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Proto-Celtic language

Proto-Celtic, or Common Celtic, is the hypothetical ancestral proto-language of all known Celtic languages, and a descendant of Proto-Indo-European. It is not attested in writing but has been partly reconstructed through the comparative method. Proto-Celtic is generally thought to have been spoken between 1300 and 800 BC, after which it began to split into different languages. Proto-Celtic is often associated with the Urnfield culture and particularly with the Hallstatt culture. Celtic languages share common features with Italic languages that are not found in other branches of Indo-European, suggesting the possibility of an earlier Italo-Celtic linguistic unity.

Proto-Celtic is currently being reconstructed through the comparative method by relying on later Celtic languages. Though Continental Celtic presents much substantiation for Proto-Celtic phonology, and some for its morphology, recorded material is too scanty to allow a secure reconstruction of syntax, though some complete sentences are recorded in the Continental Gaulish and Celtiberian. So the main sources for reconstruction come from Insular Celtic languages with the oldest literature found in Old Irish and Middle Welsh, dating back to authors flourishing in the 6th century AD.

Dating
Proto-Celtic is usually dated to the Late Bronze Age, ca. 1200–900 BC. The fact that it is possible to reconstruct a Proto-Celtic word for 'iron' (traditionally reconstructed as *īsarnom) has long been taken as an indication that the divergence into individual Celtic languages did not start until the Iron Age (8th century BCE to 1st century BCE); otherwise, descendant languages would have developed their own, unrelated words for their metal. However, Schumacher and Schrijver suggest a date for Proto-Celtic as early as the 13th century BC, the time of the Canegrate culture, in northwest Italy, and the Urnfield culture in Central Europe, implying that the divergence may have already started in the Bronze Age.

Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European
The phonological changes from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) to Proto-Celtic (PC) may be summarized as follows. The changes are roughly in chronological order, with changes that operate on the outcome of earlier ones appearing later in the list.

Late PIE
These changes are shared by several other Indo-European branches.
 * *e is colored by an adjacent laryngeal consonant:
 * eh₂, h₂e > ah₂, h₂a
 * eh₃, h₃e > oh₃, h₃o
 * Palatovelars merge into the plain velars:
 * ḱ > k
 * ǵ > g
 * ǵʰ > gʰ
 * Epenthetic *a is inserted after a syllabic sonorant if a laryngeal and another sonorant follow (R̥HR > RaHR)
 * Laryngeals are lost:
 * before a following vowel (HV > V)
 * following a vowel in syllables before the accent (VHC´ > VC´)
 * following a vowel before a consonant, or word finally, resulting in compensatory lengthening, thus (VHC > V̄C, VH# > V̄#)
 * between plosives in non-initial syllables (CHC > CC)
 * Two adjacent dentals become two adjacent sibilants (TT > TsT > ss)

Italo-Celtic
The following sound changes are shared with the Italic languages in particular, and are cited in support of the Italo-Celtic hypothesis.
 * Dybo's rule: long close vowels are shortened (or a laryngeal is lost) before resonant + stressed vowel. Note that something like Dybo's rule seems to have also operated in Germanic (Old English wer < *wiHró-).
 * īR´ / ? *iHR´ > iR´
 * ūR´ / ? *uHR´ > uR´
 * Possibly, post-consonantal laryngeals are lost when before pre-tonic close vowels:
 * CHiC´ > CiC´
 * CHuC´ > CuC´
 * Development of initial stress, following the previous two changes. But note that this seems to have been an areal feature, shared, for example with the Indo-European Germanic languages and the non-Indo-European Etruscan language.
 * Possibly, vocalization of laryngeals to *ī between a *CR cluster and consonantal *j (CRHjV > CRījV)
 * Syllabic laryngeals become *a (CHC > CaC)
 * Syllabic resonants before a voiced unaspirated stop become *Ra (R̩D > RaD)
 * *m is assimilated or lost before a glide:
 * mj > nj
 * mw > w
 * *p assimilates to *kʷ when another *kʷ follows later in the word (p...kʷ > kʷ...kʷ). But Matasovic points out that: A) this change may have occurred late in Celtic; B) it seems not to have operated on some words in Irish; and C) a very similar assimilation (though in reverse) also occurred in Germanic.

One change shows non-exact parallels in Italic: vocalization of syllabic resonants next to laryngeals depending on the environment. Similar developments appear in Italic, but for the syllabic nasals *m̩, *n̩, the result is Proto-Italic *əm, *ən (> Latin em ~ im, en ~ in).
 * Word-initially, HR̩C > aRC
 * Before voiceless stops, CR̩HT > CRaT
 * CR̩HV > CaRHV
 * CR̩HC > CRāC

Early PC

 * Sequences of velar and *w merge into the labiovelars (it is uncertain if this preceded or followed the next change; that is, whether gw > b or gw > gʷ, but Schumacher 2004 argues on p. 372 that this change came first; moreover, it is also found in Proto-Italic, and thus arguably belongs to the previous section):
 * kw > kʷ
 * gw > gʷ
 * gʰw > gʷʰ
 * gʷ > b
 * Aspirated stops lose their aspiration and merge with the voiced stops (except that this counterfeeds the previous change, so *gʷʰ > *gʷ doesn't result in a merger; that is, the change *gʷʰ > *gʷ must crucially happen after the sound change gʷ > b has been completed):
 * bʰ > b
 * dʰ > d
 * gʰ > g
 * gʷʰ > gʷ
 * *e before a resonant and *a (but not *ā) becomes *a as well (eRa > aRa): *ǵʰelH-ro > *gelaro > *galaro / *gérH-no > *gerano > *garano (Joseph's rule).
 * Epenthetic *i is inserted after syllabic liquids when followed by a plosive:
 * l̩T > liT
 * r̩T > riT
 * Epenthetic *a is inserted before the remaining syllabic resonants:
 * m̩ > am
 * n̩ > an
 * l̩ > al
 * r̩ > ar
 * All remaining nonsyllabic laryngeals are lost.
 * ē > ī
 * ō > ū in final syllables
 * Long vowels are shortened before a syllable-final resonant (V:RC > VRC); this also shortens long diphthongs. (Osthoff's law)

Late PC

 * Plosives become *x before a different plosive or *s (C₁C₂ > xC₂, Cs > xs)
 * p > b before liquids (pL > bL)
 * p > w before nasals (pN > wN)
 * p > ɸ (except possibly after *s)
 * ō > ā
 * ey > ē (but not in Celtiberian or Lepontic)
 * ew > ow
 * uwa > owa

Consonants
The following consonants have been reconstructed for Proto-Celtic (PC):
 * {| class="wikitable"

! rowspan="2" |Manner ! rowspan="2" |Voicing ! rowspan="2" | Bilabial ! rowspan="2" | Alveolar ! rowspan="2" | Palatal ! colspan="2" | Velar ! | plain ! | labialized ! rowspan="2" | Plosive ! voiceless ! voiced ! colspan="2" | Fricative ! colspan="2" | Nasal ! colspan="2" | Approximant ! colspan="2" | Trill
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * }
 * }
 * }
 * }
 * }
 * }

Allophones of plosives
Eska has recently proposed that PC stops allophonically manifest similarly to those in English. Voiceless stop phonemes /t k/ were aspirated word-initially except when preceded by /s/, hence aspirate allophones [tʰ kʰ]. And unaspirated voiced stops /b d ɡ/ were devoiced to [p t k] word-initially.

This allophony may be reconstructed to PC from the following evidence:
 * Modern Celtic languages like Welsh, Breton, and all modern Goidelic languages have such plosive aspiration and voice allophony already attested. (But there is no trace of this in Gaulish.)
 * Several old Celtic languages (such as Old Irish, Old Welsh, and Lepontic) used letters for voiceless stop phonemes to write both voiceless stop phonemes and their voiced counterparts, especially non-word-initially. (But in the case of Lepontic, this is because the alphabet was derived from Etruscan, which has no voice contrasts in plosives.)
 * The Celtiberian Luzaga's Bronze has the curious spelling of an accusative determiner sdam, where the d is clearly meant to spell [t]. This implies that Celtiberian /d/ had a voiceless allophone.

Evolution of plosives
Proto-Indo-European (PIE) voiced aspirate stops *bʰ, *dʰ, *gʰ/ǵʰ, merge with *b, *d, *g/ǵ in PC. The voiced aspirate labiovelar *gʷʰ did not merge with *gʷ, though: plain *gʷ became PC *b, while aspirated *gʷʰ became *gʷ. Thus, PIE *gʷen- 'woman' became Old Irish and Old Welsh ben, but PIE *gʷʰn̥- 'to kill, wound' became Old Irish gonaid and Welsh gwanu.

PIE *p is lost in PC, apparently going through the stages *ɸ (possibly a stage *[pʰ]) and *h (perhaps seen in the name Hercynia if this is of Celtic origin) before being completely lost word-initially and between vowels. Next to consonants, PC *ɸ underwent different changes: the clusters *ɸs and *ɸt became *xs and *xt respectively already in PC. PIE *sp- became Old Irish s (f- when lenited, exactly as for PIE *sw-) and Brythonic f; while argues there was an intermediate stage *sɸ- (in which *ɸ remained an independent phoneme until after Proto-Insular Celtic had diverged into Goidelic and Brythonic),  finds it more economical to believe that *sp- remained unchanged in PC, that is, the change *p to *ɸ did not happen when *s preceded. (Similarly, Grimm's law did not apply to *p, t, k after *s in Germanic, and the same exception occurred again in the High German consonant shift.)

 * {|class="wikitable"

! Proto-Celtic ! Old Irish ! Welsh
 * * > * 'shine'
 * las-aid
 * llach-ar
 * * > * 'seven'
 * secht
 * saith
 * * or * 'heel'
 * seir
 * ffêr
 * }
 * seir
 * ffêr
 * }

In Gaulish and the Brittonic languages, the Proto-Indo-European * phoneme becomes a new * sound. Thus, Gaulish petuar[ios], Welsh pedwar "four", but Old Irish cethair and Latin quattuor. Insofar as this new fills the gap in the phoneme inventory which was left by the disappearance of the equivalent stop in PIE, we may think of this as a chain shift.

The terms P-Celtic and Q-Celtic are useful for grouping Celtic languages based on the way they handle this one phoneme. But a simple division into P- / Q-Celtic may be untenable, as it does not do justice to the evidence of the ancient Continental Celtic languages. The many unusual shared innovations among the Insular Celtic languages are often also presented as evidence against a P- vs Q-Celtic division, but they may instead reflect a common substratum influence from the pre-Celtic languages of Britain and Ireland,, or simply continuing contact between the insular languages; in either case they would be irrelevant to the genetic classification of Celtic languages.

