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Machine Robo: Revenge of Cronos

Machine Robo: Revenge of Cronos (マシンロボ クロノスの大逆襲), known in France as La Revanche des GoBots (Revenge of the GoBots), is a Japanese anime television series produced by Ashi Productions. It ran on TV Tokyo from July 3, 1986, through May 28, 1987.

A large portion of the Machine Robo toy line was exported and sold by Tonka in America as GoBots and Rock Lords. Central Park Media released 15 English-subtitled episodes of the series on three DVDs in 2003; these remained the only official English releases until 2022, when Discotek Media released the complete series and its associated OVAs on one SD Blu-ray set.

Story
The story takes place on the mechanical world of Cronos. A band of villains called the Gyandlar have come to the planet in search of the mythical energy known as the Hyribead.

Heroes

 * Rom Stol (played by Kazuhiko Inoue)
 * Master of the martial art Tenkū Chūshin Ken (天空宙心拳 literally Sky Space Heart Fist). Using the Wolf Sword Kenrō (剣狼), Rom can combine with Kenryū and Baikanfū for more power. Height: 186 cm, Weight: 880 kg.
 * Kenryū (Blade Dragon)
 * Larger robot body of Rom Stol. At the peak of light energy, Kenrō can cross the dimensional barrier and call forth Kenryū. When Rom combines with Kenryū, his power increases by tens. When the combination is complete, he says, "Wherever there is darkness, there is light. Wherever there is evil there is also good! The emissary from the heavens, Kenryū, is here!"
 * Baikanfu (ViKung-fu)
 * Largest robot body of Rom Stol and summoned at Rom's command of "Heaven, Earth, Fire and Water, grant me the power!". When Baikanfū synchronizes with the planet's energy, he can draw upon the power of nature itself.
 * The deluxe Rom Stol/Kenryu/Vaikungfu toy was a remold of DX Bunshin Gattai Tōshi Gordian (aka Godaikin "Guardian").

 * Leina Stol (played by Yuko Mizutani)
 * Younger sister of Rom, she also can use Tenkū Chūshin Ken when necessary. She is very close to Rom and gets jealous when other women get too close to him.

 * Blue Jet (played by Shinya Ōtaki)
 * A swordsman of the Jet Tribe. He can turn into a jet. Fights with "Tenkū Shin Ken (天空真剣, Sky True Sword)" style. Based on the Machine Robo MR-03 Jet Robo toy that was also used as the Renegade Fitor in the GoBots series.

 * Rod Drill (played by Kōichi Hashimoto)
 * Happy-go-lucky member of the Battle tribe. Transforms into a drill-tank. Based on the Machine Robo MR-17 Drill Robo toy that was also used as the former Renegade/current Guardian Screw Head in the GoBots series.

 * Triple Jim (played by Toshiharu Sakurai)
 * Transforms into a helicopter and a car. Acts as a fussy caretaker to Leina.

 * Kirai Stol (played by Junichi Kagaya)
 * Chief of the Cronos tribe and master of Tenkū Chūshin Ken martial art. He taught the art to his children Guardi, Rom, and Leina as well as Blue Jet, Rod Drill, and Bug Newman. He is killed in the first episode after refusing to tell the evil Gyandler about the Hyribead. He bequeaths the sword Kenrō to his son and tells him to fight the evil Gyandler to protect his planet.

 * Battle Flex
 * Rom's sentient jeep. Its toy was recolored as Galoob's "Power Machines" Flex monster truck toy.

 * Land Giant 32
 * 32-wheeled transport/repair vehicle. Can separate into three vehicles: Leader 16, GripIron, and TurboJet. An import of Galoob's Power Machines Giant Command 32 vehicle.

 * Tough Trailer (played by Hiroshi Yanaka)
 * Remold of Titan Boy from Choushinsei Flashman with a new trailer.

 * Pro Truck Racer (played by Nobuaki Fukuda)
 * Remold of Titan Boy from Choushinsei Flashman with new accessories.

 * Land Commander 5
 * A power suit that allowed four people to operate.

Dash Machine Robo
Recolors of Bandai's "Zenmai Kahen Winch Robo" line. Other recolors were released as "Secret Riders" GoBots in the U.S.
 * Battle Gyror (Twister)
 * Battlancer (Tri-Trak)
 * Land Fighter (Tork)

Rock People
Based on the molds released in the Tonka "Rock Lords" toy line in the U.S. and Europe.
 * Battlerock (Boulder) - Design used for many Rock People characters, including variants for elders, females, and children. Made of kimberlite. Carries a Justice Laser Gun.
 * Crossrock (Crackpot) - An old prophet and knight Rock Person made of hematite. Carries a Saint Sword.
 * Gutsrock (Granite)- Multiple Gutsrocks appeared in the series. Immensely strong and made of Granite.
 * Karma - Female Rock Person, seen in episode 32. Similar to Battlerock. No toy exists for her.
 * Magnarock (recolor of Slimestone) - A heroic Rock Person made of silver with magnetic force field. Carries a Barrier Amp weapon. First introduced as Maskrock's sidekick.
 * Maskrock (Marbles) - A knight and guardian of the Rocks Mountain. Made of cristobalite. Carries an Impulsar weapon.
 * Mecharock (Nuggit) - Multiple Mecharocks appeared in the series. Has telescopic vision.
 * Rockgilan (Terra-Roc) - A green pterodactyl that served as one of the two legendary beasts in the underground graveyard.
 * Rockdon (Spike Stone) - A purple stegosaurus that served as one of the two legendary beasts in the underground graveyard. Noted for looking similar to Baragon from the Godzilla franchise.
 * Gattaisaurer (Fossilsaurus) - A large dinosaur-like rock person that assists Rom and Leina during the siege of Emerald City. It can divide into four smaller robots named Header (Jaw Bone), Abarar (Rib Cage), Leggar (Hip Bone), and Taildar (Tail Bone).

Jewel People
Recolors of these toys were released in the "Rock Lords" toy line in the U.S. and Europe.
 * DiaMan (Solitare)
 * RubyMan (Flamestone)
 * AmberMan (Sunstone)

Wheelmen
These characters had highly articulated and detailed pull-back toys that are exclusive to Japan. They were not used in the Gobots series.
 * Hot Rod Joe
 * F-1 Jack
 * Power Riser: A mecha similar to the Power Loader from Aliens. Used in the latter episodes by Leina and Rom.

Guest Characters

 * Sophia (played by Kyoko Hamura)
 * A female Leo Clan warrior. Transforms into a lioness. Reincarnated in the OVAs as Kyoko Yoshida.

 * Rury (played by Yūko Kobayashi)
 * Female martial artist that inherited her late father's dojo. Blue Jet's love interest.  Her OVA incarnation is Yuko Sato.

 * Min (played by Yoshino Takamori and Yumi Takada)
 * Daughter of the Hirai Village leader.

 * Sara (played by Yoshino Takamori)
 * A female Scooter Robo. Reincarnated in the OVAs as Sara Yamada.

Villains

 * Gadess (played by Shigezō Sasaoka)
 * Leader of the Gyandlar.

 * Grujios (played by Minoru Inaba)
 * A giant pink slug that lives encased in a robot body.

 * Diondra (played by Hiroko Takahashi)
 * Female Gyandlar commander.

 * Garudi (played by Yōsuke Akimoto [evil], Show Hayami [good])
 * Gyandlar martial artist. Underneath his giant robot exterior is Rom's long-lost older brother, Guardi Stol, who has been brainwashed. Carries the sword Nagase (流星 Shooting Star).

 * Devil Satan 6 (played by Kenichi Ono)
 * Six monstrous robots that can combine into the giant Devil Satan 6 robot. In the anime they are referred to by number instead of name. Released in new colors as the Renegade combiner Monsterous in the GoBots toy line.

 * 1) Gillhead (Fright Face): (played by Kenichi Ono): The head. Speaks in a Kansai dialect. Weapon: Nunchaku.
 * 2) Barabat (South Claw): Left arm. Weapon: Tonfa.
 * 3) Deathclaw (Weird Wing): Right arm. Weapon is the Sasumata.
 * 4) Gurogiron (Heart Attack): Torso. Weapon is the Wolf Tooth Staff (狼牙棒 Láng-Yá Bàng).
 * 5) Eyegos (Gore Jaw): Right Leg. Weapon is Kusarigama.
 * 6) Blugoda (Fangs): Left Leg. Weapon is Azure Dragon Sword (青龍刀 Qīng-Lóng Dao).

Evil Rock People

 * Recolors of these toys were released in the "Rock Lords" toy line in the U.S. and Europe.

 * Devil Rock (Magmar)
 * Geiger Rock (Tombstone)
 * Double Rock (Sticks 'N Stones)
 * Amazon Rock (Stoneheart)
 * Bloody Rock (Brimstone)

Gyandlar Commanders
Throughout the first half of the series Gadess uses various natives of Cronos to lead his forces.

 * Zagam: Appears in episodes 5, 17, and 18. Powers include a double sided scythe, invisibility, cold resistance, illusions, and dual foot skate blades.
 * Mizuchi: Appears in episodes 6, 17, and 18. Powers include body electricity that can causes cave ins, kicking, the Dragon King Sword, shoulder needle missiles, launchable back spikes, and lightning summoning that causes fissures.
 * Jingi: Appears in episodes 7, 17, and 18. Powers include dual buffalo horn boomerangs and size growth.
 * Gillman: Appears in episode 8. Powers include swimming, hypnosis, three claws in the right wrist, a jawed left arm, an extendable neck with detachable heads, and drills hidden in the arms.
 * King Girandor: Appears in episode 9. Powers include a disguise, flight, and burrowing.
 * Bug Newman: Appears in episode 10. Renegade Tenkū Chūshin Ken disciple. Mastered the forbidden poison fist "Doku Shutō".
 * Iron Sand: Appears in episode 10. Powers include a sand based body, purple lightning strikes from the hands, and turning his hands into hooked swords.
 * Brock: Appears in episode 12. Powers include a sword that can emit green lightning, high jumping, and a drill-hammer hybrid weapon in the right arm.
 * Glovine: Appears in episode 13. Powers include flight, twin katanas, and self duplication.
 * Kina: Appears in episode 14. Daughter of the Gyandlar yakuza bull warrior Jingi. She can combine with her brother Koron to form Jingi Mark 2. Its only known power is dual buffalo horn boomerangs that can emit electricity.  Kina was reincarnated in the OVAs as Nami Kojima.
 * Gildar Brothers: Appears in episode 15. Powers include forming a tornado, flight, the silver one can extend his arms, the red one is armed with a scythe, the black one can fire a bladed boomerang from his abdomen, the combination to form Giant Gildar.
 * Giant Gildar: Powers include a scythe, abdomen boomerangs, and a constricting whip tail.
 * Preacher: Appears in episode 16. Powers include the Anger Fear which spawns illusions based on fear, throwing knives, a gold broadsword that can be encased in fire.
 * Black Bass: Appears in episode 19. Powers include summoning flying electric jellyfish and emitting electromagnetic shocks.
 * Gelber (Tombstone): Appears in episode 20. Powers include the alpha beam from his atomic death fork and dark illusions.
 * Clay (Magmar): Appears in episode 20. Powers include stone skin and the beta beam from his hands. Unlike other Gyandlar commanders he is not truly evil.
 * Wiseman/Nerve: Appears in episode 21. Powers include hypnotic sound waves from the mouth, head tentacles, and levitation.
 * Magmanian: Appears in episode 23. Powers include a drill-like right arm trident spear and magma manipulation.
 * Asura: Appears in episode 38. Powers include paralysis goo bullets from the abdomen and wired claw hands.
 * Phenomena: Appears in episode 39 and 41. Powers include levitation and heat bolts from its front spikes.
 * Varigale X
 * A type of spaceship used by the Gyandlar, specifically Garudi. The toy is a remold of Jaguar Vulcan from Taiyo Sentai Sun Vulcan.

