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Crystal twinning

Crystal twinning occurs when two or more adjacent crystals of the same mineral are oriented so that they share some of the same crystal lattice points in a symmetrical manner. The result is an intergrowth of two separate crystals that are tightly bonded to each other. The surface along which the lattice points are shared in twinned crystals is called a composition surface or twin plane.

Crystallographers classify twinned crystals by a number of twin laws, which are specific to the crystal structure. The type of twinning can be a diagnostic tool in mineral identification. There are three main types of twinning. The first is growth twinning which can occur both in very large and very small particles. The second is transformation twinning, where there is a change in the crystal structure. The third is deformation twinning, in which twinning develops in a crystal in response to a shear stress, and is an important mechanism for permanent shape changes in a crystal.

Definition
Twinning is a form of symmetrical intergrowth between two or more adjacent crystals of the same mineral. It differs from the ordinary random intergrowth of mineral grains in a mineral deposit, because the relative orientations of the two crystal segments show a fixed relationship that is characteristic of the mineral structure. The relationship is defined by a symmetry operation called a twin operation.

The twin operation is not one of the normal symmetry operations of the untwinned crystal structure. For example, the twin operation may be reflection across a plane that is not a symmetry plane of the single crystal.

On the microscopic level, the twin boundary is characterized by a set of atomic positions in the crystal lattice that are shared between the two orientations. These shared lattice points give the junction between the crystal segments much greater strength than that between randomly oriented grains, so that the twinned crystals do not easily break apart.

Parallel growth describes a form of crystal growth that produces the appearance of a cluster of aligned crystals which could be mistaken for twins. Close examination reveals that the cluster is actually a single crystal. This is not twinning, since the crystal lattice is continuous throughout the cluster. Parallel growth likely takes place because it reduces system energy.

Twin laws
Twin laws are symmetry operations that define the orientation between twin crystal segments. These are as characteristic of the mineral as are its crystal face angles. For example, crystals of staurolite show twinning at angles of almost precisely 90 degrees or 30 degrees. A twin law is not a symmetry operation of the full set of basis points.

Twin laws include reflection operations, rotation operations, and the inversion operation. Reflection twinning is described by the Miller indices of the twin plane (i.e. {hkl}) while rotational twinning is described by the direction of the twin axis (i.e. ). Inversion twinning is typically equivalent to a reflection or rotation symmetry.

Rotational twin laws are almost always 2-fold rotations, though any other permitted rotation symmetry (3-fold, 4-fold, 5-fold or 6-fold) is possible. The twin axis will be perpendicular to a lattice plane. It is possible for a rotational twin law to share the same axis as a rotational symmetry of the individual crystal if the twin law is a 2-fold rotation and the symmetry operation is a 3-fold rotation. This is the case for spinel law twinning on : The spinel structure has a 3-fold rotational symmetry on and spinel is commonly twinned by 2-fold rotation on.

The boundary between crystal segments is called a composition surface or, if it is planar, a composition plane. The composition plane is often, though not always, parallel to the twin law plane of a reflection law. If this is the case, the twin plane is always parallel to a possible crystal face.

Common twin laws
In the isometric system, the most common types of twins are the Spinel Law (twin plane, parallel to an octahedron), where the twin axis is perpendicular to an octahedral face, and the Iron Cross , which is the interpenetration of two pyritohedrons, a subtype of dodecahedron.

In the hexagonal system, calcite shows the contact twin laws {0001} and {0112}. Quartz shows the Brazil Law {1120}, and Dauphiné Law, which are penetration twins caused by transformation, and Japan Law {1122}, which is often caused by accidents during growth.

In the tetragonal system, cyclical contact twins are the most commonly observed type of twin, such as in rutile titanium dioxide and cassiterite tin oxide.

In the orthorhombic system, crystals usually twin on planes parallel to the prism face, where the most common is a {110} twin, which produces cyclical twins, such as in aragonite, chrysoberyl, and cerussite.

In the monoclinic system, twins occur most often on the planes {100} and {001} by the Manebach Law {001}, Carlsbad Law [001], Baveno Law {021} in orthoclase, and the Swallow Tail Twins (Manebach law) {001} in gypsum.

In the triclinic system, the most commonly twinned crystals are the feldspar minerals plagioclase and microcline. These minerals show the Albite and Pericline Laws.

The most common twin operations by crystal system are tabulated below. This list is not exhaustive, particularly for the crystal systems of lowest symmetry, such as the triclinic system.

Types of twinning
Simple twinned crystals may be contact twins or penetration twins. Contact twins meet on a single composition plane, often appearing as mirror images across the boundary. Plagioclase, quartz, gypsum, and spinel often exhibit contact twinning. Merohedral twinning occurs when the lattices of the contact twins superimpose in three dimensions, such as by relative rotation of one twin from the other. An example is metazeunerite. Contact twinning characteristically creates reentrant faces where faces of the crystal segments meet on the contact plane at an angle greater than 180°.

A type of twinning involving 180° relationships is called hemitropism or hemitropy.

In penetration twins the individual crystals have the appearance of passing through each other in a symmetrical manner. Orthoclase, staurolite, pyrite, and fluorite often show penetration twinning. The composition surface in penetration twins is usually irregular and extends to the center of the crystal.

Contact twinning can arise from either reflection or rotation, whereas penetration twinning is usually produced by rotation.

If several twin crystal parts are aligned by the same twin law they are referred to as multiple or repeated twins. If these multiple twins are aligned in parallel they are called polysynthetic twins. When the multiple twins are not parallel they are cyclic twins. Albite, calcite, and pyrite often show polysynthetic twinning. Closely spaced polysynthetic twinning is often observed as striations or fine parallel lines on the crystal face. Cyclic twins are caused by repeated twinning around a rotation axis. This type of twinning occurs around three, four, five, six, or eight-fold axes, the corresponding patterns are called threelings, fourlings, fivelings, sixlings, and eightlings. Sixlings are common in aragonite. Rutile, aragonite, cerussite, and chrysoberyl often exhibit cyclic twinning, typically in a radiating pattern.

For rotational twinning the relationship between the twin axis and twin plane falls into one of three types:
 * parallel twinning, when the twin axis and compositional plane lie parallel to each other,
 * normal twinning, when the twin plane and compositional plane lie normally, and
 * complex twinning, a combination of parallel twinning and normal twinning on one compositional plane.

Modes of formation
There are three modes of formation of twinned crystals.

 * Growth twins are the result of an interruption or change in the lattice during formation or growth. This may be due to a larger substituting ion, statistics as the energy difference to nucleate a new plane of atoms in a twin orientation is small, or because the twins lead to a lower energy structure.
 * Annealing or transformation twins are the result of a change in crystal system during cooling as one form becomes unstable and the crystal structure must re-organize or transform into another more stable form.
 * Deformation or gliding twins are the result of stress on the crystal after the crystal has formed. Because growth twins are formed during the initial growth of the crystal, they are described as primary, whereas transformation or deformation twins are formed in an existing crystal and are described as secondary.

Growth twinning (nanotwinning)
There are two types of twinning that can occur during growth, accidental and ones where the twinned structure has lower energy.

In accidental growth twinning an atom joins a crystal face in a less than ideal position, forming a seed for growth of a twin. The original crystal and its twin then grow together and closely resemble each other. This is characteristic enough of certain minerals to suggest that it is thermodynamically or kinetically favored under conditions of rapid growth.

Different from these are twins found in nanoparticles such as the image here, these fivefold or decahedral nanoparticles being one of the most common. These cyclic twins occur as they are lower in energy at small sizes. For the five-fold case shown, there is a disclination along the common axis which leads to an additional strain energy. Balancing this there is a reduction in the surface free energy, in large part due to more (111) surface facets. In small nanoparticles the decahedral and a more complicated icosahedral structure (with twenty units) are lower energy, but at larger energies single crystals become lower energy. However, they do not have to transform into single crystals and can grow very large, and are known as fivelings, documented as early as 1831 by Gustav Rose; further drawings are available in the Atlas der Kristallformen, and see also the article on fivelings.

Transformation twinning
Transformation and annealing twinning takes place when a cooling crystal experiences a displacive polymorphic transition. For example, leucite has an isometric crystal structure above about 665 C, but becomes tetragonal below this temperature. Any one of the three original axes of a crystal can become the long axis when this phase change takes place. Twinning results when different parts of the crystal break their isometric symmetry along a different choice of axis. This is typically polysynthetic twinning, which enables the crystal to maintain its isometric shape by averaging out the displacement in each direction. This produces a pseudomorphic crystal that appears to have isometric symmetry. Potassium feldspar likewise experiences polysynthetic twinning as it transforms from a monoclinic structure (orthoclase) to a triclinic structure (microcline) on slow cooling.

Deformation twinning
Deformation twinning is a response to shear stress. The crystal structure is displaced along successive planes of the crystal, a process also called glide. The twinning is always reflection twinning and the glide plane is also the mirror plane. Deformation twinning can be observed in a calcite cleavage fragment by applying gentle pressure with a knife blade near an edge. This particular glide twinning, {102}, is found almost universally in deformed rock beds containing calcite.

Twinning and slip are competitive mechanisms for crystal deformation. Each mechanism is dominant in certain crystal systems and under certain conditions. In fcc metals, slip is almost always dominant because the stress required is far less than twinning stress.

Twinning can occur by cooperative displacement of atoms along the face of the twin boundary. This displacement of a large quantity of atoms simultaneously requires significant energy to perform. Therefore, the theoretical stress required to form a twin is quite high. It is believed that twinning is associated with dislocation motion on a coordinated scale, in contrast to slip, which is caused by independent glide at several locations in the crystal.

Compared to slip, twinning produces a deformation pattern that is more heterogeneous in nature. This deformation produces a local gradient across the material and near intersections between twins and grain boundaries. The deformation gradient can lead to fracture along the boundaries, particularly in bcc transition metals at low temperatures.

