you. Why are enslaved people of significance here? Not one word in the article! If slaves were present, they were found on both sides. Creuzbourg (talk) 14:51, 15 April 2023 (UTC)

 * I reverted because "Patriot" is inconsistent with how the forces opposing the British are referred to (ie US). If this is to be changed, then the body of the article needs to change first. Cinderella157 (talk) 23:31, 15 April 2023 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. Community Tech bot (talk) 16:37, 5 July 2018 (UTC)
 * The Battle of Cowpens.jpg

Map shows Broad river too close to battlefield
The image in the article and linked here...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Battle_of_Cowpens.Dean.USMA.edu.history.png

...indicates the Broad river as next to the battlefield when modern maps show it is in NC over 4 miles to the north. crcwiki (talk) 04:09, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

Result
Is there a reason the historically supported consensus, and according to the own history of this page the consensus other editors reached a few years ago, is continuously changed by someone? As far as I can see the consensus reached by historians and by earlier editors was that it can be considered a decisive victory. 162.221.218.49 (talk) 15:35, 2 December 2022 (UTC)

 * You have been repeatedly directed to the guidance at MOS:MIL that specifically deprecated applying qualifiers to the result. Cinderella157 (talk) 08:06, 4 December 2022 (UTC)

American strength underestimated?
War at Saber Point by John Knight, page 160:

"The number of Americans Tarleton faced has been the subject of debate. Morgan believed he had fewer than 1,000 men. Tarleton claimed the Americans had over 1,800 present, a total historians later ridiculed as a face-saving exaggeration. But a study of pension records by military archaeologist Lawrence Babits proved Tarleton's estimate was conservative. Morgan's force numbered between 1,800 and 2,400 soldiers, giving the Americans a superiority of between 700 and 1,200 men"

The source cited by Knigh for this analysis is Babits' A Devil of a Whipping: The Battle of Cowpens pages 27-36. I don't have access to this resource at the moment, so would another editor be able to corroborate it? If so, is it then worth reflecting this in the information box? F.M. Sir D.H (talk) 10:58, 9 August 2023 (UTC)

Assessment in Aftermath
In “Aftermath”, The third paragraph is opinion without attribution. The comment about Cornwallis pushing Tarleton is valid but an exact quote would be unimpeachable. Other than that, the paragraph needs to be deleted, or replaced by an unbiased assessment by historians who aren’t all preaching from the same book. Humphrey Tribble (talk) 06:01, 12 September 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Battle of Cowpens