Staff

 * Narration: Sho Hayami
 * Story editor: Hideki Sonoda
 * Character designs: Nobuyoshi Habara

Theme songs

 * "Machine Robo Honō" by MARTIN (1st opening)
 * "Shouri no Machine Robo" by Masato Shimon (2nd opening)
 * "Aoi Heart no Stranger" by Ema Watanabe (ending)

Leina Stol in Wolf Sword Legend
When Revenge of Cronos left off, Rom and Leina had crossed a dimensional barrier. Their physical forms changed from robot to human, and they were separated, with blurred memories. Leina Stol is incarnated as Reina Haruka, a Japanese schoolgirl. As the story progresses, she meets up with Rod Drill, Blue Jet, Triple Jim, and Rom, all of whom are now human. Given the fact the  Revenge of Cronos robotic characters appear here in new human forms, the Blue Jet and the Rod Drill appearing with the usual robotic forms in Battle Hackers may be all-different robots.

Lightning Trap - Leina & Laika
Taking place in the middle of the Wolf Sword Legend feature, this story centers on Leina Haruka, whose plane has been hijacked by a group of thugs led by the supernatural wizard Zarik. At this point, the series has no resemblance whatsoever to the Machine Robo toy line that spawned it.

Video games
Machine Robo was featured in three of Banpresto's Super Robot Wars series, beginning with SRW Compact 2: Part 2 & 3 in 2000 on the Wonderswan. All three parts of SRW Compact 2 were remade in 2002 as SRW Impact on the PlayStation 2. In 2004, the series was included in the PS2's SRW MX's line-up, as well as the PSP port of the same.

title: Machine Robo: Revenge of Cronos


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X Club

The X Club was a dining club of nine men who supported the theories of natural selection and academic liberalism in late 19th-century England. Thomas Henry Huxley was the initiator; he called the first meeting for 3 November 1864. The club met in London once a month—except in July, August and September—from November 1864 until March 1893, and its members are believed to have wielded much influence over scientific thought. The members of the club were George Busk, Edward Frankland, Thomas Archer Hirst, Joseph Dalton Hooker, Thomas Henry Huxley, John Lubbock, Herbert Spencer, William Spottiswoode, and John Tyndall, united by a "devotion to science, pure and free, untrammelled by religious dogmas."

The nine men who would compose the X Club already knew each other well. By the 1860s, friendships had turned the group into a social network, and the men often dined and went on holidays together. After Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published in 1859, the men began working together to aid the cause for naturalism and natural history. They backed the liberal Anglican movement that emerged in the early 1860s, and both privately and publicly supported the leaders of the movement.

According to its members, the club was originally started to keep friends from drifting apart, and to partake in scientific discussion free from theological influence. A key aim was to reform the Royal Society, with a view to making the practice of science professional. In the 1870s and 1880s, the members of the group became prominent in the scientific community and some accused the club of having too much power in shaping the scientific landscape of London. The club was terminated in 1893, after depletion by death, and as old age made regular meetings of the surviving members impossible.

Social connections
When the first dinner meeting commenced on 3 November 1864 at St. George's Hotel on Albemarle Street in central London, the eight members of what was to be known as the X Club—William Spottiswoode was added at the second meeting in December 1864—already had extensive social ties with one another. In the mid-1850s, the men who would come to make up the X Club formed two distinct sets of friends. John Tyndall, Edward Frankland and Thomas Hirst, men who became friends in the late 1840s, were artisans who became physical scientists. Thomas Huxley, Joseph Dalton Hooker, and George Busk, friends since the early 1850s, had worked as surgeons and had become professional naturalists. Beginning in the mid-1850s, the network began to form around Huxley and Hooker, and these six men began helping one another, both as friends and professionals. In 1863, for example, Tyndall aided Frankland in getting a position at the Royal Institution. Spottiswoode, Herbert Spencer, and John Lubbock joined the circle of friends during the debates over evolution and naturalism in the early 1860s.

The original members of the club had much in common. They shared a middle-class background and similar theological beliefs. All of the men were middle-aged, except Lubbock, who was 30, and Busk, who was 57, and all of the men, except Lubbock, lived in London. More importantly, the men of the club all shared an interest in natural history, naturalism, and a more general pursuit of intellectual thought free from religious influence, commonly referred to as academic liberalism.

Scientific climate
The X Club came together during a period of turbulent conflict in both science and religion in Victorian England. The publication in 1859 of Charles Darwin's book On the Origin of Species through Natural Selection brought a storm of argument, with the scientific establishment of wealthy amateurs and clerical naturalists as well as the Church of England attacking this new development. Since the start of the 19th century they had seen evolutionism as an assault on the divinely ordained aristocratic social order. On the other side, Darwin's ideas on evolution were welcomed by liberal theologians and by a new generation of salaried professional scientists; the men who would later come to form the X Club supported Darwin, and saw his work as a great stride in the struggle for freedom from clerical interference in science. The members of the X social network played a significant part in nominating Darwin for the Copley Medal in 1864.

In 1860, Essays and Reviews, a collection of essays on Christianity written by a group of liberal Anglicans, was published. The collection represented a summation of a nearly century-long challenge to the history and prehistory of the Bible by higher critics as well as geologists and biologists. In short, the writers of Essays and Reviews sought to analyse the Bible like any other work of literature. At the time, Essays created more of a stir than Darwin's book. The members of the X network backed the collection, and Lubbock even sought to form an alliance between liberal Anglicans and scientists. Two liberal Anglican theologians were convicted of heresy, and when the government overturned the judgement on appeal, Samuel Wilberforce, the High Church and the evangelicals organised petitions and a mass backlash against evolution. At the Anglican convocation, the evangelicals presented a declaration reaffirming their faith in the harmony of God's word and his works and tried to make this a compulsory "Fortieth Article" of faith. They took their campaign to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, aiming to overthrow Huxley's "dangerous clique" of Darwin's allies.

In 1862, Bishop John William Colenso of Natal published The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua Critically Examined, an analysis of the first five books of the Old Testament. In his analysis Colenso used mathematics and concepts of population dynamics, including examinations of food supply and transportation, to show that the first five books of the Bible were faulty and unreliable. Outrage broke out within the Church of England, and the X network not only gave their support to Colenso, but at times even dined with him to discuss his ideas.

Later, in 1863, a new rift began to emerge within the scientific community over race theory. Debate was stirred up when the Anthropological Society of London, which rejected Darwinian theory, claimed that slavery was defensible based on the theory of evolution proposed by Darwin. The members of what would become the X Club sided with the Ethnological Society of London, which denounced slavery and embraced academic liberalism. The men of the X Club, especially Lubbock, Huxley, and Busk, felt that dissension and the "jealousies of theological sects" within learned societies were damaging, and they attempted to limit the contributions the Anthropological Society made to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, a society of which they were all members.

Thus, by 1864, the members of the X Club were joined in a fight, both public and private, to unite the London scientific community with the objective of furthering the ideas of academic liberalism.

Dining clubs
Dining clubs, common in late-Victorian England, were characterised by informal gatherings where men with similar interests could share new ideas and information among friends. Many formal societies and institutions that existed in England during the 19th century started as informal dining clubs. The problem with most formal societies at the time, especially to those men that would come together to form the X Club, was the manner in which meetings were conducted; most were too large and unsuitable for the discussion of private scientific matters. In addition, due to the outbreak of debates over evolution and religion within the scientific societies of London during the 1860s, the pursuit of discussion with likeminded men was often difficult.

Several scientific clubs, such as the Philosophical Club and the Red Lion Club, were formed in the late 19th century, but these organisations lacked the scientific professionalism that serious scientists, including those members of the X Club such as Hooker and Huxley, sought. Other more serious clubs, such as the 'B-Club', were not sufficiently intimate for the men who would comprise the X Club.

Formation
In 1864, Huxley wrote to Hooker and explained that he feared he and his group of friends, the other men of the social network, would drift apart and lose contact. He proposed the creation of a club that would serve to maintain social ties among the members of the network, and Hooker readily agreed. Huxley always insisted that sociability was the only purpose of the club, but others in the club, most notably Hirst, claimed that the founding members had other intentions. In his description of the first meeting, Hirst wrote that what brought the men together was actually a "devotion to science, pure and free, untrammelled by religious dogmas," and he predicted that situations would arise when their concerted efforts would be of great use.

On the night of the first meeting, Huxley jokingly proposed that the club be named "Blastodermic Club", in reference to blastoderm, a layer of cells in the ovum of birds that acts as the center of development for the entire bird. Some historians, such as Ruth Barton, feel that Huxley wanted the newly formed club to act as a guide to the development of science. The name "Thorough Club", which referred to the movements that existed at the time for the "freedom to express unorthodox opinion", was also rejected as a possible name. As Spencer would later explain, "X Club" was chosen in May 1865 because "it committed [the group] to nothing." The name itself, according to Hirst, was proposed by Mrs. Busk.

It was also decided on the first night that each ensuing meeting would take place on the first Thursday of each month, except during the holiday months of July, August, and September. During the existence of the club, dinners took place at St. George's Hotel on Albemarle Street, Almond's Hotel on Clifford Street, and finally at the Athenaeum Club after 1886. Meetings always started at six in the evening so that dinner would be over in time for the Royal Society meetings at 8:00 or 8:30 pm in the Burlington House.

Eight men attended the first meeting, and in addition Spottiswoode came to the next meeting in December 1864, making the membership of nine. William Benjamin Carpenter, an English physiologist, and William Fergusson, the Queen's surgeon, were also invited to join the club, but they declined. After some discussion, it was decided, according to Spencer, that no more members would be added because no other men outside their network were friendly or intelligent enough to be part of the X Club. In contrast, Huxley would later write that no others were admitted to the group because it was agreed that the name of any new member would have to contain "all the consonants absent from the names of the old ones." As the members of the club had no Slavonic friends, the matter was supposedly dropped.

