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Augustan literature

Augustan literature (sometimes referred to misleadingly as Georgian literature) is a style of British literature produced during the reigns of Queen Anne, King George I, and George II in the first half of the 18th century and ending in the 1740s, with the deaths of Alexander Pope and Jonathan Swift, in 1744 and 1745, respectively. It was a literary epoch that featured the rapid development of the novel, an explosion in satire, the mutation of drama from political satire into melodrama and an evolution toward poetry of personal exploration. In philosophy, it was an age increasingly dominated by empiricism, while in the writings of political economy, it marked the evolution of mercantilism as a formal philosophy, the development of capitalism and the triumph of trade.

The chronological boundary points of the era are generally vague, largely since the label's origin in contemporary 18th-century criticism has made it a shorthand designation for a somewhat nebulous age of satire. Samuel Johnson, whose famous A Dictionary of the English Language was published in 1755, is also "to some extent" associated with the Augustan period. The new Augustan period exhibited exceptionally bold political writings in all genres, with the satires of the age marked by an arch, ironic pose, full of nuance and a superficial air of dignified calm that hid sharp criticisms beneath.

While the period is generally known for its adoption of highly regulated and stylized literary forms, some of the concerns of writers of this period, with the emotions, folk and a self-conscious model of authorship, foreshadowed the preoccupations of the later Romantic era. In general, philosophy, politics and literature underwent a turn away from older courtly concerns towards something closer to a modern sensibility.

Historical context
Alexander Pope, who had been imitating Horace, wrote an Epistle to Augustus that was in fact addressed to King George II (whose middle name was Augustus), and seemingly endorsed the notion of his age being like that of Augustus, when poetry became more mannered, political and satirical than in the era of Julius Caesar. Later, Voltaire and Oliver Goldsmith (in his History of Literature in 1764) used the term "Augustan" to refer to the literature of the 1720s and the 1730s.

Outside poetry, however, the Augustan era is generally known by other names. Partially because of the rise of empiricism and partially because of the self-conscious naming of the age in terms of ancient Rome, two rather imprecise labels have been affixed to the age. One is that it is the age of neoclassicism; the other is that it is the Age of Reason. While neoclassical criticism from France was imported to English letters, the English had abandoned their structures in all but name by the 1720s. Critics disagree over the applicability of the concept of "the Enlightenment" to the literary history of this period. Donald Greene argued forcefully that the age should rather be known as "The Age of Exuberance", and T. H. White made a case for "The Age of Scandal". More recently, Roy Porter put forward the notion of a distinctively "English Enlightenment" to characterise the intellectual climate of the period.

One of the most critical elements of the 18th century was the increasing availability of printed material, both for readers and authors. Books fell in price dramatically and used books were sold at Bartholomew Fair and other fairs. Additionally, a brisk trade in chapbooks and broadsheets carried London trends and information out to the farthest reaches of the kingdom. That was furthered with the establishment of periodicals, including The Gentleman's Magazine and the London Magazine. People in York aware of the happenings of Parliament and the court, but people in London were also more aware than before of the happenings of York. Furthermore, before copyright, pirate editions were commonplace, especially in areas without frequent contact with London. Pirate editions thereby encouraged booksellers to increase their shipments to outlying centres like Dublin, which further increased awareness across the whole realm. That was compounded by the end of the Press Restriction Act in 1693, which allowed for provincial printing presses to be established, creating a printing structure that was no longer under government control (Clair 158–176).

All types of literature were spread quickly in all directions. Newspapers began and even multiplied. Furthermore, the newspapers were immediately compromised, as the political factions created their own newspapers, planted stories and bribed journalists. Leading clerics had their sermon collections printed, which were top selling books. Since dissenting, Establishment and Independent divines were in print, the constant movement of these works helped defuse any region's religious homogeneity and fostered emergent latitudinarianism. Periodicals were exceedingly popular, and the art of essay writing was at nearly its apex. Furthermore, the happenings of the Royal Society were published regularly, and they were digested and explained or celebrated in more popular presses. The latest books of scholarship had "keys", "indexes" and "digests" made of them that could popularise, summarise and explain them to a wide audience. The cross-index, now commonplace, was a novelty in the 18th century, and several persons created indexes for older books of learning to allow anyone to find what an author had to say about a given topic at a moment's notice. Books of etiquette, of correspondence and of moral instruction and hygiene multiplied. Economics began as a serious discipline but did so in the form of numerous "projects" for solving England, Ireland and Scotland's ills. Sermon collections, dissertations on religious controversy, and prophecies, both new and old and explained, cropped up in endless variety. In short, readers in the 18th century were overwhelmed by competing voices. Truth and falsehood sat side by side on the shelves, and anyone could be a published author, just as anyone could quickly pretend to be a scholar by using indexes and digests (Clair 45, 158–187).

The positive side of the explosion in information was that the 18th century was markedly more generally educated than the centuries before. Education was less confined to the upper classes than it had been in prior centuries so contributions to science, philosophy, economics, and literature came from all parts of the kingdom. It was the first time that literacy and a library were all that stood between a person and education. It was an age of "enlightenment" in the sense that the insistence and drive for reasonable explanations of nature and mankind was a rage. It was an "age of reason" in that it was an age that accepted clear, rational methods as superior to tradition. However, there was a dark side to such literacy as well, which authors of the 18th century felt at every turn, which was that nonsense and insanity were also getting more adherents than ever before. Charlatans and mountebanks were fooling more, just as sages were educating more, and alluring and lurid apocalypses vied with sober philosophy on the shelves. As with the World Wide Web in the 21st century, the democratisation of publishing meant that older systems for determining value and uniformity of view were both in shambles. Thus, it was increasingly difficult to trust books in the 18th century, as books were increasingly easy to make and buy.

