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Regenerative cooling (rocketry)

In rocket engine design, regenerative cooling is a configuration in which some or all of the propellant is passed through tubes, channels, or in a jacket around the combustion chamber or nozzle to cool the engine. This is effective because the propellants are often cryogenic. The heated propellant is then fed into a special gas-generator or injected directly into the main combustion chamber.

History
In 1857 Carl Wilhelm Siemens introduced the concept of regenerative cooling. On 10 May 1898, James Dewar used regenerative cooling to become the first to statically liquefy hydrogen. The concept of regenerative cooling was also mentioned in 1903 in an article by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky. Robert Goddard built the first regeneratively cooled engine in 1923, but rejected the scheme as too complex. A regeneratively cooled engine was built by the Italian researcher, Gaetano Arturo Crocco in 1930. The first Soviet engines to employ the technique were Fridrikh Tsander's OR-2 tested in March 1933 and the ORM-50, bench tested in November 1933 by Valentin Glushko. The first German engine of this type was also tested in March 1933 by Klaus Riedel in the VfR. The Austrian scientist Eugen Sänger was particularly famous for experiments with engine cooling starting in 1933; however, most of his experimental engines were water-cooled or cooled by an extra circuit of propellant.

The V-2 rocket engine, the most powerful of its time at 25 tons (245 kN) of thrust, was regeneratively cooled, in a design by Walter Thiel, by fuel pumped around the outside of the combustion chamber between the combustion chamber itself and an outer shell that conformed to the chamber and was separated by a few millimeters. This design was found to be insufficient to cool the combustion chamber due to the use of steel for the combustion chamber, and an additional system of fuel lines were added outside with connections through both combustion chamber shells to inject fuel directly into the chamber at an angle along the inner surface to further cool the chamber in a system called film cooling. This inefficient design required the burning of diluted alcohol at low chamber pressure to avoid melting the engine. The American Redstone engine used the same design.

A key innovation in regenerative cooling was the Soviet U-1250 engine designed by Aleksei Mihailovich Isaev in 1945. Its combustion chamber was lined with a thin copper sheet supported by the corrugated steel wall of the chamber. Fuel flowed through the corrugations and absorbed heat very efficiently. This permitted more energetic fuels and higher chamber pressures, and is the basic plan used in all Russian engines since. American engines usually solved this problem by lining the combustion chamber with brazed copper or nickel alloy tubes. Only recently engines like the RS-68 have started to use the cheaper Russian technique. The American style of lining the engine with copper tubes is called the "spaghetti construction", and the concept is credited to Edward A. Neu at Reaction Motors Inc. in 1947.

Mechanism
Regenerative cooling remains the predominant method for managing the thermal loads in thrust chambers. Typically the rocket fuel acts as a coolant as it enters the engine through passages at the nozzle exit. It traverses the high-heat throat region and exits near the injector face. These passages are created either by brazing cooling tubes to the thrust chamber or by milling channels along the chamber walls. The cross-sections of these passages are smaller, increasing the coolant velocity and maximizing cooling efficiency in high-heat areas.

Heat flow and temperature
The heat flux through the chamber wall is very high; usually in the range of 0.8–80 MW/m$2$ (0.5-50 BTU/in$2$-sec). A common method for estimating the heat flux flowing out from the hot combustion gases is to use the Bartz equation: $$h_g = \frac{0.026}{D_{*}^{0.2}} \left( \frac{\mu^{0.2}c_p} {Pr^{0.6}}\right)  \left( \frac{p_c}{c^{*}}\right)^{0.8}   \left(\frac{D_{*}}{r_c} \right)^{0.1} \left( \frac{A_t}{A} \right)^{0.9}\sigma $$ $$ is the heat transfer coefficient from the hot combustion gas to the chamber/nozzle interior wall (W/m²/K) $$ is the diameter of the chamber throat (m) $$ is the dynamic viscosity of the combustion gas (Pa s) $$ is the specific heat capacity of the combustion gas (J/kg/K) $$ is the Prandtl number of the combustion gas $$ is the chamber pressure (Pa) $$ is the radius of curvature of the throat wall (m) $$ is the cross sectional area of the chamber throat (m2) $$ is the cross sectional area of the chamber/nozzle at the point of interest (m2)
 * $$h_g
 * $$D_*
 * $$\mu
 * $$c_p
 * $$Pr
 * $$p_c
 * is the characteristic velocity of the combustion reaction (m/s)
 * $$r_c
 * $$A_t
 * $$A

$$ is a dimensionless parameter accounting for variation of gas properties across the boundary layer: $$\sigma = \frac{1} {\left(\frac{1}{2}\frac{T_w}{T_c}(1+\frac{\gamma-1}{2}M^{2})+\frac{1}{2}\right)^{0.8-\omega/5} \left(1+\frac{\gamma-1}{2}M^{2}\right)^{\omega/5}}$$ $$ is the temperature of the chamber/nozzle interior wall (K) $$ is the chamber temperature (K) $$ is the ratio of specific heats of the combustion gas $$ is the Mach number of the combustion gas at the point of interest
 * $$\sigma
 * $$T_w
 * $$T_c
 * $$\gamma
 * $$M
 * $$\omega$$ is the exponent of a viscosity-temperature power law for the combustion gas. A common estimation is 0.6. See temperature dependence of viscosity.

The amount of heat that can flow into the coolant is controlled by many factors including the temperature difference between the chamber and the coolant, the heat transfer coefficient, the thermal conductivity of the chamber wall, the velocity of the fluid inside the coolant channels, the velocity of the gas flow in the chamber/nozzle as well as the heat capacity and incoming temperature of the fluid used as a coolant.

Two boundary layers form: one in the hot gas in the chamber (which is modeled with the Bartz equation above) and the other in the coolant within the channels.

Very typically most of the temperature drop occurs in the gas boundary layer since gases are relatively poor conductors. This boundary layer can be destroyed however by combustion instabilities, and wall failure can follow very soon afterwards.

The boundary layer within the coolant channels can also be disrupted if the coolant is at subcritical pressure and film boils; the gas then forms an insulating layer and the wall temperature climbs very rapidly and soon fails. However, if the coolant engages in nucleate boiling but does not form a film, this helps disrupt the coolant boundary layer and the gas bubbles formed rapidly collapse; this can triple the maximum heat flow. However, many modern engines with turbopumps use supercritical coolants, and these techniques can be seldom used.

Regenerative cooling is seldom used in isolation; film cooling, transpiration cooling, radiation cooling are frequently employed as well.

Mechanical considerations
With regenerative cooling, the pressure in the cooling channels is greater than the chamber pressure. The inner liner is under compression, while the outer wall of the engine is under significant hoop stresses.

The metal of the inner liner is greatly weakened by the high temperature, and also undergoes significant thermal expansion at the inner surface while the cold-side wall of the liner constrains the expansion. This sets up significant thermal stresses that can cause the inner surface to crack or craze after multiple firings particularly at the throat.

In addition the thin inner liner requires mechanical support to withstand the compressive loading due to the propellant's pressure; this support is usually provided by the side walls of the cooling channels and the backing plate. The inner liner is usually constructed of relatively high temperature, high thermal conductivity materials; traditionally copper or nickel based alloys have been used.

Several different manufacturing techniques can be used to create the complex geometry necessary for regenerative cooling. These include a corrugated metal sheet brazed between the inner and outer liner; hundreds of pipes brazed into the correct shape, or an inner liner with milled cooling channels and an outer liner around that. The geometry can also be created through direct metal 3D printing, as seen on some newer designs such as the SpaceX SuperDraco rocket engine.

title: Regenerative cooling (rocketry)


text:
Talk:Birmingham/Archive 5

Article is very long
I think this article is getting rather long and out of control, it seems to grown enormously since I last saw it. Perhaps the culture section and some other parts, should be moved into a seperate article perhaps?, as that seems to take up more than half of it. Having read through it, It seems somewhat perverse that history and government sections are relegated to sub-pages, whilst culture is not. I shall return to see what has happened in a week or so. Gem 20:42, 12 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Culture is what makes Brum unique from any where else in the world Gem, Government, travel etc is important also but it doesn't really give a feel for the city, the transport infrastructure and council will shift like sand but culture is there always, from inventions to musicians and it should stay on the main page. It gives the city identity. After having said that i do agree that some sections could be shortened with their own pages, please discuss here before doing anything drastic. :) Nick Boulevard 00:07, 13 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * The info from Birmingham at War section rightly belongs in the History of Birmingham article. It would expand a fairly short section on the war there whilst reducing the main article considerably and avoiding duplication. The 'nearby places' section seems to be unnecessary especially as the page already contains links to surrounding areas in the 'Districts of England - West Midlands' template at the bottom of the page. Valiantis 21:09, 13 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Well for a start i agree that the West Mids template could go but the Brum at War is a massive part of the city's history and should definately stay, it is a much shortened version of the war history main page... I would say that if you or anyone else were to update the history article then I would be all for it. Nick Boulevard 23:46, 13 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * I'd missed the specific link to the Birmingham military history article - in which case that is the proper place for the info in the Birmingham at War section - currently it just seems to duplicate. The Birmingham at War section could be reduced to at most a couple of paragraphs. Personally, I'd suggest not having a seperate section but just linking to the detailed B'ham military history article from the existing History overview section and also cross-linking the History of Birmingham with the Military History article. Valiantis 00:52, 14 Mar 2005 (UTC)