According to Spencer, the only rule the club had was to have no rules. When a resolution was proposed in November 1885 to keep formal notes of the meetings, the motion was defeated because it violated the rule. Nevertheless, the club kept both a secretary and a treasurer, and both positions were held in turn by each member of the club. These offices were in charge of account collecting and sending notices of upcoming meetings. Members, including Hirst, Huxley, Hooker, and Tyndall, also took informal notes of the meetings.

Influence
Between the time of its inception in 1864 and its termination in 1893, the X club and its members gained much prominence within the scientific community, carrying much influence over scientific thought, similar to the Scientific Lazzaroni in the United States and the Society of Arcueil in France. Between 1870 and 1878, Hooker, Spottiswoode, and Huxley held office in the Royal Society simultaneously, and between 1873 and 1885, they consecutively held the presidency of the Royal Society. Spottiswoode was treasurer of the Society between 1870 and 1878 and Huxley was elected Senior Secretary in 1872. Frankland and Hirst were also of importance to the Society, as the previous held the position of Foreign Secretary between 1895 and 1899, and the latter served on the Council three times between 1864 and 1882.

Outside the Royal Society, the men of the X Club continued to gain influential positions. Five members of the Club held the presidency of the British Association for the Advancement of Science between 1868 and 1881. Hirst was elected president of the London Mathematical Society between 1872 and 1874 while Busk served as Examiner and eventually president of the Royal College of Surgeons. Frankland also served as president of the Chemical Society between 1871 and 1873.

During this time, the members of the X-Club began to gain renown and win awards within the scientific community in London. Among the nine, three received the Copley Medal, five received the Royal Medal, two received Darwin Medals, one received the Rumford Medal, one received the Lyell Medal, and one received the Wollaston Medal. Eighteen honorary degrees were handed out among the nine members, as well as one Prussian 'Pour le Mérite' and one Order of Merit. Two of the members were knighted, one served as Privy Councillor, one as Justice of the Peace, three as Corresponding Members, and one was a Foreign Associate of the French Academy of Sciences.

As the members of the club continued to gain prominence within the scientific community, the private club became well known. Many people at the time viewed the club as a scientific caucus, and some, such as Richard Owen, accused the group of having too much influence in shaping the scientific landscape of late-Victorian England. Huxley recounted that he once overheard a conversation about the club between two men of the Athenaeum Club, and when one asked what the X-Club did, the other explained "Well they govern scientific affairs, and really, on the whole, they don't do it badly." Informal notes of early meetings seem to confirm some of the concerns. Discussion often surrounded the nomination of members to offices of major societies, as well as the negotiation of pension and medal claims. In 1876, the club even voted to collectively support Lubbock's candidacy for the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

Huxley, however, always stated that the simple purpose of the club was to bring friends together who may have drifted apart otherwise. According to Huxley, the fact that all the members of the club gained distinction within science was merely coincidental.

Decline
By 1880, the members of the X Club had prominent positions within the scientific community, and the club was highly regarded, but it was beginning to fall apart. In 1883, Spottiswoode died of typhoid and at the same time, according to Spencer, only two of the remaining eight members of the X club were in good health. Attendance at meetings began to dwindle and by 1885, Frankland and Lubbock urged for the election of new members. There was a difference of opinion on the matter and it was eventually dropped. In 1889, a rift emerged in the group when Huxley and Spencer had an argument over land nationalisation policies and refused to talk with one another.

The members of the club were growing old and during the late 1880s and early 1890s, a few of the members moved out of London. When attendance began to severely dwindle, talks of ending the club emerged. The last meeting was held unceremoniously in March 1893, and only Frankland and Hooker attended.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: X Club


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Vaalimaa

Vaalimaa is a village in the Virolahti municipality and a border crossing point between Finland and Russia. The border crossing station was opened in 1958 as a first road traffic crossing point between Finland and Soviet Union. With over 2 million annual crossings, it is the busiest border crossing in the Finnish-Russian border, and one of the busiest land border crossings of the European Union in general. European route E18 passes through Vaalimaa.

The border crossing is notorious for its long queues. Around Christmas 2007 there could even be a 50 to 60 kilometer line of trucks. The functioning of the border crossing is affected by the actions of the Russian Customs, Russian Border Control and some other Russian bureaus in Torfyanovka.

Trucks and passenger cars are handled in different lines. In 2004 it became possible to cross the border by bicycle. Pedestrian crossing is still forbidden.

The village contained numerous shops and malls catering to Russian visitors, but most have closed since the start of the Russo-Ukrainian war in 2022.

 * Distances from Vaalimaa:
 * Helsinki: 187 km
 * Kotka: 68 km
 * Saint Petersburg: 202 km
 * Vyborg: 55 km

title: Vaalimaa


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Party admission

The party admission, in the law of evidence, is a type of statement that appears to be hearsay (an out of court statement) but is generally exempted (excluded) from the definition of hearsay because it was made by a party to the litigation adverse to the party introducing it into evidence.

Party admissions in U.S. law
In the USA, a party admission, in the law of evidence, is any statement made by a declarant who is a party to a lawsuit or criminal case, which is offered as evidence against that party. Under the Federal Rules of Evidence, such a statement is admissible to prove the truth of the statement itself, meaning that the statement itself is not considered hearsay at all. This is a category of exemptions to the inadmissibility of out-of-court statements. When the term "exemption" is used here, it does not mean that the statement is an "exception" to the hearsay rule. Rather, a party admission is classified as "nonhearsay" by the Federal Rules of Evidence.

The statement is admissible even if the declarant had no basis for knowing the truth of the statement. For example, if an employee rushes to tell the manager of a trucking company that one of his trucks has been in an accident, and the manager says, "oh, we're behaving so negligently, lately," that statement will be admissible – even though the manager had no reason to know that this particular accident was the result of negligence.

The exemption permits one party to offer the out-of-court statement of any opponent party. It may not be used by a party to offer that party's own out-of-court statement. However, under the common-law doctrine of completeness, a party may possibly be able to admit some statements of their own, if a party admission exemption allows the opponent to admit part of a statement, and the first party wishes to admit the rest of that statement.

The rationale for the rule
The rationale for a party admission exception to hearsay exclusion can be mostly easily understood by reference to the rationale for the hearsay rule itself. Affidavit evidence consisting of out-of-court statements is not subject to cross-examination. Affidavit evidence is thought to detract from the truth-finding mission of a trial. The accuracy or credibility of affidavits lack the transparency that cross-examination exacts, but—at least in civil cases—a party may be cross-examined or give an explanation or denial of its admission. In criminal cases, however, "modern psychological interrogation techniques can cause innocent suspects" to falsely admit to crimes. Therefore, depending on the context, party admissions may advance, rather than detract from, the truth-finding mission.

Distinction between "party admissions" and "statements against interest"
There is frequent confusion about whether a "party admission" has to be a statement that is against the interests of its maker. The word "admission" connotes that the statement must be harmful. However, the party admission exemption does not in any way require that the admission be a representation against the party's interest – a "statement against interest."

"Statements against interest" made by other witnesses are sometimes admissible over the hearsay exception, but that is covered by a different exception. The "statements against interest" rule is different because:

 * 1) It is party neutral (the hearsay exemption is party-specific).
 * 2) The declarant must be unavailable.
 * 3) The statement must be against the penal interest (under federal rules of evidence) or the fiscal or social interest (under the rules of states not following the federal rules).
 * 4) The "statements against interest" rule has a rationale that is different from the party admission rule. The courts that created that exception assumed it unlikely that a person would make a statement against his own interest untruthfully. The party admission, as shown above, has nothing to do with this.

Extensions of the rule
The reach of Federal Rule of Evidence 801(d)(2) extends beyond simple statements of a party's own making, which is exempted under 801(d)(2)(A). It also applies to statements made by others, if the party manifests belief and approval. Further, it applies to vicarious admissions – those made by a declarant authorized by the party to make the statement, or by a servant or agent, if it concerns a matter within the scope of the servant. Finally, it allows admission of any statement made by a co-conspirator in furtherance of the conspiracy, provided there is independent evidence of the conspiracy's existence.

With regard to adoptive admissions, even a party's silence can be a basis for admitting evidence under this exemption. In some jurisdictions, the court is required to let the jury consider whether the silence was an adoptive admission.

The rule creates an issue in criminal prosecutions of multiple defendants. The use of a party admission of one defendant is not generally allowed to be considered against the second, unless they are co-conspirators.

The differing role of the party admission in federal and state law
The Party Admission rule is nearly universal in the U.S. Many states follow the Federal Rules of Evidence, but some do not. Those states do not draw a distinction between "exemptions" and "exceptions." However, the party admission is still admissible under all of the same circumstances as in rule 801(d).

title: Party admission


text:
Crossmolina

Crossmolina is a town in the historical barony of Tyrawley in County Mayo, Ireland, as well as the name of the civil parish and Catholic parish in which the town is situated. The town sits on the River Deel near the northern shore of Lough Conn. Crossmolina is about 9 km west of Ballina on the N59 road. Surrounding the town, there are a number of agriculturally important townlands, including Enaghbeg, Rathmore, and Tooreen.

Etymology
The name Crossmolina is from the Crois Uí Mhaoilíona, meaning "Cross of Mullany", or  "Maoilíona's cross". In the 18th century, the name was sometimes spelt as either Crossmalina, Crossmaliney, Crosmolyna or Crossmaling.

History
The origins of present-day Crossmolina are tied to the founding of a religious settlement in the area: Errew Abbey was founded by St. Tiernan in the 6th century. In the 12th century this Abbey came into possession of the invading Hiberno-Norman de Barry family.

Anglo Protestant Ascendency
During the 15th century, Crossmolina passed into the hands of the Bourke Family. In 1526 O'Donnell of Tir Conaill (County Donegal) invaded Tirawley and destroyed Crossmolina Castle. In response, the Bourkes constructed a replacement in Deel Castle. Their possession of this new fortress did not last however as during the Williamite War in Ireland of the 1690s Thomas Burke fought for the defeated Catholic Jacobites.

Subsequently, Deel Castle was granted by the English crown to the Anglo-Irish Protestant Gore family. In the 17th century, Francis Jackson, who had fought with Cromwell in Ireland, also received land in North Mayo. The Jackson family later built Enniscoe House. Again, the land taken over by the Jacksons was previously owned by the Burke family. The arrival of these landlords ushered in the era of Protestant Ascendancy into the area.