Political and religious context
The Restoration period ended with the exclusion crisis and the Glorious Revolution, where Parliament set up a new rule for succession to the British throne that would always prefer Protestantism over consanguinity. That had brought William III and Mary II to the throne instead of James II, and that was codified in the Act of Settlement 1701. James had fled to France from where his son, James Francis Edward Stuart, launched an attempt to retake the throne in 1715. Another attempt was launched by the latter's son Charles Edward Stuart in 1745. The attempted invasions are often referred to as "the 15" and "the 45". When William died, Anne Stuart came to the throne. Anne's reign saw two wars and great triumphs by John Churchill, the Duke of Marlborough. Marlborough's wife, Sarah Churchill, was Anne's best friend, and many supposed that she secretly controlled the Queen in every respect. With the belief that true power rested in the hands of the leading ministers, the two factions of politics stepped up their opposition to each other, and Whig and Tory were at each other's throats. That weakness at the throne would lead quickly to the expansion of the powers of the party leader in Parliament and the establishment in all but name of the prime minister office in the form of Robert Walpole. When Anne died without a surviving issue, George I, Elector of Hanover, came to the throne. George I spoke poor English, and his isolation from the English people was instrumental in keeping his power relatively irrelevant.

His son, George II, on the other hand, spoke some English and some more French, and his rule was the first full Hanoverian rule in England. By then, the powers of Parliament had silently expanded, and his power was perhaps only equal to that of Parliament.

London's population exploded spectacularly. During the Restoration, it had grown from around 350,000 to 600,000 in 1700 (Old Bailey) (Millwall history). By 1800, it had reached 950,000. Not all of the residents were prosperous, as the Enclosure Acts had destroyed lower-class farming in the countryside, and rural areas experienced painful poverty. Communities of the country poor were forced to migrate or suffer (see Thompson, Whigs) so young people from the country often moved to London with hopes of achieving success, which swelled the ranks of the urban poor and cheap labour for city employers. It also meant an increase in numbers of criminals, prostitutes and beggars. The fears of property crime, rape and starvation found in Augustan literature should be kept in the context of London's growth and the depopulation of the countryside.

Partially because of the population pressures, property crime became a business both for the criminals and those who fed off of the criminals. Major crime lords like Jonathan Wild invented new schemes for stealing, and newspapers were eager to report crime. Biographies of the daring criminals became popular, which spawned fictional biographies of fictional criminals. Cautionary tales of country women abused by sophisticated rakes (such as Anne Bond) and libertines in the city were popular fare, and they prompted fictional accounts of exemplary women abused (or narrowly escaping abuse).

Increased population also meant that urban discontent was never particularly difficult to find for political opportunists, and London suffered a number of riots, most of them against supposed Roman Catholic provocateurs. When highly potent, inexpensive distilled spirits were introduced, matters worsened and authors and artists protested the innovation of gin (see, e.g. William Hogarth's Gin Lane). From 1710, the government encouraged distilling as a source of revenue and trade goods, and there were no licenses required for the manufacturing or selling of gin. There were documented instances of women drowning their infants to sell the child's clothes for gin, and the facilities created both the fodder for riots and the conditions against which riots would occur (Loughrey and Treadwell, 14). Dissenters (Protestants not conforming to the Church of England) recruited and preached to the poor of the city, and various offshoots of the Puritan and "Independent" (Baptist) movements increased their numbers substantially. One theme of the ministers was the danger of the Roman Catholic Church, which they frequently saw as the Whore of Babylon. While Anne tended to favor the High Church faction, particularly towards the close of her reign, the court of George I was more closely allied with Low Church and latitudinarian elements and was warmer to nonconformists. The convocation was effectively disbanded by George I, who was struggling with the House of Lords, and George II was pleased to keep it in abeyance. Additionally, both Georges were concerned with James Francis Edward Stuart and Charles Edward Stuart, who had considerable support in Scotland and Ireland, and many were suspected of being closet Jacobites. Walpole inflated fears of Stuart sympathisers from any group that did not support him.

History and literature
The literature of the 18th century, particularly the early 18th century, which is what "Augustan" most commonly indicates, is explicitly political in ways that few others are. Because the professional author was still not distinguishable from the hack-writer, those who wrote poetry, novels, and plays were frequently either politically active or politically funded. At the same time, an aesthetic of artistic detachment from the everyday world had yet to develop, and the aristocratic ideal of an author so noble as to be above political concerns was largely archaic and irrelevant. The period may be an "Age of Scandal", as authors dealt specifically with the crimes and the vices of their world.

Satire, in prose, drama and poetry, was the genre that attracted the most energetic and voluminous writing. The satires that were produced during the Augustan period were occasionally gentle and nonspecific, commentaries on the comically flawed human condition, but they were at least as frequently specific critiques of specific policies, actions and persons. Even the works studiously nontopical were, in fact, transparently political statements in the 18th century.

Consequently, readers of 18th-century literature now need to understand the history of the period more than most readers of other literature do. The authors were writing for an informed audience and only secondarily for posterity. Even the authors, who criticised writing that lived for only a day (like Jonathan Swift and Alexander Pope, in The Dedication to Prince Posterity of A Tale of a Tub and The Dunciad, among other pieces) were criticising specific authors, who are unknown to those without historical knowledge of the period. Poetry of all forms was in constant dialogue, and each author was responding and commenting upon the others. Novels were written against other novels (like the battles between Samuel Richardson and Henry Fielding, who, along with Eliza Haywood, wrote a novel satirising Richardson's Pamela, and between Laurence Sterne and Tobias Smollett). Plays were written to make fun of plays or to counter the success of plays (like the reaction against and for Cato and, later, Fielding's The Author's Farce). Therefore, history and literature are linked in a way rarely seen at other times. On one hand, the metropolitan and political writing can seem like coterie or salon work, but on the other hand, it was the literature of people deeply committed to sorting out a new type of government, new technologies and newly-vexatious challenges to philosophical and religious certainty.

Prose
The essay, satire, and dialogue (in philosophy and religion) thrived in the age, and the English novel was truly begun as a serious art form. Literacy in the early 18th century passed into the working classes, as well as the middle and upper classes (Thompson, Class). Furthermore, literacy was not confined to men, though rates of female literacy are very difficult to establish. For those who were literate, circulating libraries in England began in the Augustan period. Libraries were open to all, but they were mainly associated with female patronage and novel reading.