Of the three common crystalline structures bcc, fcc, and hcp, the hcp structure is the most likely to form deformation twins when strained, because they rarely have a sufficient number of slip systems for an arbitrary shape change. High strain rates, low stacking-fault energy and low temperatures facilitate deformation twinning.

If a metal with face-centered cubic (fcc) structure, like Al, Cu, Ag, Au, etc., is subjected to stress, it will experience twinning. The formation and migration of twin boundaries is partly responsible for ductility and malleability of fcc metals.

Twin boundaries are partly responsible for shock hardening and for many of the changes that occur in cold work of metals with limited slip systems or at very low temperatures. They also occur due to martensitic transformations: the motion of twin boundaries is responsible for the pseudoelastic and shape-memory behavior of nitinol, and their presence is partly responsible for the hardness due to quenching of steel. In certain types of high strength steels, very fine deformation twins act as primary obstacles against dislocation motion. These steels are referred to as 'TWIP' steels, where TWIP stands for twinning-induced plasticity.

Deformation twinning crystallography
Twinning is crystallographically defined by its twin plane 𝑲𝟏, the mirror plane in the twin and parent material, and 𝜼𝟏, which is the twinning shear direction. Deformation twins in Zr are generally lenticular in shape, lengthening in the 𝜼𝟏 direction and thickening along the 𝑲𝟏 plane normal.

The twin plane, shear direction, and shear plane form the basis vectors of an orthogonal set. The axis-angle misorientation relationship between the parent and twin is a rotation of angle 𝜉 about the shear plane's normal direction 𝑷.

More generally, twinning can be described as a 180° rotation about an axis (𝑲𝟏 for type I twins or 𝜼𝟏 for type II twins normal direction), or a mirror reflection in a plane (𝑲𝟏 or 𝜼𝟏 normal plane).

In addition to a homogeneous shear, atomic shuffles are sometimes required to reform the correct crystal structure in the twinned lattice. For each twin variant, a reciprocal twin with swapped 𝑲𝟏 and 𝑲2, 𝜼𝟏 and 𝜼2 is possible, but one variant may appear more frequently in reality due to complexities with the required shuffles.

there are only two crystallographic planes in a shearing action that do not change their shape and size as a consequence of the shear. The first 𝑲𝟏 is the plane defining the upper and lower surfaces of the sheared volume. This plane contains the shear direction. The other plane, designated C. The shear direction is shown with an arrow and labelled with its customary designation 𝜼𝟏. It follows from the above that there are three ways that a crystal lattice can be sheared while still retaining its crystal structure and symmetry:

 * 1) When 𝑲𝟏 is a rational plane and 𝜼2 a rational direction, a twin of the first kind
 * 2) When 𝑲2 is a rational plane and 𝜼𝟏 a rational direction, a twin of the second kind, rare
 * 3) When all four elements 𝑲𝟏, 𝑲2, 𝜼𝟏, and 𝜼2 are rational, a compound twin

Deformation twinning configuration
A deformation twin embryo forms in BCC metal by accumulating stacking faults, with a variant selection governed by the local stress state. Variation of the stress field close to twins inferred from HR-EBSD experimental and crystal plasticity finite element (CPFE) simulation data indicated that twins nucleate on sites with maximum strain energy density and twin resolved shear stress; thus, reducing the total elastic energy after formation. This relaxation depends on the twin thickness and is a deciding factor in the spacing between twins. Experimental and three-dimensional analysis has focussed on the (stored) strain energy density measured along a path. This highly localised stress field can provide a sufficient driving force for concurrent twin nucleation and inter/intra-granular crack nucleation.

Deformation twin growth can be perceived as a two-step process of i) thickening that is mediated by the interaction between the residual and mobile twin partials at the coherent twin-parent interface, and ii) dislocation mobility along the twin shear direction. The twin propagates when the homogeneous shear stress reaches a critical value, and a twin-parent interface advances inside the parent grain [240]. The propagating deformation twin generates a stress field due to its confinement by the surrounding parent crystal, and deformation twins develop a 3D oblate spheroid shape (which appears in 2D sections as a bi-convex lens) with a mixed coherent and non-coherent interface (Figure b).

Kannan et al. found, using in-situ ultra-high-speed optical imaging, that twin nucleation in single-crystal magnesium is stress-driven accompanied by instantaneous propagation at a speed of 1 km/s (initially) that prioritises volume lateral thickening over forward propagation, past a critical width where growth is then become faster along the shear direction. Barnett also indicated that growth is due to twin tip extension. Furthermore, elastic simulations of the local stress field surrounding the ellipsoidal twin tip find that the field can be described using its lens angle ($$\beta$$) and that the stress field magnitude increases with twin thickness.

In practice, plastic accommodation occurs in the parent crystal; thus, it also depends on the material’s yield stress, the anisotropic elastic stiffness of the parent crystal lattice, and the deformation twinning shear magnitude. This can also be accompanied by long-range diffusion of elements and elemental segregation (e.g., Cr and Co in single crystal Ni-based superalloy MD2), which occurs at the twin boundary to facilitate twin growth by lowering the critical stacking fault energy. A linear variation has been observed between twin thickness, stacking fault energy and grain size, and to a lesser degree, the stress state of the twinning grain (Schmid Factor). The twin thickness saturated once a critical residual dislocations’ density reached the coherent twin-parent crystal boundary.

Significant attention has been paid to the crystallography, morphology and macro mechanical effects of deformation twinning. Although the criterion for deformation twin growth is not entirely understood, it is a tip-controlled phenomenon linked to the interaction between the residual and mobile twin partials at the twin interface; thermodynamically, this involves the elastic energy of the strained lattice, the interface and volume free-energy of the twin, and the dissipated energy of the growth mechanism. To fully understand the interactions between microstructure (i.e., grain size, texture), temperature and strain rate on deformation twinning, it is crucial to characterise the (high) local stress and strain field associated with twin thickening and propagation. This is especially important for materials where cleavage fracture can be initiated by twinning (e.g., iron-silicon, the ferrite phase of age-hardened duplex stainless-steel, and single-crystal magnesium) as a stress-relieving mechanism.

Early studies of deformation twins arrested within grains of niobium and iron visualised the highly local strain concentration at the twin tip using an etch-pit procedure. More recently, high-resolution electron backscatter diffraction (HR-EBSD) has been used to investigate the strain 'singularity' ahead of a twin tip in hexagonal close-packed (HCP) zirconium alloy. A deformation twin in commercial purity titanium was characterised similarly and then quantified using a local Schmid factor (LSF) at the twin tip, as described in equation below.

$$\mathrm{LSF} = \frac{\boldsymbol{\sigma} : \boldsymbol{P}^i}{\|\boldsymbol{\sigma}\|}, \quad \boldsymbol{S}^i = \boldsymbol{d}^i \otimes \mathbf{n}^i $$

where σ is the stress tensor, Si is the Schmid tensor, Pi is its symmetric part, di is the shear direction and ni is the shear plane normal for ith slip system. The authors concluded that conditions at the twin tip control thickening and propagation in a manner analogous to the operation of dislocation sources ahead of a crack-tip. In the analysis, a broad region of high LSF ahead of the twin tip favoured propagation, whereas a narrow region of high LSF promoted thickening. Since then, it has been argued that the LSF firmly controls the twin variant selection, as twinning has strong polarity.

The LSF novelty – compared to other criteria to describe conditions at the twin – lies in combining a geometrical criterion with the deformation field in the parent grain to provide an approximate indication of the local twin mode (i.e., thickening or propagation). However, the LSF analysis does not take advantage of the available full-field data, relies on global information on the applied stress, and does not consider the energy balance that drives twin growth. There have been few in-situ experiments to quantify the strain field ahead of a propagating deformation twin. Such observations might validate geometrical or hybrid geometrical-energy-based criteria for growth. Nanoscale testing (i.e., transmission electron microscopy) may not represent the behaviour in bulk samples due to plasticity starvation, i.e., large surface area to volume ratio, so a suitable analysis method is needed.

Lloyd described the stress concentration field ahead of the twin tip using a two-dimensional dislocation-based model within a single magnesium grain. Wang and Li, who considered microscopic phase-field (MPF) models of cracks, noted that the stress fields were similar for dislocations, deformation twinning and martensitic transformations, with differences only in the traction of the created surface, i.e., there is 100% traction recovery for dislocations and a traction-free surface for a crack. They highlighted that the stress field singularity regulates the advancement of the crack-tip and dislocations. This stress concentration can be characterised using a path-independent line integral, as shown by Eshelby for dislocations considering the contribution from the surface traction and ellipsoidal inclusions, and Rice for cracks and stress concentrations with traction-free surfaces. Furthermore, Venables noted that the oblate spheroid shape of the twin tip is the ideal example of an ellipsoid inclusion or a notch.

title: Crystal twinning


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Surfside, California

Surfside (or Surfside Colony) is a small gated community with three rows of houses, lettered A, B, and C. Surfside is part of the city of Seal Beach, California and is located on the west side of Pacific Coast Highway, southwest of the Naval Weapons Station Seal Beach between the station and the Huntington Beach community of Sunset Beach. It is also near the Huntington Beach community of Huntington Harbour. The southern entrance to the Surfside Colony is easy to spot by the water tower (which was built into a house) that can be seen from Pacific Coast Highway.

The Surfside Colony is served by the Surfside Colony Community Services Tax District and the Surfside Colony Storm Water Protection Tax District. Lifeguard services are provided by the city of Seal Beach.

History
Surfside Colony was begun in 1929 as an oceanside resort community. It was incorporated with the state of California in 1930. There were originally plans to develop both sides of Pacific Coast Highway (with D and E rows of houses on the east side), but these plans never materialized. A tunnel, which still exists though it is inaccessible, was built under Pacific Coast Highway to facilitate easy transit back and forth.