In 1798 Crossmolina was swept up with the events of the United Irishmen Rebellion when French Forces under General Humbert came from Ballina, passed by Crossmolina, towards Lahardane and on towards Castlebar as they went west of Lough Conn to fight the Battle of Castlebar.

In the late 18th century, the town emerged as a commercial and administrative hub. During this period, local landlords formed the Crossmolina Volunteers militia. By the early 1800s, a granary and bonded warehouses had been established. Petty Court sessions began weekly in 1823, and by the 1830s, the Revenue Police and Constabulary were stationed there. Regular fairs occurred in May, September, and December. The 1831 census showed a town population of 1,481 across 296 households, while the rural parish totaled 10,198. Approximately half the town's households were engaged in trade, manufacturing, and handicrafts.

The town is referenced in the Leigh's pocket road book of Ireland, published in 1827, as a "village in Mayo", whose "most remarkable object is the ruin of an Abbey dedicated to the Virgin Mary". Crossmolina was also mentioned in Samuel Lewis' Topographical Dictionary of Ireland (1837). The town contained "one good street and two converging ones".

Poitin production
Poitín, a traditional Irish spirit made from fermented grain or potatoes, boasts a high alcohol content. Produced in Ireland for centuries, it significantly impacted Crossmolina's local economy. In the early 19th century, Ireland's government worried about prevalent illegal private distillation, leading to frequent conflicts with locals. By February 1816, North Mayo's poitín production alarmed the government enough to station troops in the town to curb the trade.

In July 1833, a party of Revenue Police, based in Crossmolina, made a routine patrol and made an unexpected discovery—individuals engaged in the illicit distillation of poitín. The police apprehended two members of the group. However, as they were returning with the prisoners, a daring attempt to rescue them was made, with a prominent role played by one of the prisoners' father-in-law. Tragically, the situation escalated, leading the police to discharge their weapons, resulting in the death of one man.

Rural unrest in the 19th century
Land issues in North Mayo were a constant source of tension during the 19th century. Large landowners, often residing in England, rented land to tenant farmers with precarious tenure, risking eviction at any time. This situation led to significant resistance, occasionally violent, when rents were adjusted. Surrounding Crossmolina, endemic poverty prevailed. The 1838 "Royal Commission into the Condition of the Poorer Classes in Ireland" visited the town, and its report highlighted the dire living conditions of the rural poor. Their diet consisted almost entirely of potatoes, with meat consumed rarely, once or twice a year. Laborers earned 6 to 8 pennies daily, partially paid in food.

During the first decade of the 19th century, local peasants formed a secret society called "The Threshers". The group was responsible for a number of "outrages" including destroying crops and breaking into houses. In 1806 a local man – Thady Lavin – had informed the local magistrate of the activities of the group. He was later found murdered near Crossmolina. Six local men - Coll Flynn, Laurence Flynn, Charles Flynn, Thomas Horan, Daniel Regan, and Daniel Callaghan - were convicted of his murder, and hanged in Castlebar in December 1806. In December 1813, violence again broke out when a crowd of local residents, armed with pikes and guns, tried to take back cattle that had been sequestered to pay for outstanding rent arrears.

Between 1820 and 1840, the "Ribbonmen" agrarian movement was active in Crossmolina. In December 1821, John Carr, Peter Gillaspy, Eneas Early, and Mathew Chambers were imprisoned for their Ribbonmen membership and for administering illegal oaths. Local magistrate George Ormsby, Esq. of Gortner Abbey, facilitated their imprisonment. Due to significant rural unrest, a yeomanry detachment of three officers and 85 men was stationed permanently in the town starting in 1820.

In February 1839, the Crossmolina Parish Priest - Fr John Barrett - was murdered at Enniscoe Gate, about a mile and a half from Crossmolina. He was attacked late at night while returning from the town to his residence. It was widely speculated at the time that he was murdered because he denounced at the pulpit the activities of a secret society called the "Steel Boys". In 1842, a local Crossmolina Man - John Walsh - was convicted of being a member of the Ribbonmen and transported for seven years. He was found to be in possession of secret passwords and documents relating to the secret society.

Rural violence and political unrest continued through to the second half of the 19th century and even into the early 20th century. In March 1881, the Crossmolina home of the high constable of Tryrawley was attacked by a group of armed men. In November 1882, the local Parish Priest was arrested for permitting a Land League meeting in the Crossmolina Chapel. In June 1882, a Crossmolina farmer called Michael Brown was shot and severely wounded. He had taken over a farm that had been boycotted by local residents. Violence broke out in 1911 when a local man, Patrick Broderick who along with his neighbours, resisted the efforts of over fifty R.I.C. Officers to evict Broderick from his Crossmolina home. Resistance to the eviction was organized by the Crossmolina tenants league.

The Big Wind
The town was badly damaged during the "Night of the Big Wind" (Irish: Oíche na Gaoithe Móire) that swept across Ireland on 6 January 1839. Almost every house in the town was damaged with four houses destroyed completely. Eight residents were killed.

Mystery of the Drowned Woman
In June 1843, the body of a young woman was discovered drowned in the river near Crossmolina. An apron was found tied around her feet, and her knees were bound together with a shirt. A piece of ribbon was tied on one of her arms in a manner that suggested both arms had been bound, and she had managed to free one before her died. The deceased appeared to have been a young woman of considerable beauty. The woman was never identified.

Potato crop failures
During the first half of the nineteenth century, potato crop failures regularly led to famines. In 1822, North Mayo experienced a widespread failure. That June, the Archbishop of Tuam visited and reported to the London Times seeing "half-starved men, women, and children" in Crossmolina and surrounding areas. Local landlords and clergy formed an inter-denominational relief committee. Richard Sharpe, an agent for the Palmer estate with extensive land in Crossmolina, spearheaded relief efforts by organizing oat shipments to combat starvation.

In early 1831, a potato crop failure led to starvation. Sharpe organized a fundraiser among landlords to buy oats for the starving tenants. In June 1831, Crossmolina experienced a Typhus outbreak, a disease recurring in North Mayo until the 1920s. Dr. James McNair reported over 100 Typhus cases to the Connaught Telegraph, with 38 in Crossmolina. The following June, Rev. Edwin Stock surveyed the area, finding over 3,000 families, totaling 17,000 individuals, suffering from food shortages. George Vaughn Jackson, a local landlord and relief committee secretary, described the dire situation in the London Times, mentioning starving mothers, men seeking work, and rampant fever, indicating widespread starvation and disease.

The crop failures of 1822 and 1832 were precursors to the disastrous famine of the 1840s. By the 1840s, the countryside around Crossmolina was already plagued by destitution, leaving many in dire circumstances. The impoverished population heavily relied on the potato as their main food source. However, in August 1845, disaster struck when a devastating fungus, later identified as Phytophthora infestans, began decimating the potato crops. The once-green stalks of potato ridges quickly succumbed to blight, resulting in a putrid stench emanating from the rotting crops. The Famine devastated the rural areas surrounding Crossmolina, slicing the population from 12,221 in 1841 to 7,236 by 1851. It also had drastic effects on the use of language in the area: It is estimated that over 80% of the Crossmolina area spoke the Irish Language prior to the famine.

By early 1847, the Great Famine's devastating impact in Crossmolina was widely reported in England. Reverend St. George Knox, a local Protestant clergyman, detailed the town's distress in a letter to the London Evening Standard. He noted rising provisions prices, the poor congregating for relief, and sixteen deaths in one month, with about 900 parishioners unable to buy food. Despite these conditions, Knox highlighted the population's remarkable patience and peacefulness, emphasizing "no depredations were committed", despite daily starvation deaths. An article in the London Evening Standard from January 1847 described a dire situation in the town, with inquests held for those who died suddenly, likely from diseases caused by lack of food. It reported that scores were dying daily in North Mayo from malnutrition-related illnesses, with some eating raw vegetables in desperate attempts to combat hunger. Due to the work of the local coroner and doctor (Mr Atkinson and Dr McNair), the names of some of the famine victims were recorded in the local press. The victims often moved from their homes in the countryside to beg in the town.

 * At an inquest held in the town in December 1846, local residents Michael Walsh. John Moonelly (Munnelly), Michael McGevir and Anthony Mally were found to have died from starvation.
 * James Fleming (aged 60) and Edward Fleming (aged 13) died of hunger in March 1847 in Corrrabeg, near Crossmolina.
 * Bernard Rogan died in the town in December 1846. He was part of a family from Limerick, who were denied entrance to the poor house in the city.  The family became itinerant, began begging and ended up in Crossmolina where the boy died.
 * Michael Moran also died in December 1846. During the last six weeks of his life, he and his family had been forced to beg for food.
 * Matthew Temple starved to death in the town in January 1847.
 * At an inquest held in February 1847, the deaths of Mary Minn and Patrick Gorman - both residents of Crossmolina - were recorded as deaths due to starvation. The inquest recorded a further 16 deaths of residents in the surrounding villages as due to starvation.
 * In March 1847, the body of Bridget McDermott was found dead in the town. The coroner recorded a verdict of death by starvation.

Land League
Like much of Mayo, the Land League was active in the town and the surrounding area, and several local members were arrested on account of the activities of the League. In March 1881, two Crossmolina members of the League, whose names were Cawley and Daly, were arrested under the provisions of the Coercion Act. They were escorted to Kilmainham jail under armed guard. In October 1881, the Rev. McHale - Parish Priest of Adergoole was arrested under the same Coercion Act for holding a Land League meeting in the Roman Catholic Chapel. A month later, Peter Doherty, a member of the Crossmolina branch of the league was also arrested.

The activities of the Crossmolina Land League were discussed in the House of Commons during the debate on the Protection of Persons and Property (Ireland) Bill in January 1881. Bradford MP W. E. Forster claimed that armed League members pressured local tenants into refusing rent payments beyond Griffith's Valuation amounts. They also discouraged purchases from a Crossmolina grocer, Hogan, whom Forster described as "a respectable grocer" who declined to join or support the Land League.

Crossmolina Conspiracy
In May 1883, a number of local men were arrested in what became known as the "Crossmolina Conspiracy". The arrests included Thomas Daly, Thomas Macaulay, James King, Richard Halloran, Patrick Nunelly, and Patrick Nally. They were charged with conspiracy to murder local landlords and their agents. During the search of the prisoners' houses, the police discovered two rifles, a revolver, and explosives. Patrick Nally - a member of the Supreme Council of the Irish Republican Brotherhood - was later tried, convicted, and sentenced to 10 years in prison. He died of Typhoid in prison in November 1891. One of the stands in Croke Park was named after Patrick Nally.

Crossmolina Riot
On Sunday, 28 August 1910, a riot broke out in Crossmolina when the leader of the All for Ireland League (AFIL) - William O'Brien MP - tried to hold an open-air meeting in the town center. The league was a non-sectarian nationalist political party that briefly flourished prior to the first world war. Its main objective was to form a broad coalition between the Unionist and Nationalist populations. The league was opposed by more Catholic nationalist organizations such as the Ancient Order of Hibernians (AOH) and the United Irish League.