mmm... that's an interesting point about mixing it into the history run down, then again i think the D-notice and Gun quarter aspects are quite important to the main page, military history has played a huge part in the evolution of the city. I am sure we can compromise, personally i would like it to stay but maybe watered down a little (seeing as i wrote it), I've tried lobbing bits off already. Nick Boulevard 18:48, 14 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * I think the nearby places should probably stay as it doesn't take up much space. I agree with Valaintis about the Millitary history. Also I think that the inventors section is somewhat specialist, and doesn't really belong on the main page, it probably should be put into its own article. I also agree with Gem that something about transport and government should be put on the main article. G-Man 22:10, 14 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Ideally each existing topic could have a short section on the main page (say 2 to 4 paragraphs) with a link to a separate page with a more in-depth article - I think there is sufficient scope to do this for each of the existing sections (and thus add back in brief Transport and Government sections to the main page). The Wales page is an example of this format (though the page itself is a bit of a mess at the moment). The Popular Music sub-section could probably stand to be a section in its own right with a linked in-depth article. To my mind Birmingham's history of invention and industry is central to the character of the city and the Inventors section should stay on the main page (at least as a summary section linked to a separate in-depth article). It might be worth renaming it 'Science and Industry'. Still don't see the point of the Nearby Places, regardless of its size. Valiantis 18:14, 15 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * OK, I posted the above over a week ago and no-one has objected in principle to what I'm proposing. I'm therefore about to create subject-specific articles for each of the sections of this article that do not already have them and include a link at the head of each section. The initial text of each subject-specific article will be a cut-and-paste from the existing section, therefore none of the current text will be lost. The aim then will be to re-write each section to highlight the most salient points and give a broad-brush overview - obviously this will hopefully be a collaborative effort. Why does this need to be done? 1) The article now clocks in at 55KB which is about 60% longer than the guidelines recommend. 2) Because of the length (and the lack of organisation of some sections) it is hard for the reader who is not already knowledgeable about the city to sort out the essential (e.g. Birmingham's major role in the industrial revolution) from the illustrative and interesting but trivial (e.g Birmingham's major role in the invention of Brylcreem). There's a place for both on Wikipedia, but when there is so much to say about Brum, the main article should concentrate on the essential, and leave the interesting detail to a series of clearly linked sub-articles. Valiantis 21:06, 23 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Two other tweaks whilst doing the above: - I made 'Film & media' a subsection of 'Culture and arts' and not an independent section. I renamed 'Inventors & invention', as 'Science and invention' as several of the individuals mentioned (e.g. Galton and Hall-Edwards) were not inventors as such and the new rubric is more inclusive. Valiantis 21:25, 23 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Good stuff :) Nick Boulevard 23:14, 23 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Thanks. Might I suggest that anyone adding new info now either adds it to the subject-specific article only, or adds it to the subject-specific article as well as the main article. If this is not done, then info may get 'lost' as the main page articles are edited down Valiantis 17:54, 25 Mar 2005 (UTC)

OK, I've 'done' the Architecture section but there was some weird edit conflict and my initial re-edit and someone else's minor tweak both appear to have got lost. Hence the fact that my edit comments make minimal sense now. Hopefully the text speaks for itself. Valiantis 20:13, 25 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * looks great, could we still include the architect from the city though? cheers 195.92.67.68 12:30, 27 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * I take it you mean Ken Shuttleworth? He's still on the Architecture of Birmingham page. Has he actually built anything in the city yet? To my mind, it unbalances the "main page" section to pick one architect especially if he hasn't actually designed any buildings here and his work is not necessarily typical of the 'look' of the city. The section is IMO about the architecture of B'ham not architects from B'ham - who might more reasonably be covered in a section of the sub-article. Of course, if you disagree, add him back in to the main page, preferably contextually - I won't remove him. Valiantis 21:14, 27 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * No, your right. :) Nick Boulevard 23:07, 28 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Old Birmingham Workhouse in Lichfield St
I removed the reference to this building for the paragraph beginning Many Georgian, Tudor, Edwardian and Elizabethan buildings still survive dotted around the city as the Workhouse founded in 1734 appears to have been knocked down when the Victoria Law Courts were built over 100 years ago and there isn't even a street called Lichfield St in the city centre anymore! There is a single building of the replacement workhouse opened in 1852 in Winson Green still standing but that isn't Georgian and IMO scarcely worth mentioning in the main body of the article even under a discussion of Victorian buildings. See here. Valiantis 17:24, 17 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Provided you know this as fact i agree. Nick Boulevard 23:51, 17 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Lime juice
Lime juice was produced in the city??? That's not what the source here actually says. I don't think you can cultivate the lime in the climate of the English Midlands.

More to the point, can this paragraph be defined as central to an understanding of the city? I'd suggest not. Can it not be added to the Arts in Birmingham sub-article - which includes all of the text of the Food & Drink subsection - or perhaps better to a separate sub-article on Food & Drink (which sits uneasily in a culture section IMO)? Valiantis 00:41, 31 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Well I changed the text to my own version, by the way surely the production of Lime Juice in the food industry is relating to extraction etc, the article doesn't say "grown in the city"? It's a bit of food history that I certainly never knew Nick Boulevard 23:12, 10 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Valiantis
You have made some great edits to the Brum page and its linked articles most of which have been for the better, however I would appreciate it if you would concur here first in future before tempering with the main article, the page has been long fought over by myself and others to achieve an interesting read. Any major changes to the main page should be debated first, if you raise a point and no one responds then make a change but please do not expect that change to remain just because no ones has made an instant reply. Nick Boulevard 23:25, 31 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Nick, I discussed my plans above - I said I intended to create sub-articles for all the sections and to 'boil down' the sections on the main page. I wrote this on the 15th and left it a week. No one commented so I then posted again stating that I'd created sub-articles. Again no-one commented and I made several edits to other sections. With the exception of yourself, again no-one commented and your comments were broadly positive. I think everyone who may be interested has had fair time to pass comment now!

 * Presumably you have reverted my edit to the popular music section because you believe the previous section was better. I very much disagree. The previous section was rambling, unstructured, in places little more than a list of band and/or club names, repetitive (no need to list individual musicians like Roy Wood and Steve Winwood when their bands had already been mentioned in the same paragraph) and of questionable accuracy in a few places. Obviously you are not going to agree with me, but I would draw your attention to the be bold principle. The edit I've made to the music section is not perfect but it preserves all the main themes and most of the information (beyond the repetition and lists of obscure bands) so I am unsure why you describe my edit as 'tampering' (which implies there was mischief involved). More to the point, the complete text is held in the article Arts in Birmingham which is a more suitable place for an indepth discussion of music in the city. I'm sorry, but the fact that Boltthrower and Pram come from Birmingham is not a relevant piece of information for the main page.

 * I'm somewhat irritated that you've simply reverted rather than adding back whatever important info you feel I missed from my edit. It might be helpful if you made clear what you think is missing. I'm not going to re-revert as that would be pointless. However, in the event that no-one else adds their opinions to this discussion then I do intend to re-write the popular music section again in the near future for the reasons I have outlined above. Valiantis 03:12, 2 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * PS - by reverting you've also managed to double up the paragraphs on jazz and venues. Perhaps you would like to fix this. Valiantis 03:45, 2 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Hi there :)

Firstly you need to pay more attention to what people write and understand it before passing judgment, I did not accuse you of "tampering" with the article, I used the word "tempering" which can mean: To modify by the addition of a moderating element; moderate: “temper its doctrinaire logic with a little practical wisdom” (Robert H. Jackson).

I feel a little irritated now also, I agreed with your idea of condensing and creating sub articles and leaving the inventors and music section as they were (which I am sure is what you originally propositioned?), It seems to have worked great, however the condensing of the music section has been too extensive in my opinion, I agree it is more structured as oposed to a ramble but there are key facts that should stay on the "main page" (the most visited page relating to any subject on Brum) The main page needs to be hard hitting and informative at a single glance to entice the reader to look further into the specific article, the reason why no one else seems to reply often here could be something to do with the fact I have added the majority of what you seem to be condensing in the culture section, I cannot always use the same user ip address for various reasons, anyway I am quite excited to see my (and others) hard work being edited down but I think that my opinion should also count seeing as the amount of research I have done has been quite laborious. Thank you. Nick Boulevard 17:32, 2 Apr 2005 (UTC)

P.S. I am sure we can reach a compromise.Nick Boulevard 17:32, 2 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * I assumed you had mistyped tampering. I have never seen the word tempering used in the exact context you used it and don't think the way you used it is the same as the definition you quote. However, if that was your intended meaning then I apologise.

 * I never said that the music and inventors sections should stay as they were. I wrote the Inventors section should stay on the main page (at least as a summary section {...}). I didn't make any comment re: the popular music section. As I created new articles for both Arts in Birmingham and Science and invention in Birmingham, I think my intention was clear even if my words weren't. As I said in my edit summary, popular music should probably have its own separate in-depth article as well as maintaining an overview article on the main page. This is because there is a lot to say on the subject - much of it researched by yourself - but there is insufficient room in the main article for all this information. The main article is already 60% longer that the guidelines suggest and growing daily - something has to give.

 * I did ask you to state what these key facts are that you felt were missing from my edit. Please do so, then we may be able to reach a compromise. Until you tell me what they are, there isn't anything to make a compromise about! The revert page states You should save reverts for cases where the new version is actively worse than the old version. You've agreed my version is better structured, your issue appears to be with missing info - why did you not add the info back in? I would quote to you If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly and redistributed at will, do not submit it. Clearly as you say you have put a lot of work into researching the popular music info and none of it has been lost - all of it is on the new Arts in Birmingham page. If I'd just deleted your work, I could understand why you imply I am disregarding your opinion, but I didn't delete it and I'm not disregarding your opinion. However, to be clear (again) I welcome your input to improving this section, but you haven't told me what else needs to go in the article.

 * BTW, I understand that you may be posting from more than one IP address and/or more than one computer. I do so myself, but I always login under my username so that all my edits are attributable to me. What I'm not clear on is why you can't actively login under your own username each time you visit? (There may be a reason, if so fair enough, similarly you're within your rights to edit anonymously. However as you raised the issue...) Valiantis 23:42, 2 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Tempering may be a US word? regardless, its a word and as an English man I like it: http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=tempering

The key facts are not that many or great and I will get back to you on this, maybe I have had bad experiences on having my work removed rather than "edited" due to people that NEVER add a thing but are quite happy to play EDITOR, (I'm not referring to yourself). I was actually quite impressed with your edit to the music section but I did wince at certain deletions from the main page. Maybe I should leave this page for a while? Nick Boulevard 01:49, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)

p.s. You use the word "obviously" quite often in reply to my posts as if you already know me? Nick Boulevard 01:53, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * I've used the word obviously once so far in this section. I only know you from your contributions to this page and to other pages that relate to Birmingham. BTW, you state you've had bad experiences with people removing your work. You will perhaps appreciate then the extent of my annoyance that you reverted my edit to the music section - which took a number of hours to write - rather than adding back any info you thought I'd missed.