Q-Celtic languages may also have in loan words, though in early borrowings from Welsh into Primitive Irish,  was used by sound substitution due to a lack of a  phoneme at the time: Gaelic póg "kiss" was a later borrowing (from the second word of the Latin phrase osculum pacis "kiss of peace") at a stage where p was borrowed directly as p, without substituting c.
 * Latin Patricius "Saint Patrick"' > Welsh > Primitive Irish > Old Irish Cothrige, later Pádraig;
 * Latin presbyter "priest" > early form of word seen in Old Welsh premter primter > Primitive Irish > Old Irish cruimther.

Vowels
The PC vowel system is highly comparable to that reconstructed for PIE by Antoine Meillet. The following monophthongs are reconstructed:
 * {| class="wikitable"

! rowspan="2" | Type ! colspan="2" | Front ! colspan="2" | Central ! colspan="2" | Back ! long ! short ! long ! short ! long ! short ! Close ! Mid ! Open
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * colspan="2" |
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * colspan="2" |
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * colspan="2"|
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * colspan="2"|
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * - style="text-align:center;"
 * colspan="2" |
 * colspan="2" |
 * }
 * colspan="2" |
 * }

The following diphthongs have also been reconstructed:
 * {| class="wikitable"

! Type ! With -i ! With -u !With a- !With o-
 * -align=center
 * -align=center
 * -align=center
 * -align=center
 * }
 * }

Nouns
The morphological (structure) of nouns and adjectives demonstrates no arresting alterations from the parent language. Proto-Celtic is believed to have had nouns in three genders, three numbers and five to eight cases. The genders were masculine, feminine and neuter; the numbers were singular, plural and dual. The number of cases is a subject of contention: while Old Irish may have only five, the evidence from Continental Celtic is considered rather unambiguous despite appeals to archaic retentions or morphological leveling. These cases were nominative, vocative, accusative, dative, genitive, ablative, locative and instrumental.

Nouns fall into nine or so declensions, depending on stem. There are *o-stems, *ā-stems, *i-stems, *u-stems, dental stems, velar stems, nasal stems, *r-stems and *s-stems.

*o-stem nouns

 * makkʷos 'son' (masculine) (Old Irish mac ~ Welsh, Cornish and Breton mab)

However, Celtiberian shows -o- stem genitives ending in -o rather than -ī: aualo "[son] of Avalos".

 * dūnom 'stronghold' (neuter)

*ā-stem nouns
E.g. *ɸlāmā 'hand' (feminine) (Old Irish lám; Welsh llaw, Cornish leuv, Old Breton lom)

*i-stems
E.g. *sūlis 'sight, view, eye' (feminine) (Brittonic sulis ~ Old Irish súil)

E.g. *mori 'body of water, sea' (neuter) (Gaulish Mori- ~ Old Irish muir ~ Welsh môr)

*u-stem nouns
E.g. *bitus 'world, existence' (masculine) (Gaulish Bitu- ~ Old Irish bith ~ Welsh byd ~ Breton bed)

E.g. *beru "rotisserie spit" (neuter)

Velar and dental stems
Before the *-s of the nominative singular, a velar consonant was fricated to *-x : *rīg- "king" > *rīxs. Likewise, final *-d devoiced to *-t-: *druwid- "druid" > *druwits.

E.g. "king" (masculine)

E.g. "druid" (masculine)

E.g. "friend" (masculine)

Nasal stems
Generally, nasal stems end in *-on-; this becomes *-ū in the nominative singular: *abon- "river" > *abū.

E.g. "river" (feminine)

E.g. "name" (neuter)

*s-stem nouns
Generally,*s-stems contain an *-es-, which becomes *-os in the nominative singular: *teges- 'house' > *tegos.

E.g. "house" (neuter)

*r-stem nouns

 * r-stems are rare and principally confined to names of relatives. Typically they end in *-ter-, which becomes *-tīr in the nominative and *-tr- in all other cases aside from the accusative: *ɸater- 'father' > *ɸatīr, *ɸatros.

E.g. *ɸatīr 'father' (masculine)

E.g. *mātīr 'mother' (feminine)

Pronouns
The following personal pronouns in Celtic can be reconstructed as follows:

The following third-person pronouns in Proto-Celtic may also be reconstructed.

Forms of the masculine singular relative pronoun *yo- can be found in the first Botorrita plaque: The form io-s in line 10 is the nominative singular masculine of the relative pronoun from Proto-Indo-European *yo- (Sanskrit ya-, Greek hos), which shows up in Old Irish only as the aspiration for leniting relative verb forms. Line 7 has the accusative singular io-m and the dative singular io-mui of the same root.

Adjectives
Adjectives in Proto-Celtic had positive, comparative, superlative and equative degrees of comparison.

Positive-degree inflection classes
Four inflection classes for positive-degree adjectives are known. Most adjectives belonged to the o-ā class, in which the adjectives inflected like masculine o-stems, neuter o-stems and feminine ā-stems when agreeing with nouns of their respective genders. A much smaller minority of adjectives were i- and u-stems.

Consonant-stem adjectives also existed but were vanishingly rare, with only relics in Old Irish like té "hot" < *teɸents.

Comparative degree
The comparative degree was formed on most adjectives by attaching *-yūs to the adjective stem. For instance, *senos "old" would have a comparative *senyūs "older". However, some Caland system adjectives instead had a comparative ending in *-is, which was then extended to *-ais. For example, *ɸlitanos "wide" had a comparative *ɸletais.

Superlative degree
The superlative was formed by simply attaching *-isamos to the adjective stem. In some adjectives where the stem ends in *s, the suffix is truncated to *-(s)amos by haplology. Thus, *senos "old" would have a superlative *senisamos "oldest" but *trexsnos (stem *trexs-) would have a superlative *trexsamos.

Verbs
From comparison between early Old Irish and Gaulish forms it seems that Continental and Insular Celtic verbs developed differently and so the study of Irish and Welsh may have unduly weighted past opinion of Proto-Celtic verb morphology. It can be inferred from Gaulish and Celtiberian as well as Insular Celtic that the Proto-Celtic verb had at least three moods: and four tenses: A probable optative mood also features in Gaulish (tixsintor) and an infinitive (with a characteristic ending -unei) in Celtiberian.
 * indicative — seen in e.g. 1st sg. Gaulish delgu "I hold", Old Irish tongu "I swear"
 * imperative — seen in e.g. 3rd sg. Celtiberian usabituz, Gaulish appisetu
 * subjunctive — seen in e.g. 3rd sg. Gaulish buetid "may he be", Celtiberian asekati
 * present — seen in e.g. Gaulish uediíu-mi "I pray", Celtiberian zizonti "they sow"
 * preterite — seen in e.g. 3rd sg. Gaulish sioxti, Lepontic  K ari T e
 * imperfect — perhaps in Celtiberian kombalkez, atibion
 * future — seen in e.g. 3rd sg. Gaulish bissiet, Old Irish bieid "he shall be"

Verbs were formed by adding suffixes to a verbal stem. The stem might be thematic or athematic, an open or a closed syllable.

Primary endings
The primary endings in Proto-Celtic were as follows. They were used to form the present, future, and subjunctive conjugations.

Present-stem formations
Proto-Celtic possessed a diverse set of ways to form present stems. They can be roughly be divided into two broad categories of athematic and thematic.
 * Thematic verbs feature a connecting vowel between the present stem and the basic primary endings. This vowel is -o- in the first-person and third-person plural and -e- in the third-person singular and second-person forms. The first-person singular of these verbs end in *-ū.
 * Athematic verbs feature no such connecting vowel, and their 1st-person singular forms end in *-mi instead of *-ū.

These two inflectional categories can themselves be subdivided based on the means of derivation from a verb root via a combination of root ablaut grades and suffixes. These derivational classes include:

Nasal-infix presents
In Proto-Celtic, the Indo-European nasal infix presents split into two categories: ones originally derived from laryngeal-final roots (i.e. seṭ roots in Sanskrit), and ones that were not (i.e. from aniṭ roots). In seṭ verbs, the nasal appears at the end of the present stem, while in aniṭ-derived verbs the nasal was followed by a root-final stop (generally -g- in Old Irish).

To aniṭ roots
Aniṭ nasal infix verbs conjugated exactly like basic thematic verbs in the present tense.

However, the origin of the invariant root vowel in -o- in *CewC- roots in Old Irish is unclear. Usually, it is held that the consonantism in these verbs was generalized in favour of the plural stem *CunC- in Old Irish. One would expect alternation between o in the 1st- and 3rd- person plural and -u- elsewhere in the present; but for both contexts Old Irish only attests -o-.

The following verbs can be reconstructed in this class:
 * To *CeyC- roots:, , ,
 * Double-nasal presents:, ,
 * To *CewC- roots:, , , , , , , ,
 * Others: ,

To seṭ roots
On the other hand, the seṭ presents originally had a long vowel after the nasal in the singular and -a- after the nasal in the plural, but the attested Celtic languages levelled this alternation away. Gaulish shows traces of the singular long-vowel vocalism while Old Irish generalized the plural -a- to the singular.

The seṭ nasal-infix presents were further subdivided into subcategories based on the root-final laryngeal. Traditionally two subclasses have long been accepted, the *h₁ subclass (cited with a -ni- suffix) and *h₂ (cited with a -na- suffix). *h₃ nasal-infixed verbs were often leveled to act like *h₂ verbs, being also cited with a -na- suffix; the only original difference between the two would have been the 3rd-person plural ending in *-nonti instead of *-nanti.

The nasal-infix seṭ verbs in Proto-Celtic underwent multiple levelings. First, the suffixal vowel in the plural forms was harmonized so that they would all be the short counterpart to the vowel in the singular forms. Then all the long vowels in the singular were shortened to make the suffix vowel identical in quality and length across all person-number combinations.

The following seṭ-root nasal presents are reconstructible for Proto-Celtic:
 * *h₁-final roots:
 * -ni- relics:, ,
 * Converted to -na- before Old Irish:, ,
 * *h₂ subclass:, , , (?), , , , ,
 * *h₃-final roots:, ,
 * Semivowel-final aniṭ root: ,
 * Unknown laryngeal:, , ,

Preterite formations
There were two or three major preterite formations in Proto-Celtic, plus another moribund type.
 * The s-preterite
 * The reduplicated suffixless preterite (originating from the PIE reduplicated stative)
 * The t-preterite
 * The root aorist

The s-, t-, and root aorist preterites take Indo-European secondary endings, while the reduplicated suffix preterite took stative endings. These endings are:

t-preterite
The Old Irish t-preterite was traditionally assumed to be a divergent evolution from the s-preterite, but that derivation was challenged by Jay Jasanoff, who alleges that they were instead imperfects of Narten presents. Either derivation requires Narten ablaut anyway, leading to a stem vowel i in the singular and e in the plural. The stem vowel in the t-preterite was leveled to *e if the next consonant was either velar or *m, and *i in front of *r or *l.