Essays and journalism
English essayists were aware of Continental models, but they developed their form independently from that tradition, and periodical literature grew between 1692 and 1712. Periodicals were inexpensive to produce, quick to read, and a viable way of influencing public opinion, and consequently there were many broadsheet periodicals headed by a single author and staffed by hirelings (so-called "Grub Street" authors). One periodical outsold and dominated all others, however, and that was The Spectator, written by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele (with occasional contributions from their friends). The Spectator developed a number of pseudonymous characters, including "Mr. Spectator," Roger de Coverley, and "Isaac Bickerstaff", and both Addison and Steele created fictions to surround their narrators. The dispassionate view of the world (the pose of a spectator, rather than participant) was essential for the development of the English essay, as it set out a ground wherein Addison and Steele could comment and meditate upon manners and events. Samuel Johnson's command of words and his practical wisdom gained a following as he published more than 200 essays offering insights into the follies of human nature and moral perseverance. Rather than being philosophers like Montesquieu, the English essayist could be an honest observer and his reader's peer. After the success of The Spectator, more political periodicals of comment appeared. However, the political factions and coalitions of politicians very quickly realized the power of this type of press, and they began funding newspapers to spread rumours. The Tory ministry of Robert Harley (1710–1714) reportedly spent over 50,000 pounds sterling on creating and bribing the press (Butt); this figure is known because their successors publicised it, but they (the Walpole government) were suspected of spending even more. Politicians wrote papers, wrote into papers, and supported papers, and it was well known that some of the periodicals, like Mist's Journal, were party mouthpieces.

Dictionaries and Lexicons
The 18th century was a time of enlightenment progression occurring in all intellectual fields. However, the English language was deteriorating into a tangled mess. A group of London booksellers commissioned well-known essayist Samuel Johnson to compile a set of rules governing the English language. After nine years and the help of six assistants the first edition of A Dictionary of the English Language was published in 1755. Johnson's great knowledge of letters, words and literature brought uniqueness to his dictionary. Each word defined in detail, with descriptions of their various uses and numerous literary quotes as illustrations. This was the first dictionary of its kind, containing 40,000 words and nearly 114,000 quotes packed together with Johnson's personal touch. A warm reception greeted Johnson's Dictionary as it was the first dictionary that could be read with pleasure. The definitions full of wit and depth of thought supported by passages from beloved poets and philosophers, which a reader could be content spending an evening poring over its pages. Johnson's choice of structure and format has certainly shaped future English dictionaries and lexicons and the role they play in language development.

Philosophy and religious writing
The Augustan period showed less literature of controversy than the Restoration. There were Puritan authors, however, and one of the names usually associated with the novel is perhaps the most prominent in Puritan writing: Daniel Defoe. After the coronation of Anne, dissenter hopes of reversing the Restoration were at an ebb, and dissenter literature moved from the offensive to the defensive, from revolutionary to conservative. Defoe's infamous volley in the struggle between high and low church came in the form of The Shortest Way with the Dissenters; Or, Proposals for the Establishment of the Church. The work is satirical, attacking all of the worries of Establishment figures over the challenges of dissenters. It is, in other words, defensive. Later still, the most majestic work of the era, and the one most quoted and read, was William Law's A Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life (1728). The Meditations of Robert Boyle remained popular as well. Both Law and Boyle called for revivalism, and they set the stage for the later development of Methodism and George Whitefield's sermon style. However, their works aimed at the individual, rather than the community. The age of revolutionary divines and militant evangelists in literature was over for a considerable time.

Also in contrast to the Restoration, when philosophy in England was fully dominated by John Locke, the 18th century had a vigorous competition among followers of Locke. Bishop Berkeley extended Locke's emphasis on perception to argue that perception entirely solves the Cartesian problem of subjective and objective knowledge by saying "to be is to be perceived". Only those things, Berkeley argued, that are perceived by a consciousness are real. For Berkeley, the persistence of matter rests in the fact that God perceives those things that humans do not, that a living and continually aware, attentive, and involved God is the only rational explanation for the existence of objective matter. In essence, then, Berkeley's scepticism leads to faith. David Hume, on the other hand, took empiricist scepticism to its extremes, and he was the most radically empiricist philosopher of the period. He attacked surmised and unexamined premises wherever he found them, and his scepticism pointed out metaphysics in areas that other empiricists had assumed were material. Hume doggedly refused to enter into questions of his personal faith in the divine, but he assaulted the logic and assumptions of theodicy and cosmogeny, and he concentrated on the provable and empirical in a way that would lead to utilitarianism and naturalism later.

In social and political philosophy, economics underlies much of the debate. Bernard de Mandeville's The Fable of the Bees (1714) became a centre-point of controversy regarding trade, morality, and social ethics. Mandeville argued that wastefulness, lust, pride, and all the other "private" vices were good for the society at large, for each led the individual to employ others, to spend freely, and to free capital to flow through the economy. Mandeville's work is full of paradox and is meant, at least partially, to problematize what he saw as the naïve philosophy of human progress and inherent virtue. However, Mandeville's arguments, initially an attack on graft of the War of the Spanish Succession, would be quoted often by economists who wished to strip morality away from questions of trade.

After 1750
Adam Smith is remembered by lay persons as the father of capitalism, but his Theory of Moral Sentiments of 1759 also attempted to strike out a new ground for moral action. His emphasis on "sentiment" was in keeping with the era, as he emphasised the need for "sympathy" between individuals as the basis of fit action. These ideas, and the psychology of David Hartley, were influential on the sentimental novel and even the nascent Methodist movement. If sympathetic sentiment communicated morality, would it not be possible to induce morality by providing sympathetic circumstances?

Smith's greatest work was An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations in 1776. What it held in common with de Mandeville, Hume, and Locke was that it began by analytically examining the history of material exchange, without reflection on morality. Instead of deducing from the ideal or moral to the real, it examined the real and tried to formulate inductive rules.

The novel
The ground for the novel had been laid by journalism, drama and satire. Long prose satires like Swift's Gulliver's Travels (1726) had a central character who goes through adventures and may (or may not) learn lessons. However, the most important single satirical source for the writing of novels came from Cervantes's Don Quixote (1605, 1615). In general, one can see these three axes, drama, journalism and satire, as blending in and giving rise to three different types of novel.

Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719) was the first major novel of the new century and was published in more editions than any other works besides Gulliver's Travels (Mullan 252). Defoe worked as a journalist during and after its composition, and therefore he encountered the memoirs of Alexander Selkirk, who had been stranded in South America on an island for some years. Defoe took aspects of the actual life and, from that, generated a fictional life, satisfying an essentially journalistic market with his fiction (Hunter 331–338). In the 1720s, Defoe interviewed famed criminals and produced accounts of their lives. In particular, he investigated Jack Sheppard and Jonathan Wild and wrote True Accounts of the former's escapes (and fate) and the latter's life. From his reportage on the prostitutes and criminals, Defoe may have become familiar with the real-life Mary Mollineaux, who may have been the model for Moll in Moll Flanders (1722). In the same year, Defoe produced A Journal of the Plague Year (1722), which summoned up the horrors and tribulations of 1665 for a journalistic market for memoirs, and an attempted tale of a working-class male rise in Colonel Jack (1722). His last novel returned to the theme of fallen women in Roxana (1724). Thematically, Defoe's works are consistently Puritan. They all involve a fall, a degradation of the spirit, a conversion, and an ecstatic elevation. This religious structure necessarily involved a bildungsroman, for each character had to learn a lesson about him or herself and emerge the wiser.

After 1740: Sentimental novel

The sentimental novel, or "novel of sentiment", developed after 1740, and among the most famous examples in English are Samuel Richardson's Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740), Oliver Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield (1766), Laurence Sterne's Tristram Shandy (1759–67), Sentimental Journey (1768), Henry Brooke's The Fool of Quality (1765–70), Henry Mackenzie's The Man of Feeling (1771) and Maria Edgeworth's Castle Rackrent (1800). Continental examples are Jean-Jacques Rousseau's novel Julie, or the New Heloise, his autobiography The Confessions (1764–70) and Goethe's novel The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774).

Although there were novels in the interim, Samuel Richardson's Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded (1740) is the next landmark development in the English novel. Richardson's generic models were quite distinct from those of Defoe. Instead of working from the journalistic biography, Richardson had in mind the books of improvement that were popular at the time. Pamela Andrews enters the employ of a "Mr. B". As a dutiful girl, she writes to her mother constantly, and as a Christian girl, she is always on guard for her "virtue" (i.e. her virginity), for Mr. B lusts after her. The novel ends with her marriage to her employer and her rising to the position of lady. Pamela, like its author, presents a dissenter's and a Whig's view of the rise of the classes. The work drew a nearly instantaneous set of satires, of which Henry Fielding's Shamela, or an Apology for the Life of Miss Shamela Andrews (1742) is the most memorable. Fielding continued to bait Richardson with Joseph Andrews (1742), the tale of Shamela's brother, Joseph, who goes through his life trying to protect his own virginity, thus reversing the sexual predation of Richardson and satirizing the idea of sleeping one's way to rank. However, Joseph Andrews is not a parody of Richardson, for Fielding proposed his belief in "good nature", which is a quality of inherent virtue that is independent of class and which can always prevail. Joseph's friend Parson Adams, although not a fool, is a naïf and possessing good nature. His own basic good nature blinds him to the wickedness of the world, and the incidents on the road (for most of the novel is a travel story) allow Fielding to satirize conditions for the clergy, rural poverty (and squires), and the viciousness of businessmen.

In 1747 through 1748, Samuel Richardson published Clarissa in serial form. Unlike Pamela, it is not a tale of virtue rewarded. Instead, it is a highly tragic and affecting account of a young girl whose parents try to force her into an uncongenial marriage, thus pushing her into the arms of a scheming rake named Lovelace. In the end, Clarissa dies by her own will. The novel is a masterpiece of psychological realism and emotional effect, and when Richardson was drawing to a close in the serial publication, even Henry Fielding wrote to him, begging him not to kill Clarissa. As with Pamela, Richardson emphasized the individual over the social and the personal over the class. Even as Fielding was reading and enjoying Clarissa, he was also writing a counter to its messages. His Tom Jones of 1749 offers up the other side of the argument from Clarissa. Tom Jones agrees substantially in the power of the individual to be more or less than his or her birth would indicate, but it again emphasizes the place of the individual in society and the social ramifications of individual choices. Fielding answers Richardson by featuring a similar plot device (whether a girl can choose her own mate) but showing how family and village can complicate and expedite matches and felicity.

Two other novelists should be mentioned, for they, like Fielding and Richardson, were in dialogue through their works. Laurence Sterne's and Tobias Smollett's works offered up oppositional views of the self in society and the method of the novel. The clergyman Laurence Sterne consciously set out to imitate Jonathan Swift with his Tristram Shandy (1759–1767). Tristram seeks to write his autobiography, but like Swift's narrator in A Tale of a Tub, he worries that nothing in his life can be understood without understanding its context. For example, he tells the reader that at the very moment he was conceived, his mother was saying, "Did you wind the clock?". To clarify how he knows this, he explains that his father took care of winding the clock and "other family business" on one day a month. To explain why the clock had to be wound then, he has to explain his father. In other words, the biography moves backward rather than forward in time, only to then jump forward years, hit another knot, and move backward again. It is a novel of exceptional energy, of multi-layered digressions, of multiple satires, and of frequent parodies. Journalist, translator and historian Tobias Smollett, on the other hand, wrote more seemingly traditional novels. He concentrated on the picaresque novel, where a low-born character would go through a practically endless series of adventures. Sterne thought that Smollett's novels always paid undue attention to the basest and most common elements of life, that they emphasized the dirt. Although this is a superficial complaint, it points to an important difference between the two as authors. Sterne came to the novel from a satirical background, while Smollett approached it from journalism. In the 19th century, novelists would have plots much nearer to Smollett's than either Fielding's or Sterne's or Richardson's, and his sprawling, linear development of action would prove most successful.

In the midst of this development of the novel, other trends were also taking place. Women were writing novels and moving away from the old romance plots that had dominated before the Restoration. There were utopian novels, like Sarah Scott's Millennium Hall (1762), autobiographical women's novels like Frances Burney's works, female adaptations of older, male motifs, such as Charlotte Lennox's The Female Quixote (1752) and many others. These novels do not generally follow a strict line of development or influence.

Satire
The Augustan era is considered a high point of British satiric writing, and its masterpieces were Swift's Gulliver's Travels and A Modest Proposal, Pope's Dunciads, Horatian Imitations, and Moral Essays, Samuel Johnson's The Vanity of Human Wishes and London, Henry Fielding's Shamela and Jonathan Wild, and John Gay's The Beggar's Opera. There were several thousand other satirical works written during the period, which have until recently been, by widespread consensus, ignored. The central group of "Scriblerians"—Pope, Swift, Gay, and their colleague John Arbuthnot—are considered to have had common satiric aims. Until recently, these writers formed a "school" of satire. After Swift and Pope died, the emergent "Age of Sensibility" discouraged the often cruel and abrasive tenor of the Augustans, and satire was rendered gentler and more diffuse.