 * This article cannot encompass everything to do with Birmingham - a city of a million people with a thousand years of recorded history - hence my attempt to create a series of lower-level articles with room for more information and analysis than the main page can carry. I was hoping that more people would contribute to this - especially those who raised and responded to the issue at Talk:Birmingham - but, with the exception of yourself, most people who've been regular editors in the past don't seem to have visited in a while. Frankly, I don't have the time to do it by myself, especially if I run the risk of reversion if someone feels I've been too vigorous in my pruning, so I have already decided to take a break from this page for the time being.

 * I'm not therefore going to touch the music section myself (thanks for fixing the jazz and venues duplication by the way - though I wonder if the Jug of Ale really needs its own article!), but I would point out that you have managed to duplicate the paragraph beginning In the late 1960s heavy metal music when fixing the removal of the paragraph about Jimi Hendrix. (I'd also suggest that the Hendrix paragraph has no place in this article, but as this appears to be an on-going edit war between you and a third party or parties, having stated my opinion, I have no interest in getting in the middle of that fight and will leave the page alone). Valiantis 20:38, 9 Apr 2005 (UTC)

I would agree with the other people that the culture section does definitely need some serious cutting down. I dont see how it can be justified taking up half the article. And Nick I dont think your concearns are justified, as everything you have written will be on the sub-article. The main page is there to introduce the most important facts about the place, detail should be on the sub-articles. G-Man 20:44, 9 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Ok, you are probably right. As I said I have hardened a little from previous experiences here and maybe I have become too protective over some of my additions, I know my work is far from perfect, I really enjoy researching info that I have remembered from Grandparents (that are now gone) tales (re: Inventors etc), I guess my skills lie more in research here than page appearance.

 * What I would really like is to have the more interesting facts on the main page so as to ensure that people DO look at the wider main articles. The music section could be pruned I agree, it has become like a big hairy mamoth and I only try to add bits that I feel are influential to the wider UK music scene, i.e. featured on BBC and Sky music chanels etc. I will look at Valiants edit and try to combine it with what I have written, if you are happy with this then we could maybe start to look at other sections. Nick Boulevard 21:36, 10 Apr 2005 (UTC)

The Return of Andy Mabbett
I don't really know why I'm laughing but to those that don't know Any Mabbett... he deleted quite a lot of my work here and then argued till we were ALL blue in the face, I know it's you Andy because I noticed you deleted the references to Nick Mason form Pink Floyd and the Traffic additions (re: Hendrix) and also the following sentence that you added to the Hip Hop section: and sometimes inconveniencing. I haven't even looked at the band Traffic but I am guessing you removed from Birmingham... lets have a look! :) Nick Boulevard 22:29, 5 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Pictures
G-mans pics to the music section looked great, i like the new pic added of the museum too, if i provide a pic of some graffiti on a tow path or alike could someone add this to the art section please? Nick Boulevard 195.92.67.69 22:45, 16 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Changes
As almost no progress has been made since I was last here I have decided to follow the advice at Be bold in editing and make some fairly drastic changes to the article. Hopefully broadly in line with the discussions above.

I have replaced the sprawling culture section with a summary. I have deleted some superfluous sections off the main page but added prominent links to them on the relevant sections.

I have also added summaries of politics and transport which were missing before. And have re-arranges several sections.

I agree this is rather drastic, but nothing was happening here before. I think this is now a far more concise and readable article. Gem 23:08, 23 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * The culture summary could perhaps be a bit longer but I'm broadly OK with the changes. This article certainly needed some slimming down. I dont know what other people will make of it G-Man 20:49, 24 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Sorry Gem, way too much has been cut back, I am going to restore some of my work. Why didn't you discuss it first instead of just removing, that is a bit unfair don't you think? Nick Boulevard 195.92.67.74 16:55, 27 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Ok, I have reverted to the last full version, we all agree that it is too long but that is why we were discussing it here, I have just trimmed the science section to a bite size edit, I promise I will do the same with the sprawling popular music article by this weekend, I will do as I promised earlier and combine Valiants fine wording, and Gem, Valiantis carried out quite a few stream line edits not so long ago like sport etc, since he/she did this the page has risen to pr of 6 on google which means that the main page is becoming more important on the net and hence any major deletions without discussion could alter this. If you wish to add the government section again then I will revert that? Thanks Nick Boulevard 19:32, 27 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Nick please dont put it back exactly how it was, There were some good things to Gem's version. I agree that the cuts were a bit overdone, but you also removed the transport, and politics section. I have merged some of your and his/her version.

Perhaps you could add a bit more to the culture summary without putting it back to its former size. G-Man 19:40, 27 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Ok, I have reverted again but I will now restore what gem has added in transport and politics and I promise you all that I will radically reduce the culture section by this weekend which is the main culprit for the size of the page, since Valiantis trimmed the page a few weeks back I have been gradually fixing links back to Birmingham and the Google pr rating now reads 6 instead of 5 which is amazing, any massive alterations to the page could undo months of hard work, trust me. Nick Boulevard 19:46, 27 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Sorry for deleting that but it's restored now :) there are many areas that need cutting back on but please, please discuss here first, it was a great idea to add these sub pages but if it will lead to the main page becoming and index again then I totally am against that, other city pages are packed with info especially culture, Brum is bursting with culture and culture, and the science and invention is what our forefathers built the city's foundations on, like I say I will take a break from adding anything and concentrate on reducing with the help of others. Thanks :) Nick Boulevard 20:12, 27 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * I've trimmed war section on main page also, food will be next :) Nick Boulevard 20:24, 27 Apr 2005 (UTC)

trimmed food but could be smaller, trimmed and merged music section with valiants excellent edit from a while back, I would really like to keep the music section like this, it is a substantial part of Bhams history. Like I said I will refrain from adding too much more for a bit, thanks Nick Boulevard 15:52, 1 May 2005 (UTC)

My next plan is to index the galleries section and to cut down further the food section. (If I say it here first I am covering my back I hope) Nick Boulevard 22:36, 9 May 2005 (UTC)

Harborne
Where is Harborne on the main page districts? 195.92.67.65 23:21, 8 May 2005 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Birmingham/Archive 5


text:
Talk:Board of Review (Boy Scouts of America)

Youth BORs
Unless things have changed since I was a scout a couple years ago, all boards of review are conducted by adults who aren't scoutmasters, not just those of higher ranks. Thesquire 10:12, 27 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Hi Thesquire, it sounds like your experience is more current than mine. It may be that the BSA has moved away from the boy-driven boards of review for lower ranks, or perhaps some units have/do use them even though national policy may be for all boards of review to be of the adult type.  When I have some time, I will research more fully.  In the meantime, feel free to make the change to the article if you are confident about it.  Johntex 15:07, 31 May 2005 (UTC)
 * I haven't heard of a boy-driven BOR since the early 1970s. Rlevse 21:31, 11 January 2006 (UTC)

Which page to use
I like that Smack moved Board of Review (Scouting) to Board of Review (Boy Scouts of America). I hadn't noticed there were two articles with similar titles. This keeps the article naming more in line with other BSA-related articles and BORs (under that name at least) are likely BSA-only. Rlevse 21:31, 11 January 2006 (UTC)


text:
Cheadle, Staffordshire

Cheadle is a market town and civil parish in the Staffordshire Moorlands District of Staffordshire, England, with a population of 12,000 at the 2021 census. It is located between Uttoxeter, Leek, Ashbourne and Stoke-on-Trent.

History
Cheadle is an historic market town dating back to Anglo-Saxon times, being referred to in Domesday Book (1086). It lies within the historic Staffordshire Hundred of Totmonslow: for administrative purposes, it is now part of the Staffordshire Moorlands area.

Cheadle appears in Domesday Book as "Celle" held by the lord of the manor, Robert of Stafford, at the time the area covered 6 miles by 3 miles and listed 9 families. In 1176 the Basset family acquired the manor of "Chedle" and in 1250 Ralph Basset was granted a market charter and annual fair by King Henry III.

In 1309, 75 families are recorded as using a corn-grinding mill sited near Mill Road. Fifty years later, a new church was built in the village replacing a 12th-century structure and this church remained in use until 1837.

In 1606 a school was founded by the church, and in 1685 the then curate of the parish, Rev, Henry Stubbs, left an endowment to found a grammar school in Cheadle. The school was built at Monkhouse (behind the High Street) and was active until 1917. The endowment continues to this day. The Monkhouse is currently home to 3rd Cheadle Scout Group.

By 1676 Cheadle's population is recorded as just over one thousand, and a hundred years later (1772) as one thousand eight hundred. At this time the main source of employment was agriculture and farming. During the same period a new workhouse was built and opened. It was extended under the Cheadle Union an 1837. Part of the original building was demolished in 1909, renamed an infirmary. The whole complex was demolished in 1987 and a new hospital was built on the site, which was opened in 1989 by Princess Anne.

In 1798, 10 weavers houses were built. The weavers lived downstairs and the looms for the manufacture of tape were upstairs. By the 1820s the looms were transferred into a factory in Tape Street. This tape factory closed in 1972, and is now a shop. In 1851 silk and narrow fabric mills were built in Cheadle. They employed hundreds of operatives, and closed in 1981.

In the Brookhouses area of Cheadle in 1725, the Cheadle Brass and Copper Company started production, transferring to the Oakamoor area 100 years later under the company name Thomas Patten. It was bought in 1851 by Thomas Bolton of Birmingham. In 1890 Bolton's opened a factory at Froghall and the Oakamoor works were eventually closed in 1963.

St Giles' Catholic Church opened in 1846. Its 200 ft spire still dominates the town today. It was built by Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin, who was commissioned by John Talbot, 16th Earl of Shrewsbury to create a church that "would have no rival". To achieve his aim, Talbot gave Pugin unlimited resources with which to build it. The church is more commonly known as 'Pugin's Gem', and is the centre of a local tourist event known as 'Discover the Secret'. Cheadle Town Hall was completed in 1894.

At the turn of the 20th century the first open air swimming baths were constructed at Brookhouses, and telephone installation began in 1904. In 1901 Cheadle was linked to the railway network by the Cheadle Railway, operated and later owned by the North Staffordshire Railway, with the building of a railway station at Majors Barn, giving access to further industries and movement of passengers. At a later period sand, gravel and aggregates used for building purposes were transported from the station as well as coal.

The first motor car arrived in Cheadle in 1903, and the first licensed omnibus service – Cheadle to Longton – commenced in January 1914.