During World War II, the U.S. Navy developed the area to the north of Surfside as an ammunition depot. A large jetty and channel were built to allow ships to dock. This development altered Surfside and its beachfront significantly. Changes in wave patterns and resulting erosion have continued to plague the community since then. Every few years, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers must work to replenish and rebuild the beach, dredging and refilling with millions of cubic yards of sand.

Geography and climate
The colony of Surfside is located adjacent to the Pacific Ocean beach. It is said that no home in the colony is more than 75 ft from the sand. Also visible from Surfside is a portion of Anaheim Bay, which is across Pacific Coast Highway and connects to Huntington Harbour.

The climate of Surfside is moderate with temperatures often hovering around 70 °F. The record high for this area has been reported at 111 °F, with the record low at 25 °F. It is not unusual to have cool evenings with temperatures in the 50s during the summer and the low 40s in winter. There is often a brisk wind at Surfside, making it a favorite spot for kite surfers.

Over the years, the winter surf has sometimes been severe, destroying homes in the colony. Especially severe storms and high tides wreaked havoc in 1952 and 1953, and again in 1963. Into the 1970s and 1980s, erosion posed problems for the community. Rock barriers, sand bags, and temporary berms have all been used to safeguard homes. In 1983, high tides flooded many of the residences in Surfside.

Demographics and housing
According to 2010 census data, there were 456 residents of Surfside living in 187 housing units. The area of the colony is 0.1 square miles. The median age was listed as 45.3, and 89.5 percent of the population was white.

Surfside has approximately 256 houses. 25% are occupied seasonally or less than full-time. Some homes have been in families for as many as four generations.

The colony has a wide variety of housing styles, which contributes to its charming and laid-back ambiance. Current housing styles include everything from small beach cottages to large three-story mansions. Many of the homes are rented out by their owners. The first homes in Surfside were small beach cottages. In 1929, these homes sold for as little as $700. In general, "A" Row houses are the most highly priced as they have unobstructed views of the Pacific Ocean extending all the way to Santa Catalina Island and sit directly on the beach.

Education
The Los Alamitos Unified School District serves Surfside.

Miscellanea
The U.S. Postal Service does not deliver mail to the houses in Surfside. However, there is a full-service post office inside of the colony. Each house has a post office box there.

Surfside consists of three rows of houses, called the A, B, and C rows. The A row is on the sand; the C row is adjacent Pacific Coast Highway. There is a short road entering the colony from Pacific Coast Highway called Phillips Street. House addresses are designated by a letter and a number. For example, "1 A" is the first house on the sand at the southern end of the colony. This sometimes creates a confusion when a physical street address is required.

The U.S. Postal Service lists their address within the colony as 89 B Surfside Avenue. A and B row homes have a Surfside Avenue address. C row homes have a Pacific Avenue address. Pacific is the street that runs from the southeast exit of the colony through neighboring Sunset Beach.

Notable people
Bradley Nowell lived in this gated community while being a successful lead singer for the reggae rock and punk band Sublime. After his death in 1996, he was cremated and his ashes were spread over the water.

The current U.S. Representative for California's 45th district, Republican Michelle Steel, was a resident of the community.

Sean Collins-Founder of Surfline The story goes that before founding Surfline, when Sean Collins was just developing his passion for surf forecasting, he used to sit up on the roof of his Surfside house and time south swells hitting the Huntington Harbor jetty with a stopwatch.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Surfside, California


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User:Cannsam11

Um.

title: User:Cannsam11


text:
Going Solo

Going Solo is a book by Roald Dahl, first published by Jonathan Cape in London in 1986. It is a continuation of his autobiography describing his childhood, Boy and detailed his travel to Africa and exploits as a World War II pilot.

Plot
The book started with Dahl's voyage to Africa in 1938, which was prompted by his desire to find adventure after finishing school. He was on a boat heading towards Dar es Salaam for his new job working for Shell Oil. During this journey, he met various people and described extraordinary events such as a lion carrying a woman in its mouth.

He eventually joined the war as a squadron pilot in the Royal Air Force, flying the Tiger Moth, Gloster Gladiator, and Hawker Hurricane. He was among the last Allied pilots to withdraw from Greece during the German invasion, taking part in the air for the Battle of Athens on 20 April 1941. In one of his accounts, he described a crash in the Western Desert, which fractured his skull and brought him several other problems such as temporarily being blinded during his days in Greece. After the country fell to the Nazis, he went to the Middle East to fight Vichy French pilots after staying for a brief time in Alexandria, Egypt.

Analysis
In Storyteller: The Authorized Biography of Roald Dahl (2010), Donald Sturrock claimed that there are disparities to the author's claims in the book, describing them as flights of pure fancy or compelling recreations of stories heard from others such as the accounts about exotic African animal adventures. There was also the case of his encounter with a group of Germans, which he had orders to round up. Dahl wrote in Going Solo that its leader was killed by an African guard after thrusting a Luger pistol in his chest. In Lucky Break (1977), a story published 10 years prior, the version of this story was less dramatic with the Germans quickly giving themselves up, allowing Dahl's group to march themselves to a camp in Dar es Salaam without much difficulty.

title: Going Solo


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Robert C. Seamans (ship)

SSV Robert C. Seamans is a 134-foot steel sailing brigantine operated by the Sea Education Association (SEA) for oceanographic research and sail training; designed by Laurent Giles, she is named for former Secretary of the Air Force and NASA Deputy Administrator, Robert Channing Seamans, a former Chairman and Trustee of SEA's board. She is equipped with hydrographic winches, bathymetric equipment, biological and geological sampling equipment, a wet/dry laboratory, and a computer laboratory. She has a sister ship, the Corwith Cramer.

The Robert C. Seamans runs an undergraduate academic study abroad program, with intensive research in oceanography, maritime studies, and nautical science with hands-on experience aboard a traditional sailing ship.

She is based in the Pacific Ocean and typically sails between San Diego, California; Honolulu, Hawaii; Tahiti; and San Francisco, California with occasional trips to New Zealand.

She is powered by a 3408 Caterpillar (455 HP) Marine Diesel Engine and two 40 kW Northern Lights Generators that provide 3 phase power.

title: Robert C. Seamans (ship)


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Jennifer LeRoy

Jennifer LeRoy (born January 7, 1974, in Craig, Colorado) is an American model and actress. She was chosen as Playboy Playmate of the Month in February, 1993 (which made her the second Playboy Playmate with a visible tattoo on her centerfold, after Star Stowe), and has appeared in numerous Playboy videos.

She is the sister of Olympic skier, Andy LeRoy. They grew up in Steamboat Springs, Colorado, with their mother, widowed. At the age of 16, Jennifer left Colorado to become a runway model around the world.

In 2005, LeRoy gave birth to her daughter, Amala L. Manera.

title: Jennifer LeRoy


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Talk:Cadair Idris

Volcano myth
Is this worth mentioning? See here for examples. Seems to happen often enough to be of interest. RayGirvan 00:29, 6 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Certainly better than not mentioning it. 172.214.212.35 16:16, 27 May 2006 (UTC)

Debunking
The Charles Kingsley quote is nice, but it merely repeats that the identification as a volcanic crater is false - if his reasons are still valid could they be included? And if they are not, a brief statement as to why it looks like but isn't a volcanic crater would be helpful Julian I Do Stuff (talk) 11:11, 12 December 2007 (UTC)

Cader/Cadair?
I always used to think that 'Cader Idris' was an anglicisation, until I went to Tynceunant and spotted the form 'Cader' used on a relatively recent memorial plaque (c. 1980s/1990s?) in Welsh. (The plaque was actually bilingual, and 'Cader' was used in both the English and the Welsh inscriptions, but the Welsh came first, and I think it was of local origin.) I couldn't quote chapter and verse, but I'm sure I've since seen other reputable sources use 'Cader' as if it was the correct Welsh form -- I seem to recall that Jim Perrin, for example, strongly favours it. I suspect that 'Cader' reflects pronunciation, but don't know whether that's a local phenomenon or a wider one, or whether the spelling has much history of usage in Welsh. Can anyone find a reliable source to shed more light on the matter? --Blisco 20:09, 31 October 2006 (UTC)

 * My mother who was a native Welsh speaker always wrote Cader, she lived under the shadow of Cader Idris for the last few years of her life, so I guess, Cader is correct. "TheNose | Talk" 20:31, 31 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Almost any Welsh speaker will tend to pronounce it more like "Cader" when not speaking carefully, simply because the second syllable does not receive the stress. This does not detract from the correct form (the "RP", if you will) being Cadair. If you ask a local to say the name slowly, he/she will probably say "Cad-air", not "Cad-uh". I am pretty sure that the "Cader" spelling dates from the Victorian explorations of Wales, along with "Dolgelley", "Carnarvon" and others. Perhaps "anglicisation" is the wrong word, but the "Cader" spelling is not a reflection of an exclusively local pronunciation. As long as we are sure that the etymology is from the Welsh for "chair", then the spelling has to be "Cadair"; Welsh has changed much less than English in the last thousand years, and so place-names tend to be spelt in correct modern Welsh more often than is the case for English place-names. In as much as the spelling "Cader" derives from a poor transcription of a name by a non-Welsh speaker, I think it can be considered an anglicisation, unless anyone knows of a better description for this phenomenon. --Stemonitis 09:58, 1 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Then we are agreement, it is not so much an anglicisation, as a modern day adapted form of Welsh, having evolved over the last 100 years, and used extensively by modern day native Welsh speakers "TheNose | Talk" 10:11, 1 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Not really. The spelling in Welsh would always have been "Cadair", and "Cader" only comes about from writing down careless speech patterns. "Cader" is an out-dated form, and not the modern form. OS maps say only "Cadair Idris" now, although they used to have "Cader Idris". Perhaps this would be better:
 * Cadair Idris (pronounced, or in less careful speech; the corrupted spelling Cader Idris  is also seen) is a …
 * --Stemonitis 10:22, 1 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Regardless of what used to be, in modern form Cader is extensively used by native Welsh speakers in written form, it is not for us to correct the flaws in their own use of the language, this is how languages evolves Language_evolution, it is less a case of careless use, but perhaps a reflection of local dialect and modern adaption. Even Welsh reporters for BBC Wales use Cader