Many scholars of the era argue that a single name overshadows all others in 18th-century prose satire: Jonathan Swift. Swift wrote poetry as well as prose, and his satires range over all topics. Critically, Swift's satire marked the development of prose parody away from simple satire or burlesque. A burlesque or lampoon in prose would imitate a despised author and quickly move to reductio ad absurdum by having the victim say things coarse or idiotic. On the other hand, other satires would argue against a habit, practice, or policy by making fun of its reach or composition or methods. What Swift did was to combine parody, with its imitation of form and style of another, and satire in prose. Swift's works would pretend to speak in the voice of an opponent and imitate the style of the opponent and have the parodic work itself be the satire. Swift's first major satire was A Tale of a Tub (1703–1705), which introduced an ancients/moderns division that would serve as a distinction between the old and new conception of value. The "moderns" sought trade, empirical science, the individual's reason above the society's, while the "ancients" believed in inherent and immanent value of birth, and the society over the individual's determinations of the good. In Swift's satire, the moderns come out looking insane and proud of their insanity, and dismissive of the value of history. In Swift's most significant satire, Gulliver's Travels (1726), autobiography, allegory, and philosophy mix together in the travels. Thematically, Gulliver's Travels is a critique of human vanity, of pride. Book one, the journey to Liliput, begins with the world as it is. Book two shows that the idealized nation of Brobdingnag with a philosopher king is no home for a contemporary Englishman. Book four depicts the land of the Houyhnhnms, a society of horses ruled by pure reason, where humanity itself is portrayed as a group of "yahoos" covered in filth and dominated by base desires. It shows that, indeed, the very desire for reason may be undesirable, and humans must struggle to be neither Yahoos nor Houyhnhnms, for book three shows what happens when reason is unleashed without any consideration of morality or utility (i.e. madness, ruin, and starvation).

There were other satirists who worked in a less virulent way, who took a bemused pose and only made lighthearted fun. Tom Brown, Ned Ward, and Tom D'Urfey were all satirists in prose and poetry whose works appeared in the early part of the Augustan age. Tom Brown's most famous work in this vein was Amusements Serious and Comical, Calculated for the Meridian of London (1700). Ned Ward's most memorable work was The London Spy (1704–1706). The London Spy, before The Spectator, took up the position of an observer and uncomprehendingly reporting back. Tom D'Urfey's Wit and Mirth: or Pills to Purge Melancholy (1719) was another satire that attempted to offer entertainment, rather than a specific bit of political action, in the form of coarse and catchy songs.

Particularly after Swift's success, parodic satire had an attraction for authors throughout the 18th century. A variety of factors created a rise in political writing and political satire, and Robert Walpole's success and domination of House of Commons was a very effective proximal cause for polarized literature and thereby the rise of parodic satire. The parodic satire takes apart the cases and plans of policy without necessarily contrasting a normative or positive set of values. Therefore, it was an ideal method of attack for ironists and conservatives—those who would not be able to enunciate a set of values to change toward but could condemn present changes as ill-considered. Satire was present in all genres during the Augustan period. Perhaps primarily, satire was a part of political and religious debate. Every significant politician and political act had satires to attack it. Few of these were parodic satires, but parodic satires, too, emerged in political and religious debate. So omnipresent and powerful was satire in the Augustan age that more than one literary history has referred to it as the "Age of satire" in literature.

Poetry
In the Augustan era, poets wrote in direct counterpoint and direct expansion of one another, with each poet writing satire when in opposition. There was a great struggle over the nature and role of the pastoral in the early part of the century, reflecting two simultaneous movements: the invention of the subjective self as a worthy topic, with the emergence of a priority on individual psychology, against the insistence on all acts of art being performance and public gesture designed for the benefit of society at large. The development seemingly agreed upon by both sides was a gradual adaptation of all forms of poetry from their older uses. Odes would cease to be encomium, ballads cease to be narratives, elegies cease to be sincere memorials, satires no longer be specific entertainments, parodies no longer be performance pieces without sting, song no longer be pointed, and the lyric would become a celebration of the individual rather than a lover's complaint. These developments can be seen as extensions of Protestantism, as Max Weber argued, for they represent a gradual increase in the implications of Martin Luther's doctrine of the priesthood of all believers, or they can be seen as a growth of the power and assertiveness of the bourgeoisie and an echo of the displacement of the worker from the home in growing industrialization, as Marxists such as E.P. Thompson have argued. It can be argued that the development of the subjective individual against the social individual was a natural reaction to trade over other methods of economic production. Whatever the prime cause, a largely conservative set of voices argued for a social person and largely emergent voices argued for the individual person.

The entire Augustan age's poetry was dominated by Alexander Pope. His lines were repeated often enough to lend quite a few clichés and proverbs to modern English usage. Pope had few poetic rivals, but he had many personal enemies and political, philosophical, or religious opponents, and Pope himself was quarrelsome in print. Pope and his enemies (often called "the Dunces" because of Pope's successful satirizing of them in The Dunciad) fought over central matters of the proper subject matter for poetry and the proper pose of the poetic voice.

There was a great struggle over the nature and role of the pastoral in the early part of the century. After Pope published his Pastorals of the four seasons in 1709, an evaluation in the Guardian praised Ambrose Philips's pastorals above Pope's, and Pope replied with a mock praise of Philips's Pastorals that heaped scorn on them. Pope quoted Philips's worst lines, mocked his execution, and delighted in pointing out his empty lines. Pope later explained that any depictions of shepherds and their mistresses in the pastoral must not be updated shepherds, that they must be icons of the Golden Age: "we are not to describe our shepherds as shepherds at this day really are, but as they may be conceived then to have been, when the best of men followed the employment" (Gordon). Philips's Pastorals were not particularly awful poems, but they did reflect his desire to "update" the pastoral. In 1724, Philips would update poetry again by writing a series of odes dedicated to "all ages and characters, from Walpole, the steerer of the realm, to Miss Pulteney in the nursery." Henry Carey was one of the best at satirizing these poems, and his Namby Pamby became a hugely successful obliteration of Philips and Philips's endeavor. What is notable about Philips against Pope, however, is the fact that both poets were adapting the pastoral and the ode, both altering it. Pope's insistence upon a Golden Age pastoral no less than Philips's desire to update it meant making a political statement. While it is easy to see in Ambrose Philips an effort at modernist triumph, it is no less the case that Pope's artificially restricted pastoral was a statement of what the ideal should be.