One of the British Signals Intelligence Y-stations called RAF Cheadle was situated at Woodhead Hall, from land purchased by the Air Ministry playing a vital role in helping intercept German Luftwaffe radio communications during the Second World War.

Places of interest

The 200 ft spire of St Giles' Catholic Church dominates Cheadle's skyline. Known as "Pugin's Gem", it is considered to be the most complete expression of Pugin's beliefs about what a church ought to be, with everything in it having a practical and symbolic purpose. The church featured heavily in local events celebrating the 200th anniversary of the birth of Pugin.

The town also has an Anglican church dedicated to St Giles. It was totally rebuilt in 1837–39 to the design of J. P. Pritchett, but incorporating fragments and furniture from the earlier church. There is also a strong Methodist tradition in Cheadle, and in the 19th century it was the various Methodist chapels around the Cheadle area which taught many of the young boys who worked on the farms or in the coal mines to read and write. There is a large modern Methodist church in the town.

To the south-east of Cheadle are the remains of Croxden Abbey, founded in 1176 by Bertram de Verdun for monks of the Cistercian Order. The abbey is a 5-mile walk from the town centre.

Cheadle is a base for exploring the Peak District National Park area, which is popular with walkers and rock climbers. Surrounded by lofty hills, Cheadle is the gateway to the wooded Churnet Valley and the Staffordshire Moorlands. It is also around 4 mi from the Alton Towers Resort.

Cecilly Brook Local Nature Reserve is near the centre of town. It is one of the most important breeding sites for water voles in Staffordshire. There are 42 acres of landscaped lakes at the JCB factory. Local leisure facilities are at Cheadle Recreation Ground and South Moorlands Leisure Centre.

The High Street of Cheadle has many old buildings and is little changed from how it looked in the Victorian era.

Economy

Cheadle is mentioned in Domesday Book as a small and unimportant hamlet with a small population. The town grew steadily over the next few hundred years, with the development of industry and agriculture. The historic industries that the town has depended on have been coal mining, silk, agriculture, brass making and the historic copper industry in nearby Froghall and Oakamoor. The town and the nearby village of Tean also had a textiles industry in tape weaving: the mill has since been converted into flats.

For hundreds of years the main industry in the Cheadle area was coal mining. The Cheadle Coalfield was part of the much larger North Staffordshire Coalfield. The town and the surrounding area were once home to over sixty mines, but the Industry declined in the 20th century, and one by one the remaining larger pits were closed; Parkhall (now the home to the JCB factories) and Hazlewall in the 1930s, New Haden in 1943 and Foxfield in 1965. However opencast mining and small scale adit mining carried on in Cheadle up until the 1990s.

Today the town's main employer is the large JCB factories. There are also several small industrial units on the site of the former New Haden Colliery and the local Alton Towers Resort employs many of its work force from the Cheadle area. A lot of people in the town commute to Stoke-on-Trent, Newcastle-under-Lyme, Uttoxeter and Derby.

Markets are held in the market place on Tuesdays, Fridays and Saturdays.

The Cheadle and Tean Times
The Cheadle and Tean Times has been publishing newspapers weekly in the town since 1896. The only family run and independent newspaper in North Staffordshire, it is known by townsfolk as the Stunner.

Other media
The weekly Cheadle Post & Times and the daily Sentinel newspapers also cover the town. Local radio stations are Signal 1 and Greatest Hits Radio Staffordshire & Cheshire from Stoke-on-Trent and BBC Radio Stoke. Community station Moorlands Radio covers the town from Leek.

Local TV coverage is provided by BBC West Midlands and ITV Central. Television signals are received from the Sutton Coldfield and the local relay transmitters.

Cheadle High School also operates an internet radio station for the local area, which has shows presented and produced by the high school radio.

Transport
Cheadle used to be served by a branch line opened in 1901 from Cresswell which was a station on the North Staffordshire Railway Crewe to Derby Line. It took almost thirty years of petitioning by the local coalmasters and notables in the town for the Cheadle Railway Company to build the small branch line and station. Even though the branch was only about four miles (6 km) long it was difficult to build as a tunnel had to be constructed under the huge Bunter Sandstone Hill at Huntley. The tunnel was very wet and plagued by problems with its roof. In the 1930s the LMS Railway, which had taken over the North Staffordshire Railway, built a diversion line around Huntley tunnel and abandoned it. The tunnel survives because it was used as a coal mine in the '70s and '80s, and the southern portal remains; however the northern portal has long been filled in. With the opening of the branch line to Cheadle it meant that New Haden Colliery and Parkhall Colliery now had connections to the rail network, and Cheadle in general had its long-awaited rail connection to the outside world. The line closed to passenger traffic in 1963 but remained open to serve local gravel quarries until 1982.

Today, the nearest railway station is Blythe Bridge on the Crewe-Derby Line.

Bus services to Cheadle were provided by PMT until it was bought out by First Group. The service 32, First Potteries operate an hourly service to Hanley. D&G Bus operate service 32X which also serves Hanley every hour and service E1 to Alton Towers. Town service 123 is operated by Bennetts while service 30 to Leek is operated by Aimee's, 3 times per day.

Notable people

 * Sir Henry Samuel Wiggin, 1st Baronet DL (1824 in Cheadle – 1905), English metals manufacturer and Liberal Party politician, MP for East Staffordshire 1880–1885 and for Handsworth 1885–1892
 * William Harris (1826 in Cheadle – 1911), Liberal politician and strategist in Birmingham in an era of dramatic municipal reform
 * Mary Adela Blagg (1858–1944), astronomer, the first woman to be allowed into the Royal Astronomical Society
 * Major Cecil Wedgwood (1863–1916), partner in the Wedgwood pottery firm, first mayor of Stoke-on-Trent, won the Distinguished Service Order during the Boer War, killed in 1916 during the Battle of the Somme
 * Edmund Crosby Quiggin (1875 in Cheadle – 1920), British linguist and scholar

Sport

 * Fred Obrey (1912 in Cheadle – 1986), English footballer, 62 professional appearances mainly for Port Vale F.C.
 * Fred Inskip (1924–2000), English professional footballer, 26 appearances for Crewe Alexandra F.C.
 * Terry Lowe (born in Cheadle 1943), English footballer, 55 appearances for Port Vale F.C.
 * Bernadette Swinnerton (born 1951) racing cyclist and a headteacher in Blythe Bridge
 * Gareth Owen (born in Cheadle 1982), former professional footballer, 225 appearances, now working as head of the Stoke City F.C. Academy

Schools

 * Cheadle High School
 * Painsley Catholic College
 * Moorlands 6th Form College
 * Bishop Rawle C.E. (Aided) Primary School
 * St Giles' Roman Catholic Primary School
 * Cheadle Primary School
 * St Thomas' Primary Catholic School (Tean)
 * Great Wood Primary School (Tean)

title: Cheadle, Staffordshire


text:
Talk:Barracuda

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 5 April 2019 and 17 May 2019. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): ChienMingWang.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 15:20, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

Barracuda plural
I was under the impression that there was no plural to barracuda? Isn't it like sheep?

"I saw a sheep"..."I saw many sheep" "I saw a barracuda"..."I saw many barracuda" —Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.159.184.45 (talk) 11:33, 8 May 2008 (UTC)

Barracudas attacking humans
I removed the recently added Baracudas and humans section as it puts IMHO way too much emphasys on the old adagio of barracudas being very dangerous animals while in fact they generally could not care less about humans swiming or diving around them. I took the picture of the diver swimming in the school with hundreds of barracudas myself.

It is similar with the now debunked story of sharks that once were portraited as evil creatures attacking humans whenever they could.

While attacks on humans have happened they are extremely rare (you better watch out for that meteor hitting you) and generally were provoked by (spear) fishing or hand feeding.

The great barracuda page has a fairly informative link: http://www.uga.edu/cuda/attacks.html

Janderk 10:12, 27 May 2005 (UTC)

more concerned that it isn't coherent. the first line describes them as predatory and now the human section states they are scavengers. 24.69.200.91 (talk) 22:41, 16 September 2020 (UTC)

That is not true because the barracudu does not attack unless it is shiny.Now not all the time but the guy you phoated was in the school and got in there way and they got fusterated and got mad but they did not attack.

"That is not true because the barracudu does not attack unless it is shiny.Now not all the time but the guy you phoated was in the school and got in there way and they got fusterated and got mad but they did not attack." Your retarded, and as such, your argument is invalid. -- signed by jesus —Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.238.142.222 (talk) 11:16, 14 June 2008 (UTC)

"Like sharks, barracudas have long had a bad reputation as being dangerous to humans, even though hundreds of scuba divers have lost a finger or two to a large, angry barracuda that's protecting its territory from large, unfamiliar creatures like man."

That line doesn't make any sense. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.17.241.249 (talk) 19:33, 27 June 2008 (UTC)

I found three typos on the barracks Wikipedia page alone. The horror. Poet Plays (talk) 21:56, 21 April 2017 (UTC)

Max length
the maximum length is currently described as both 1.8m (6ft) and at least 8ft, which is contradictory. ENeville 15:10, 13 September 2006 (UTC)

 * I took the 8ft number out. The 6ft as mentioned in the first sentence is the figure from Humanns and Deloaches Reef Fish Identification. Janderk 22:07, 21 September 2006 (UTC)

Geezer1 03:17, 8 February 2007 (UTC)Are Barracuda in anyway related to the freshwater Pike familyGeezer1 03:17, 8 February 2007 (UTC) Thank You Geezer1

Do you like barracudas?

 * around 6 ft in length and up to a foot in width.
 * IMHO that is a big frikkin' Barracuda. Should the text preface it with "up to a maximum of"?  Most Barracuda in this part of the world are half that size or smaller? --Legis (talk - contribs) 01:11, 25 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Actually down here in Roatan, Honduras our Barracudas very commonly get around 5 1/2 - 6ft in length. Upsidedowndiver (talk) 15:31, 26 July 2008 (UTC)

Species: S. picuda?
"Only some species of barracuda grow to a large size. The species which do are [...] the great barracuda, picuda or becuna (S. picuda)"

Is this a typo? S. picuda isn't shown in the species list, and the Great Barracuda's scientific name is S. barracuda.