Suffixless preterites
Many suffixless preterite formations featured reduplication. The nature of the reduplication depends on the structure of the root.

Future formations
One major formation of the future in Celtic, the s-future. It is a descendant of the Proto-Indo-European (h₁)se-desiderative, with i-reduplication in many verbs. The Old Irish a- and s-future come from here.

Another future formation, attested only in Gaulish, is the -sye-desiderative.

Subjunctive formations
Most verbs took one subjunctive suffix in Proto-Celtic, -(a)s-, followed by the thematic primary endings. It was a descendant of the subjunctive of an Indo-European sigmatic thematic formation *-seti. The -ase- variant originated in roots that ended in a laryngeal in Proto-Indo-European; when the *-se- suffix was attached right after a laryngeal, the laryngeal regularly vocalized into *-a-. It would then analogically spread to other Celtic strong verb roots ending in sonorants in addition to the weak verbs, even if the root did not originally end in a laryngeal.

There were also three verbs that did not use -(a)se-, instead straight-out taking thematised primary endings. Two of these verbs are *bwiyeti "to be, exist" (subjunctive *bweti) and *klinutor "to hear" (subjunctive *klowetor).

Primary subjunctive formations in Proto-Celtic generally use the e-grade of the verb root, even if the present stem uses the zero-grade.

Imperative formation
Imperative endings in Proto-Celtic were as follows:

Second-person singular imperative
The second-person singular imperative was generally endingless in the active; no ending was generally added to athematic verbs. On thematic -e/o- verbs, the imperative ended in thematic vowel *-e. However, there is also another second-person singular active imperative ending, -si, which was attached to the verb root athematically even with thematic strong verbs.

The thematic deponent second-person singular imperative ending was *-eso. The -the in Old Irish is secondary.

Third-person imperative
The third-person imperative endings in Insular Celtic, Gaulish and Celtiberian have completely separate origins from each other. The Insular Celtic endings are derived from *-tou, *-ntou, Gaulish endings from *-tu, *-ntu, and the Celtiberian third-person imperative singular ending stems from *-tūd.

Example conjugations
Scholarly reconstructions   may be summarised in tabular format.

Copula
The copula *esti was irregular. It had both athematic and thematic conjugations in the present tense. Schrijver supposes that its athematic present was used clause-initially and the thematic conjugation was used when that was not the case.

Vocabulary
The vast majority of reliably reconstructible lexical items in Proto-Celtic have good Indo-European etymologies, unlike what is found in, for example, the Greek language—at least 90% according to Matasovic. These include most of the items on the Swadesh list of basic vocabulary. But a few words that do not have Indo-European cognates, so may be borrowings from substrate or adstrate Pre-Indo-European languages, are also from basic vocabulary, including *bodyo- ‘yellow’ (though this has possible cognates in Italic), *kani "good," and *klukka "stone." It is notable that fully 32 items have been reconstructed for Proto-Celtic with the meaning "fight."

title: Proto-Celtic language


text:
Cains River

The Cains River is a river in New Brunswick, Canada. It is 113 kilometres long.

The Cains River has its origins in the "Bantalor Wildlife Management Area" in the eastern part of York County, near the boundary with Sunbury County. Generally flowing northeast through heavy forests, the Cains River joins the Southwest Miramichi River at the community of Howard. The Southwest Miramichi River then joins the Northwest Miramichi River at Newcastle, forming the Miramichi River and becomes tidal.

Much of the upper Cains River flows through crown land, owned and managed by the provincial government, and therefore cannot be purchased for private use. It is public water and therefore can be used by any fisherman. The Cains River is classified as salmon water from the mouth to the North Cains and requires a guide for non-resident anglers.

The river is noted for Atlantic salmon fishing, especially in the autumn. It is a noted trout river as well. A popular fly pattern originated for the dark, tannin-stained waters of the Cains is the Copper Killer. Some of the best pools in the lower Cains River are private water and care must be used here. There is some public water on the lower Cains River, but access can be difficult and use of a licensed fishing guide is encouraged to avoid trespassing.

Salmon fishing is usually best there after a heavy fall rain raises the water level and causes pods of large salmon to begin to move up the Cains River in search of their spawning beds.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cains River


text:
Foxe Basin

Foxe Basin is a shallow oceanic basin north of Hudson Bay, in Nunavut, Canada, located between Baffin Island and the Melville Peninsula. For most of the year, it is blocked by sea ice (fast ice) and drift ice made up of multiple ice floes.

The nutrient-rich cold waters found in the basin are known to be especially favourable to phytoplankton and the numerous islands within it are important bird habitats, including Sabine's gulls and many types of shorebirds. Bowhead whales migrate to the northern part of the basin each summer.

The basin takes its name from the English explorer Luke Foxe who entered the lower part in 1631.

Waterway
Foxe Basin is a broad, predominantly shallow depression, generally less than 100 m in depth, while to the south, depths of up to 400 m occur. The tidal range decreases from 5 m in the southeast to less than 1 m in the northwest. During much of the year, landfast ice dominates in the north, while pack ice prevails towards the south. Foxe Basin itself is rarely ice-free until September, open pack ice being common throughout the summer. Vigorous tidal currents and strong winds keep the ice pack in constant motion and contribute to the numerous polynyas and shore leads which are found throughout the region. This same motion, combined with the high sediment content of the water makes the sea ice of Foxe Basin dark and rough, easily distinguishable from other ice in the Canadian Arctic.

Foxe Basin is connected to the Gulf of Boothia via the narrow Fury and Hecla Strait, and to Hudson Bay and Hudson Strait via the wide Foxe Channel. It is also connected to Repulse Bay and Roes Welcome Sound via Frozen Strait.

Coast
The terrain is rocky and rugged in the southern half of the region, and generally low-lying in the north. High cliffs are found across the southern portion of the region, where most of the seabirds nest. Coastal marshes and tidal flats up to 6.5 km in width are found in the vast lowland section of eastern Foxe Basin, as well as in the bays of Southampton Island.

Wildlife
This is one of the little-known areas of the Canadian Arctic, though it is proving to be biologically rich and diverse. The numerous polynyas in northern Foxe Basin support high densities of bearded seals and the largest walrus herd in Canada (over 6,000 individuals). Ringed seal and polar bear are common, with north Southampton Island as one of the highest-density polar bear denning areas in Canada.

This area is also an important summering area for the bowhead whale, beluga whale and narwhal. Both bowhead whales and belugas winter in the waters of northeastern Hudson Bay. Bowheads were the only known baleen whales to occur in the Hudson Bay, but recently some other species of whale, such as humpback and minke, are confirmed to migrate into the waters as well.

The region is the main North American stronghold of the Sabine's gull, with some 10,000 pairs nesting here. Moderate numbers of black guillemots, Arctic terns and glaucous, herring and ivory gulls also breed here. The Great Plain of the Koukdjuak on Baffin Island is the world's largest goose nesting colony, with upwards of 1.5 million birds, 75 percent of which are lesser snow geese and the remainder Canada and brant geese. Shorebirds and ducks are also abundant. Several hundred thousand thick-billed murres breed on the cliffs of Digges Sound and Coats Island to the south.

Status
This region is not yet represented in the national marine conservation areas system. Studies to identify preliminary representative marine areas have yet to be undertaken.

title: Foxe Basin


text:
Talk:Robert E. Ornstein

Improvements needed
The current single entry (apparently from 26 may 04) for Robert Onstein is not neutral, and rather seems to be just an opinion of its poster. To wit, the use of "manipulation" and "prank or a troll" are personal opinions or judgments, and do not provide useful information to a Wikipedia reader.

A better Robert Ornstein definition would include: Teacher and resarch psychologist at UC Medical Center, S.F., author of many books including The Psychology of Consciousness (1972). Beginnersview 18:40, 27 May 2005 (UTC)
 * ✅ Somewhat belatedly, I've done that; added to and reorganized the article.  Esowteric + Talk  11:09, 10 February 2010 (UTC)

Early life and personal bio
It looks like Ornstein is keeping most of his personal bio under his hat, and we should respect that.

However, I have found reliable sources for birth year and birth place. LibraryThing does give a birth day and month, but this is not a reliable source and my feeling is that if Ornstein wanted this detail to be known, then we'd be able to find it in a reliable source.

It's also possible that he's now married to Sally Mallam, but the same applies: there is no mention of this in reliable sources, and I don't feel that it is right to use California State or Ancestry.com records to obtain details (apart from the fact that you have to pay a search fee or take out a paid subscription).  Esowteric + Talk  11:17, 10 February 2010 (UTC)

Robert Ornstein passed away on 20 December 2018
Sad News from ISHK:

Dear Friends,

"We are sad to report that after a three-month struggle with an aggressive form of T-cell lymphoma, Robert Ornstein passed away on December 20. It was his hope that we would all wish to continue with the ISHK programs and activities as envisaged to align with Idries Shah's request and work ... ... ....

ISHK Directors."

No obituary found as yet.  Esowteric + Talk  15:20, 27 December 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Robert E. Ornstein


text:
Arithmetic genus

In mathematics, the arithmetic genus of an algebraic variety is one of a few possible generalizations of the genus of an algebraic curve or Riemann surface.

Projective varieties
Let X be a projective scheme of dimension r over a field k, the arithmetic genus $$p_a$$ of X is defined as$$p_a(X)=(-1)^r (\chi(\mathcal{O}_X)-1).$$Here $$\chi(\mathcal{O}_X)$$ is the Euler characteristic of the structure sheaf $$\mathcal{O}_X$$.

Complex projective manifolds
The arithmetic genus of a complex projective manifold of dimension n can be defined as a combination of Hodge numbers, namely

 * $$p_a=\sum_{j=0}^{n-1} (-1)^j h^{n-j,0}.$$

When n=1, the formula becomes $$p_a=h^{1,0}$$. According to the Hodge theorem, $$h^{0,1}=h^{1,0}$$. Consequently $$h^{0,1}=h^1(X)/2=g$$, where g is the usual (topological) meaning of genus of a surface, so the definitions are compatible.

When X is a compact Kähler manifold, applying hp,q = hq,p recovers the earlier definition for projective varieties.