O'Brien, anticipating conflict, arrived in town with a large police force and AFIL supporters. Confronted by locals armed with sticks and rocks, he aimed to speak at an open-air meeting on Chapel Street. Police baton-charged to clear a path, allowing O'Brien's attempt to speak. However, the Lahardane Fife and Drum band began to play, and shouting locals prevented him from being heard. Violence ensued, and during the retreat towards Ballina, O'Brien was hit on the head with a stick. A month later, Thomas Moclair was convicted for firing a gun at the event, fined 10s, and ordered to pay court costs. The event received widespread media coverage throughout the United Kingdom.

War of Independence
The Irish War of Independence was a conflict fought between the Irish Republican Army and British forces: the British Army, the Royal Irish Constabulary. There were a number of sporadic incidents during the war that occurred in Crossmolina and the surrounding areas. A company of Irish Volunteers was established in August 1917. The seven original members of the company were the brothers Martin and Patrick Loftus, Patrick Hegarty, James O’Hara, Ned O’Boyle, Ned Murphy and John Timoney.

In July 1920, Mossbrook House, a large house just outside Crossmolina was destroyed. Around the same time, four Sinn Féin activists - who were all brothers from the Hegarty family of Castlehill, Crossmolina - were arrested and escorted to Castlebar under a heavy military escort.

An RIC policeman – Constable William Kelly – was tried by court-martial for the attempted murder of a civilian in Crossmolina. On 20 December 1920 Constable Kelly was drunk when he confronted a local man and opened fire with his rifle. When he was arrested, he admitted to firing "at a bloody Sinn Feiner." He was found not guilty of attempted murder, but guilty of shooting with intent to do grievous bodily harm.

In October 1920, John O'Reilly – a resident of Crossmolina – faced a court-martial in Galway. He was accused of possessing a revolver and threatening local R.I.C. officers. He warned the officers to resign from the police force. He also threatened to burn down the local R.I.C. barracks. Subsequently, a number of officers posted to Crossmolina resigned from the force.

In Spring 1922, a company of the IRA based in Crossmolina was responsible for attacking and burning the R.I.C. Station in Bellacorick.

In February 1922, the IRA declared "martial law" in Crossmolina. The Irish Transport and General Workers Union organized a strike in Davis Bros after an Apprentice was fired. During the strike, a warehouse owned by Davis was burnt, destroying a large number of eggs awaiting shipment. A large number of cattle were maimed, belonging to a farmer who condemned the attack on Davis Bros. Ten local men were arrested in connection with attacks on property.

Irish Civil War
In September 1922, Malachy Geraghty (26) was shot and killed in the crossfire between Republicans and the Free State Army. Geraghty, a cattle dealer from Ballygar, was returning from the Crossmolina fair when he accidentally drove into a firefight in Ballina. Shortly afterwards, the National Army arrested "Brig-General" Patrick Hegarty, who was the leader of the Republicans in Crossmolina.

In October 1922, Republicans attacked the National Army Barracks in Crossmolina. After a five-hour gun battle, the Republicans were forced out of the town. In January 1923, the Barracks were again attacked by a sniper. There were no reported casualties but several private houses in the town were pierced by bullets.

On 5 January 1923, Patrick Mahon, a native of Crossmolina, was shot dead by a National Army patrol in Ballina. The patrol heard shouts of "Up Kilroy," and "Up the Bolshies". The soldiers went to investigate and apprehended Mahon, who resisted arrest. On being brought to the barracks a National Army soldier pushed Mahon in the back with his rifle and a shot went off, killing Mahon instantly. An inquest later recorded a verdict of accidental death.

Two irregulars - Nicholas Corcoran and Thomas Gill - were captured by the National Army in March 1923 in Massbrook, near Crossmolina. Corcoran was discovered with a revolver, ammunition, and explosives. A few days later, Jack Leonard was arrested in his home in Crossmolina. Leonard was the photographer who took one of the most iconic images of the War of Independence - "the Men of the West". It is the photo of the West Mayo IRA Flying Column, taken at Derrymartin on the slopes of Nephin mountain, in June 1921. It is widely regarded as the best contemporary photograph of an IRA Active Service Unit ever taken.

Second World War
On 13 March 1942, a Bristol Blenheim crashed in Killeen, Crossmolina, during a training flight from the Isle of Man. Due to wireless failure, the crew lost bearings and eventually ran low on fuel. Making an emergency landing, they overshot the landing spot, crashing through hedges and boulders. Two crew members sustained serious injuries. The less injured were repatriated to Northern Ireland the next day, while the more seriously injured were transported by ambulance a week later.

On 25 October 1942, an RAF plane from Newfoundland attempted an emergency landing in Pulladoohy, near Crossmolina, but crashed upside down, killing the pilot. The Boston Douglas light bomber, carrying three crew members, mistook a bog for a flat field. The Norwegian pilot, Captain Nils Rasmussen, received military honors at Kilmurray Cemetery. Local Defence Force members and the Irish Army assisted the survivors. Sgt Peter Frank Craske of the Royal Air Force and F/Sgt Frederick Michael Fuller of the Royal Canadian Air Force were sent to Northern Ireland shortly after.

Economic development in the 20th century
In the 1960s, the town benefitted from the construction of the Bellacorick electricity station fueled by peat. Twenty-one houses were built in Crossmolina for the station's operating staff.

21st century
A new Crossmolina Fire Station, which cost just under €2 million, was officially opened in 2023 by the Minister for Housing, Local Government and Heritage Darragh O’Brien TD. This state-of-the-art facility was the first new station constructed in County Mayo in 19 years. It included a modern two-story building and a four-story tower for training purposes.

On November 23, 2023, Uisce Éireann issued a Boil Water Notice for the Crossmolina area, affecting 1,153 consumers, due to an issue that impacted the water disinfection process. This notice required all water to be boiled before use for drinking, food preparation, brushing teeth, and making ice.

Floods
The River Deel and Crossmolina have a history of flooding. In 1926, heavy rainfall in North Mayo led to severe floods, inundating shops, homes, and roads, sweeping away livestock, potato pits, and turf stacks. In September 1945, the River Deel overflowed after a gale, severely flooding Chapel Street, where waters reached four feet, damaging shops. Another flood in February 1958 stranded children on Church Street, necessitating a rescue effort by the Garda.

Over the past few decades, the town has experienced further flood events, including occurrences in 1989, 2006, and twice in 2015. These floods caused significant damage, with three main streets in Crossmolina Town often submerged. During the most severe flood in December 2015, approximately 120 properties were affected by floodwater.

In 2021, the Office of Public Works and Mayo County Council proposed a comprehensive flood management strategy. The proposed scheme focuses on the River Deel, which flows near Crossmolina. It involves the construction of a diversion channel upstream of the town, capable of accommodating a discharge capacity of 110 cubic meters per second.

The primary objective of the diversion channel is to redirect floodwaters away from Crossmolina, channeling them towards the flood plains of Lough Conn. By doing so, the scheme aims to mitigate the risk of flooding within the town. The realization of the Crossmolina Flood Relief Scheme is contingent upon the successful conclusion of the Department for Public Expenditure and Reform's consultation process and an independent review.

Population
In the census of April 2011, Crossmolina had a population of 1,060 consisting of 535 males and 526 females. The population of pre-school age (0-4) was 62 of primary school-going age (5-12) was 88 and of secondary school-going age (13-18) was 76. There were 198 persons aged 65 years and over. The number of persons aged 18 years or over was 844.

GAA
The local Gaelic football team is Crossmolina Deel Rovers. Founded in 1887 as Crossmolina Dr. Crokes, they became Deel Rovers in 1906. The club saw major success in the early 2000s, winning the Connacht Senior Club Football Championship in 1999, 2000 and 2002, and as well as obtaining the All-Ireland Senior Club Football Championship in 2001, and were runners-up for that title in 2003.

Football
Crossmolina AFC is the town's resident football club and was founded in 1992. The club plays in the Mayo Football League system and has seen moderate success, most notably winning the Tim Hastings League 1 title in 2015.

Places of interest
St Mary's Church - Built in 1818–19, this early 19th-century Church of Ireland chapel was erected with the financial support of the Board of First Fruits. The interior of the church has a wall monument commemorating 'General Sir James Jackson C.C.B. K.H. who "served with distinction through the Peninsular War at Waterloo and India".

Lough Conn - Ireland's seventh-largest lake, is situated south of the town. It spans about 14,000 acres and is known for its abundant char population. Managed by the North-Western Regional Fisheries Board, it boasts healthy wild trout stocks and has never been stocked artificially. The Lough Conn Drive is a looped drive of approx 102 km around the lake.

Crossmolina Castle - Located across the road from St Mary's Church at the end of Church Street. In 1526, the castle was destroyed by O'Donnell, Chief of Tirconnell.

Gortnor Abbey - A large house, built by the Ormsby family in 1780. In 1916 it was converted into a convent boarding school run by the Jesus and Mary Order of nuns.

Errew Abbey - A ruined 13th-century Augustinian church that sits on a tiny peninsula on the banks of Lough Conn. Local tradition suggests that the original abbey was founded by St Tiernan, the patron saint of Crossmolina. The abbey was reduced to ruins by Cromwellian settlers.

Crossmolina Methodist Meeting House - Located on Church Street, there is the ruins of a Methodist meeting house. It was built in 1854, replacing an earlier meeting house established in 1835. The building was abandoned towards the end of the 19th century.

Saint Tiernan's Catholic Church - Built in 1859–60 on a cruciform plan, and extended in 1890–93. The church bell dates from 1907. The gothic-style altar was built in 1892.

Enniscoe House - A country house, built between 1790 and 1798, sometimes described as "the last Great House of North Mayo". The house was built for the Anglo-Irish Jackson family using stone from an old castle. In Cromwellian times, the Jacksons were granted 5,000 acres of land, which had been confiscated from the Anglo-Norman de Burgos family. At the time of the French invasion of 1798, General Humbert's men stayed at the house. It now serves as a hotel.

River Deel Pathway - A pathway runs through the town along the banks of the river. The ruins of Castle Gore and Deel Castle, dating to the 16th century, are located along the riverbank at the northern end of Lough Conn. The latter site saw construction activity continue into the 18th century with the addition of a house in 1790. However, this house suffered damage during the 1798 rebellion and was ultimately burned in the Irish Civil War of 1922-1923.

Culture
Crossmolina is the subject of "Rake Street", a poem by Harry Clifton.