Weight?
The article gives some information about barracuda length, but it fails to give information about barracuda weight, and the article should. —Lowellian (reply) 05:29, 18 December 2007 (UTC)

Excellent Dog Food
Is this right? Could someone add a citation for barracuda being "excellent dog food"? --J.StuartClarke (talk) 12:29, 18 May 2008 (UTC)
 * Added here. I have reverted. William Avery (talk) 13:36, 18 May 2008 (UTC)

Well,any thing with protein is good dog food. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.46.234.18 (talk) 22:37, 5 August 2008 (UTC)

Would a dog in nature be able to hunt Barracuda's? Or is a cat able to kill a cow? No. The best pet foods are what that animal is designed to eat by nature. --93.97.181.187 (talk) 22:45, 18 November 2008 (UTC)

Barracuda are not a species of shark, surely
The opening words of this article:

"The barracuda is a ray-finned small shark..."

Would a qualified biologist care to comment on this?

"...known for its large size (up to 16 (sic) ft in length...)"

Again, very unlikely.

Has the page been vandalised? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Shrekkie45 (talk • contribs) 16:43, 2 October 2008 (UTC)

Barracuda - more info on where it is found
How common is barracuda? Where exactly is it found? Near beaches? What depth? Do barracuda migrate or just travel great distances? --Zybez (talk) 09:59, 26 January 2009 (UTC)

"Gitaur Hero 3" Really? Do we need this? At all?
I'm undoing this misspelled commercial for a video game from an article on a kind of sea creature. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.29.69.37 (talk) 00:56, 17 March 2009 (UTC)

some spelling and grammar clean-up
I cleaned up the spelling and grammar in the section on sport-fishing for barracudas. It appears that the author had written it from his/her personal experience, so it had read "you use X lure with X bait." I reformatted it to remove the "you" references. Sandarmoir (talk) 17:01, 11 April 2009 (UTC)

Battery of barracuda usage is unauthenticated
The source for "battery" explicitly says that the terms used there are unauthenticated. This term needs a reliable source such as a dictionary. Joja lozzo  22:29, 6 January 2011 (UTC)

Location
I was in the caribbean, St. Thomas to be exact, and i saw a barracuda a few feet from the beach. I almost peed my pants. Those things are scary — Preceding unsigned comment added by Bigcat1999 (talk • contribs) 22:01, 30 January 2011 (UTC)

Number of species
The Spanish, Italian and Portuguese versions of this article seem to indicate that there are 26 rather than 27 species (the Portuguese version talks about 25 but lists 26). What is the correct figure?

ICE77 (talk) 08:11, 7 August 2012 (UTC)

And where did the name come from?
Barracuda? Where did the name originate?

Interesting aside, on 18 January 1832 Charles Darwin wrote in his diary -- ".... the little time I was out of my cabin, I spent geologising on Quail Island.- The day has been very hot: & I have feasted on Tamarinds & a profusion of oranges, — for dinner I had Barrow Cooter for fish & sweet potatoes for vegetables: quite tropical and correct." Moriori (talk) 01:08, 27 October 2012 (UTC)

You say that smoking gives barracuda a smoky flavour. I think this needs a citation.

Caption Vandalism
"Scuba diver inside a group of sawtooth barracudas before becoming their food in Ko Tao, Thailand."

Something tells me that caption might not be 100% accurate as a description of what took place after the picture was taken. :)

Made me chuckle, but I'll go ahead and clean it up. "Scuba diver swimming inside a group of sawtooth barracudas off Ko Tao, Thailand." should work, right? Meh, will go ahead with that. Anyone who wants something more elaborate is completely welcome to revise.

Wait, did anybody here ever decide on barracuda vs. barracudas for the plural? Ah, screw it..."barracudas" stays until/unless somebody else wants to change.

24.3.48.180 (talk) 07:06, 27 May 2015 (UTC)BA

Link To German Page missing
There is a German article for this, but it is linked only from de to en not the other way round. Why? How to change this? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 78.54.28.56 (talk) 09:37, 6 June 2016 (UTC)

Did you find it? — Preceding unsigned comment added by PRIMZAHL11 (talk • contribs) 23:35, 12 October 2021 (UTC)

External links modified
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I have just modified 2 one external links on Barracuda. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110723131237/http://strata.ummp.lsa.umich.edu/jack/showgenera.php?taxon=611&rank=class to http://strata.ummp.lsa.umich.edu/jack/showgenera.php?taxon=611&rank=class
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20131203073002/http://animals.pawnation.com/great-barracudas-diet-3678.html to http://animals.pawnation.com/great-barracudas-diet-3678.html

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Misplaced modifier-did Rafinesque name the genus or the family?
This is the second sentence in the introductory paragraph:

"The barracuda is a saltwater fish of the genus Sphyraena, the only genus in the family Sphyraenidae which was named by Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1815."

Did Rafinesque name the genus or the family?

Best regards, TheBaron0530 (talk) 20:24, 29 April 2020 (UTC)TheBaron0530
 * The references are clear he named the family. William Avery (talk) 21:41, 29 April 2020 (UTC)

What is the conservation status?
Imagine Reason (talk) 13:06, 17 March 2021 (UTC)

Incorrect order and sub order or Barracuda

 * Specific text to be added or removed: ORDER : Incertae sedis in Carangaria ,
 * Reason for the change: accuracy
 * References supporting change: https://fishtreeoflife.org/taxonomy/family/Sphyraenidae/
 * Yellow check.svg Partly done: Please see this discussion. Thanks! PK650 (talk) 03:53, 6 January 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Barracuda


text: User talk:202.7.176.133

title: User talk:202.7.176.133


text:
National Defence University of Warsaw

The National Defence University of Warsaw (Akademia Obrony Narodowej – AON) was the civil-military highest defence academic institution in Poland, located in Warszawa–Rembertów. In 2016 it was succeeded by the War Studies University.

The National Defence University in Warsaw was established on 1 October 1990 after reform of the General Staff Academy (est. 1947) and continued traditions of the Szkoła Rycerska ("The School of Knights") founded on 15 March 1765 and other subsequent military schools. The National Defence University was subordinate directly to the Polish Ministry of National Education. AON was the alma mater of Polish commanding and staff officers and civilian experts in national and international security matters. It also conducted extensive scientific research on state defence issues, military doctrine, theory of warfare, military art, including military strategy, operational art and tactics, also in the field of national and international security. The National Defence University in Warsaw cooperated with the Polish Ministry of National Defence, General Staff, North Atlantic Treaty Organization and other Polish and foreign military, scientific and academic institutions.

The school's master's program was a five-years study program, but also AON provided two-years under- and over graduate study programs and four-years PhD (Doctor of Science) programs and higher doctorate (habilitation) opportunity as well.

Corps of Cadets
The present National Defence University inherits the traditions of all previous Polish military academies. The first such school, the Szkoła Rycerska, was founded in 1765 by King Stanisław August Poniatowski. Its graduates included some of the most notable military men of the 18th and 19th centuries, including Tadeusz Kościuszko, Jakub Jasiński, Maurycy Hauke, Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, Karol Kniaziewicz, Józef Sowiński, Kazimierz Nestor Sapieha and Rajmund Rembieliński.

Artillery and Engineers School
In 1794, after the Partitions of Poland, the school was closed. However, after 1815 the recreation of the Kingdom of Poland allowed for opening several military colleges in Poland. The most notable, Szkoła Aplikacyjna Artylerii i Inżynierii (Artillery and Engineers School), was located in Warsaw and trained cadres of the Polish Army that fought in the November 1830 Uprising against Russia. Only some 24 officers were admitted each year, making its graduates an elite of the Polish armed forces. The instructor in French language was Mikołaj Chopin, father of renowned composer Fryderyk Chopin. After the November Uprising, the school was closed by Russian authorities. However, military training of Polish officers continued in foreign schools, most notably in France and Italy.

The War College
Wyższa Szkoła Wojenna (English: War College—literally, "Higher War School") was the most important Polish military academy in the period between the World Wars. Located at Warsaw, it was established to train high-ranking officers of the Polish Army and of the armed forces of several allied states. It was a predecessor of Poland's present National Defense Academy (Polish: Akademia Obrony Narodowej).

After the rebirth of Poland in 1918, there was already a well-trained and experienced cadre of Polish field officers trained in the armies of the partitioners (Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary) as well as in France. However, the occupants of Poland rarely promoted the Poles to higher ranks and the reborn Polish Army was seriously lacking officers trained in general staff duties and in command of entire armies. To eliminate the problem, in cooperation with the French Military Mission to Poland and the Paris-based École supérieure de guerre, a Szkoła Wojenna Sztabu Generalnego (War School of the General Staff) was formed in mid-1919.

After the Polish–Bolshevik War, on August 16, 1922, the school was renamed to Wyższa Szkoła Wojenna (WSW, Higher War School). Until 1928, most professors were French, with Polish officers serving mostly as their assistants. Among them was Charles de Gaulle, the future president of France, who was a professor of tactics. The training was not limited to military affairs and among the civilians working there were some of the most notable scientists of the era, including Tadeusz Kotarbiński, Edward Lipiński and Marian Kukiel. Apart from the theoreticians, the professors included a large number of officers who gained combat experience in World War I, Polish–Bolshevik War, Polish–Ukrainian War and Polish–Lithuanian War, as well as the Greater Poland Uprising and Silesian Uprisings. Because of their experience, the school became prestigious and attracted many students from abroad, most notably from France, Georgia, Estonia, Latvia and even Japan. Among them were also the officers of the former Ukrainian army of Semen Petlura and White Russian emigrees.

During the 20 years of its existence, the Wyższa Szkoła Wojenna trained more than 1300 officers of the Polish Army. Most of them repaid the debt for Poland during the Polish Defensive War of 1939, while the majority of professors formed the staff of Poznań Army, the most successful of Polish Armies in the 1939 campaign.

After Poland was overrun by Germany and the Soviet Union, the school was closed. However, on November 11, 1940, it was recreated in London. It trained the officers of the Polish Army in Exile, fighting alongside the Allies on all fronts of World War II. The professors were recruited from among the active officers of the Polish HQ and the students included many of the notable generals of the Polish forces in Exile. In addition, the school was the alma mater of all highest-ranking Czechoslovak officers of the exiled army. It was closed in 1946, after the Allies withdrew their support for the Polish government.