Kähler manifolds
By using hp,q = hq,p for compact Kähler manifolds this can be reformulated as the Euler characteristic in coherent cohomology for the structure sheaf $$\mathcal{O}_M$$:

 * $$ p_a=(-1)^n(\chi(\mathcal{O}_M)-1).\,$$

This definition therefore can be applied to some other locally ringed spaces.

title: Arithmetic genus


text:
Talk:Munchkin

Untitled

 * Perhaps the disambiguation page should show up when entering Munchkin in search... --84.178.110.162 18:44, 27 May 2005 (UTC)
 * No, because usages of the word all tend to stem from this meaning.--The_stuart 20:00, 27 May 2005 (UTC)

What about munchkin cats? There ought to be a link at least to them!
 * Look up top, there's a link to Munchkin (disambiguation) which gives a link to Munchkin (cat). --woggly 09:01, 28 May 2006 (UTC)

BTW MUNICH is german city :) lol
 * Yes, and Bavaria is in Germany. --woggly 12:56, 27 May 2006 (UTC)

Munchkin Country?
I have never read the books, but the film refers to Munchkin LAND rather than Munchkin COUNTRY. Does the intro to this article therefore need altering? Kingbumpkin (talk) 12:46, 20 June 2008 (UTC)

 * The books are exactly the opposite in that respct, so no. --Scottandrewhutchins (talk) 18:30, 20 June 2008 (UTC)

Munchkin suicide...
I've seen two versions of the scene in question. The first is a VHS tape that was the original theatrical version. Whether or not there is an actual person or something else in the background isn't clear, but is is definitely hanging, and definitely not a bird. MGM overlaid an image of a bird over the background for the re-release on DVD years later, possibly as a response to the bad publicity caused by the so-called "conspiracy". — Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.169.154.124 (talk) 16:48, 16 August 2011 (UTC)

Living as of 1989
I undid a few revisions to put back Raabe and Slover in the list. The reviewers probably did not realize this list is for those living "as of 1989" rather than "now". -- Saveur (talk) 05:02, 17 November 2011 (UTC)
 * According to the paragraph above the first chart, there were 33 actors who played munchkins still alive when the book was written. The "as of 1989" chart needs some work.Juve2000 (talk) 18:28, 17 November 2011 (UTC)
 * I now wonder if the "as of 1989" section needs to be there at all. Maybe a single, complete list, with dates of birth/death when known, comments "still alive" when applicable, and a introduction sentence "X of them still alive as of (Year)" would be enough. -- Saveur (talk) 00:21, 18 November 2011 (UTC)

Living as of 1989?
What's the point of having a table of Munchkins who were living as of 1989? I know that's the 50th anniversary year of the movie but it still seems odd to have this arbitrary table. At this point, there are only two living Munchkins left. Why not keep that table and merge the "living as of 1989" into the "Deceased" table? --SamuelTaylorColeridge (talk) 15:18, 20 August 2013 (UTC)

The Munchkins whose death and birth dates are N/A
How do we know if they are living or not? Granted it is confirmed that the Lollipop Guild guy is the last one living (Must be great being a member of that then) but what do we know about the ones who are N/A? As well as the other kid stars from it. Wgolf (talk) 18:23, 18 February 2014 (UTC)

 * It is a complex situation, I did a search of a bunch of the ones where I could find no reliable source confirming their death rather than just leaving it blank I placed Not available. Most likely anyone born before 1900 is no longer living and in some cases some of the actors had no SSN to their name. As for the child actresses it is claimed that the Lollipop Guild guy is the last one living but then I found a source confirming still alive child stars so that further complexes things. - Knowledgekid87 (talk) 19:47, 18 February 2014 (UTC)

That's true-I always have to make a comment whenever I see that scene that he is still alive. (It will be so odd when he is gone as I can no longer say that!) But yeah its like how I thought that every actor and actress that were in a silent film had died by the mid 2000's, when in fact the last one only died a few years ago.Wgolf (talk) 19:54, 18 February 2014 (UTC)
 * Oh wow, didn't know that =o. Anyways if you do find reliable sources with the deaths of the munchkin actors feel free to add them. - Knowledgekid87 (talk) 20:07, 18 February 2014 (UTC)

A surprising number of the actors seemed to have lived into their late 80s and 90s. Original research obviously has no place here, but they don't seem typical of US mortality rates.Thomas Peardew (talk) 16:11, 15 May 2015 (UTC)

Last surviving Munchkin v. last 'Dwarf' Munchkin
I made an edit specifying that Jarry Maren was the last known surviving 'dwarf' munchkin actor. The edit was quickly reverted. However, my edit was consistent with Maren's wiki article. which states: "Jerry Maren, is an American actor and the only confirmed surviving dwarf munchkin from the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz, in which he portrayed a member of the Lollipop Guild. He became the last surviving dwarf Munchkin cast member (there is one confirmed living Munchkin actress who is not a dwarf) following the death of Ruth Duccini on January 16, 2014"

My understanding is that the Munchkins were played by both dwarf and non-dwarf child actors/actresses. Did not Priscilla Ann Montgomery Clark play a Munchkin? Thanks in advance for any explanation provided. AJC3fromS2K (talk) 07:09, 24 April 2014 (UTC)

 * The answer is, we don't know. Sources are saying that she is one of the last surviving "kid munchkins" however the sources are very hard to come by as it is it is very hard to find things such as birth/death records for these actors and actresses. - Knowledgekid87 (talk) 02:04, 25 April 2014 (UTC)

Dubious entries
I have removed Eleanor Keaton as there is no mention of her being a munchkin or even being in the film from her obituary. - Knowledgekid87 (talk) 15:39, 26 February 2016 (UTC)

I have also removed Jimmy Rosen, the only source is Imdb in which in this case is user edited. No other sources could be found that show that a person named "Jimmy Rosen" was in the film. - Knowledgekid87 (talk)

Patsy May was removed as the only sources tied to her role in the film were Facebook (non official), and Find A Grave. We need WP:RS to back up the role. - Knowledgekid87 (talk) 17:29, 25 January 2018 (UTC)

 * Were you the user who removed Lillian Porter, and why? https://www.historyforsale.com/lillian-porter-inscribed-photograph-signed/dc22717 --Jkaharper (talk) 18:06, 19 November 2018 (UTC)

 * No per (The state of the article before I started editing it). I had no idea Lillian Porter was present and she appears to be sourced via Cox, so go ahead and add her, nice find! =) - Knowledgekid87 (talk) 18:27, 19 November 2018 (UTC)

External links modified (February 2018)
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Moved from "Concept" section
I have removed the following from the article but chose to keep it here for review purposes:

 * Baum apparently did not mean that only Munchkins are short in stature (as depicted in the iconic 1939 film), but that this is the norm for all of the adult humans of Oz. In a scene later in the book, the Guardian of the Gates, the first inhabitant of the Emerald City met by Dorothy and apparently representative of its citizens, is "a little man about the same size as the Munchkins." Still later, the Quadlings of the southern land are described as "short and fat."

 * In W. W. Denslow's illustrations for The Wonderful Wizard (approved by Baum), the only Oz humans depicted as remarkably taller than Dorothy are the Soldier with the Green Whiskers and Glinda.

 * Baum rarely refers to Ozites as small of stature in the Oz books that follow. (One notable exception is the Munchkin wrestler that Zeb challenges in Dorothy and the Wizard in Oz).

 * Notable Munchkins named in the Oz books include Boq, Fyter, Jinjur, Nimmie Amee, Ojo the Lucky, and Unc Nunkie.

All of this appears to be original research but may have some grains of truth to it that just need to be sourced. - Knowledgekid87 (talk) 14:36, 9 February 2018 (UTC)

Munchkin notes
The following can possibly be used for separate stand alone articles on the subjects...

 * Casper "Colonel" Balsam - Casper was mentioned as living in Gibsonton, Florida in newspapers from the 1950s. The exact year of death remains unknown.
 * Elizabeth Coulter - She was last mentioned in 1953.
 * Freda Betsky - She was last mentioned on April 14, 1975, date of death unknown.
 * Henry Boers - While the date of death is unknown, he is last mentioned on September 10, 1961 in the St. Louis Post-Dispatch.

More to come... - Knowledgekid87 (talk) 14:49, 12 June 2018 (UTC)

 * References #16, 20, 41, 43, 51, 64, 65, 92, 93, 96, 97 & 99 need archival backup. - Knowledgekid87 (talk) 13:51, 18 July 2018 (UTC)

 * Eugene S. David Jr. aka (Eugene Sinclair David Jr.)?
 * Eulie H. David
 * Eugene last mentioned in the 1950s, possible lifespan: 1915–1984

 * Addie Eva Frank
 * Aside from an article by the New Yorker that describes per personality, nothing has been found.

 * Charles E. Kelley
 * Aside from his alleged outburst on set, nothing has been found.

 * Frank Kikel
 * Nothing found

- Knowledgekid87 (talk)

No birth/death dates

 * Gladys W. Allison - Nothing found from sources with the search term "Gladys W. Allison" "Gladys Allison" or adding "midget" after the two. The only mentions of her are in the credits for the film.

 * Franz Balluck - Mentioned by Find A Grave which is not considered to be a reliable source. The dates used are born: 1913, died: 1987. Balluck is also mentioned by another unreliable source IMDb where it states he was born and died in Austria. None of this can be confirmed without a reliable source weighing in on the matter.

 * Valerie Lee Shepard - iMDB has her birth date as December 14, 1931 . There is also a census from 1940 which lists her as an 8 year old in Los Angeles (noted by iMDB) . Nothing can be confirmed though through WP:RS linking her to the movie or if the child in the census is the same person. (Added with correct info)

- Knowledgekid87 (talk) 17:34, 8 August 2020 (UTC)

Very close

 * Marguerite A. Hoy - We have a newspaper source from 1945 that says her sister Helen died.
 * It also says she was interred in Gethsemane Cemetery which is located in Meriden, New Haven County, Connecticut.
 * According to Find A Grave, her sister died in 1969 and is also buried there. (Can't use per WP:RS)
 * I can't confirm if Marguerite was born in 1906.

- Knowledgekid87 (talk) 05:23, 2 November 2023 (UTC)

 * Jessie E. Kelley ("Jessie Becker") - Jessie apparently left her husband (and fellow munchkin actor) Charles E. Kelley and married Charlie Becker who played the Munchkinland mayor. Her alleged lifespan is 1907 to 1968 per Find A Grave. However, we can not use this as a source per Reliable sources/Perennial sources (unreliable). I have found nothing outside of this source other than a mention on Facebook. - Knowledgekid87 (talk) 19:03, 2 November 2023 (UTC)

Behaviour on-set?
I believe there are some anecdotes about the Munchkin actors running wild during the filming. This might be the place to feature some of them. Valetude (talk) 11:48, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

 * If it is included, then it would fall under the "1939 film" section. I had added a section already on the Matina Brothers article regarding their role. - Knowledgekid87 (talk) 13:35, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Munchkin


text:
User talk:72.10.96.72

September 2022
Please refrain from making unconstructive edits to Wikipedia, as you did at American Psycho (film). Your edits appear to constitute vandalism and have been reverted. If you would like to experiment, please use the sandbox. Repeated vandalism may result in the loss of editing privileges. Thank you.  Sunil Nevla Fan ✨ 15:51, 19 September 2022 (UTC)

title: User talk:72.10.96.72


text:
Druzhba pipeline

The Druzhba pipeline (нефтепровод «Дружба», Ropovod Družba); also has been referred to as the Friendship Pipeline and the Comecon Pipeline) is one of the world's longest oil pipelines and one of the largest oil pipeline networks in the world. It began operation in 1964 and remains in operation today. It carries oil some 4000 km from the eastern part of European Russia to points in Ukraine, Belarus, Poland, Hungary, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Austria and Germany. The network also branches out into numerous smaller pipelines to deliver its product throughout Eastern Europe and beyond.