 * Rupert Moon is really a rugby player, rather than a journalist by training, and is not from around Cadair Idris (according to one summary of his book that I found, he may even be from England). And even on the BBC website, there are more hits for "Cadair Idris" than "Cader Idris". This is in constrast to the Victorian position where, in English, only "Cader Idris" would have been seen. Thus, "Cader" is neither local nor modern. The Welsh word "cadair" has not changed to my knowledge in the last couple of hundred years, and so the -er spelling is also not a result of language change. I think the description of "corruption" is probably the most accurate. --Stemonitis 10:49, 1 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Regardless, the use of the spelling "Cader" on the BBC website, is a clear illustration that it is used in modern form by many people, whether correct or not, it is in use, and widely accepted by many regardless of them being Welsh or English. So it appears more as a "modern form", or "alternative modern form", than a corrupted form.  The use of modern is fair as even if its use stretched back to Victorian times, that too is modern in the overal context of linguistic development.  As, no one can be sure of the origin of the use "Cader", we cannot assume it is necessairly incorrect, it may be the correct spelling for a particular region, that over time has been replaced by another spelling.  I can only speak from personal experience that my Welsh speaking Mother wrote Cader, even though she was fluent in written and spoken Welsh. "TheNose | Talk" 11:15, 1 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Any form that is used less now than in the past cannot really be a "modern" form. It can, however, be common and widespread (which I of course accept), and it can very much be a corruption (in this case of the word for chair, cadair). "Modern" is a very misleading term in this context, since it suggests that the development is very new. Please note that "corruption" is not meant as a derogatory term, but just a description of the process.
 * I doubt that you would argue that "Dolgelley" is a valid local alternative, although the case is analogous. For many other towns, the English corruption has stuck as the English-language name (Kidwelly instead of Cydweli; Carmarthen instead of Caerfyrddin) but this does not seem to have happened in the case of mountains, where cartographers and other scholars have returned to the correct, native spelling.
 * It often surprises English speakers how little Welsh has changed. Welsh texts from the time of Chaucer can be read with little problem by a Welsh speaker, whereas Chaucer has to be translated into Modern English. It would be possible for a local dialect to have developed recently in which cadair was always said cader (even in careful speech), but it's very unlikely. Corruption of Welsh place-names is, on the other hand, an established phenomenon. --Stemonitis 11:35, 1 November 2006 (UTC)

 * So we should use "common" instead of corrupted or modern, I think that is probably a more accurate term as we cannot say with any authority if it is a corruption or modern, but we can agree that it is a common form used throughout England and Wales, by speakers of both languages. "TheNose | Talk" 11:47, 1 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Well, we know that "cadair" is the (only) correct word for "chair" in Welsh . --Stemonitis 11:49, 1 November 2006 (UTC)

I've added a section on the name which I hope represents the above views fairly. Anecdotal and unreferenced it may be, but it's a start. --Blisco 19:52, 1 November 2006 (UTC)

As long as we are sure that the etymology is from the Welsh for "chair", then the spelling has to  be "Cadair" This does not follow. A place name is not the same as a common noun. Old spellings and old pronunciations change and do not change, their eyes half-shut to the language around them. Standardised spelling merely represents a decision at some point in a people's history to adopt one form to the exclusion of others - the concept of having such a rigid system is in fact relatively new. I see no need to tell the people of Warwick to start pronouncing all the Ws in their town's name. I don't think I need to go into the many reasons this would be preposterous and muddle-headed.

In as much as the spelling "Cader" derives from a poor transcription of a name by a non-Welsh speaker, I think it can be considered an anglicisation Does it? You may be right, but I see absolutely no reason to assume this is the case. You mention the spelling Dolgelley. This, however, is not an anglicisation at all (it is closer, after all, even to the form Owain Glyndŵr used). Dolgellau would appear to be a modern hypercorrection based on false etymology.

Now, doubtless Cader is indeed 'the same word' as Cadair, but this is not to say that it is a corruption thereof or that it is therefore incorrect. It is, after all, as many people have noted, a better representation of the normal way the word is pronounced in Welsh. And please, let's stop this rubbish now about 'careless speech'. It is in no way careless to pronounce 'cadair' [kader] rather than [kadair]. Nor - and let's get this very clear - is it less correct. A cockney who calls his brother his bruvver is pronouncing the word no less correctly than the Oxford don with perfect RP. Language changes and varies, and spelling waits on pronunciation, not the other way round. It is a slow waiter: it hasn't even caught up with how we say 'caught'.

It would be possible for a local dialect to have developed recently in which cadair was always said cader (even in careful speech), but it's very unlikely. This is rubbish. Inasmuch as 'careful speech' is heavily influenced by spelling, I agree that most people who say [kader] may well say [kadair] at some point. However, there is absolutely no reason to suppose that the people who lived around Cader Idris, say, two hundred years ago would necessarily have said [kadair]. I think it most likely that that pronunciation is a modern hypercorrection based on the spelling. I may be wrong, but it's not less likely.

When it comes down to it, Cader seems the more common form locally (and I grew up there). I suspect the spelling Cadair is the more modern spelling - I may be wrong, but I do not see any better evidence for it being the older one for the mountain. But whichever is the more modern: why should recent mean wrong? garik 22:54, 27 November 2006 (UTC)
 * I support this view, as my Welsh speaking mother wrote Cader, and she too lived local to the mountain. "Snorkel | Talk" 09:14, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

 * We would not expect brother to be bruvver, and we would not expect to see a pronunciation given of [bɹʌvʌ]. We have to rely on some kind of standardised pronunciation, rather than listing pronunciations in every conceivable accent. Yes, there is language change and language variation, but until someone starts the Cockney Wikipedia, we will continue to use "brother" rather than "bruvver". The authoritative maps and many other sources give "Cadair", which is pronounced [kadair] in the nearest thing Welsh has got to RP. The Warwick example is misleading because the meaning of the word is not clear — how many people realise that it means "weir-village" (I certainly didn't)? "Cadair Idris", on the other hand, is directly intelligible to a Welsh speaker, and so the spellings of chair and the mountain's name are not de-coupled in the same way; the two situations are not analogous. --Stemonitis 09:24, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

 * I confess me point about bruvver was somewhat tangential to the main point: it was aimed at this nonsense about careful and careless speech; I was not claiming that there would be any advantage to writing the word that way in 'normal' standard English. I do not, however, follow your logic that Cader Idris is unintelligible to a Welsh speaker - and I disagree that the word would be pronounced [kadair] in 'the nearest thing Welsh has got to RP'.  By that you seem to mean spelling pronunciation.  I would add that I was always perfectly aware of what the word meant, long before I saw it spelt Cadair.  But yes, the analogy is somewhat poor, since the meaning of Warwick is less immediately clear.  However, I don't see that it makes a great deal of difference: a place name is still not the same as a common noun.  There is no requirement, except in your personal taste, that one should follow the other. garik 10:58, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

 * There is no such requirement, but in this case, many people (not just me) prefer the -ai- spelling, among them the OS, and I think that makes sense. Where I know the meaning of a word, I am more likely to retain the standard spelling. If I know that there's a mountain called "The Cobbler", and I know that this refers to a cobbler, I'm not likely to spell it "The Cobblah" or somesuch, even if I might pronounce it that way. --Stemonitis 11:40, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

 * I don't see why this needs debating so intensely. I've spent a fair bit of time in the area and encountered both spellings used in both English and Welsh. Since there appears not to be a consensus that one is 'correct' in modern usage, I think the article should use the Ordnance Survey spelling (as this is a recognised authoritative source) and note that Cader is a widely-used alternative spelling. Getting into the perceived correctness or otherwise of either one will just end up being POV conjecture, unless someone can find a definitive source (i.e. not supposition based on common usage) to the contrary. --YFB ¿  11:43, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

 * I entirely agree. As I hope I've suggested above, I don't think there is a way of establishing one form as correct - common usage is as definitive as it gets in these cases (but is no more definitive than other evidence).  To take Stemonitis's example, I would probably spell a mountain Cobblah if that was the spelling I was used to - especially if (as is the case in Dolgellau), that spelling was so ingrained that the local school called itself Cobblah School.  But if I was more used to maps than local usage, I may well spell it Cobbler.  This issue of 'correctness', as YFB points out, is rather a red herring in these cases. garik 12:33, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

My family is from the area and they too spell it Cader and more importantly pronounce it Cader if some bookworm thinks he's being clever by looking up the correct way of spelling cadair and decides this is the way it should be spelt he is presuming welsh people are either ignorant about their own language or stupid, we know cadair is cadair but Cader Idris is Cader Idris. I don't really care what the OS calls it, I don't complain that most place names in England sound like they've been made up by Tolkien and no meaning can be deduced from them.92.0.56.70 (talk) 00:07, 1 December 2010 (UTC)

As I noted in an edit which some ignoramus with little knowledge of the Welsh language and less knowledge of Welsh history has chosen to delete: Cadair (chair) is a false etymology. Cadr is the Welsh word for stronghold which sounds like the Welsh word for chair cadair. Cad is a prefix that relates to battle. Cadr Idris isn't the chair of a mythical giant called Idris, but the stronghold of an historical figure - Idris ap Gwyddno. See: History of Merioneth, Volume II: The Middle Ages Edited by J. Beverley Smith and Llinos Beverley Smith ISBN 0-7083-1709-X Where cadr is the root of a place name it's modern Welsh spelling is always CADER and never CADAIR, such as in Cader Ifan Goch (the stronghold of Red Evan) in the Conwy Valley, or Llyn y Gader (the lake of the stronghold) near Beddgelert.