Pope's friend John Gay also adapted the pastoral. Gay, working at Pope's suggestion, wrote a parody of the updated pastoral in The Shepherd's Week. He also imitated the Satires of Juvenal with his Trivia. In 1728, his The Beggar's Opera was an enormous success, running for an unheard-of eighty performances. All of these works have in common a gesture of compassion. In Trivia, Gay writes as if commiserating with those who live in London and are menaced by falling masonry and bedpan slops, and The Shepherd's Week features great detail of the follies of everyday life and eccentric character. Even The Beggar's Opera, which is a satire of Robert Walpole, portrays its characters with compassion: the villains have pathetic songs in their own right and are acting out of exigency rather than boundless evil.

Throughout the Augustan era the "updating" of Classical poets was a commonplace. These were not translations, but rather they were imitations of Classical models, and the imitation allowed poets to veil their responsibility for the comments they made. Alexander Pope would manage to refer to the King himself in unflattering tones by "imitating" Horace in his Epistle to Augustus. Similarly, Samuel Johnson wrote a poem that falls into the Augustan period in his "imitation of Juvenal" entitled London.  The imitation was inherently conservative, since it argued that all that was good was to be found in the old classical education, but these imitations were used for progressive purposes, as the poets who used them were often doing so to complain of the political situation.

In satire, Pope achieved two of the greatest poetic satires of all time in the Augustan period. The Rape of the Lock (1712 and 1714) was a gentle mock-heroic. Pope applies Virgil's heroic and epic structure to the story of a young woman (Arabella Fermor) having a lock of hair snipped by an amorous baron (Lord Petre). The structure of the comparison forces Pope to invent mythological forces to overlook the struggle, and so he creates an epic battle, complete with a mythology of sylphs and metempsychosis, over a game of Ombre, leading to a fiendish appropriation of the lock of hair. Finally, a deux ex machina appears and the lock of hair experiences an apotheosis. To some degree, Pope was adapting Jonathan Swift's habit, in A Tale of a Tub, of pretending that metaphors were literal truths, and he was inventing a mythos to go with the everyday. The poem was an enormous public success.

A decade after the gentle, laughing satire of The Rape of the Lock, Pope wrote his masterpiece of invective and specific opprobrium in The Dunciad. The story is that of the goddess Dulness choosing a new Avatar. She settles upon one of Pope's personal enemies, Lewis Theobald, and the poem describes the coronation and heroic games undertaken by all of the dunces of Great Britain in celebration of Theobald's ascension. When Pope's enemies responded to The Dunciad with attacks, Pope produced the Dunciad Variorum, with a "learned" commentary upon the original Dunciad. In 1743, he added a fourth book and changed the hero from Lewis Theobald to Colley Cibber. In the fourth book of the new Dunciad, Pope expressed the view that, in the battle between light and dark (enlightenment and the Dark Ages), Night and Dulness were fated to win, that all things of value were soon going to be subsumed under the curtain of unknowing.

John Gay and Alexander Pope belong on one side of a line separating the celebrants of the individual and the celebrants of the social. Pope wrote The Rape of the Lock, he said, to settle a disagreement between two great families, to laugh them into peace. Even The Dunciad, which seems to be a serial killing of everyone on Pope's enemies list, sets up these figures as expressions of dangerous and antisocial forces in letters. Theobald and Cibber are marked by vanity and pride, by having no care for morality. The hireling pens Pope attacks mercilessly in the heroic games section of the Dunciad are all embodiments of avarice and lies. Similarly, Gay writes of political society, of social dangers, and of follies that must be addressed to protect the greater whole. Gay's individuals are microcosms of the society at large. On the other side of this line were people who agreed with the politics of Gay and Pope (and Swift), but not in approach. They include, early in the Augustan Age, James Thomson and Edward Young.

Precursors of Romanticism
In the year 1726 two poems were published describing landscape from a personal point of view and taking their feeling and moral lessons from direct observation. One was John Dyer's "Grongar Hill", the other was James Thomson's "Winter", soon to be followed by all the seasons (1726–30). Both are unlike Pope's notion of the Golden Age pastoral as exemplified in his "Windsor Forest". Mythology is at a minimum and there is no celebration of Britain or the crown. Where the octosyllabic couplets of Dyer's poem celebrate the natural beauty of a mountain view and are quietly meditative, the declamatory blank verse of Thomson's winter meditation is melancholy and soon to establish that emotion as proper for poetic expression. One notable successor in that line was Edward Yonge's Night Thoughts (1742–1744). It was, even more than "Winter", a poem of deep solitude, melancholy and despair. In these poems, there are the stirrings of the lyric as the Romantics would see it: the celebration of the private individual's idiosyncratic, yet paradigmatic, responses to the visions of the world.

These hints at the solitary poet were carried into a new realm with Thomas Gray, whose Elegy Written in a Country Church-Yard (1750) set off a new craze for poetry of melancholy reflection. It was written in the "country", and not in or as opposed to London, and the poem sets up the solitary observer in a privileged position. It is only by being solitary that the poet can speak of a truth that is wholly individually realized. After Gray, a group often referred to as the Churchyard Poets began imitating his pose and almost as often his style. Alternative models were adopted by Oliver Goldsmith (The Deserted Village), Thomas Warton, and even Thomas Percy (The Hermit of Warkworth), who, also conservative by and large and Classicist (Gray himself was a professor of Greek), took up the new poetry of solitude and loss.

When the Romantics emerged at the end of the 18th century, they were not assuming a radically new invention of the subjective self themselves, but merely formalizing what had gone before. Similarly, the later 18th century saw a ballad revival, with Thomas Percy's Reliques of Ancient English Poetry. The relics were not always very ancient, as many of the ballads dated from only the 17th century (e.g. the Bagford Ballads or The Dragon of Wantley in the Percy Folio), and so what began as an antiquarian movement soon became a folk movement. When this folk-inspired impulse combined with the solitary and individualistic impulse of the Churchyard Poets, Romanticism was nearly inevitable.

Drama
The Augustan era is difficult to define chronologically in prose and poetry, but it is very easy to date its end in drama. The Augustan era's drama ended definitively in 1737, with the Licensing Act. Prior to 1737, however, the English stage was changing rapidly from the Restoration comedy and Restoration drama, and their noble subjects, to the quickly developing melodrama (Munns 97–100).