The name "Druzhba" means "friendship", alluding to the fact that the pipeline established friendly relations between the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe through the reliable supply of oil. Today, it is the largest principal artery for the transportation of Russian and Kazakh oil across Europe.

History
On 18 December 1958, the 10th session of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon), held in Prague, adopted a decision and an agreement was signed on construction of a trunk crude oil pipeline from the USSR into Poland, Czechoslovakia, GDR and Hungary. The construction of the initially proposed 5327 km long pipeline commenced in 1960. Each country was to supply all necessary construction materials, machinery and equipment. Czechoslovakia received first oil in 1962, Hungary in September 1963, Poland in November 1963, and the GDR in December 1963. The whole pipeline was put into operation in October 1964. The first oil pumped through the Druzhba pipeline originated from the oil fields in Tatarstan and Samara (Kuybyshev) Oblast. In the 1970s, the Druzhba pipeline system was further enlarged with the construction of geographically parallel lines.

Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the northern route to Germany was closed with Germany ceasing to buy oil in January 2023 and Russia ceasing to supply oil to Poland in February 2023. From December 2023, following agreements, Germany began importing 1.2m tons of oil p.a. from Kazakhstan using the northern pipeline.

Route
The pipeline begins at Almetyevsk in Tatarstan, the Russian heartland, where it collects oil from western Siberia, the Urals, and the Caspian Sea. It runs to Mazyr in southern Belarus, where it splits into a northern and southern branch. The northern branch crosses the remainder of Belarus across Poland to Schwedt in Germany. It supplies refineries in Płock and in Schwedt. The northern branch is also connected by the Płock–Gdańsk pipeline with the Naftoport terminal in Gdańsk, which is used for oil re-exports. In Schwedt, the Druzhba pipeline is connected with the MVL pipeline to Rostock and Spergau. The southern branch runs south through Ukraine. In Brody, the Druzhba pipeline is connected with the Odesa-Brody pipeline, which is currently used to ship oil from the Druzhba pipeline to the Black Sea. In Uzhhorod, the pipeline splits into lines to Slovakia (Druzhba-1 — original Druzhba route) and to Hungary (Druzhba-2). The line through Slovakia is divided once again near Bratislava: one branch leading in a northwest direction to the Czech Republic and the other going southward to Hungary. The Druzhba-1 pipeline branches off toward Hungary in Banská Bystrica Region (Slovakia) near the river of Ipeľ, crosses the Hungarian border at Drégelypalánk and leads to Százhalombatta (not depicted on the map at the beginning of the page). In Hungary, the Druzhba-1 pipeline supplies the Duna refinery while Druzhba-2 supplies Duna and Tisza refineries.

The ORLEN Lietuva in Lithuania and Ventspils oil terminal in Latvia are connected to the main pipeline by the branch pipeline from the Unecha junction in Bryansk Oblast (not shown on the map). This branch has ceased operation in 2006 and is not likely to become operational again any time soon.

The part of the Druzhba pipeline system which runs via Belarus is 2910 km long. The length of the pipeline in Ukraine is 1490 km, in Poland 670 km, in Hungary 130 km, in Lithuania 332 km, in Latvia 420 km, and in Slovakia and in the Czech Republic together around 400 km. The pipeline crosses 45 major rivers as well as 200 railways and highways.

Technical features
The pipes for the project were manufactured in the Soviet Union and Poland, while fittings were manufactured in Czechoslovakia. The GDR was responsible for pumps, and Hungary for automation and communication equipment. The construction cost nearly 400 million rubles and nearly 730,000 tons of pipe was laid throughout the path of the pipeline. The Druzhba pipeline currently has a capacity of 1.2 to 1.4 Moilbbl/d. Work is currently underway to increase this in the section between Belarus and Poland. The pipe diameter of the pipeline varies from 420 to 1020 mm. It uses 20 pumping stations.

Operators
The Russian part of the pipeline is operated by the oil company Transneft through its subsidiary OAO MN Druzhba. The operator in Belarus is Gomeltransneft Druzhba, in Ukraine UkrTransNafta, in Poland PERN Przyjazn SA, in Slovakia Transpetrol AS, in the Czech Republic Mero, and in Hungary MOL.

Baltic Pipeline System-2
The Baltic Pipeline System-2 (BPS-2) is a pipeline from the Unecha junction of the Druzhba pipeline near the Russia–Belarus border to the Ust-Luga oil terminal at the eastern part of the Gulf of Finland with a 172 km long branch line to Kirishi oil refinery. The throughput capacity of BPS-2 is 50 million tonnes of oil annually. The construction of the BPS-2 started on 10 June 2009. The BPS-2 was completed in 2011 and began to function in late March 2012.

Proposed extensions

The Druzhba–Adria Pipeline Integration Project was a proposal that was considered in the 2000s to extend the pipeline to pass through Hungary and Croatia to reach the Adriatic Sea at the deep-water port of Omišalj. In the first phase, the Croatian portion of the Adria pipeline would be reconstructed from the Sisak pumping station to Omišalj harbour. The Croatian company JANAF was responsible for the design of the initial project phase, to reverse the phases of the Adria pipeline (which currently carries oil from the port inland) on the Sisak-Omišalj portion.
 * Druzhba Adria

It was also proposed to connect Druzhba Adria with the planned Pan-European Pipeline.

The proposal was touted by the Croatian president Stipe Mesić, but it also garnered a lot of negative press due to complaints from the environmentalist groups such as Eko Kvarner, and was eventually abandoned.

The Schwechat–Bratislava two-way oil pipeline project was proposed in 2003. It would allow to supply the OMV owned Schwechat Refinery from the Druzhba pipeline.
 * Schwechat–Bratislava Oil Pipeline

2009 Parallel disputes on transit fees
For the last several years, Russia and Ukraine have been tied up in transit fee disputes as the major pipelines supplying Europe with Russian oil and gas run through Ukraine. The continuous disputes were primarily based on transit of natural gas. On December 28, 2009, referring to Russia's announcement, Slovakian government said Russia issued warnings that it would stop oil supplies to Slovakia, Hungary and the Czech Republic over a transit fees dispute with Ukraine. However, the next day, Ukraine's Naftogas issued a statement confirming that Russia agreed to a 30 percent increase in the transit fees through Ukraine. The alleged rise in the tariff will be from $7.8 to $9.50 (or €6.6) per tonne of oil for transiting Ukraine in 2010, and this was implemented due to the decision from Russia to raise prices of the energy resources. Additionally, unlike previous payments, new payments will be made in Euros, as this was one of Ukraine's demands. Also, Ukraine needs substantial investments to update the network on its territory as the pipeline has aged. Russia and Ukraine also agreed on the volume of oil to be transported through Ukraine in 2010. The overall amount of oil to be transported to Slovakia, the Czech Republic and Hungary through Ukraine in 2010 will be 15 million tonnes, a decrease from 17.1 million tonnes in 2008.

2019 oil contamination scandal
The delivery of oil was halted on 20 April 2019 due to high concentrations of organic chloride found in the pipeline. These chemical compounds contaminated the pipeline and equipment in Russia and Europe causing an economic impact of billions of dollars. Investigation into the scandal is ongoing with individuals being detained in Russia suspected of having stolen oil and pouring in organochloride to the pipeline to cover up the theft.

Disputes over payment for contaminated oil were ongoing a month later.

By late May, a month after the contamination was discovered, Russia agreed to take back some of the 8-9m tons of contaminated oil remaining in the pipeline.

Estimates of overall contaminated stock, including that still in the pipeline and other stock pumped to tankers or to storage range from 20-40m tons as of end May. This stock will all require dilution before it can be refined.

In mid-September 2019, almost five months after the contamination was noticed, the Polish pipeline operator confirmed their section of the pipeline had been cleared of contamination and was operating normally. 450,000 tons of contaminated oil had been moved to storage.

Also in September 2019, oil companies BP and Total were trying to sell 2.3m barrels (over 300,000 tons) of tainted oil that they had received earlier from the pipeline.

2020 Belarus–Russia
In February 2020, Belarus threatened to take oil from the Druzhba pipeline if Russia did not supply it with the required volumes of crude oil. As of February 2022, Russian oil supplies to Belarus had not been agreed to for 2020 and shipments had dwindled to 500,000 tonnes, down from a previously planned 2 million tonnes. Belarusian President Alexander Lukashenko said Moscow hinted at an energy supply deal in exchange for Belarus merging with Russia, which caused talks to collapse.