There is no etymonogical or historical basis for the name "Cadair" Idris – it is wrong, wrong, wrong! The name of the mountain is either Cadr or Cader Idris! AlwynapHuw (talk) 02:26, 9 February 2011 (UTC)

 * I agree with you. However, as WP:Truth makes clear, it doesn't matter what the truth is. Wikipedia should give whatever form is most commonly used in standard references and reputable maps. Besides, plenty of place names result from false etymology or bad history. Dolgellau is similar; but it would be wrong for Wikipedia to have  Dolgelley as the title of the article, even if that is etymologically preferable. garik (talk) 21:19, 9 February 2011 (UTC)

 * Incidentally, you might find it helpful to read wp:cite and wp:citet. You should also include a page number. Please add that to the article. Finally, I don't recommend you call other editors ignoramuses. It's not helpful; and you have no way of knowing how much or how little they know about Welsh and Welsh history. This particular editor reverted your edit because you didn't include a proper citation. Your edit looked like original research, and regardless of whether it's accurate or not, OR is not acceptable in Wikipedia. You did the right thing by including a citation when you replaced it. garik (talk) 21:34, 9 February 2011 (UTC)

 * I agree with AlwynapHuw, and wish to say that I have entered my thoughts on this argument on the Welsh language version Wicipedia. My stance is that the word 'cader' should be recognized in modern Welsh dictionaries, and its relation to hill and mountain strongholds rather than chairs should be made clear. It is definitely not an Anglicized form of 'cadair', and the Welsh should avoid attempting to translate place names back to Welsh by inventing new names and spurious history. Then we would not have to put up with examples such as 'Lecwydd' for 'Leckwith'. Now the word 'llechwedd' is included in Welsh dictionaries - so why the spurious made-up new Welsh name? In many cases, the Anglicized form is truer to the original Welsh e.g Cardiff. In Caerdydd, we have lost the 'f' which relates to the river Taf (or 'Tyf' in earlier references).ApGlyndwr (talk) 11:09, 24 July 2014 (UTC)

Coordinates
This should either be left out as it already features within the Infobox, or Template:Infobox_Mountain should be edited to include it on all Mountains

This would assist be reducing the number of individual edits required and will reduce the requirement for individual reverts "TheNose | Talk" 12:34, 1 November 2006 (UTC)

King Arthur
I notice this has been added to WikiProject King Arthur. What has Cader Idris got to do with him especially? garik 23:35, 11 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Well, it was in Category:Arthurian locations. Judging by the article, I'd assume this is because of the "Myths and legends" section, which says it is one of several locations bearing the name "Arthur's Seat".--Cúchullain t/ c 17:37, 12 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Oh, I thought it might have been mentioned in some Arthurian story (though that would have surprised me, as I'm sure I'd have heard about it!). The thing is, it clearly doesn't bear the name Arthur's Seat, as the myths and legends section points out.  Cadair Idris translates as "Idris's Seat", and Idris was a giant.  There's no reason at all, apart from wishful thinking, to suppose that Idris is a corruption of Arthur, or another name for him. garik 18:10, 12 May 2007 (UTC)

 * So I see. If the only connection between Cadair Idris and the Arthurian legend is in one fantasy novel, perhaps it can be removed from the Arthurian locations category, and the project tag can be removed. Personally I don't mind the project keeping an eye on it, but if you feel differently go ahead and remove it.--Cúchullain t/ c 18:22, 12 May 2007 (UTC)
 * In the 18th and 19th centenaries, when tourism was invented in Britain Arthur was a big selling point. The etymology of the name Idris is something along the lines of "great warrior" - Who was the greatest of Celtic warriors? Arthur, of course! So "translating" Cader Idris into Arthur's Seat had major tourist bucks benefits (see John Rhŷs Vol 1 p203 Celtic Mythology Welsh and Manx). As far as I know there are NO actual stories connecting Cader to Arthurian legend.AlwynapHuw (talk) 04:31, 11 December 2014 (UTC)

Llyn Cau
As Llyn Cau is much more relevent to the mountain itself than Tal-y-Llyn, wouldn't it be more sensible to have an image of Llyn Cau (which would also show the chair-like nature of the mountain which is discussed in the article)replacing the image of Tal-y-Llyn? Asvasv (talk) 14:26, 29 December 2007 (UTC)

 * Do you have such an image? We are limited in the set of images we can add to the article. They must be uploaded to Wikipedia and be freely licensed. If you have a good quality image you can donate to the project, I'm sure it would improve the article. Best, Gwernol 15:12, 29 December 2007 (UTC)

 * I do indeed have such an image :-) I've uploaded and edited. Asvasv (talk) 14:08, 30 December 2007 (UTC)

Cadair Idris
Can someone tell me the exact meaning of the words??? If Idris = Arthur, then it is very interesting, because it is a common name in turkey and in other muslim countries. 77.248.185.98 (talk) 10:32, 21 June 2008 (UTC)

"Kader Idris" would mean "Destiny of Idris" in turkish, meaning as if the mountain was the fate of Idris, which it was! Interesting aint it??? 77.248.185.98 (talk) 10:35, 21 June 2008 (UTC)

Could someone add this to the geology section
Could someone add this to the geology section: "the rocks are composed of...". Is it just igneous rocks(also...which ones?)? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 212.50.171.220 (talk) 13:33, 11 December 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Cadair Idris


text:
Chuck Rayner

Claude Earl "Chuck" Rayner (August 11, 1920 – October 6, 2002), nicknamed "Bonnie Prince Charlie", was a Canadian professional hockey goaltender who played nine seasons in the National Hockey League for the New York Americans and New York Rangers. He is a member of the Hockey Hall of Fame.

Early life
Rayner was born August 11, 1920, in Sutherland, Saskatchewan.

Playing career
Playing his junior career for the Kenora Thistles of the Manitoba Junior Hockey League, Rayner showed his skill early, backstopping the team to the Abbott Cup to advance to the Memorial Cup championship in 1940. The next season, he turned professional for the New York Americans, spending most of the year with their minor league affiliate, the Springfield Indians of the American Hockey League (AHL). With the Indians, Rayner led the league in shutouts and goals against average and was named to the Second All-Star Team.

The following season Rayner was the leading goalie for the Americans' final season before the team folded. World War II interrupted Rayner's career, however, and he spent the next three years in the Royal Canadian Navy, where he played two seasons for naval teams based out of Victoria, British Columbia.

After the war, he signed as a free agent in 1945 with the New York Rangers. Rayner was the starting goaltender for New York six of the next seven seasons, earning accolades for his play even though the Rangers' teams of the era were weak, and Rayner never had a winning record. He was noted as a puckhandling goalie, attempting several times throughout his career to score a goal.

Even though he played on poor teams throughout his career and never won a Stanley Cup, "Bonnie Prince Charlie" was one of the best goalies of his era. The three years between 1948 and 1951 were his best, and he won the Hart Trophy as the NHL's most valuable player in 1950, after leading the Rangers to overtime in the seventh game of the Stanley Cup finals.

Post-NHL career
In 1953, Rayner suffered a knee injury and lost his job as Rangers' starter to Gump Worsley. He played one more season in the minors for the Saskatoon Quakers of the Western Hockey League and a couple of brief stints in the senior leagues the two seasons thereafter before hanging up his skates for good.

He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1973, the second goaltender in history to be inducted with a losing record.

Although his hometown of Sutherland became annexed into Saskatoon, Rayner Avenue in the city's Sutherland neighbourhood is named in his honor.

Rayner died on October 6, 2002, of a heart attack.

Awards and achievements

 * Turnbull Cup MJHL Championship (1940)
 * AHL Second All-Star Team (1941)
 * NHL Second All-Star Team (1949, 1950, & 1951)
 * Hart Memorial Trophy Winner (1950)
 * Played in the NHL All-Star Game (1949, 1950, & 1951)
 * Inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1973
 * Honoured Member of the Manitoba Hockey Hall of Fame
 * In the 2009 book 100 Ranger Greats, was ranked No. 16 all-time of the 901 New York Rangers who had played during the team's first 82 seasons

title: Chuck Rayner


text:
2004 in country music

This is a list of notable events in country music that took place in 2004.

Top hits of the year
The following songs placed within the Top 20 on the Hot Country Songs or Canada Country charts in 2004:

Top new album releases
The following albums placed within the Top 50 on the Top Country Albums charts in 2004:

Deaths

 * June 10 – Ray Charles, 73, multi-talented artist who combined elements of pop, rhythm and blues, soul and jazz with country music.
 * August 9 – Sam Hogin, 52 or 53, co-writer of "A Broken Wing" and other 1990s country singles
 * September 19 – Skeeter Davis, 72, best known for "The End of the World."
 * September 23 – Roy Drusky, 74, Grand Ole Opry star and smooth countrypolitan stylist of the 1960s.
 * October 11 – Max D. Barnes, 68, songwriter and record producer whose peak came in the 1980s and early 1990s.
 * October 24 – Angela Herzberg, 36, wife of Gary Allan. (suicide)
 * December 27 – Hank Garland, 74, country and jazz guitar pioneer.