The War College in Exile
The outbreak of World War II interrupted the activities of War College only for several months. Order of the Supreme Commander of 11 November 1940, resumed its activities initially in London (United Kingdom) and later in Scotland. To the War College in Exile were appointed officers – in ranks of lieutenants and captains. Students were also the Czechoslovak army officers. The purpose of education was to prepare personnel to serve in the brigade and division staffs of the Polish Armed Forces in the West. The program and methods of education were similar to those from the period War College in Warsaw. School received establishment to the exercises, instructions and other normative documents from the British armed forces, allowing joint operations. School staff were officers of the Polish Commander of Staff. The activities of the War College in Exile was halted in July 1946. After the World War II, traditions of higher military education were continued in the Poland.

General Staff Academy
In 1947 a General Staff Academy was created. Its graduates have included Zygmunt Zieliński, Bolesław Chocha, Antoni Jasiński and Wojciech Jaruzelski.

Organizational units

 * National Security Faculty
 * Management and Command Faculty
 * War Games and Simulation Center
 * CBRN Defence Training Centre
 * Officers Training Centre
 * Foreign Languages Teaching Centre
 * Physical Education and Shooting Training Branch
 * Centre of International Cooperation
 * Library
 * Studies Organization Department
 * Financial Office
 * Human Resources Department
 * Logistic Department
 * Science and Research Branch
 * Promotion of Education and Culture Branch
 * Protection of Classified Information Branch
 * Work Safety Section
 * National Defence University Publishing House

Studies
Studies for officers:

Second degree studies (leading to a master's degree) in the following areas: Postgraduate studies and advanced courses:
 * National Security
 * Economics
 * Logistics
 * Management with two specialisations: command and command of aviation National Security
 * Post-graduate Defence Policy Studies
 * Advanced Operational-Strategic Course
 * Post-graduate Operational-Tactical Studies
 * Post-graduate Air Force Command Studies

Studies for civilians:

Full-time and part-time first degree studies (leading to a bachelor's degree) and second degree studies (leading to a master's degree) in the following areas: Postgraduate studies in the field of:
 * National Security
 * European Studies
 * Logistics
 * Management with two specialisations: Management and Command or Aviation Management
 * History
 * National Security
 * Aviation Management
 * Information Security Management
 * Economic Systems Logistics
 * Crisis Management
 * International Military Relations
 * Management in Military Staffs
 * State's Economic Security
 * Public Organizations Management
 * Civil-Military Cooperation
 * Management and Command in Multinational Organizations
 * Education for Security
 * Polemology – study of war and peace
 * The Use of Force in Armed Conflicts
 * Counter-Terrorism

Alumni

 * Tadeusz Sapierzyński
 * Roman Polko
 * Andrzej Błasik
 * Stanisław Targosz
 * Zdzisław Żurawski
 * Tadeusz Buk
 * Kazimierz Gilarski
 * Andrzej Karweta
 * Włodzimierz Potasiński
 * Jarosław Mika

title: National Defence University of Warsaw


text:
Palliser shot and shell

Palliser shot is an early British armour-piercing artillery projectile, intended to pierce the armour protection of warships being developed in the second half of the 19th century. It was invented by Sir William Palliser, after whom it is named.

History
Major Palliser's shot, approved 21 October 1867, was an improvement over the ordinary elongated shot of the time.

It was adopted for the larger types of rifled muzzle-loading guns rifled on the Woolwich principle (with three rifling grooves). Palliser shot in many calibres stayed in service in the armour-piercing role until phased out of (British) service in 1909 for naval and fortress use, and 1921 for land service.

At the Battle of Angamos (8 October 1879) the Chilean ironclad warships fired twenty 250-pound Palliser gunshots against the Peruvian monitor Huáscar, with devastating results. It was the first time that such piercing shells were used in combat.

Design
Palliser shot was made of cast iron, the head being chilled in casting to harden it, using composite moulds with a metal, water-cooled portion for the head. At times there were defects that led to cracking in the projectiles, but these were overcome with time. Bronze studs were installed into the outside of the projectile so as to engage the rifling grooves in the gun barrel. The base had a hollow pocket but was not filled with powder or explosive: the cavity was necessitated by difficulties in casting large solid projectiles without them cracking when they cooled, because the nose and base of the projectiles cooled at different rates, and in fact a larger cavity facilitated a better-quality casting. The hole at the base was threaded to accept a copper gas check. This prevented propellant gases from blowing around the projectile, providing obturation as the driving band had yet to be perfected. Later designs did away with the studs on the projectile body, with the gas checks being set with grooves to impart spin to the projectile.

Britain also deployed Palliser shells in the 1870s–1880s. In the shell the cavity was slightly larger than in the shot and was filled with gunpowder instead of being empty, to provide a small explosive effect after penetrating armour plating. The shell was correspondingly slightly longer than the shot to compensate for the lighter cavity. The powder filling was ignited by the shock of impact and hence did not require a fuze. While these Palliser shells were effective against unhardened iron, British doctrine held that only shot (i.e. non-explosive projectiles) were suitable for penetrating the new hardened armour being developed in the 1880s; hence the gunpowder filling was discontinued.

title: Palliser shot and shell


text:
Talk:Rosemary Sutcliff

Untitled
I am quite happy to turn all those red links blue and summarise the books I know. And I'm putting together little wikipedia entries for each. But before I put them into Wikipedia, I wondered whether in fact there is "enough" to say about each of them. I am a huge fan of Sutcliff and will cheerfully fill in the details for each one. But I have seen connected series of fairly short entries come up on the Votes for Deletion page very often, generally with the label 'fancruft'.

Is it better to have one (or two) pages covering the lot to avoid this? Or shall I just press ahead and make lots of little entries? All some of them would currently amount to is date, ISBN, very very brief plot, awards won, and whether there were any radio/television adaptations (that I know of). And quite a few of her books neither won awards nor were adapted for broadcast. So they will of necessity be short.

Thoughts? Comments?

Thanks for all your good work on Sutcliff Telsa! By the way, maybe I missed it but is Margret Meek's book on Sutcliff one of your sources? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Kirbycairo (talk • contribs) 15:12, 10 June 2008 (UTC)

Telsa 10:14, 27 May 2005 (UTC)

Too late now. Done three. You still have time to comment before I do another half-dozen, because my fingers are tired now! Telsa 16:42, 27 May 2005 (UTC)

Telsa. Sorry you got no earlier response. They are great books and deeply atmospheric. I read them all while I was aged between 10 and 12 years old - I am now 53. Slight issue with them is that they convey an impression of Roman Britain which may be misleading. The characterisation is all about people in the 1930s and 40s. A similar case is that of Wilbur Smith novels, which give people an impression of life in white dominated South Africa and Rhodesia which is entirely incorrect - but which many people believe to be the truth. That said, maybe people in Roman Britain were like Brits in the 30s and 40s?. How does anyone know?. All the best. Bob BScar23625 21:14, 24 January 2006 (UTC)

Human genetics and Sutcliff
it may be more than 30s and 40s characterisation, Bob: advances in human genetics as summarised in Nicholas Wade´s "Before the Dawn" (2006)may overturn beliefs about Celts, Beaker Folk, Romans and Saxons and their relative roles AD 43-AD 600. Sutcliff, after all, died just before genetic fingerprinting was invented and mtDNA had not been discovered as a time clock yet either.Aelle

Is the point you are making that people in Roman Britain were fundamentally the same as us?.

''But, if you compare a 1930s film with a modern film set in the 1930s - the difference is striking. Somehow, the modern film just does not seem authentic. My point is that historical novels are often more a reflection of the times in which they were written than the time in which they were set. Bob'' BScar23625 20:52, 24 September 2006 (UTC)

''Out of curiosity, I checked out your reference. I guess the point you are making is this. Sutcliff represented the emergence of Anglo-Saxon England from Romano Britain as a process of ethnic cleansing. At one stage, archaeology and place name analysis suggested that Sutcliff was wrong, and the process was more one of cultural assimilation. For example, it can be demonstrated that Celtic people were living in the London area until well into the Saxon era (note the origins of the place name "Wallington"). The logic here being that ethnic cleansing is a modern concept, alien to the 45 - 600 AD period. But, DNA evidence has now established that ethnic cleansing did happen in Dark Ages Britain. Sutcliff's appreciation was right.''

''However, that wasn't what I was getting at. When I read the dialogue in Sutcliff's books, I hear plummy home-county voices from the 1930s and 40s.'' Bob BScar23625 09:15, 25 September 2006 (UTC)

Frontier Wolf
Even though this book was published much later than the other Eagle books, isn't it considered part of the Eagle of the Ninth series? I think that its plot would place the book between The Silver Branch and The Lantern Bearers. Viviena 06:31, 30 May 2006 (UTC)

 * some time ago. Six years later we make it one of eight Eagle books, and third in ficthistorical sequence (as suggested here).
 * Classification within the list of books remains a problem, as it does in the linked book articles (although Frontier Wolf remains a redlink). See the next section.
 * --P64 (talk) 00:28, 20 November 2012 (UTC)

Sword at Sunset - classification
I haven't read the other novels in the series, but there is a problem with classifying Sword At Sunset only under the Eagle of the Ninth heading: it's an Arthurian novel, and it's usually considered one of the very best Arthurian novels ever written. It should probably appear under both listings, or with a note that it is also an Arthurian novel. 4.225.129.95 10:37, 29 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Six years later we list Sword of Sunset three times: as part of the Eagle series, as an Arthurian novel, and as a novel for adults.
 * for adults. Here --and also at The Lantern Bearers but nowhere else, yet-- I have added the 1986 "Modern Arthurian Literature" interview as a reference [ref name=taliesin] and used it for the unusual point that The Lantern Bearers is officially for children while its sequel Sword at Sunset is officially for adults.
 * Arthurian. Here I have also expanded the list/subsection Rosemary Sutcliff to include all seven books named in the preface to that interview. Two are also listed Eagle books.