2023 comment on possible sabotage of pipeline
In 2023, apparent classified U.S. intelligence documents released in the 2022–2023 Pentagon document leaks included a note of a conversation between the President of Ukraine and Deputy Prime Minister Yulia Svyrydenko in which Volodymyr Zelensky suggested blowing up the Druzhba pipeline to hit Hungarian industry, as Orban's government was too friendly towards the Kremlin during the Russo-Ukrainian War. A Hungarian government official stated that this proposed sabotage by Zelensky prompted Hungary to block funding of the European Peace Facility.

title: Druzhba pipeline


text: File:Matmos-The Civil War.jpg

title: File:Matmos-The Civil War.jpg


text:
List of drugs: Al

ala-alb

 * Ala-Cort
 * Ala-Quin
 * Ala-Scalp
 * Ala-Tet
 * alacepril (INN)
 * alacizumab pegol (INN)
 * alafosfalin (INN)
 * alagebrium chloride (USAN)
 * Alamast
 * alanine (INN)
 * alanosine (INN)
 * alaproclate (INN)
 * alatrofloxacin (INN)
 * Alavert
 * alazanine triclofenate (INN)
 * albaconazole (USAN)
 * Albalon
 * Albamycin
 * albendazole oxide (INN)
 * albendazole (INN)
 * Albenza
 * Albert Tiafen
 * albifylline (INN)
 * albiglutide (USAN)
 * albinterferon alfa-2B (USAN, INN)
 * albitiazolium bromide (INN)
 * albuglutide (INN)
 * Albuminar
 * Albunex
 * Albutein
 * albuterol (INN)
 * albutoin (INN)

alc-ale

 * alcaftadine (USAN, INN)
 * Alcaine
 * Alcalak
 * alclofenac (INN)
 * alclometasone (INN)
 * alcloxa (INN)
 * alcohol, the type known as ethanol
 * Alcomicin
 * Alconefrinasal Solution
 * alcuronium chloride (INN)
 * Aldactazide
 * Aldactone
 * Aldara (3m), also known as imiquimod
 * aldesleukin (INN)
 * aldesulfone sodium (INN)
 * aldioxa (INN)
 * Aldoclor
 * Aldomet (Merck), also known as methyldopa
 * Aldoril
 * aldosterone (INN)
 * Aldurazyme
 * alefacept (USAN)
 * aleglitazar (USAN, INN)
 * alemtuzumab (INN)
 * alendronic acid (INN)
 * alentemol (INN)
 * aleplasinin (USAN, INN)
 * alepride (INN)
 * Aler-Dryl
 * Alertec
 * Alesse
 * alestramustine (INN)
 * Aleve (Bayer), also known as naproxen
 * alexidine (INN)
 * alexitol sodium (INN)

alf-alg

 * alfacalcidol (INN)
 * alfadex (INN)
 * alfadolone (INN)
 * alfaprostol (INN)
 * alfaxalone (INN)
 * Alfenta (Taylor) redirects to alfentanil
 * alfentanil (INN)
 * alferminogene tadenovec (USAN, INN)
 * Alferon
 * alfetamine (INN)
 * alfimeprase (USAN)
 * alfuzosin (INN)
 * algeldrate (INN)
 * algenpantucel-L (USAN)
 * algestone (INN)
 * alglucerase (INN)
 * alglucosidase alfa (USAN)

ali-alk

 * alibendol (INN)
 * alicaforsen (INN, USAN)
 * aliconazole (INN)
 * alifedrine (INN)
 * aliflurane (INN)
 * alimadol (INN)
 * alimemazine (INN)
 * Alimta (Eli Lilly and Company)
 * alinastine (INN)
 * Alinia (Romark Laboratories)
 * alinidine (INN)
 * alipamide (INN)
 * alipogene tiparvovec (INN)
 * alisertib (INN, USAN)
 * aliskiren (USAN)
 * alisporivir INN, USAN)
 * alitretinoin (INN)
 * alizapride (INN)
 * Alka-Mints (Bayer)
 * Alka-Seltzer (Bayer)
 * Alkeran (GlaxoSmithKline)
 * Alkergot (Sandoz)

all

 * Allay (BioElectronics)
 * Allegra-D (Sanofi-Aventis) mixture of fexofenadine and pseudoephedrine
 * Allegra (Sanofi-Aventis), also known as fexofenadine
 * Aller-Chlor
 * Allercon Tablet
 * Allerdryl (Valeant Pharmaceuticals)
 * Allerfed
 * AllerMax
 * Allernix
 * Allerphed
 * Allersol
 * Alli (GlaxoSmithKline)
 * alletorphine (INN)
 * allobarbital (INN)
 * alloclamide (INN)
 * allocupreide sodium (INN)
 * allomethadione (INN)
 * allopurinol (INN)
 * allylestrenol (INN)
 * allylprodine (INN)
 * allylthiourea (INN)

alm-aln

 * almadrate sulfate (INN)
 * almagate (INN)
 * almagodrate amcinonide (INN)
 * almasilate (INN)
 * almecillin (INN)
 * almestrone (INN)
 * alminoprofen (INN)
 * almitrine (INN)
 * almokalant (INN)
 * almorexant INN
 * almotriptan (INN)
 * almoxatone (INN)
 * almurtide (INN)
 * alnespirone (INN)
 * alniditan (INN)

alo

 * Alocril
 * alogliptin (USAN, INN)
 * Alomide
 * alonacic (INN)
 * alonimid (INN)
 * Alophen
 * Aloprim
 * Alora
 * aloracetam (INN)
 * alosetron (INN)
 * alovudine (INN)
 * Aloxi
 * aloxiprin (INN)
 * aloxistatin (INN)
 * alozafone (INN)

alp-als

 * alpertine (INN)
 * Alpha Chymar
 * Alphacaine
 * alphacetylmethadol (INN)
 * Alphaderm
 * Alphadrol
 * alphafilcon A (USAN)
 * Alphagan
 * Alphalin
 * alphameprodine (INN)
 * alphamethadol (INN)
 * Alphamul
 * Alphanate
 * AlphaNine SD
 * alphaprodine (INN)
 * Alphaquin HP
 * Alpharedisol
 * Alphatrex
 * Alphazine
 * alpidem (INN)
 * alpiropride (INN)
 * alprafenone (INN)
 * alprazolam (INN)
 * alprenolol (INN)
 * alprostadil (INN)
 * alrestatin (INN)
 * Alrex
 * alsactide (INN)

alt-aly

 * Altace (Pfizer/Sanofi-Aventis)
 * Altamist
 * altanserin (INN)
 * altapizone (INN)
 * Altebrel (INN)
 * alteconazole (INN)
 * alteplase (INN)
 * Altinac
 * altinicline (INN)
 * altizide (INN)
 * Altocor
 * altoqualine (INN)
 * altrenogest (INN)
 * altretamine (INN)
 * altumomab (INN)
 * Altuviiio
 * Alu-Cap
 * Alu-Tab
 * Aludrox
 * aluminium clofibrate (INN)
 * Alupent (Boehringer Ingelheim)
 * Alustra
 * alusulf (INN)
 * alvameline maleate (USAN)
 * alvelestat (INN)
 * alverine (INN)
 * alvespimycin (USAN, INN)
 * alvimopan (USAN)
 * alvircept sudotox (INN)
 * alvocidib (INN)
 * Alyglo

title: List of drugs: Al


text:
Pierre Auger Observatory

The Pierre Auger Observatory is an international cosmic ray observatory in Argentina designed to detect ultra-high-energy cosmic rays: sub-atomic particles traveling nearly at the speed of light and each with energies beyond $eV$. In Earth's atmosphere such particles interact with air nuclei and produce various other particles. These effect particles (called an "air shower") can be detected and measured. But since these high energy particles have an estimated arrival rate of just 1 per km2 per century, the Auger Observatory has created a detection area of 3000 km2—the size of Rhode Island, or Luxembourg—in order to record a large number of these events. It is located in the western Mendoza Province, Argentina, near the Andes.

Construction began in 2000, the observatory has been taking production-grade data since 2005 and was officially completed in 2008. The northern site was to be located in southeastern Colorado, United States and hosted by Lamar Community College. It also was to consist of water-Cherenkov detectors and fluorescence telescopes, covering the area of 10,370 km2—3.3 times larger than Auger South.

The observatory was named after the French physicist Pierre Victor Auger. The project was proposed by Jim Cronin and Alan Watson in 1992. Today, more than 500 physicists from nearly 100 institutions around the world are collaborating to maintain and upgrade the site in Argentina and collect and analyse the measured data. The 15 participating countries shared the $50 million construction budget, each providing a small portion of the total cost.

Physical background
From outer space, ultra-high-energy cosmic rays reach Earth. These consist of single sub-atomic particles (protons or atomic nuclei), each with energy levels beyond $eV$. When such a single particle reaches Earth atmosphere, it has its energy dissipated by creating billions of other particles: electrons, photons and muons, all near the speed of light. These particles spread longitudinally (perpendicular to the single particle incoming route), creating a forward moving plane of particles, with higher intensities near the axis. Such an incident is called an "air shower". Passing through the atmosphere, this plane of particles creates UV light, invisible to the human eye, called the fluorescing effect, more or less in the pattern of straight lightning traces. These traces can be photographed at high speed by specialised telescopes, called Fluorescence Detectors, overlooking an area at a slight elevation. Then, when the particles reach the Earth's surface, they can be detected when they arrive in a water tank, where they cause visible blue light due to the Cherenkov effect. A sensitive photoelectric tube can catch these impacts. Such a station is called a water-Cherenkov Detector or 'tank'. The Auger Observatory has both types of detectors covering the same area, which allows for very precise measurements.

When an air shower hits multiple Cherenkov Detectors on the ground, the direction of the ray can be calculated using basic geometrics. The longitudinal axis point can be determined from the densities in each affected ground station. Depending on the time difference of impact places, the angle of the axis can be determined. Only when the axis would be vertical, all ground detectors register at the very same moment in time, and any tilting of the axis will cause a time difference between earliest and latest touchdown.

Earlier observatories
Cosmic rays were discovered in 1912 by Victor Hess. He measured a difference in ionisation at different heights (using the Eiffel tower and a Hess-manned hot air balloon), an indication of the atmospheric thinning (so spreading) of a single ray. Influence of the Sun was ruled out by measuring during an eclipse. Many scientists researched the phenomenon, sometimes independently, and in 1937 Pierre Auger could conclude in detail that it was a single ray that interacted with air nuclei, causing an electron and photon air shower. At the same time, the third particle muon was discovered (behaving like a very heavy electron).

Surface detector (SD)
In 1967 University of Leeds had developed a water-Cherenkov detector (or surface station; a small water basin, 1.2 m deep; also called tank) and created a 12 km2 detection area Haverah Park using 200 such tanks. They were arranged in groups of four in a triangular (Y) ground pattern, the triangles in different sizes. The observatory worked for 20 years, and produced the main design parameters for the ground detection system at Auger Observatory. It was Alan Watson who in the later years led the research team and subsequently co-initiated Auger Observatory Collaboration.

Fluorescence detector (FD)
Meanwhile, from the Volcano Ranch (New Mexico, 1959–1978), the Fly's Eye (Dugway, Utah) and its successor the High Resolution Fly's Eye Cosmic Ray Detector called "HiRes" or "Fly's Eye" (University of Utah), the technique of the fluorescence detector was developed. These are optical telescopes, adjusted to picture UV light rays when looking over a surface area. It uses faceted observation (hence the fly's eye reference), to produce pixeled pictures at high speed. In 1992, James Cronin led the research and co-initiated the Auger Observation Collaboration.

Designing and building
The Pierre Auger Observatory is unique in that it is the first experiment that combines both ground detectors and fluorescence detectors at the same site thus allowing cross-calibration and reduction of systematic effects that may be peculiar to each technique. The Cherenkov detectors use three large photomultiplier tubes to detect the Cherenkov radiation produced by high-energy particles passing through water in the tank. The time of arrival of high-energy particles from the same shower at several tanks is used to calculate the direction of travel of the original particle. The fluorescence detectors are used to track the particle air shower's glow on cloudless moonless nights, as it descends through the atmosphere.

In 1995 at Fermilab, Chicago, the basic design was made for the Auger observatory. For half a year, many scientists produced the main requirements, and a cost estimation, for the projected Auger. The observatory's area had to be reduced from 5000 km2 to 3000 km2.