Bluegrass Music Hall of Fame inductees

 * John Ray "Curly" Seckler
 * Bill Vernon

Country Music Hall of Fame inductees

 * Jim Foglesong (born 1922)
 * Kris Kristofferson (born 1936)

Canadian Country Music Hall of Fame inductees

 * The Good Brothers
 * "Weird" Harold Kendall

Grammy Awards
(presented February 13, 2005 in Los Angeles)
 * Best Female Country Vocal Performance – "Redneck Woman", Gretchen Wilson
 * Best Male Country Vocal Performance – "Live Like You Were Dying", Tim McGraw.
 * Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal – "Top of the World (live recording)", Dixie Chicks
 * Best Country Collaboration with Vocals – "Portland, Oregon", Loretta Lynn and Jack White
 * Best Country Instrumental Performance – "Earl's Breakdown", Nitty Gritty Dirt Band featuring Earl Scruggs, Randy Scruggs, Vassar Clements and Jerry Douglas
 * Best Country Song – "Live Like You Were Dying", Tim Nichols and Craig Wiseman
 * Best Country Album – Van Lear Rose, Loretta Lynn
 * Best Bluegrass Album – Brand New Strings, Ricky Skaggs & Kentucky Thunder

Juno Awards
(presented April 3, 2005 in Winnipeg)
 * Country Recording of the Year – One Good Friend, George Canyon

CMT Flameworthy Video Music Awards
(presented April 21 in Nashville)
 * Video of the Year – "American Soldier", Toby Keith
 * Male Video of the Year – "There Goes My Life", Kenny Chesney
 * Female Video of the Year – "Forever and for Always", Shania Twain
 * Group/Duo Video of the Year – "I Melt", Rascal Flatts
 * Breakthrough Video of the Year – "What Was I Thinkin'", Dierks Bentley
 * Collaborative Video of the Year – "Beer for My Horses", Toby Keith and Willie Nelson
 * Hottest Video of the Year – "No Shoes, No Shirt, No Problems", Kenny Chesney
 * Cameo of the Year – "Celebrity", Jason Alexander, James Belushi, Little Jimmy Dickens, Trista Rehn, William Shatner, Brad Paisley
 * Video Director of the Year – "Beer for My Horses", Toby Keith and Willie Nelson (Director: Michael Salomon)
 * Johnny Cash Visionary Award – Reba McEntire

Americana Music Honors & Awards

 * Album of the Year – Van Lear Rose (Loretta Lynn)
 * Artist of the Year – Loretta Lynn
 * Song of the Year – "Fate's Right Hand" (Rodney Crowell)
 * Emerging Artist of the Year – Mindy Smith
 * Instrumentalist of the Year – Will Kimbrough
 * Spirit of Americana/Free Speech Award – Steve Earle
 * Lifetime Achievement: Songwriting – Cowboy Jack Clement
 * Lifetime Achievement: Performance – Chris Hillman
 * Lifetime Achievement: Executive – Jack Emerson

Academy of Country Music
(presented May 17, 2005 in Las Vegas)
 * Entertainer of the Year – Kenny Chesney
 * Song of the Year – "Live Like You Were Dying", Tim Nichols and Craig Wiseman
 * Single of the Year – "Live Like You Were Dying", Tim McGraw
 * Album of the Year – Be Here, Keith Urban
 * Top Male Vocalist – Keith Urban
 * Top Female Vocalist – Gretchen Wilson
 * Top Vocal Duo – Brooks & Dunn
 * Top Vocal Group – Rascal Flatts
 * Top New Artist – Gretchen Wilson
 * Video of the Year – "Whiskey Lullaby", Brad Paisley and Alison Krauss (Director: Rick Schroder)
 * Vocal Event of the Year – "Whiskey Lullaby", Brad Paisley and Alison Krauss
 * ACM/Home Depot Humanitarian of the Year – Neal McCoy

ARIA Awards
(presented in Sydney on October 17, 2004)
 * Best Country Album – Wayward Angel (Kasey Chambers)

Canadian Country Music Association
(presented September 13 in Edmonton)
 * Kraft Cheez Whiz Fans' Choice Award – Terri Clark
 * Male Artist of the Year – Jason McCoy
 * Female Artist of the Year – Terri Clark
 * Group or Duo of the Year – Doc Walker
 * SOCAN Song of the Year – "Die of a Broken Heart", Carolyn Dawn Johnson
 * Single of the Year – "Simple Life", Carolyn Dawn Johnson
 * Album of the Year – Dress Rehearsal, Carolyn Dawn Johnson
 * Top Selling Album – Greatest Hits Volume II, Alan Jackson
 * CMT Video of the Year – "Simple Life", Carolyn Dawn Johnson
 * Chevy Trucks Rising Star Award – George Canyon
 * Roots Artist or Group of the Year – Corb Lund

Country Music Association
(presented November 9 in Nashville)
 * Entertainer of the Year – Kenny Chesney
 * Song of the Year – "Live Like You Were Dying", Tim Nichols and Craig Wiseman
 * Single of the Year – "Live Like You Were Dying", Tim McGraw
 * Album of the Year – When the Sun Goes Down, Kenny Chesney
 * Male Vocalist of the Year – Keith Urban
 * Female Vocalist of the Year – Martina McBride
 * Vocal Duo of the Year – Brooks & Dunn
 * Vocal Group of the Year – Rascal Flatts
 * Horizon Award – Gretchen Wilson
 * Video of the Year – "Whiskey Lullaby", Brad Paisley and Alison Krauss (Director: Rick Schroder)
 * Vocal Event of the Year – "Whiskey Lullaby", Brad Paisley and Alison Krauss
 * Musician of the Year – Dann Huff

title: 2004 in country music


text:
The Great Transformation (book)

The Great Transformation is a book by Karl Polanyi, a Hungarian political economist. First published in 1944 by Farrar & Rinehart, it deals with the social and political upheavals that took place in England during the rise of the market economy. Polanyi contends that the modern market economy and the modern nation-state should be understood not as discrete elements but as a single human invention, which he calls the "Market Society".

A distinguishing characteristic of the "Market Society" is that humanity's economic mentalities have been changed. Prior to this, people based their economies on reciprocity and redistribution across personal and communal relationships. As a consequence of industrialization and increasing state influence, competitive markets were created that undermined these previous social tendencies, replacing them with formal institutions that aimed to promote a self-regulating market economy. The expansion of capitalist institutions with an economically liberal mindset not only changed laws but also fundamentally altered humankind's economic relations; prior to this, markets played a very minor role in human affairs and were not even capable of setting prices because of their diminutive size. It was only after industrialization and the onset of greater state control over newly created market institutions that the myth of human nature's propensity toward rational free trade became widespread. However, Polanyi asserts instead that "man's economy, as a rule, is submerged in his social relationships," and he therefore proposes an alternative ethnographic economic approach called "substantivism", in opposition to "formalism", both terms coined by Polanyi in future work.

On a broader theoretical level, The Great Transformation argues that markets cannot solely be understood through economic theory. Rather, markets are embedded in social and political logics, which makes it necessary for economic analysts to take into account politics when trying to understand the economy. For this reason, The Great Transformation is a key work in the fields of political economy and international political economy.

History
Polanyi began writing The Great Transformation in England in the late 1930s. He completed the book in the United States during World War II. He set out to explain the economic and social collapse of the 19th century, as well as the transformations that Polanyi had witnessed during the 20th century.

General argument
Polanyi argued that the development of the modern state went hand in hand with the development of modern market economies and that these two changes were inextricably linked in history. Essential to the change from a premodern economy to a market economy was the altering of human economic mentalities away from their grounding in local social relationships and institutions, and into transactions idealized as "rational" and set apart from their previous social context. Prior to the Market Society, markets had a very limited role in society and were confined almost entirely to long-distance trade. As Polanyi wrote, "the same bias which made Adam Smith's generation view primeval man as bent on barter and truck induced their successors to disavow all interest in early man, as he was now known not to have indulged in those laudable passions."

The modern market economy was forced by the powerful modern state, which was needed to push changes in social structure, and in what aspects of human nature were amplified and encouraged, which allowed for a competitive capitalist economy to emerge. For Polanyi, these changes implied the destruction of the basic social order that had reigned throughout pre-modern history. Central to the change was that factors of production, such as land and labor, would now be sold on the market at market-determined prices instead of allocated according to tradition, redistribution, or reciprocity. This was both a change of human institutions and human nature.

His empirical case in large part relied upon analysis of the Speenhamland laws, which he saw not only as the last attempt of the squirearchy to preserve the traditional system of production and social order but also a self-defensive measure on the part of society that mitigated the disruption of the most violent period of economic change. Polanyi also remarks that the pre-modern economies of China, the Incan Empire, the Indian Empires, Babylon, Greece, and the various kingdoms of Africa operated on principles of reciprocity and redistribution with a very limited role for markets, especially in settling prices or allocating the factors of production. The book also presented his belief that market society is unsustainable because it is fatally destructive to human nature and the natural contexts it inhabits.

Polanyi attempted to turn the tables on the orthodox liberal account of the rise of capitalism by arguing that "laissez-faire was planned", whereas social protectionism was a spontaneous reaction to the social dislocation imposed by an unrestrained free market. He argues that the construction of a "self-regulating" market necessitates the separation of society into economic and political realms. Polanyi does not deny that the self-regulating market has brought "unheard of material wealth", but he suggests that this is too narrow a focus. The market, once it considers land, labor and money as fictitious commodities, and including them "means to subordinate the substance of society itself to the laws of the market."

This, he argues, results in massive social dislocation, and spontaneous moves by society to protect itself. In effect, Polanyi argues that once the free market attempts to separate itself from the fabric of society, social protectionism is society's natural response, which he calls the "double movement." Polanyi did not see economics as a subject closed off from other fields of enquiry, indeed he saw economic and social problems as inherently linked. He ended his work with a prediction of a socialist society, noting, "after a century of blind 'improvement', man is restoring his 'habitation.'"