George Lillo and Richard Steele wrote the trend-setting plays of the early Augustan period. Lillo's plays consciously turned from heroes and kings and toward shopkeepers and apprentices. They emphasized drama on a household scale, rather than a national scale, and the hamartia and agon in his tragedies are the common flaws of yielding to temptation and the commission of Christian sin. The plots are resolved with Christian forgiveness and repentance. Steele's The Conscious Lovers (1722) hinges upon his young hero avoiding fighting a duel. The plays set up a new set of values for the stage. Instead of amusing the audience or inspiring the audience, they sought to instruct the audience and to ennoble it. Also, the plays were popular precisely because they seemed to reflect the audience's own lives and concerns (Legouis 782–787, 879–883).

Joseph Addison also wrote a play, entitled Cato, in 1713, which concerned the Roman statesman Cato the Younger. The year of its première was important, with Queen Anne in serious illness at the time, and both the Tory ministry of the day and the Whig opposition (already being led by Robert Walpole) were concerned about the succession. Both groups were contacting the Old Pretender about bringing the Young Pretender over. Londoners sensed the anxiety, as Anne had no heirs, and all of the natural successors in the Stuart family were Roman Catholic or unavailable. Therefore, the figure of Cato was a transparent symbol of Roman integrity, and the Whigs saw in him a champion of Whig values, and the Tories saw in him an embodiment of Tory sentiments or, like the Tory Examiner, tried to claim that Cato was above political "faction". Both sides cheered the play, but Addison was himself clearly a Whig (Bloom and Bloom 266, 269). John Home's play Douglas (1756) would have a similar fate to Cato in the next generation, after the Licensing Act.

As during the Restoration, economics drove the stage in the Augustan period. Under Charles II court patronage meant economic success and so the Restoration stage featured plays that would suit the monarch and/or court. The drama that celebrated kings and told the history of Britain's monarchs was fit fare for the crown and courtiers. Charles II was a philanderer and so Restoration comedy featured a highly sexualized set of plays. However, after the reign of William and Mary, the court and the crown stopped taking a great interest in the playhouse. Theatres had to get their money from the audience of city dwellers, and plays that reflected city anxieties and celebrated the lives of citizens drew and were staged (Munns 96–99).

Thus, there were quite a few plays that were not literary that were staged more often than the literary plays. John Rich and Colley Cibber duelled over special theatrical effects. They put on plays that were actually just spectacles, and the text of the play was almost an afterthought. Dragons, whirlwinds, thunder, ocean waves and even actual elephants were on stage. Battles, explosions and horses were put on the boards. Rich specialized in pantomime and was famous as the character "Lun" in harlequin presentations. The plays put on in this manner are not generally preserved or studied, but their monopoly on the theatres infuriated established literary authors.

Additionally, opera made its way to England during this period. Inasmuch as opera combined singing with acting, it was a mixed genre, which violated all the strictures of neoclassicism. Also, high melodies would cover the singers' expressions of grief or joy, thus breaking "decorum". To add insult to injury, the casts and celebrated stars were foreigners, and, as with Farinelli, castrati. The satirists saw in opera the non plus ultra of invidiousness. As Pope put it in Dunciad B:

 * "Joy to Chaos! let Division reign:
 * Chromatic tortures soon shall drive them [the muses] hence,
 * Break all their nerves, and fritter all their sense:
 * One Trill shall harmonize joy, grief, and rage,
 * Wake the dull Church, and lull the ranting Stage;
 * To the same notes thy sons shall hum, or snore,
 * And all thy yawning daughters cry, encore." (IV 55–60)

John Gay parodied the opera with his satirical Beggar's Opera (1728) and offered up a parody of Robert Walpole's actions during the South Sea Bubble. Superficially, the play is about a man named Macheath who keeps being imprisoned by a thief named Peachum and who escapes prison over and over again because the daughter of the jailor, Lucy Lockitt, is in love with him. That is an obvious parallel with the case of Jonathan Wild (Peachum) and Jack Sheppard (Macheath). However, it was also the tale of Robert Walpole (Peachum) and the South Sea directors (Macheath). The play was a hit, and its songs were printed up and sold. However, when Gay wrote a sequel called Polly, Walpole had the play suppressed before performance (Winn 112–114).

Playwrights were therefore in straits. On the one hand, the playhouses were doing without plays by turning out hack-written pantomimes. On the other hand, when a satirical play appeared, the Whig ministry would suppress it. The antagonism was picked up by Henry Fielding, who was not afraid to fight Walpole. His Tom Thumb (1730) was a satire on all of the tragedies written before him, with quotations from all the worst plays patched together for absurdity, and the plot concerned the eponymous tiny man attempting to run things. It was, in other words, an attack on Robert Walpole and the way that he was referred to as "the Great Man". Here, the Great Man is made obviously deficient by being a midget. Walpole responded, and Fielding's revision of the play was in print only. It was written by "Scribblerus Secundus". Its title page announced it was the Tragedy of Tragedies, which functioned as a clearly Swiftian parodic satire. Anti-Walpolean sentiment also showed in increasingly political plays. A particular play of unknown authorship entitled A Vision of the Golden Rump was cited when Parliament passed the Licensing Act of 1737. The Licensing Act required all plays to go to a censor before staging, and only the plays passed by the censor were allowed to be performed. The first play to be banned by the new Act was Gustavus Vasa by Henry Brooke. Samuel Johnson wrote a Swiftian parodic satire of the licensers entitled A Complete Vindication of the Licensers of the English Stage. The satire was, of course, not a vindication at all, but rather a reductio ad absurdum of the position for censorship. Had the licensers not exercised their authority in a partisan manner, the Act might not have chilled the stage so dramatically, but the public was well aware of the bannings and censorship and so any play that passed the licensers was regarded with suspicion by the public. Therefore, the playhouses had little choice but to present old plays and pantomime and other plays that had no conceivable political content. In other words, William Shakespeare's reputation grew enormously, as his plays saw a quadrupling of performances, and sentimental comedy and melodrama were the only choices.

Very late in the 18th century Oliver Goldsmith attempted to resist the tide of sentimental comedy with She Stoops to Conquer (1773), and Richard Brinsley Sheridan would mount several satirical plays after Robert Walpole's death.