When construction began, a full-scale prototype was set up first: the Engineering Array. This array consisted of the first 40 ground detectors and a single fluorescence detector. All were fully equipped. The engineering array operated for 6 months in 2001 as a prototype; it was later integrated into the main setup. It was used to make more detailed design choices (like which type of photomultiplier tube (PMT) to use, and tank water quality requirements) and to calibrate.

In 2003, it became the largest ultra-high energy cosmic ray detector in the world. It is located on the vast plain of Pampa Amarilla, near the town of Malargüe in Mendoza Province, Argentina. The basic set-up consists of 1600 water Cherenkov Detectors or 'tanks', (similar to the Haverah Park experiment) distributed over 3000 km2, along with 24 atmospheric Fluorescence Detector telescopes (FD; similar to the High Resolution Fly's Eye) overseeing the surface array.

To support the atmospheric measurements (FD measurements), supporting stations are added to the site:
 * Central Laser Facility station (CLF)
 * eXtreme Laser Facility (XLF)
 * The four fluorescence detector stations also operate: Lidar, infrared cloud detection (IR camera), a weather station, aerosol phase function monitors (APF; 2 out of four), optical telescopes HAM (one) and FRAM (one)
 * Balloon launch station (BLS): until December 2010, within hours after a notable shower a meteorologic balloon was launched to record atmospheric data up to 23 km height.

Results
The observatory has been taking good-quality data since 2005 and was officially completed in 2008.

In November 2007, the Auger Project team announced some preliminary results. These showed that the directions of origin of the 27 highest-energy events were correlated with the locations of active galactic nuclei (AGNs). A subsequent test with a much larger data sample revealed however that the large degree of initially observed correlation was most probably due to a statistical fluctuation.

In 2017, data from 12 years of observations enabled the discovery of a significant anisotropy of the arrival direction of cosmic rays at energies above $8 eV$. This supports that extragalactic sources (i.e. outside of our galaxy) for the origin of these extremely high energy cosmic rays (see Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray). However, it is not yet known what type of galaxies are responsible for the acceleration of these ultra-high-energy cosmic rays. This question remains under investigation with the AugerPrime upgrade of the Pierre Auger Observatory.

The Pierre Auger Collaboration has made available (for outreach purposes) 1 percent of the ground array events below 50 EeV ($eV$). Higher energy events require more physical analysis and are not published this way. The data can be explored at the Public Event Display web site.

As of October 2021, a portion of the data (10 percent) presented at the 2019 International Cosmic Ray Conference in Madison, USA, is publicly available.

Developments
Research and development was done on new detection techniques and ( to ) on possible upgrades to the observatory, including:
 * three additional fluorescence detecting telescopes, capable of covering higher altitudes (HEAT—High Elevation Auger Telescopes)
 * two higher-density nested arrays of surface detectors combined with underground muon counters (AMIGA—Auger Muons and Infill for the Ground Array)
 * a prototype radiotelescope array (AERA—Auger Engineering Radio Array) for detecting radioemission from the shower cascade, in the frequency range 30–80 MHz
 * R&D on detecting microwave emission from shower electrons (frequencies around 4 GHz)

AugerPrime Upgrade
AugerPrime is a major upgrade of the Pierre Auger Observatory under construction since 2019:
 * the surface detectors will be enhanced by scintillation detectors and radio antennas
 * the duty cycle of the FD measurements will be extended for the highest energies to include nights with moon light
 * AMIGA will be completed: in a 20 km2 densely spaced area of the surface detector, each surface detector will be equipped with underground muon detectors

All these enhancements aim at increasing the measurement accuracy of the Pierre Auger Observatory, in particular for the mass of the primary cosmic-ray particles.

In popular culture
Argentina issued 100,000 postage stamps honouring the observatory on 14 July 2007. The stamp shows a surface detector tank in the foreground, a building of fluorescence detectors in the background, and the expression "$eV$" in large lettering.

title: Pierre Auger Observatory


text:
Lester Germer

Lester Halbert Germer (October 10, 1896 – October 3, 1971) was an American physicist. With Clinton Davisson, he proved the wave-particle duality of matter in the Davisson–Germer experiment, which was important to the development of the electron microscope. These studies supported the theoretical work of De Broglie. He also studied thermionics, erosion of metals, and contact physics. He was awarded the Elliott Cresson Medal in 1931.

A former fighter pilot in World War I, Germer subsequently worked at Bell Labs in New Jersey.

In 1945 (at the age of 49), Germer launched a side career as a rock climber. He climbed widely around the Northeast United States, and especially at New York's Shawangunk Ridge. Although the Appalachian Mountain Club was dominant in the area at the time, and strictly regulated rock climbing, Lester was never associated with the club, and found himself in conflict with the leading climber in the area, Hans Kraus, who was head of the AMC's Safety Committee. He was once turned down for climbing certification with the comment "Likes people too much and is too enthusiastic." Lester was known for being generous and friendly. He was once called "A one man climbing school."

In 1971, one week before his 75th birthday, Lester Germer died of a massive heart attack while lead climbing a rock climb at the Shawangunk Ridge (Double Chin, 5.6). Until that moment, Lester had a 26-year perfect safety record in rock climbing; he had never even taken a leader fall.

title: Lester Germer


text:
New Thought

The New Thought movement (also Higher Thought) is a new religious movement that coalesced in the United States in the early 19th century. New Thought was seen by its adherents as succeeding "ancient thought", accumulated wisdom and philosophy from a variety of origins, such as Ancient Greek, Roman, Egyptian, Chinese, Taoist, Hindu, and Buddhist cultures and their related belief systems, primarily regarding the interaction among thought, belief, consciousness in the human mind, and the effects of these within and beyond the human mind. Though no direct line of transmission is traceable, many adherents to New Thought in the 19th and 20th centuries claimed to be direct descendants of those systems.

Although there have been many leaders and various offshoots of the New Thought philosophy, the origins of New Thought have often been traced back to Phineas Quimby, or even as far back as Franz Mesmer, who was one of the first European thinkers to link one's mental state to physical condition. Many of these groups are incorporated into the International New Thought Alliance. The contemporary New Thought movement is a loosely allied group of religious denominations, authors, philosophers, and individuals who share a set of beliefs concerning metaphysics, positive thinking, the law of attraction, healing, life force, creative visualization, and personal power.

New Thought holds that Infinite Intelligence, or God, is everywhere, spirit is the totality of real things, true human selfhood is divine, divine thought is a force for good, sickness originates in the mind, and "right thinking" has a healing effect. Although New Thought is neither monolithic nor doctrinaire, in general, modern-day adherents of New Thought share some core beliefs:

 * 1) God or Infinite Intelligence is "supreme, universal, and everlasting";
 * 2) divinity dwells within each person, that all people are spiritual beings;
 * 3) "the highest spiritual principle [is] loving one another unconditionally... and teaching and healing one another"; and
 * 4) "our mental states are carried forward into manifestation and become our experience in daily living".

William James used the term "New Thought" as synonymous with the "Mind cure movement", in which he included many sects with diverse origins, such as idealism and Hinduism.

Overview
William James, in The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902), described New Thought:

"[F]or the sake of having a brief designation, I will give the title of the 'Mind-cure movement.' There are various sects of this 'New Thought,' to use another of the names by which it calls itself; but their agreements are so profound that their differences may be neglected for my present purpose, and I will treat the movement, without apology, as if it were a simple thing.

It is an optimistic scheme of life, with both a speculative and a practical side. In its gradual development during the last quarter of a century, it has taken up into itself a number of contributory elements, and it must now be reckoned with as a genuine religious power. It has reached the stage, for example, when the demand for its literature is great enough for insincere stuff, mechanically produced for the market, to be to a certain extent supplied by publishers – a phenomenon never observed, I imagine, until a religion has got well past its earliest insecure beginnings.

One of the doctrinal sources of Mind-cure is the four Gospels; another is Emersonianism or New England transcendentalism; another is Berkeleyan idealism; another is spiritism, with its messages of 'law' and 'progress' and 'development'; another the optimistic popular science evolutionism of which I have recently spoken; and, finally, Hinduism has contributed a strain. But the most characteristic feature of the mind-cure movement is an inspiration much more direct. The leaders in this faith have had an intuitive belief in the all-saving power of healthy-minded attitudes as such, in the conquering efficacy of courage, hope, and trust, and a correlative contempt for doubt, fear, worry, and all nervously precautionary states of mind. Their belief has in a general way been corroborated by the practical experience of their disciples; and this experience forms to-day a mass imposing in amount."

Origins
The New Thought movement was based on the teachings of Phineas Quimby (1802–1866), an American mesmerist and healer. Quimby had developed a belief system that included the tenet that illness originated in the mind as a consequence of erroneous beliefs and that a mind open to God's wisdom could overcome any illness. His basic premise was:

"The trouble is in the mind, for the body is only the house for the mind to dwell in [...] Therefore, if your mind had been deceived by some invisible enemy into a belief, you have put it into the form of a disease, with or without your knowledge. By my theory or truth, I come in contact with your enemy, and restore you to health and happiness. This I do partly mentally, and partly by talking till I correct the wrong impression and establish the Truth, and the Truth is the cure."

During the late 19th century, the metaphysical healing practices of Quimby mingled with the "Mental Science" of Warren Felt Evans, a Swedenborgian minister. Mary Baker Eddy, the founder of Christian Science, has sometimes been cited as having used Quimby as inspiration for theology. Eddy was a patient of Quimby's and shared his view that disease is rooted in a mental cause. Because of its theism, Christian Science differs from the teachings of Quimby.

In the late 19th century, New Thought was propelled by a number of spiritual thinkers and philosophers and emerged through a variety of religious denominations and churches, particularly the Unity Church and Church of Divine Science (established in 1889 and 1888, respectively), followed by Religious Science (the Institute of Religious Science and Philosophy was established in 1927). Many of its early teachers and students were women; notable among the founders of the movement were Emma Curtis Hopkins, known as the "teacher of teachers", Myrtle Fillmore, Malinda Cramer, and Nona L. Brooks; with many of its churches and community centers led by women, from the 1880s to today.

Growth

New Thought is also largely a movement of the printed word.

Prentice Mulford, through writing Your Forces and How to Use Them, a series of essays published during 1886–1892, was pivotal in the development of New Thought thinking, including the Law of Attraction.

In 1906, William Walker Atkinson (1862–1932) wrote and published Thought Vibration or the Law of Attraction in the Thought World. Atkinson was the editor of New Thought magazine and the author of more than 100 books on an assortment of religious, spiritual, and occult topics. The following year, Elizabeth Towne, the editor of The Nautilus, published Bruce MacLelland's book Prosperity Through Thought Force, in which he summarized the "Law of Attraction" as a New Thought principle, stating "You are what you think, not what you think you are."