Gold standard
According to James Ashley Morrison, Polanyi offers a prominent argument in the field of political economy for Britain's decision to depart from the gold standard. Polanyi argues that Britain went off the gold standard due to both deteriorating international economic conditions and pressures from labor, which had grown stronger over time. In 1931, the Labour Party found itself faced with a dire dilemma: either reduce social services or let currency exchange rates collapse. Since it could not decide on one alternative or the other, there was a government crisis, and the "traditional parties" decided both to cut social services and to abolish the gold standard. Labor opposed the gold standard because maintaining it meant that the British government had to implement austerity. James Ashley Morrison found many later explanations for the collapse of the gold standard very much resemble the Polanyian argument, which he summarized as follows:

"Developments in the global economy, particularly after World War I, made maintaining the gold standard increasingly painful. Diminished international cooperation combined with Britain’s relative economic decline to exacerbate its difficulties. At the same time, a newly empowered working class harnessed evolving “social purpose” to resist the austerity necessary to defend gold."

Before the market society
Based on Bronislaw Malinowski's ethnological work on the Kula ring exchange in the Trobriand Islands, Polanyi makes the distinction between markets as an auxiliary tool for ease of exchange of goods and market societies. Market societies are those where markets are the paramount institution for the exchange of goods through price mechanisms. Polanyi argues that there are three general types of economic systems that existed before the rise of a market society: reciprocity, redistribution, and householding:

 * 1) Reciprocity: exchange of goods is based on reciprocal exchanges between social entities. On a macro level, this would include the production of goods to gift to other groups.
 * 2) Redistribution: trade and production is focused to a central entity such as a tribal leader or feudal lord and then redistributed to members of their society.
 * 3) Householding: economies where production is centered on individual households. Family units produce food, textile goods, and tools for their own use and consumption.

These three forms were not mutually exclusive, nor were they mutually exclusive of markets for the exchange of goods. The main distinction is that these three forms of economic organization were based around the social aspects of the society they operated in and were explicitly tied to those social relationships. Polanyi argued that these economic forms depended on the social principles of symmetry, centricity, and autarchy (self-sufficiency). Markets existed as an auxiliary avenue for the exchange of goods that were otherwise not obtainable.

Reception
The book has influenced scholars such as Marshall Sahlins, Immanuel Wallerstein, James C. Scott, E.P. Thompson, and Douglass North. John Ruggie, who called the Great Transformation a "magisterial work", was influenced by the work in coining the term Embedded liberalism for the Bretton Woods system of the post-World War II period.

The sociologists Fred L. Block and Margaret Somers argue that Polanyi's analysis could help explain why the resurgence of free market ideas has resulted in "such manifest failures as persistent unemployment, widening inequality, and the severe financial crises that have stressed Western economies over the past forty years." They suggest that "the ideology that free markets can replace government is just as utopian and dangerous" as the idea that Communism will result in the withering away of the state.

In Toward an Anthropological Theory of Value: The False Coin of Our Own Dreams, anthropologist David Graeber offers compliments to Polanyi's text and theories. Graeber attacks formalists and substantivists alike: "those who start by looking at society as a whole are left, like the Substantivists, trying to explain how people are motivated to reproduce society; those who start by looking at individual desires, like the formalists, unable to explain why people chose to maximize some things and not others (or otherwise to account for questions of meaning)." While appreciative of Polanyi's attack on formalism, Graeber attempts to move beyond ethnography and towards understanding how individuals find meaning in their actions, synthesizing insights of Marcel Mauss, Karl Marx, and others.

In parallel with Polanyi's account of markets being made internal to society as a result of state intervention, Graeber argues the transition to credit-based markets from societies with separated "spheres of exchange" in gift giving was likely the accidental byproduct of state or temple bureaucracy (temple in the case of Sumer). Graeber also notes that the criminalization of debt supplemented the enclosure movements in the destruction of English communities, since credit between community members had originally reinforced communal ties prior to state intervention:

"The criminalization of debt, then, was the criminalization of the very basis of human society. It cannot be overemphasized that in a small community, everyone normally was both lender and borrower. One can only imagine the tensions and temptations that must have existed in a community—and communities, much though they are based on love, in fact, because they are based on love, will always also be full of hatred, rivalry and passion—when it became clear that with sufficiently clever scheming, manipulation, and perhaps a bit of strategic bribery, they could arrange to have almost anyone they hated imprisoned or even hanged."

Economist Joseph Stiglitz favors Polanyi's account of market liberalization, arguing that the failures of "Shock Therapy" in Russia and the failures of IMF reform packages echo Polanyi's arguments. Stiglitz also summarizes the difficulties of "market liberalization" in that it requires unrealistic "flexibility" amongst the poor.

Charles Kindleberger praised the book, saying it "is a useful corrective to the economic interpretation of the world, and should be read more and more by economists, particularly those of the Chicago school." He did however argue that everything in the book should not be taken as accurate.

Polanyi's argument is often cited as the "Polanyian moment", "Polanyi Moment" or "Polanyi's moment", which indicates the time when social protectionism starts to surpass marketization and thus reversing the direction of the double movement. This term has been used to describe the situation after the Great Recession in 2008 the COVID-19 pandemic. Gemici compared the Polanyi Moment to the Minsky moment, the moment of a sudden collapse in the market.

Criticism
Rutger Bregman, writing for Jacobin, criticized Polanyi's account of the Speenhamland system as reliant on several myths (increased poverty, increased population growth and increased unrest, as well as "'the pauperization of the masses,' who 'almost lost their human shape';" "basic income did not introduce a floor, he contended, but a ceiling") and the flawed Royal Commission into the Operation of the Poor Laws 1832.

Both Bregman and Corey Robin credited Polanyi's view with Richard Nixon moving away from a proposed basic income system because Polanyi was heavily quoted in a report by Nixon's aide, Martin Anderson, then ultimately providing arguments for various reductions in the welfare state introduced by Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton and George W. Bush.

Economic historians (e.g. Douglass North) have criticized Polanyi's account of the origins of capitalism. Polanyi's account of reciprocity and redistributive systems is inherently changeless and thus cannot explain the emergence of the more specific form of modern capitalism in the 19th century.

Deirdre McCloskey has criticized several aspects of the Great Transformation. She notes that Polanyi's account of "pre-market" societies are inconsistent with anthropological evidence which suggests these societies were not as equitable, socially stable, and successful as Polanyi makes them appear to be. McCloskey notes that market-based societies are not a nascent invention, as Polanyi claims, but that they extend further back in time. She also criticizes Polanyi's conceptualization of self-regulating markets whereby any and all government intervention in the markets means the markets are no longer markets.

The Great Transformation has been criticized for underplaying power and class relations in its analysis. Polanyi argued, "class interests offer only a limited explanation of long-run movements in society." He argued that while humans are "naturally conditioned by economic factors", human motives are only rarely determined by "material want-satisfaction"; rather, human motives were more social (e.g. desire for security and status) than material.

Contents
 Balance of Power Hundred Years' Peace The Snapping of the Golden Thread Swings of the Pendulum after World War I Finance and Peace Selected References to "Societies and Economic Systems" Selected References to "Evolution of the Market Pattern" The Literature of Speenhamland

Speenhamland and Vienna

Why Not Whitbread's Bill?

Disraeli's "Two Nations" and the Problem of Colored Races

Additional Note: Poor Law and the Organization of Labor

 * Part One The International System
 * Chapter 1. The Hundred Years' Peace
 * Chapter 2. Conservative Twenties, Revolutionary Thirties
 * Part Two Rise and Fall of Market Economy
 * I. Satanic Mill
 * Chapter 3. "Habitation versus Improvement"
 * Chapter 4. Societies and Economic Systems
 * Chapter 5. Evolution of the Market Pattern
 * Chapter 6. The Self-regulating Market and the Fictitious Commodities: Labor, Land, and Money
 * Chapter 7. Speenhamland, 1795
 * Chapter 8. Antecedents and Consequences
 * Chapter 9. Pauperism and Utopia
 * Chapter 10. Political Economy and the Discovery of Society
 * II. Self-Protection of Society
 * Chapter 11. Man, Nature, and Productive Organization
 * Chapter 12. Birth of the Liberal Creed
 * Chapter 13. Birth of the Liberal Creed (Continued): Class Interest and Social Change
 * Chapter 14. Market and Man
 * Chapter 15. Market and Nature
 * Chapter 16. Market and Productive Organization
 * Chapter 17. Self-Regulation Impaired
 * Chapter 18. Disruptive Strains
 * Part Three Transformation in Progress
 * Chapter 19. Popular Government and Market Economy
 * Chapter 20. History in the Gear of Social Change
 * Chapter 21. Freedom in a Complex Society
 * Notes on Sources

Editions
The book was originally published in the United States in 1944 and then in England in 1945 as The Origins of Our Time. It was reissued by Beacon Press as a paperback in 1957 and as a 2nd edition with a foreword by Nobel Prize-winning economist Joseph Stiglitz in 2001.

 * Polanyi, K. (1944). The Great Transformation. Foreword by Robert M. MacIver. New York: Farrar & Rinehart.
 * Polanyi, K. (1957). The Great Transformation. Foreword by Robert M. MacIver. Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 9780807056790.
 * Polanyi, K. (2001). The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time, 2nd ed. Foreword by Joseph E. Stiglitz; introduction by Fred Block. Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 9780807056431.

title: The Great Transformation (book)


text:
User talk:Impossible-princess-13

Welcome
Hello , and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~~~. Four tildes (~~~~) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on Talk page. Again, welcome! You 00:32, Jun 6, 2005 (UTC)
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Gwen Stefani
Hello! Just thought that I should explain my recent revert: Wikipedia tries to avoid talking about future events ("Wikipedia is not a crystal ball" is the usual slogan). It can be OK to say that, according to such-and-such a source, such-and-such an event is planned for such-and-such a time, though it's generally best to wait until something has happened before describing it. Mel Etitis ( Μελ Ετητης ) 4 July 2005 22:03 (UTC)

Madonna discography
Your removal of sales and top data of Madonna singles is a vandalism ! - Vorash 18:09, 25 July 2005 (UTC)

Harajuku Lovers Tour 2005
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Sources for Into The Hollywood Groove
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ArbCom elections are now open!
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title: User talk:Impossible-princess-13


text:
Non-state actor

A non-state actor (NSA) is an individual or organization that has significant political influence but is not allied to any particular country or state.