 * Our placement of these Eagle novels in series is now quite inconsistent. We have articles on six of the eight books; five give no series name and one gives two names for two series. (See The Lantern Bearers where we say both "Roman Britain", source and scope unkonwn, and "Marcus" for a series of four (following ISFDB, which is my 2012 work).)
 * Within the six book articles we say, for example,
 * "The Silver Branch follows The Eagle of the Ninth and precedes "Frontier Wolf", The Lantern Bearers and Sword at Sunset."
 * This constructs a series of five books.
 * --P64 (talk) 00:28, 20 November 2012 (UTC)

Birthplace East Clandon
Previously we said West Clandon in templates infobox writer and persondata; East Clandon in prose. Today I moved her to East Clandon thruout, per the biographical sketch, ref name=degrummond. Our ref name=isfdb says West Clandon but we may be its source.

Probably we have a more credible source for East Clandon in External links, I see now, namely Life at RosemarySutcliff.com "Curated by Anthony Lawton: godson, cousin & literary executor". This should be promoted to a formal [ref name=life] and used in-line at this point and probably elsewhere.

--P64 (talk) 22:42, 28 July 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:Rosemary Sutcliff


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Result

A result (also called upshot) is the final consequence of a sequence of actions or events expressed qualitatively or quantitatively. Possible results include advantage, disadvantage, gain, injury, loss, value and victory. There may be a range of possible outcomes associated with an event depending on the point of view, historical distance or relevance. Reaching no result can mean that actions are inefficient, ineffective, meaningless or flawed.

Some types of result are as follows:
 * in general, the outcome of any kind of research, action or phenomenon
 * in games (e.g. cricket, lotteries) or wars, the result includes the identity of the victorious party and possibly the effects on the environment
 * in mathematics, the final value of a calculation (e.g. arithmetic operation), function or statistical expression, or the final statement of a theorem that has been proven
 * in statistics, any information analyzed, extracted or interpolated from polls, tests or logs
 * in computer sciences, the return value of a function, state of a system or list of records matching a query (e.g. web search). The result type is the data type of the data returned by a function.
 * in science, the outcome and data concluded from an experiment (e.g. see null hypothesis)
 * in forensics and justice, the proof of guilt or innocence of a suspect after evaluating evidence in a criminal investigation
 * in economics and accounting, the profit or loss at the end of a fiscal period.
 * in democracy, the election of a representative or the outcome of a vote on a subject
 * In management and related fields, a result is a piece of information that has certain properties in absolute terms or in relation to previous results or settings
 * In a chemistry mix, the result is the final item

title: Result


text:
Talk:Result

Blanking in 2007
Maybe this should not be a redirect, but blanking a page is always suspicious. --  Blanchardb - Me•MyEars•MyMouth - timed 20:58, 23 April 2009 (UTC)

Bad page
This should be merged into Result (disambiguation). Taylor 49 (talk) 16:29, 21 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Result


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Rio Lobo

Rio Lobo is a 1970 American Western film directed and produced by Howard Hawks and starring John Wayne, from a screenplay by Burton Wohl and Leigh Brackett. The film was shot in Cuernavaca in the Mexican state of Morelos and in Tucson, Arizona. The musical score was composed by Jerry Goldsmith. It was the third Howard Hawks film to explore the theme of a town sheriff defending his office against belligerent local outlaws: the others were Rio Bravo (1959) and El Dorado (1966), both also starring John Wayne. Rio Lobo was the last film Hawks made.

Plot
During the American Civil War, a secret Union army payroll train is raided by Confederates, led by Captain Pierre Cordona and Sergeant Tuscarora Phillips. Union Colonel Cord McNally loses his close friend, Lieutenant Ned Forsythe, in the raid, and the complexity of the Confederates' scheme indicates that Union traitors must have provided them with the details about the transport. In the ensuing pursuit, McNally's squad is spread thinner and thinner, until he is left alone and captured by the Confederates. McNally tricks them by leading them to a Union camp and raising the alarm; Cordona and Tuscarora are captured, but refuse to tell McNally who sold them their information.

Despite this development, the three men gain a mutual respect for each other. After the war ends, McNally visits Cordona and Tuscarora as they are being released. He asks them once more about the traitors. They are surprised that McNally doesn't resent them for the death of his close friend, Lt Forsythe, but McNally explains they were fighting a war, so were not at fault, unlike traitors. However, all the former Confederates can provide is a physical description, but they agree to contact McNally if they see either of the two men again.

Sometime later, McNally is contacted by his friend Sherriff Pat Cronin of Blackthorne, Texas. Cronin tells McNally that Cordona is staying at the local hotel and wants to talk to him. When McNally arrives in Blackthorne, he meets a young woman, Shasta Delaney, who has come to report the murder of her employer by a deputy of Rio Lobo's sheriff, "Blue Tom" Hendricks. Shortly afterwards, a posse from Rio Lobo arrives and wants to take Delaney away. Delaney identifies their leader, "Whitey" Carter, as the murderer she was referring to. When one of the posse aims a gun at Cronin, Delaney shoots Whitey from under the table, resulting in a shoot-out in which McNally, Cronin and Cordona finish off the posse.

Cordona identifies Whitey as one of the traitors that McNally was looking for. He tells McNally that Tuscarora needs help; his father and other ranchers are having land stolen by a rich man named Ketcham, who had the previous sheriff killed and installed Hendricks in his place. McNally, Cordona, and Delaney go to Rio Lobo, where they find the people living in terror of Hendricks and his men. Tuscarora's girlfriend Maria hides them in her house, while her friend Amelita distracts Hendricks' men. Hendricks has Tuscarora arrested on trumped-up charges, so McNally's group goes to get help from Tuscarora's father, Old Man Philips.

McNally, Cordona, and Philips sneak into Ketcham's ranch, and McNally discovers that Ketcham is really Union Sergeant Major Ike Gorman, the second traitor he was searching for. McNally attacks Ketcham and forces him to sign the deeds back to their rightful owners. Taking Ketcham hostage, they send Cordona ahead to find the United States Cavalry. Upon arrival in Rio Lobo, they discover that Hendricks has beaten Maria and disfigured Amelita's face with a knife for helping McNally. Amelita swears to McNally that she will kill Hendricks herself.

The men force Hendricks' party out of the jail and hole up there with Tuscarora to await the Cavalry. However, Hendricks' men capture Cordona before he gets far, and offer to trade him for Ketcham. During the prisoner exchange, Cordona manages to give his captors the slip. McNally tells Hendricks that Ketcham is no longer of any use to the sheriff, since he signed back the deeds. Angered, Hendricks guns down his own boss, starting a firefight in which he and McNally are wounded.

After a failed attempt to blow up the cantina that McNally's allies are using as a base, Hendricks' men are outflanked by the rest of the townspeople, who have rallied to help. As they flee, Hendricks tries to shoot them, but he has been using his rifle as a crutch and, with its muzzle clogged with dust, it explodes in his face. As he stumbles to his horse, Amelita shoots him, thus fulfilling her promise to McNally.

Cast

 * John Wayne as Col. Cord McNally
 * Jorge Rivero as Capt. Pierre "Frenchy" Cordona
 * Jennifer O'Neill as Shasta Delaney
 * Christopher Mitchum as Sgt. Tuscarora Phillips
 * Jack Elam as Phillips
 * Victor French as Sgt. Major Ike Gorman/"Ketcham"
 * Susana Dosamantes as María Carmen
 * Sherry Lansing as Amelita
 * David Huddleston as Dr. Ivor Jones – Dentist
 * Mike Henry as Rio Lobo Sheriff "Blue Tom" Hendricks
 * Bill Williams as Blackthorne Sheriff Pat Cronin
 * Jim Davis as Rio Lobo Deputy
 * Dean Smith as Bide
 * Robert Donner as Deputy Whitey Carter
 * Hank Worden as Hank – Hotel Manager
 * Peter Jason as Lt. Ned Forsythe
 * Edward Faulkner as Lt. Harris
 * Chuck Courtney as Chuck
 * George Plimpton as 4th Gunman
 * Don "Red" Barry as Bartender
 * Gregg Palmer as Pete - Henchman (uncredited)

Production
The film was meant to be shot in Durango, Mexico on a budget of $5 million. However, shooting on the movie Lawman took up facilities there, so Hawks and Cinema Center had to spend an extra $1 million to allow shooting at Old Tucson Studios, and near Los Angeles. The film was shot in Technicolor.

Hawks was injured while filming the railway scene, requiring four stitches.

Hawks said he had to fight Cinema Center to cast Chris Mitchum (whose father was actor Robert Mitchum) in the movie.

The script was rewritten throughout production.

Reception
The film made US$4.25 million in rentals, twentieth among the highest money-making pictures of the year, but it grossed $2 million less than its $6 million budget, making it a box-office bomb.

Upon release, the film received mostly negative reviews. Variety wrote that "Hawks' direction is as listless as the plot". Roger Ebert, who gave the film 3 out of 4 stars, wrote, "Rio Lobo is just a shade tired, especially after the finely honed humor and action of El Dorado." Roger Greenspun of The New York Times said that the film was "close enough to greatness to stand above everything else so far in the current season." His comments surprised other critics and resulted in numerous angry letters sent to the newspaper.

In retrospective, the film does have better reviews from contemporary critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a 70% rating, based in 23 reviews, with an average rating of 6.10/10. The consensus is that "Howard Hawks and John Wayne reunite to riff on their own Rio Bravo, and while the results are less memorable the movie does offer a curiously cynical perspective." In a retrospective review, Jonathan Rosenbaum wrote, "The fact that its best action sequence, the first, was directed by the second unit is emblematic of Hawks's relative lack of engagement with the material." TV Guide wrote, "for such a refined director as Hawks to end his career on a note like this, having made some of the finest films in the history of American cinema, is an atrocity not worth the silver used in the negative." Writing for Time Out, Geoff Andrew said, "If it lacks the formal perfection of Rio Bravo and the moving elegy for men grown old of El Dorado, it's still a marvellous film". Empire writer Ian Nathan wrote in January 2000, "this well-bred Western is just a routine canter through themes and gunfights as worn as the saddles." Quentin Tarantino cited Rio Lobo as one of the reasons he wanted to have a short directing career: "the most cutting-edge artist, the coolest guys, the hippest dudes, they’re the ones that stay at the party too long. They’re the ones that make those last two or three movies that are completely out of touch and do not realize the world has turned on them ... I don’t want to make Rio Lobo."