Notable people

 * Peadár Gardiner, GAA
 * Dr. Michael Loftus, 28th President of the GAA
 * Sir Roger Palmer MP (1832 - 1910) - Anglo- Irish politician and British soldier. He was one of the principal land owners in North Mayo and had a residence in Keenagh, Crossmolina.
 * John O’Hart, an Irish historian and genealogist. He is noted for his work on ancient Irish lineage.
 * Seán Lowry, GAA
 * Ciarán McDonald, GAA
 * John Maughan, GAA
 * Michael Moyles, GAA
 * James Nallen, GAA
 * John Nallen, GAA
 * Marc Roberts, Musician
 * Stephen Rochford, GAA
 * Kevin Rowland, musician, lead singer of Dexy's Midnight Runners.
 * Conor Loftus, GAA
 * Tom Wood, Irish Photographer
 * Jordan Flynn, GAA

title: Crossmolina


text:
Mieszko IV Tanglefoot

Mieszko IV Tanglefoot (Mieszko IV Plątonogi) (c. 1130 – 16 May 1211) was Duke of Kraków and High Duke of Poland from 9 June 1210 until his death one year later. He was also Duke of Silesia from 1163 to 1173 (with his brother as co-ruler), Duke of Racibórz from 1173, and Duke of Opole from 1202.

His nickname "Tanglefoot" (Plątonogi) appeared in the chronicles from the 14th and 15th centuries. From Rocznik Sędziwoja, annals written in the mid-fifteenth century, the entry for the year 1192: "Cracovia civitas devastata est a Mescone loripede dicto Platonogy nepote ducis Kazimiriensis filio Wladislai exulis" (en: "The city of Kraków was devastated by Mieszko the bandy-legged, called Platonogy, nephew of Duke Casimir, son of Władysław the Exile").

Early life
Mieszko was the second son of Władysław II the Exile and Agnes of Babenberg. From 1146, after the deposition of his father, Mieszko and his family mainly lived in the town of Altenburg in Saxony, which was granted as a temporary possession to Władysław II by Agnes's half-brother King Conrad III of Germany. During his time in exile, Mieszko studied in Michaelsberg and Bamberg.

The exile for the deposed high duke turned out to be permanent; he died in Altenburg in 1159. His sons continued the fight to recover their inheritance, and finally three years later, in 1163, and thanks to the intervention of the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, Mieszko and his older brother Bolesław I the Tall returned to Silesia.

Duke of Racibórz
Mieszko and Bolesław I the Tall co-ruled the Duchy of Wrocław during the period 1163–1173. At first, their rule did not extend over the major Silesian cities, which remained under the control of Bolesław IV the Curly, then the high duke of Poland. The brothers retook them in the year 1165, taking advantage of Bolesław IV's involvement in a crusade against the Prussians.

Eventually, Mieszko began efforts to obtain his own Duchy, in part because his older brother Bolesław took all the government into his hands and left little participation for Mieszko there. In 1172, Mieszko began an open rebellion against his brother. He also supported Bolesław's eldest son, Jarosław, who was forced to become a priest thanks to the intrigues of his stepmother Christina, who wished for her sons to be the only heirs. The rebellion was a complete surprise to Bolesław, who was forced to escape to Erfurt, Germany. However, the intervention of the Emperor favored the return of Bolesław soon afterwards, but he was forced to give separate lands to both Mieszko (who received the towns of Racibórz and Cieszyn) and Jarosław (who received Opole).

Bytom and Oświęcim
In 1177 Mieszko supported his uncle and namesake Mieszko III the Old when he had to fight to maintain his rule over the Duchy of Kraków. This renewed the disputes between him and Bolesław I the Tall, who wished to obtain the Duchy and with this the Seniorate. However, Bolesław suffered an unexpected defeat by Mieszko and his own son Jarosław, who distracted him from his advance over Kraków. In his place was his younger uncle and ally, Casimir II the Just, who captured the city and was proclaimed the new High Duke of Poland. Mieszko III the Old found himself in exile in Racibórz and it seemed that a war between Mieszko Tanglefoot and Casimir II the Just was now just a matter of time. Casimir II, however, went a different route, and in order to gain the favor of the Duke of Racibórz, gave him the towns of Oświęcim and Bytom (with the fortress of Oświęcim, Bytom, Mikołów, Siewierz and Pszczyna, although some historians estimate that these fortress had belonged to Mieszko only since 1179). On the other hand, Bolesław the Tall suffered a further diminution of his authority when he was compelled to give Głogów to his youngest brother Konrad, who had recently returned from Germany and claimed his part over the Silesian inheritance.

In 1195 Mieszko and his nephew Jarosław supported Mieszko III the Old in his new attempt to recover Kraków and the Seniorate. The death of Casimir II the Just and the minority of his sons gave them the opportunity to attack and regain control over Lesser Poland. However, Kraków and the nobility of Sandomierz, led by the voivode Nicholas, had other plans and decided to support Casimir II's eldest son, Leszek the White. Both sides clashed in the bloody Battle of Mozgawa (Mozgawą) near Jędrzejów (13 September 1195), where Mieszko III was seriously injured and his son Bolesław of Kuyavia died. The Silesian troops, led by Mieszko and Jarosław, arrived to the battlefield too late, soon after Mieszko III withdrew to Kalisz. Over the forces of the Count palatine Goworek, who also arrived to help Leszek's troops, the Silesians obtained a great victory; however, because Mieszko III was not present, this victory only brought them benefits in terms of prestige and the ransoms obtained from captured Sandomierz nobles.

Duke of Opole
On 22 March 1201 Jarosław of Opole died. The Duchy of Opole was then inherited by his father Bolesław the Tall, with whom the late duke had recently reconciled. However, Bolesław died only nine months later, on 7/8 December 1201, leaving all his lands to only surviving son, Henry the Bearded.

Mieszko was determined to obtain Opole and made a surprise attack at the beginning of 1202. The Duke managed to obtain Opole, which was from then on definitively joined to his lands. Despite this victory, Mieszko wanted additional territories, but this was against the wishes of the Church, which strongly supported Henry I the Bearded. Thanks to the intervention of Henryk Kietlicz, Archbishop of Gniezno, and Cyprian, Bishop of Wroclaw, Henry I maintained his frontiers, but he had to pay 1000 pieces of silver to his supporters.

High Duke of Poland
On 9 June 1210, a papal bull was decreed by Pope Innocent III, under which all of the seniorate rulers (included High Duke Leszek the White) were deposed and excommunicated. The bull demanded that the Piast princes adhere to the testament of Bolesław III Wrymouth, which proposed that the most senior of the Piast dukes is the ruler in the seniorate. Strangely, in the bull an unnamed duke of Silesia (who was assumed to be Henry the Bearded, because he actually used that title) was exempted from the ban. The country was full of consternation, because nobody knew who had real power.

Archbishop Henryk Ketlicz decided to call the Synod of Borzykowa, where he tried to find a solution to this delicate issue. At the convention, in addition to the hierarchy of the Church, Henry I the Bearded and the other junior dukes attended. Leszek the White, wanting to ensure the support of the Church, along with other Piast princes, then gave a great privilege, which ensured the integrity of territorial possession of the bishops (the privilege was not signed by Henry I and Władysław III Spindleshanks, but they did comply with the provisions established there). Mieszko, however, was not present in Borzykowa; with the support of the Gryfici family, he decided to lead his army and march into Kraków, where the confusion among the citizens left him in total control over the capital without fighting. This was the zenith of Mieszko's career, as he died less than one year later, on 16 May 1211. According to Jan Długosz, he was probably buried in the Cathedral of Kraków (Wawel Cathedral). Only after Mieszko's death could Leszek the White return to Kraków without major difficulties.

Marriage and issue
By 1178, Mieszko married Ludmila (died after 20 October 1210), whose origins are unknown. Her name indicates that she may have a Bohemian origin, probably a member of the Přemyslid dynasty. According to the majority of historians, she could be the daughter of Otto III Detleb, Duke of Olomouc, by his wife Durantia. There are also minority hypotheses that put her as a daughter of Duke Soběslav I of Bohemia; Konrad II, Duke of Znojmo; or Vladimir, Duke of Olomouc, son of Otto III Detleb (who would be her brother according to the majority opinion).

Mieszko and Ludmila had five children:
 * 1) Casimir I (b. ca. 1179/80 – d. 13 May 1230).
 * 2) Ludmilla (d. 24 January aft. 1200).
 * 3) Agnes (d. 9 May aft. 1200).
 * 4) Euphrosyne (d. 25 May aft. 1200).
 * 5) Ryksa (d. aft. 24 September 1239).

title: Mieszko IV Tanglefoot


text: File:Italian Invasion British Somaliland.JPG


text:
Mussau-Emira language

The Mussau-Emira language is spoken on the islands of Mussau and Emirau in the St Matthias Islands in the Bismarck Archipelago.

Consonants
Mussau-Emira distinguishes the following consonants.

 * Fricative sounds may also be heard as voiced stop sounds  in word-initial position and when geminated.

Stress
In most words the primary stress falls on the penultimate vowel and secondary stresses fall on every second syllable preceding that. This is true of suffixed forms as well, as in níma 'hand', nimá-gi 'my hand'; níu 'coconut', niúna 'its coconut'.

Subject prefixes
Prefixes mark the subjects of each verb:
 * (agi) a-namanama 'I'm eating'
 * (io) u-namanama 'you're (sing.) eating'
 * (ia) e-namanama 'he's/she's eating'