The interests, structure, and influence of NSAs vary widely. For example, among NSAs are non-profit organizations, labor unions, non-governmental organizations, banks, corporations, media organizations, business magnates, people's liberation movements, lobby groups, religious groups, aid agencies, and violent non-state actors such as paramilitary forces.

Types
Some common and influential classes of NSAs are listed here in alphabetical order:
 * Business magnates are individuals who command large wealth, and who often seek to influence national and international affairs. Examples are Warren Buffett and Elon Musk.
 * Corporations, which include multinational corporations (MNCs), are companies authorized to act as single entities (legally as persons) and are recognized as such in law. They include very large businesses operating transnationally, such as The Coca-Cola Company, McDonald's, General Motors, Adidas, Huawei, Renault, Samsung, Nestlé and Toyota.
 * Decentralized autonomous organizations (DAO)s, sometimes known as decentralized autonomous corporations (DACs), operate according to rules encoded as computer programs called smart contracts. The crypto-currency Bitcoin is an example of a DAO which has grown to become economically influential.
 * International media agencies, which are also usually corporations, report on the social and political situation in countries worldwide, and may therefore be highly influential as NSAs. Examples of such agencies are AFP, EFE, Reuters, AP, RIA Novosti and Xinhua.
 * Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), which include international non-governmental organizations (INGOs), are usually nonprofit organizations seeking to effect change in humanitarian, educational, ecological, healthcare, public policy, social, human rights, environmental, and other areas. Examples of NGOs are Greenpeace, Red Cross/Red Crescent, Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch and WWF. Goodwill ambassadors or humanitarian aid workers involved with INGO missions abroad may also be considered as non-state actors.
 * People's movements are mass movements which become influential with size and longevity. Examples include the movements arising during the Arab Spring of 2011.
 * Religious groups commonly engage in political affairs at an international level. For example, the Quakers, as a historic peace church, operate offices at the United Nations. Another example is the Taliban, which is a religious group as well as a violent non-state actor.
 * Transnational diaspora communities are ethnic or national communities that commonly seek to bring social and political change to their originating countries and their adoptive countries. The Israeli diaspora is an example.
 * Unincorporated associations, secret societies and civic organizations unknown to or unrecognized by the state or government may be considered non-state actors.
 * Unrepresented nations and peoples include many indigenous peoples and Fourth World societies.
 * Violent non-state actors (VNSA)s are armed groups, including groups such as ISIS or criminal organizations, for example drug cartels.
 * World citizens may be considered non-state actors if they are active in movements or social causes active outside their own country.

Effects on the Westphalian state model
The proliferation of non-state actors since the Cold War ended has been one of the factors leading to the Cobweb Paradigm in international politics. Under this paradigm, the traditional Westphalian nation-state experiences an erosion of power and sovereignty, and non-state actors are part of the cause. Facilitated by globalization, NSAs challenge nation-state borders and sovereignty claims. MNCs are not always sympathetic to national interests but are loyal to the corporation's interests instead. NSAs challenge the nation-state's sovereignty over internal matters through advocacy for societal issues, such as human rights and the environment.

Armed non-state actors operate without state control and are involved in internal and trans-border conflicts. The activity of such groups in armed conflicts adds layers of complexity to traditional conflict management and resolution. The conflicts are often fought not only between non-state actors and states but also between multiple NSA groups. Interventions in such conflicts is particularly challenging since international law and the norms governing the use of force for intervention or peacekeeping purposes were written primarily in the context of the nation-state.

Additionally, armed non-state actors have recently been held accountable to international law with the United Nations Security Council’s decision to allow the self-defense principle to be applied against an NSA. After the terrorist attacks of 9/11, the US and the UN debated whether the right of self-defense, as protected by the UN Charter's Article 51, was applicable to armed non-state actors, in this case Al-Qaeda. Article 51 allows member states to pursue a preemptive self-defense if they know that an imminent attack is coming. Many issues still remain on the extent to which the potential victim state could retaliate against the armed NSA since most armed non-state actors often reside on the territory of a sovereign state, which thus may also endure a retaliatory or preemptive attack. The 9/11 attacks had a significant impact in demonstrating that non-state actors may be held accountable to international law and may contend in the political and the military arenas, alongside states.

Example: Cotonou Agreement
The term Non State Actors is widely used in development cooperation, particularly under the Cotonou Agreement between the European Union (EU) and African, Caribbean and Pacific ACP countries. The agreement uses the term to refer to a wide range of nongovernmental development actors whose participation in ACP-EU development cooperation is now formally recognized. According to Article 6, non-state actors include:

 * civil society in all its diversity, according to national characteristics;
 * economic and social partners, including trade union organisations and;
 * the private sector.

In practice, it means that participation is open to all kind of actors, such as community-based organisations, women's groups, human rights associations, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), religious organizations, farmers' cooperatives, trade unions, universities and research institutes, the media and the private sector. Also included in this definition are informal groups such as grassroots organizations, informal private sector associations, etc. The private sector, however, is considered only insofar as it is involved in non-profit activities (e.g. private sector associations, chambers of commerce, etc.)

Roles
Non-state actors can aid in opinion building in international affairs, such as the Human Rights Council. Formal international organizations may also rely on non-state actors, particularly NGOs in the form of implementing partners in the national context. An example is the contribution of COHRE (Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions), to the protection of land and property (HLP) rights in Kosovo by conceptualizing the Housing and Property Directorate (now Kosovo Property Agency) within the framework of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo.

Non-state actors are fundamental agents in helping to achieve both national and international development goals, such as those around climate change. Actions by non-state actors contribute significantly towards filling the greenhouse gas emissions gap left by unambitious or poorly executed national climate policies, Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs).

Another example that shows the importance of non-state actors in peace-building is the contribution of ICBL (International Campaign to Ban Landmines) to the international prohibition on the use of landmines. ICBL is a global network of NGOs that has operated in over 90 countries since 1992. Its primary goal is to make a world free of anti-personnel landmines. Their passionate advertising appealing for global cooperation drew Diana, Princess of Wales to become an ardent advocate. Together, they brought the issue to the United Nations General Assembly. ICBL's efforts led the international community to urge states to ratify the Ottawa Treaty (Mine Ban Treaty) in 1997, and its contribution was recognized and praised as it was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in the same year.

Non-state actors also have a role in governance. While NSAs are incredibly useful in advancing international peace, monitoring human rights violations, and lobbying for socio-political issues like climate change, they also play a role in non-traditional governance. Many fragile states rely on non-state actors for protection and administration. More traditional methods of governance include local courts and clans, on the other end, non-traditional NSA groups govern as paramilitaries or rebel groups. The importance of this is that in the last 20 years non-state actors have acquired legal recognition due to their heavy involvement in the international order. Their growing presence as an alternative governmental presence also holds them accountable to international law.

title: Non-state actor


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Sunset State Beach

Sunset State Beach is a park and beach on Monterey Bay, in Santa Cruz County, California.

It is operated by the California Department of Parks and Recreation.

Geography
It is approximately 1.5 miles (2.5 km) long, and located near Watsonville.

It is surrounded by large agricultural fields west of the city of Watsonville. Manresa State Beach is to the north-upcoast of Sunset State Beach.

title: Sunset State Beach


text: User talk:129.44.214.252

title: User talk:129.44.214.252


text:
Lynn Jones

Lynn Morris Jones (born January 1, 1953) is an American former professional baseball player, coach, and manager. He played as an outfielder in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Detroit Tigers and Kansas City Royals. He later was a coach for the Royals, Florida Marlins, and Boston Red Sox, and served as a manager in the minor leagues.

Biography
Jones attended Thiel College, in western Pennsylvania, where he played for the Tomcats, setting the school's single-season batting record, hitting .440 in 1974. A three-sport athlete, Jones also played basketball and soccer in college. In 1987, he was inducted into the college's athletic Hall of Fame. He joined the Theta Phi chapter of Alpha Chi Rho Fraternity while at Thiel.

Playing career
Jones was originally drafted by the Cincinnati Reds in the 10th round of the 1974 June draft before being chosen by the Detroit Tigers in the 1978 Rule 5 draft.

Named Detroit's Rookie of the Year in 1979, Jones also played in 14 career post-season games with the Kansas City Royals (1984–1985), going 2-for-3 with a double and a triple in six games in the 1985 World Series against St. Louis.

Over eight-major league seasons, Jones batted .252 with seven home runs and 91 RBI in 527 games.

Post-playing career
Following his retirement as a player, Jones managed in the minor leagues for the Florida Marlins and Atlanta Braves organizations. In nine seasons as a minor-league manager, Jones compiled a 555–630 (.468) record and reached the postseason twice, in 1995 and 1997 with Kane County of the Midwest League.

Jones was first base coach in the major leagues for the Royals in 1991 and 1992. He also coached (initially first base, then third base) for the Marlins in 2001, when he also instructed the club's outfielders and baserunners. During 2004 and 2005, Jones coached first base for the Boston Red Sox. He missed part of the 2004 season after sustaining a non-baseball eye injury. The 2004 Red Sox won the World Series, Jones' second championship team.

After working as the minor-league baserunning coordinator for the Braves, Jones joined the coaching staff of his alma mater, Thiel College, in 2013.

title: Lynn Jones


text:
User:Kramer

Hello. I am a Biophysicist at Princeton University. I received my PhD from Harvard University. I did my undergraduate studies at Stanford University and graduated with degrees in  Physics, Political Science and interdisciplinary honors in International Security Studies.

title: User:Kramer