These magazines were used to reach a large audience then, as others are now. Nautilus magazine, for example, had 45,000 subscribers and a total circulation of 150,000. One Unity Church magazine, Wee Wisdom, was the longest-lived children's magazine in the United States, published from 1893 until 1991. Today, New Thought magazines include Daily Word, published by Unity (Unity.org) and the Religious Science magazine; and Science of Mind, published by the Centers for Spiritual Living.

Major gatherings
The 1915 International New Thought Alliance (INTA) conference – held in conjunction with the Panama–Pacific International Exposition, a world's fair that took place in San Francisco – featured New Thought speakers from far and wide. The PPIE organizers were so favorably impressed by the INTA convention that they declared a special "New Thought Day" at the fair and struck a commemorative bronze medal for the occasion, which was presented to the INTA delegates, led by Annie Rix Militz. By 1916, the International New Thought Alliance had encompassed many smaller groups around the world, adopting a creed known as the "Declaration of Principles". The Alliance is held together by one central teaching: that people, through the constructive use of their minds, can attain freedom, power, health, prosperity, and all good, molding their bodies as well as the circumstances of their lives. The declaration was revised in 1957, with all references to Christianity removed, and a new statement based on the "inseparable oneness of God and Man".

Beliefs
The chief tenets of New Thought are:
 * Infinite Intelligence or God is omnipotent and omnipresent.
 * Spirit is the ultimate reality.
 * True human self-hood is divine.
 * Divinely attuned thought is a positive force for good.
 * All disease is mental in origin.
 * Right thinking has a healing effect.

Evolution of thought
Adherents also generally believe that as humankind gains greater understanding of the world, New Thought itself will evolve to assimilate new knowledge. Alan Anderson and Deb Whitehouse have described New Thought as a "process" in which each individual and even the New Thought Movement itself is "new every moment". Thomas McFaul has claimed "continuous revelation", with new insights being received by individuals continuously over time. Jean Houston has spoken of the "possible human", or what we are capable of becoming.

Theological inclusionism
The Home of Truth has, from its inception as the Pacific Coast Metaphysical Bureau in the 1880s, under the leadership of Annie Rix Militz, disseminated the teachings of the Hindu teacher Swami Vivekananda. It is one of the more outspokenly interfaith of New Thought organizations, stating adherence to "the principle that Truth is Truth where ever it is found and who ever is sharing it". Joel S. Goldsmith's The Infinite Way incorporates teaching from Christian Science, as well.

Therapeutic ideas
Divine Science, Unity Church, and Religious Science are organizations that developed from the New Thought movement. Each teaches that Infinite Intelligence, or God, is the sole reality. New Thought adherents believe that sickness is the result of the failure to realize this truth. In this line of thinking, healing is accomplished by the affirmation of oneness with the Infinite Intelligence or God.

John Bovee Dods (1795–1862), an early practitioner of New Thought, wrote several books on the idea that disease originates in the electrical impulses of the nervous system and is therefore curable by a change of belief. Later New Thought teachers, such as the early-20th-century author, editor, and publisher William Walker Atkinson, accepted this premise. He connected his idea of mental states of being with his understanding of the new scientific discoveries in electromagnetism and neural processes.

Criticism
The New Thought movement has been criticized as a "get-rich-quick scheme" as much of its literature contains esoteric advice to make money.

Although the movement began with roots in feminism and socialism, it increasingly attached itself to far right and racist ideology, arguing that poverty was a sign of spiritual weakness, and that "for the sake of race improvement... poverty and suffering must not be alleviated by the state."

Movement
New Thought publishing and educational activities reach approximately 2.5 million people annually. The largest New Thought-oriented denomination is the Japanese Seicho-no-Ie. Other belief systems within the New Thought movement include Jewish Science, Religious Science/Centers for Spiritual Living and Unity. Past denominations have included Psychiana and Father Divine.

Religious Science operates under three main organizations: the Centers for Spiritual Living; the Affiliated New Thought Network; and Global Religious Science Ministries. Ernest Holmes, the founder of Religious Science, stated that Religious Science is not based on any "authority" of established beliefs, but rather on "what it can accomplish" for the people who practice it. The Science of Mind, authored by Ernest Holmes, while based on a philosophy of being "open at the top", focuses extensively on the teachings of Jesus Christ. Unity, founded by Charles and Myrtle Fillmore, identifies itself as "Christian New Thought", focused on "Christian idealism", with the Bible as one of its main texts, although not interpreted literally. The other core text is Lessons in Truth by H. Emilie Cady. The Universal Foundation for Better Living, or UFBL, was founded in 1974 by Johnnie Colemon in Chicago, Illinois, after breaking away from the Unity Church for "blatant racism".

General bibliography

 * Anderson, Alan and Deb Whitehouse. New Thought: A Practical American Spirituality. 2003.
 * Braden, Charles S. Spirits in Rebellion: The Rise and Development of New Thought, Southern Methodist University Press, 1963.
 * Judah, J. Stillson. The History and Philosophy of the Metaphysical Movements in America. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. 1967. Review by Neil Duddy.
 * Braden, Charles S. Spirits in Rebellion: The Rise and Development of New Thought, Southern Methodist University Press, 1963.
 * Judah, J. Stillson. The History and Philosophy of the Metaphysical Movements in America. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. 1967. Review by Neil Duddy.
 * Judah, J. Stillson. The History and Philosophy of the Metaphysical Movements in America. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. 1967. Review by Neil Duddy.

title: New Thought


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Oakley (fashion)

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was Keep. I realize five hours is short for a VfD discussion, but the subject's notability has been established, the nomination was withdrawn, and there is clear consensus. A и D я 01D TALK  EMAIL  00:51, May 28, 2005 (UTC)

Oakley (fashion)
This small eyeware copany does not seem in any way encyclopedic. The only link is to the companies own site. Google hits seem solely for sales outlets. Wikipedia is not a yellow pages. Delete. DES 18:54, 27 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Extremely Strong Keep Oakley is a "small company"?! They're pretty much a household word (in the US at least) and probably the most famous sunglass company in the world.  Lots of their own stores, and strong presence in chains like Sunglass Hut, etc.  1,730,000 Google hits (yes, that's 1.7 MILLION) for Oakley +sunglasses!  Andrew Lenahan - St ar bli nd  19:35, May 27, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Notable company and fashion trend-setter. Wouldn't Google hits seem solely for sales outlets, when there are 1.7 million hits as Starblind says, imply that this company has a rather large volume of sales? A и D я 01D  TALK  EMAIL  20:00, May 27, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. NYSE listed company, symbol OO. $1 billion market cap, annual revenues in the $125-150 million range.  This is what we are calling a "small eyeware company"?  Maybe move to Oakley, Inc.. --Tabor 20:37, 27 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. NYSE listed company. Zzyzx11 (Talk) 21:05, 27 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Well-known global company. Mindmatrix 21:43, 27 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. It's a stub, but a good one. And Oakley is certainly notable and encyclopedic. A Man In Black 22:24, 27 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Publicly listed company notable for sunglasses. Capitalistroadster 23:26, 27 May 2005 (UTC)
 * keep please this does not belong here on vfd Yuckfoo 23:45, 27 May 2005 (UTC)
 * Withdraw while I am not fully convinced of the encyclopedic nature of this company, it seems that I didn't do my research as well as I should have. I encountered this entry while fixing accessory, and noted a comment on the discussion page questioning its encyclopedic status. My inital research seemed to me to support that doubt. The emerging consensus seems clear, and I hereby withdraw my nomination. I do think that additional materiel to make clear just why this company is encyclopedic should be added to the article. DES 23:54, 27 May 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Owen Bank

Owen Bank is a wholly submerged atoll structure in the Chagos Archipelago, Indian Ocean. The reported location is 06°47'S, 070°14'E to 06°48'S, 070°15'E, thus the bank is the westernmost feature of the Chagos group. The closest islands are Danger Island on the Great Chagos Bank, and Île Sipaille in the Egmont Atoll, both located about 120 km East-North-East of Owen Bank.

This geographic feature is not mentioned in the current Indian Ocean Pilot, but it appears in the British Admiralty nautical charts.

title: Owen Bank


text:
Wallace v. International Business Machines Corp.

Wallace v. International Business Machines Corp., 467 F.3d 1104 (7th Cir. 2006), was a significant case in the development of free software. The case decided, at the Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, that in United States law the GNU General Public License (GPL) did not contravene federal antitrust laws.

Daniel Wallace, a United States citizen, sued the Free Software Foundation (FSF) for price fixing. In a later lawsuit, he unsuccessfully sued IBM, Novell, and Red Hat. Wallace claimed that free Linux prevented him from making a profit from selling his own operating system.

FSF lawsuit
On April 28, 2005, Daniel Wallace filed suit against the FSF in the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Indiana, stating that the GPL, by requiring copies of computer software licensed under it to be made available freely, and possibly even at no cost, is tantamount to price fixing. In November 2005 the case was dismissed without prejudice, and Wallace filed multiple amended complaints in an effort to satisfy the requirements of an antitrust allegation. His fourth and final amended complaint was dismissed on March 20, 2006, by Judge John Daniel Tinder, and Wallace was ordered to pay the FSF's costs. In its decision to grant the motion to dismiss, the Court ruled that Wallace had failed to allege any antitrust injury on which his claim could be based, since Wallace was obligated to claim not only that he had been injured but also that the had. The Court instead found that
 * [T]he GPL encourages, rather than discourages, free competition and the distribution of computer operating systems, the benefits of which directly pass to consumers. These benefits include lower prices, better access and more innovation.

The Court also noted that prior cases have established that the Sherman Act was enacted to assure customers the benefits of price competition, and have emphasized the act's primary purpose of protecting the economic freedom of participants in the relevant market. This decision thus supports the right of authors and content creators to offer their creations free of charge.

IBM, Novell, and Red Hat lawsuit
In 2006, Daniel Wallace filed a lawsuit against the software companies IBM, Novell, and Red Hat, who profit from the distribution of open-source software, specifically the Linux operating system. Wallace's allegation was that these software companies were engaging in anticompetitive price fixing.

On May 16, 2006, Judge Richard L. Young dismissed the case with prejudice:

 * Wallace has had two chances to amend his complaint [...]. His continuing failure to state an antitrust claim indicates that the complaint has "inherent internal flaws."  [...] Wallace will not be granted further leave to file an amended complaint because the court finds that such amendment would be futile.

Wallace later filed an appeal in the Seventh Circuit Appeal Court, where his case was heard de novo in front of a three-judge panel led by Frank Easterbrook. He lost his appeal, with the judge citing a number of problems with his complaint.