Numbers

 * 1) kateva
 * 2) galua
 * 3) kotolu
 * 4) gaata
 * 5) galima
 * 6) gaonomo
 * 7) gaitu
 * 8) gaoalu
 * 9) kasio
 * 10) kasaŋaulu

title: Mussau-Emira language


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Contemporary classical

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was merge with Contemporary classical music --cesarb 08:48, 22 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Contemporary classical
Another imaginary music genre, this time 21st-century classical music. Googling the phrase "contemporary classical" would be useless, however.—Wahoofive (talk) 00:15, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Comment. "Contemporary classical music" gets 39,800 hits... why, exactly, is googling useless in this situation? -- BD2412 talk 01:33, 2005 Jun 11 (UTC)
 * Merge with Contemporary classical music, per votes below. -- BD2412 talk 13:34, 2005 Jun 11 (UTC)
 * Question: How is 21st-century classical music imaginary? Double Blue  (Talk) 01:41, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep --- I'm guessing that Wahoofive thinks that a large number of hits is meaningless because both "contemporary" and "classical" are common words. However. If you search as a phrase, you still get over 100,000 hits, and many seem to describe a genre. Also if you Google for the individual composers described in the article, you will find hundreds of articles for each one describing them as "contemporary classical". Isaac R 01:54, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Just because you don't listen to it doesn't mean it's imaginary... (comment by Matjlav at 02:02, 11 Jun 2005)
 * Please don't make personal attacks. For your information, I'm a music professional and am very familiar with all the composers mentioned in the article. They just don't have anything in common other than being alive in the 21st century.—Wahoofive (talk) 15:41, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * P.S. the merge to Contemporary classical music, mentioned below, seems reasonable.—Wahoofive (talk) 15:41, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Strong Keep (vote changed to Merge) - I fail to understand your reasoning that googling is useless. Google "Contemporary classical". -- Barfooz  (talk)  02:56, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Strong delete: The reason the Google test is irrelevant is that "contemporary" as an adjective applied to "Classical" as an adjective is going to generation bazillions of hits for "contemporary recording of classical music" and "contemporary classical recording," etc.  I.e. it's not going to reveal a genre.  So that's that.  As for the reason for deletion, the term is an oxymoron.  See Classical music:  the term refers to a particular type of serious music, not all serious music.  I.e. there is Romantic music, Baroque music, Classical music, minimalist music, serialist music, abstract music, etc., all of which are called, by people who don't study music, "classical music."  So, is there a neo-Classicism movement underway right now that is a genre?  If so, it has entirely escaped the notice of the music press. Geogre 03:35, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Comment
 * http://contemporary-classical.com/
 * Google: "contemporary classical" + genre
 * Also, if you look at the google search for "contemporary classical" you will see that the word after "contemporary classical" is almost without fail "music" or some adjective that modifies "music". The point I'm trying to make is that this is a genre. Also, I don't think that most people know that there's a difference between "romantic", "baroque" and "classical", and they group them all under "classical" - that seems to be what's going on with this term: if symphonic instruments are used in music, we call it "classical" -- Barfooz   (talk)  04:22, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * Delete - Adding an adjective to a noun does not always result in an actual subject. Vonspringer 03:54, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Strong Keep Change to Merge with contemporary classical music and redirect. I am sympathetic to the valid point that this label is oxymoronic; however, it has currency among many fans, including me, and this shown by Google. I suspect, perhaps, that we imprecise Americans use a term that is vexing to those who love accuracy.  Nevertheless, the term is widely used. Xoloz 04:04, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge with Contemporary classical music - I'm not sure if a comment is necessary. -Acjelen 04:27, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Or Merge with 20th century classical music (even though we are now in the 21st century, many of the same composers are covered in this article). It seems we are getting a lot of articles covering the same ground in different ways.  This is probably not really a VfD issue but calls for someone who knows what they are doing to be BOLD.  DS1953 04:49, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge with Contemporary classical music which covers music in the past 50 years. 20th century classical music obviously covers all of the 20th century. 21st century classical music redirects to the contemporary classical music article. Capitalistroadster 04:52, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge with Contemporary classical music and add redirect. JamesBurns 05:20, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge as per User:Capitalistroadster. Double Blue  (Talk) 13:31, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge with Contemporary classical music. --Angr/undefined 23:24, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge with Contemporary classical music and add redirect. --Idont Havaname 18:40, 12 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages.  Please do not edit this page .


text:
Emira

Emira may refer to:

 * Emira (name), an alternate spelling of the name "Amira"
 * Emira Island, an island in Papua New Guinea
 * Lotus Emira, a British sportscar
 * Emira D'Spain, Emirati-American model

title: Emira


text:
Troubadour: The Definitive Collection 1964–1976

Troubadour: The Definitive Collection 1964–1976 is the first CD boxed set from Scottish singer-songwriter Donovan, released in the US (Epic/Legacy E2K 46986) on 4 August 1992. It was originally released as a two CD set in a long box. The long box also contained a picture booklet. In 1995, it was released again without the long box and picture booklet.

History
By the early 1990s, CDs were fast becoming the standard format for music. This provided a challenge for artists such as Donovan, whose entire catalog had been issued on vinyl. To rectify the situation, many record companies released CD boxed sets. These boxed sets allowed a more in depth overview than traditional greatest hits or best of compilations. Like greatest hits and best of collections, many of the boxed sets also included rare or previously unreleased recordings as a purchasing incentive for fans who may already have earlier albums.

In a mutually beneficial move for both record company and artist, Epic Records released Troubadour – The Definitive Collection 1964–1976 in 1992. The two disc boxed set features almost all of Donovan's charting singles, many album tracks, and several rare and unreleased tracks. Troubadour – The Definitive Collection 1964–1976 helped put Donovan back in the minds of his older fans, and helped acquaint more recent generations with his music.

The Great Donovan

On 25 November 2003, Australian record label Rajon Records (Rajon 50198) released the compilation under the title The Great Donovan spread out over three discs. This collection omits the "Riki Tiki Tavi" outtake included on Troubadour: The Definitive Collection 1964–1976.


text: File:JimmyEatWorldSingles.jpg

title: File:JimmyEatWorldSingles.jpg


text:
Singles (Jimmy Eat World album)

Singles is a compilation album of previously unreleased songs and B-sides by Jimmy Eat World. After being planned for release in July 2000, it was eventually released on August 8, 2000. After leaving Capitol Records, the compilation was released as a means of self-funding the recording sessions for their next album Bleed American.

Artwork
The photo of a marquee featured prominently on the cover was taken at the Fox Theatre in Boulder, Colorado. It also features a photo of the Capitol Records Building in Hollywood, the headquarters of the band's former label.

Track listing
All songs written by Jimmy Eat World except Track 5 written by The Wedding Present. The band also intended to include their cover of Duran Duran's song "New Religion", which originally appeared on a tribute album, but were denied permission by the record label that originally released it. Jim Adkins' original liner notes refer to the song "Better Than Oh" (from the Jimmy Eat World / Emery split 7-inch), but it is not included on the U.S. release.

 * Additional versions

Personnel

 * Jim Adkins – guitar, lead vocals (3–5, 8, 9, 11), co-lead vocals (6)
 * Rick Burch – bass
 * Zach Lind – drums
 * Tom Linton – guitar, lead vocals (1, 2, 10), co-lead vocals (6)
 * Various tracks engineered by John Agnello, Larry Elyea, Mark Trombino and Steve Revitte

title: Singles (Jimmy Eat World album)


text:
Talk:Majestic (video game)

The change from "All the messages were automated, which limited dialogue options" to "All the messages were automated, with limited dialogue options" -- was it made because the original text was perceived as a typo/grammatical error? Or was the intent to modify the meaning? --Jay (Histrion) 00:19, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)

I think the article meant to say "All the messages were automated, so dialouge options were limited." ShadowMan1od

What is the evidence for: "One of the documents from the game led to a short FBI investigation"? The FBI documents in the provided link are from 1988/91, which is at least 10 years before the game was produced (?).

Anim-X
Should the 'developer' of this game really list Anim-X, given that we know it's a fictional company? Shouldn't it be EA, as stated on the Anim-X page itself? Melissa Della 09:08, 8 May 2007 (UTC)

Source

 * https://web.archive.org/web/20020208122313/https://money.cnn.com/2001/12/19/technology/column_gaming/
 * https://web.archive.org/web/20010522014007/http://interactfiction.miningco.com/games/interactfiction/library/news/bl040401b.htm
 * https://web.archive.org/web/20010610201803/http://www.majestic.ea.com/editorial/behind_009.html
 * https://web.archive.org/web/20031206045047/http://www.gamespy.com/articles/november00/majesticevent/
 * https://web.archive.org/web/20031205123103/http://www.gamespy.com/articles/august01/majestichumor/
 * https://web.archive.org/web/20010913011012/http://ciberpais.elpais.es/d/20010510/ocio/portada.htm
 * https://archive.org/details/pcgamer200112/page/n149

title: Talk:Majestic (video game)


text:
Jacob M. Dickinson

Jacob McGavock Dickinson (January 30, 1851 – December 13, 1928) was United States Secretary of War under President William Howard Taft from 1909 to 1911. He was succeeded by Henry L. Stimson. He was an attorney, politician, and businessman in Nashville, Tennessee, where he also taught at Nashville University. He came to have a national role after moving to Chicago, Illinois, in 1899.

Early life
Jacob McGavock Dickinson was born on January 30, 1851, in Columbus, Mississippi. His father, Henry Dickinson, served as a chancery judge in Mississippi from 1843 to 1854. His mother was Anne McGavock. His maternal great-grandfather was Felix Grundy.

During the American Civil War of 1861–1865, Dickinson enlisted at fourteen as a private in the Confederate States Army. Dickinson moved with his family to Nashville, Tennessee, where he graduated from the University of Nashville in 1871, and received his master's degree in 1872. While in college, he was a member of Sigma Alpha Epsilon. He studied law briefly at Columbia Law School and continued his studies abroad in Leipzig and Paris. He spoke German. He was admitted to the Tennessee bar in 1874.

Career
Dickinson built his law practice. From 1889 to 1893, Dickinson served as president of the Tennessee Bar Association. He served on the Tennessee Supreme Court from 1891 to 1893. He served as Assistant Attorney General of the United States from 1895 to 1897. From 1897 to 1899, he was a Professor of Law at the Vanderbilt University Law School and an attorney for the Louisville & Nashville Railroad.

In 1899 Dickinson moved to Chicago, Illinois. He became general solicitor for the Illinois Central Railroad, a position he held from 1899 to 1901. Dickinson later became general counsel for that railroad, a position he held from 1901 to 1909. He was a counsel for the Alaskan Boundary Tribunal in 1903, and was president of the American Bar Association from 1907 to 1908. Dickinson helped organize the American Society of International Law, served on its executive council from 1907 to 1910, and was its vice president in 1910.

From March 12, 1909, to May 21, 1911, Dickinson served as United States Secretary of War. Despite being a Democrat, he was appointed as Secretary of War by Republican President William Howard Taft because the President wanted the South to be represented in his Cabinet. During Dickinson's tenure, he proposed legislation to permit the admission of foreign students to West Point, and recommended an annuity retirement system for civil service employees. He also suggested that Congress consider stopping the pay of soldiers rendered unfit for duty because of venereal disease or alcoholism as a means of combatting those problems.

After his tenure as Secretary of War, Dickinson served as a special assistant attorney general and helped to prosecute U.S. Steel in 1913. He also acted in several important labor cases in 1922. He later was receiver of the Rock Island Lines from 1915 to 1917 and was president of the Izaak Walton League from 1927 until 1928.

Personal life
Dickinson married Martha Overton in 1876. They resided at 1808–1810 Connecticut Avenue in Washington, D.C.

Death
Dickinson died in 1928 in Nashville, Tennessee.

title: Jacob M. Dickinson


text:
Norman W. Walker

Norman Wardhaugh Walker (4 January 1886, Genoa, Italy – 6 June 1985, Cottonwood, Arizona ) was a British businessman and pioneer in the field of vegetable juicing and nutritional health. He advocated the drinking of fresh raw vegetable and fruit juices for health. Based on his design, the Norwalk Hydraulic Press Juicer was developed. This juicer was produced until its manufacturer, Norwalk, Inc., located in Bentonville, Arkansas, ceased operations in October 2021. Walker was the author of at least 11 books on nutrition and healthy living, published from 1936 to 1981.