Soundtrack
The music for Rio Lobo was composed by Jerry Goldsmith. The soundtrack album was released in Belgium in 2001 on Prometheus Records.

title: Rio Lobo


text:
User talk:Jeanmonnet

Thanks for experimenting with Wikipedia. Your test worked, and has been reverted or removed. Please use the sandbox for any other tests you want to do. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our encyclopedia. Thanks. - Mike Rosoft 10:16, 27 May 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jeanmonnet


text:
User talk:Omqforum

Please stop making duplicate articles with non-English titles. This is an English encyclopedia after all. Thanks. Zzyzx11 (Talk) 10:18, 27 May 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Omqforum


text:
User:Dandrzejewski

dandrzejewski
Yes!

title: User:Dandrzejewski


text:
Aconitase

Aconitase (aconitate hydratase; ) is an enzyme that catalyses the stereo-specific isomerization of citrate to isocitrate via cis-aconitate in the tricarboxylic acid cycle, a non-redox-active process.

Structure
Aconitase, displayed in the structures in the right margin of this page, has two slightly different structures, depending on whether it is activated or inactivated. In the inactive form, its structure is divided into four domains. Counting from the N-terminus, only the first three of these domains are involved in close interactions with the [3Fe-4S] cluster, but the active site consists of residues from all four domains, including the larger C-terminal domain. The Fe-S cluster and a anion also reside in the active site. When the enzyme is activated, it gains an additional iron atom, creating a [4Fe-4S] cluster. However, the structure of the rest of the enzyme is nearly unchanged; the conserved atoms between the two forms are in essentially the same positions, up to a difference of 0.1 angstroms.

Function
In contrast with the majority of iron-sulfur proteins that function as electron carriers, the iron-sulfur cluster of aconitase reacts directly with an enzyme substrate. Aconitase has an active [Fe4S4]2+ cluster, which may convert to an inactive [Fe3S4]+ form. Three cysteine (Cys) residues have been shown to be ligands of the [Fe4S4] centre. In the active state, the labile iron ion of the [Fe4S4] cluster is not coordinated by Cys but by water molecules.

The iron-responsive element-binding protein (IRE-BP) and 3-isopropylmalate dehydratase (α-isopropylmalate isomerase; ), an enzyme catalysing the second step in the biosynthesis of leucine, are known aconitase homologues. Iron regulatory elements (IREs) constitute a family of 28-nucleotide, non-coding, stem-loop structures that regulate iron storage, heme synthesis and iron uptake. They also participate in ribosome binding and control the mRNA turnover (degradation). The specific regulator protein, the IRE-BP, binds to IREs in both 5' and 3' regions, but only to RNA in the apo form, without the Fe-S cluster. Expression of IRE-BP in cultured cells has revealed that the protein functions either as an active aconitase, when cells are iron-replete, or as an active RNA-binding protein, when cells are iron-depleted. Mutant IRE-BPs, in which any or all of the three Cys residues involved in Fe-S formation are replaced by serine, have no aconitase activity, but retain RNA-binding properties.

Aconitase is inhibited by fluoroacetate, therefore fluoroacetate is poisonous. Fluoroacetate, in the citric acid cycle, is converted to fluorocitrate by citrate synthase. Fluorocitrate competitively inhibits aconitase halting the citric acid cycle. The iron sulfur cluster is highly sensitive to oxidation by superoxide.

Mechanism

Aconitase employs a dehydration-hydration mechanism. The catalytic residues involved are His-101 and Ser-642. His-101 protonates the hydroxyl group on C3 of citrate, allowing it to leave as water, and Ser-642 concurrently abstracts the proton on C2, creating a double bond between C2 and C3, and forming the so-called cis-aconitate intermediate (the two carboxyl groups on the double bond are cis). The carbon atom from which the hydrogen is removed is the one that came from oxaloacetate in the previous step of the citric acid cycle, not the one that came from acetyl CoA, even though these two carbons are equivalent except that one is "pro-R" and the other "pro-S" (see Prochirality). At this point, the intermediate is rotated 180°. This rotation is referred to as a "flip." Because of this flip, the intermediate is said to move from a "citrate mode" to a "isocitrate mode."

How exactly this flip occurs is debatable. One theory is that, in the rate-limiting step of the mechanism, the cis-aconitate is released from the enzyme, then reattached in the isocitrate mode to complete the reaction. This rate-limiting step ensures that the right stereochemistry, specifically (2R,3S), is formed in the final product. Another hypothesis is that cis-aconitate stays bound to the enzyme while it flips from the citrate to the isocitrate mode.

In either case, flipping cis-aconitate allows the dehydration and hydration steps to occur on opposite faces of the intermediate. Aconitase catalyzes trans elimination/addition of water, and the flip guarantees that the correct stereochemistry is formed in the product. To complete the reaction, the serine and histidine residues reverse their original catalytic actions: the histidine, now basic, abstracts a proton from water, priming it as a nucleophile to attack at C2, and the protonated serine is deprotonated by the cis-aconitate double bond to complete the hydration, producing isocitrate.

Family members
Aconitases are expressed in bacteria to humans. Humans express the following two aconitase isozymes:

title: Aconitase


text:
Richard Saunders Dundas

Vice-Admiral Sir Richard Saunders Dundas, (11 April 1802 – 3 June 1861) was a Royal Navy officer. As a captain, he took part in the capture of the Bogue forts in January 1841, during the First Opium War. He was appointed to the command of the Fleet in the Baltic Sea, in succession to Sir Charles Napier, in February 1855 and led the naval support during the latter stages of the Crimean War, enforcing a strict blockade and carrying out the bombardment of Sveaborg in August 1855. He was appointed First Naval Lord in the first Palmerston ministry in November 1857 and then, after stepping down to be Second Naval Lord during the second Derby–Disraeli ministry, he stepped up again to become First Naval Lord in the second Palmerston ministry in June 1859, remaining in office until his death. The prime minister (Viscount Palmerston) described Dundas as "a most distinguished officer".

Early career
The son of Robert Dundas, 2nd Viscount Melville and his wife Anne (née Huck-Saunders), Dundas was educated at Harrow School and joined the Royal Navy in 1817. After initial training at the Royal Navy College at Portsmouth, he joined the frigate HMS Ganymede in the Mediterranean Fleet. Promoted to lieutenant on 16 June 1821 and to commander on 23 June 1823, he was given command of the sloop HMS Sparrowhawk on the North America and West Indies Station in June 1823.

Promoted to captain on 17 July 1824, Dundas took command of the sixth-rate HMS Volage on the North America and West Indies Station in September 1825 and then of the third-rate HMS Warspite on the East Indies Station in December 1826. He became secretary to his father, who was serving a second term as First Lord of the Admiralty, in 1828. He went on to take command of the fifth-rate HMS Belvidera in the Mediterranean Fleet in November 1830 and the third-rate HMS Melville, flagship of the East Indies Station, in September 1837. In HMS Melville he took part in the capture of the Bogue forts in January 1841 during the First Opium War. He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath on 29 June 1841.

Dundas returned to the Admiralty as secretary to Lord Haddington, First Lord of the Admiralty, in January 1845 and became captain of the second-rate HMS Powerful in the Mediterranean Fleet in January 1848.

Senior command
Promoted to rear-admiral on 4 July 1853, Dundas was appointed Third Naval Lord in the Aberdeen ministry in January 1853 and then Second Naval Lord in the same ministry in June 1854. He was appointed to the command of the Baltic Fleet in the Baltic Sea, hoisting his flag in the first-rate HMS Duke of Wellington, in succession to James Dundas in February 1855. Dundas led the naval support during the latter stages of the Crimean War enforcing a strict blockade in the Baltic. Dundas was hesitant but the French admiral Charles Penaud persuaded him to attack the Russian fleet in the harbour of Sweaborg on 9–10 August 1855. The British provided most of the attacking force. Much of the bombardment was done with smaller vessels that the shore batteries found hard to hit. Six Russian ships of the line and 17 smaller warships were destroyed, and the Russians suffered 2,000 casualties. The allies suffered one death, 15 wounded, and damage to only one British sloop.

Dundas was advanced to Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath on 5 February 1856 and became Second-in-command of the Mediterranean Fleet, hoisting his flag in HMS Duke of Wellington, in April 1856. He was also appointed a Grand Officer of the French Legion of Honour on 2 August 1856.

Dundas was appointed Second Naval Lord in the First Palmerston ministry in April 1857 and then First Naval Lord in the same ministry in November 1857. Promoted to vice-admiral on 24 February 1858, Dundas stepped down to be Second Naval Lord in the Second Derby ministry in March 1858. He stepped up again to become First Naval Lord in the Second Palmerston ministry in June 1859 remaining in office until his death. He died, unmarried, of a heart attack at Spring Gardens in London on 3 June 1861. Later that day, the prime minister (Viscount Palmerston) described Vice Admiral Dundas as:
 * "a most distinguished officer, who was for forty-five years in the service of his country, and who equally distinguished himself in every sphere in which he was called upon to act. He was eminent for the good discipline and order of the ships which he commanded, he was distinguished by the gallantry and good judgment with which he conducted every naval operation in which he was engaged, he was most valuable as a public servant in the direction of naval affairs at the Admiralty. Whether at the Council Board or on the quarter deck his merits were equally eminent, and his services were equally valuable to the country."

His body was returned to the family home, and he is buried beside his father and grandfather in the Dundas Vault in Old Lasswade Kirkyard, close to Melville Castle.

title: Richard Saunders Dundas


text:
Roseville railway station, Sydney

Roseville railway station is located on the North Shore line, serving the Sydney suburb of Roseville. It is served by Sydney Trains T1 North Shore line and T9 Northern line services.

History
Roseville station opened on 1 January 1890 as Rossville when the North Shore line opened from Hornsby to St Leonards. It was renamed Roseville on 1 September 1890. It was named after a stone cottage on the site of the station in an orangey and was demolished when the railway came.

In November 2021 an upgrade to the station was complete which included two new lifts and new toilet facilities.

Transport links
CDC NSW operates two bus routes via Roseville station, under contract to Transport for NSW:
 * 558: Lindfield to Chatswood station
 * 565: Macquarie Park to Chatswood station

Roseville station is served by one NightRide route:
 * N90: Hornsby station to Town Hall station

title: Roseville railway station, Sydney


text: User talk:62.2.217.181

title: User talk:62.2.217.181


text: User:Who/Reqimgbox

title: User:Who/Reqimgbox


text: List of drugs: F

title: List of drugs: F