As of 2006, many book reviews and promotional websites wrongly claim that Walker reached the age of, variously, 109, 113, 116, 118 or 119 years. Several official sources, including  the US Social Security Death Index and a grave marker all indicate that he actually lived to be 99 years of age.

Biography
Walker was born in Genoa, Liguria, Italy on 4 January 1886 to Robert Walker, a Baptist minister from Scotland, and Lydia Maw Walker. He was the second of the six children of Rev. and Mrs. Walker that lived to adulthood. As a young man, he discovered the value of vegetable juices while recovering from a breakdown in a peasant house in the French countryside. Watching a woman in the kitchen peel carrots, he noticed the moistness on the underside of the peel. He decided to grind them, and had his first cup of carrot juice.

Walker followed his parents and siblings to the United States, leaving England in 1910 on the S.S. Lusitania, and arriving in New York City in October of that year, where Walker worked at various occupations (although he gave his occupation as "painter" in his immigration interview). Although Walker has never shown up in any publicly released Federal Censuses, he and wife Margaret were enumerated in both the interim New York State Censuses of 1915 and 1925, where his birthplace was stated as "Italy" and occupations given for him as "janitor" and "real estate", respectively.

Norman W. Walker married Margaret Bruce Olcott, a New Yorker, on 11 June 1913 in New York City [New York State Marriage Index (on-line), Marriage Certificate No.13485]. Margaret Walker died in New York City in November 1970 (NY Times obituary and Social Security Death Index). It is not known when and where Norman and Margaret divorced, but the 18 January 1943 issue of the Reno (NV) Evening Gazette reported a Marriage Application for Norman W. Walker of San Francisco and Helen Ruth Kerby of Carson City. There is no indication Walker had children from either marriage.

On 22 November 1918, Walker was granted US citizenship by the New York State Court.

On 6 May 1933, The New York Times reported that "An indeterminate penitentiary term of not more than three years was imposed by Judge Allen in General Sessions yesterday on Norman Walker, 47 years old...." This was the fifth NY Times article in this matter, commencing in 1932. The original charges involved advertisements placed in the New York Times by Walker, as managing director for The Broughton Institute of Ortho-Dietetics in NY City, wherein he allegedly promised employment with this school following completion of a six-weeks course. Neither employment nor requested return of the $150 tuition followed. According to a Probation Officer testifying at the Walker trial, 30 graduated students lost a total of $4,500 (approximately $80,000 in 2015 dollars per CPI calculation). It is currently unknown how much incarceration time, if any, Walker actually served.

Later, Walker moved to Long Beach, California. With a medical doctor, he opened a juice bar and offered home delivery service. By 1930, they had devised dozens of fresh juice formulas for specific conditions. Walker believed colon cleansing with fresh juices was the key to good health. Believing hand juicers to be insufficient, Walker designed his own mechanical juicer, the Norwalk, in two parts – a grinder to slowly grind the vegetables and a press to extract the juice. When the San Francisco health department banned unpasteurised vegetable juices such as Walker's, he began manufacturing his juice machine in Anaheim, California. He kept the plant going in spite of the steel shortage during World War II.

In the late 1940s, he moved to St. George, Utah, where he found an old cotton mill, ideal for his juice plant, but he was again suppressed by local health department regulations. He sold his share of the factory to his business partner and started publication of his own health magazine, The New Health Movement Review. For several years, Walker ran a health ranch in Arizona. Eventually, he gave up the ranch and devoted himself entirely to writing.

Walker observed a raw food diet, with fresh raw juices, until his death. Although claims have been made that he was both physically and mentally healthy and active up to the day of his death when he peacefully died during his sleep one night at his home in Cottonwood, Yavapai County, Arizona, no "official" evidence of such claims, such as an Arizona death certificate, have, so far, ever publicly surfaced.

Nutritional views
Walker advocated a diet based solely on raw and fresh foods like vegetables, fruits, nuts and seeds. He considered cooked or baked food dead, and therefore unhealthful, saying that "while such food can, and does, sustain life in the human system, it does so at the expense of progressively degenerating health, energy, and vitality." His attitude to frozen foods, however, was an accepting one, as he did not believe low-temperatures would kill enzymes. He did not recommend eating meat, dairy products with the exception of raw goat milk, fish or eggs. However, some of his recipes include egg yolks, unpasteurized cottage cheese and Swiss cheese, as well as raw cream. His diet suggestions avoided such staple foods as bread, pasta and rice, and sugar.

Walker devoted large sections of many of his books to the description of the different organs of the human body, explaining how the digestive system and the various glands work. He considered a healthy colon the key to one's health. He estimated that 80% of all disease begins in the colon. He wrote: "Every organ, gland, and cell in the body is affected by the condition of the colon."

Walker believed that the affliction underlying almost every ailment is constipation, stating that constipation is "the primary cause of nearly every disturbance of the human system." This was, in his view, because the blood vessels lining the colon collect nutrients missed by the small intestine. In his book, Pure and Simple Natural Weight Control, Walker stated: "If the feces in the colon have putrefied and fermented, any nutritional elements present in it would pass into the bloodstream as polluted products. What would otherwise be nutritional instead generates toxemia, a condition in which the blood contains poisonous products which are produced by the growth of pathogenic or disease-producing bacteria." Pimples can be an indication of the presence of toxaemia. Walker maintained that the Standard American Diet causes the colon to be filled with toxins that strain the eliminative channels and, ultimately, the immune system.

Walker believed that dairy products especially had a deleterious effect on human health. He testified to the disappearance of many ailments upon the exclusion of dairy products. He explained that pathogenic organisms find an ideal breeding ground in the excess mucus that dairy products generate. He cited the following diseases as being aggravated or caused by mucus conditions in which dairy products are the major offender: undulant fever, colds, flu, bronchial troubles, tuberculosis, asthma, hay fever, sinus trouble, pneumonia, and certain types of arthritis.

His writings reflect a wide interest in different aspects of health and nutrition; besides authoring eight books, he also produced three wall charts. Walker's work influenced later juice advocates such as Jason Vale in the UK, otherwise known as The Juice Master, and Jay Kordich, who popularised "juicing" in the United States with extensive television advertising in the 1990s.

Controversial academic title claims
Several of Walker's books mention him having a DSc degree and the title page of his book Colon Health even mentions him as having a PhD as well. However, no mention is made as to where and when he actually earned or was awarded these academic titles.

Works

 * Raw Vegetable Juices: What's Missing in Your Body? (1936) A revision of this book was published in 1978 under the title Fresh Vegetable and Fruit Juices: What's Missing in Your Body?
 * Diet & Salad Suggestions, for use in connection with vegetable and fruit juices (1940, revised and enlarged edition 1947) Another revision of this book was published in 1971 under the title The Vegetarian Guide to Diet and Salad
 * Become Younger (1949)
 * Your Fountain of Health --- Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Juices (1951) 43 page paperback; minor work compared with the others listed here
 * Alive Today because... (1951) 32 page paperback; minor work compared with the others listed here
 * Are You Slipping? (1961)
 * The Natural Way to Vibrant Health (1972)
 * Water Can Undermine Your Health (1974)
 * Back to the Land ... for Self Preservation: a freedom, life-style, and nutritional commentary (1977)
 * Colon Health: the Key to a Vibrant Life (1979)
 * Pure & Simple Natural Weight Control (1981)
 * Wall charts: Endocrine Chart – Foot Relaxation Chart –  Colon Therapy Chart

title: Norman W. Walker


text:
Frank Harris Hitchcock

Frank Harris Hitchcock (October 5, 1867 – August 5, 1935), was chairman of Republican National Committee from 1908 to 1909. He was then Postmaster General of the United States under President William Howard Taft from 1909 to 1913.

Biography
Frank Harris Hitchcock was born in Amherst, Ohio on October 5, 1867.

According to historian David Leighton, "He graduated from Harvard in 1891 and the George Washington University Law School in 1894. During his time at Harvard he met Theodore Roosevelt at the Audubon Society, both sharing a passion for the study of birds. Hitchcock credited Roosevelt for his success at the national level: From 1897 to 1905 Hitchcock served in the departments of Agriculture and Commerce. From 1905-08, he was assistant postmaster general."

He is credited with establishing the first U.S. airmail service. As Postmaster General, he made prosecution of mail fraud a top priority, and led a major crackdown on people using the mails to sell shares in worthless companies. He's also credited with starting the US Postal Service's Operation Santa in 1912, instructing local postmasters to let workers and citizens respond to Santa letters that were popping up in post offices.

Hitchcock managed the campaign to nominate Taft for the presidency at the 1908 Republican Convention. Hitchcock's subsequent role as Postmaster General made him the main dispenser of patronage jobs for the Taft administration, giving him control over many delegates at the 1912 Republican Convention and prompting anxieties on the part of Taft and others over rumors that Hitchcock might support Roosevelt that year.

Hitchcock moved to Arizona in 1928 where he invested in mining and was an owner of the Tucson Citizen. He advocated the creation of Catalina Highway and Saguaro National Monument. Frank Harris Hitchcock died in Tucson, Arizona on August 5, 1935.

title: Frank Harris Hitchcock


text:
Walter L. Fisher

Walter Lowrie Fisher (July 4, 1862 – November 9, 1935) was United States Secretary of the Interior under President William Howard Taft from 1911 to 1913.

Fisher was born July 4, 1862, in Wheeling, Virginia, to Daniel Webster Fisher (1838 – 1913), a Presbyterian minister, and his wife Amanda D. Kouns († 1911). Educated at Hanover College in Indiana from which he graduated in 1883. While at Hanover, he was initiated into the Chi Chapter of the Sigma Chi fraternity. In 1890, he was elected as the fifth Grand Consul (the National President) of the Sigma Chi Fraternity, a position he held until 1892. He married Mabel Taylor on April 22, 1891, and they had five sons and two daughters.

In 1906, he was appointed by Chicago mayor Edward Fitzsimmons Dunne to serve as Special Traction Counsel, a role in which he would assist the mayor in addressing the city's traction issue. He resigned the following year after Dunne rejected his advice to accept the Settlement Ordinances that had passed in the Chicago City Council.

His papers, covering his professional and political careers and containing 14,000 items, are in the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

Fisher had a brother, Dr. Howard Lowrie Fisher, who established a hospital for war victims in France during World War I. He survived the sinking of the RMS Lusitania in 1915 by jumping off the ship.

Dr. Fisher died November 9, 1935, in Winnetka, Illinois.

title: Walter L. Fisher


text: User talk:71.104.191.41

title: User talk:71.104.191.41