General history

 * Rogers, Pat The Augustan Vision (London: Methuen, 1974) ISBN 0416709702 (pbk.) An overview of the literary milieu, major authors, and literary forms.

Literary criticism

 * Battestin, Martin C. The Providence of Wit: Aspects of Form in Augustan Literature and the Arts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974) ISBN 0198120524. Offers a reading of works by Pope, Gay, Fielding, Goldsmith, Swift, and Sterne.
 * McKeon, Michael, The Origins of the English Novel (London: Century Hutchinson, 1988) ISBN 0091729653. A critical response to Watt's 'triple-rise' theory of the novel's eighteenth century origins.
 * Nokes, David Raillery and Rage: a Study of Eighteenth-Century Satire (Brighton: Harvester, 1987) ISBN 9780710812315. A detailed exploration of one of the period's most important literary forms.
 * Watt, Ian The Rise of the Novel: Studies of Defoe, Richardson, and Fielding (London: Pimlico, 2000) ISBN 9780712664271. A major scholarly work, examining the socio-economic conditions that gave rise to the Augustan novel form.

Anthologies

 * Price, Martin (ed.) The Oxford Anthology of English Literature: Restoration and Eighteenth Century (London: Oxford University Press, 1973) ISBN 0-19-501614-9 (pbk.) 4,500 pages of Restoration and Augustan literature. Major works like Pope's An Essay on Criticism and Swift's A Tale of a Tub are merely excerpted. Annotated with a bibliography.
 * Greenblatt, Stephen; Lipking, Lawrence and James Noggle (eds.) The Norton Anthology of English Literature, Volume C: The Restoration and the Eighteenth Century (New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 2006) ISBN 0393927199 (pbk.) Offers a more comprehensive selection than the Oxford Anthology, and likewise annotated with a bibliography.

title: Augustan literature


text:
Huddersfield Narrow Canal Pylon

The Huddersfield Narrow Canal Pylon, (National Grid tower designation 4ZO251B), is a 54.6 metres (179 ft) tall electricity pylon which stands with its feet over the Huddersfield Narrow Canal near Heyrod, Stalybridge, Greater Manchester, United Kingdom.

History
The Stalybridge substation was built while the canal was closed to navigation, encroaching on the former canal line, and the canal was culverted at this point from the head of Lock 8W to a point immediately downstream of the substation. The extent of the former culvert can still be seen, as it was reused to form the lock bywash.

When the canal reopened, the channel was diverted slightly to the east to avoid the substation compound. However, its way was obstructed by a pylon, and it had to pass between the pylon's legs.

Features
One side of the pylon carries the 400 kV Stalybridge–Thorpe Marsh circuit and the other a 275 kV Stalybridge transformer feeder circuit.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Huddersfield Narrow Canal Pylon


text:
Talk:Stream (disambiguation)

Discussion about Streaming (since merged here)
Anon editor has added the external link http://www.digitalwebcast.com/ that might be borderline spam. Could someone investigate this further. Blank Verse  ∅  13:28, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Higher achievers?
I dispute that streaming in education is about giving more resources to higher achievers. It is better described as splitting people into groups which reflect the speed at which they learn. Faster students can learn more whereas slower students can get more attention given to areas that trouble them.

Medical
There is also a room in several hospitals called "Streaming". Should this be included?--TimothyJacobson (talk) 10:38, 16 March 2010 (UTC)

Organization
I have also heard the term "Stream" in an (IT-)organizational context to describe different Teams, responsible for SAP Modules / Processes e.g. "Asset Management Stream".

I wanted to look this up in Wikipedia but didn't find it. If this is a regular use, it may be helpfull to describe it in any article.

--84.189.43.69 (talk) 12:55, 17 June 2016 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:Stream which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 16:16, 10 September 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Stream (disambiguation)


text:
Category:Buildings and structures in the Scottish Borders

 * Buildings and structures in the Scottish Borders Council district — in southeastern Scotland.


text:
Talk:Baptist Lui Ming Choi Secondary School

Assess
A good start. Pictures are good and text is interesting. What is missing is references. You do them....(see below) Victuallers 09:44, 23 May 2007 (UTC) Do comeback when you have 10 or 15 of these for reassessment. Refs still required Victuallers 10:01, 25 July 2007 (UTC)

Look at source - look at other top articles
This page was previously nominated for deletion. See Votes for deletion/Baptist Lui Ming Choi Secondary School for the result. JYolkowski // talk 13:29, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:Shatin D.gif
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External links modified
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Article issues
For over 12 years this article has been in need of sourcing. There is far too much unsourced content. Surely there is more than one source or notability is in doubt. Otr500 (talk) 12:40, 20 November 2019 (UTC)


text:
National Democratic Alliance (Georgia)

The National-Democratic Alliance (Erovnul Demokratiuli Aliansi) is an electoral alliance in Georgia, formed by the National Democratic Party and the Union of Georgian Traditionalists. At the 2004 Georgian parliamentary election, the alliance won 2.5% of the popular vote.

title: National Democratic Alliance (Georgia)


text:
Richard W. Miller

Richard W. Miller (1945-2023) was the Wyn and William Y. Hutchinson Professor in Ethics and Public Life and Director of the Program on Ethics and Public Life in the Cornell University Department of Philosophy. He specialized in moral philosophy, political philosophy, and philosophy of science.

Education and career
Miller received his Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1975. His dissertation, "Solipsism and Language in the Writings of Wittgenstein," was directed by Rogers Albritton and Hilary Putnam. He has spent his entire academic career at Cornell.

Philosophical work
Miller is best known for his work in social and political philosophy, but also published widely in epistemology, philosophy of science, and ethics. He is the author of Marx and Aristotle, in Alex Callinicos's Marxist Theory series as well as of several books, including Globalizing Justice: The Ethics of Poverty and power. Moral Differences: Truth, Justice, and Conscience in a World of Conflict (Princeton, 1992), Fact and Method: Explanation, Confirmation, and Reality in the Natural and the Social Sciences (Princeton, 1987), and Analyzing Marx: Morality, Power, and History (Princeton, 1984).

title: Richard W. Miller


text:
National Democratic Party (Georgia)

The National Democratic Party (ეროვნულ-დემოკრატიული პარტია) is a political party in Georgia. It was established in 1988 by Giorgi Chanturia as a radical splinter group of the Ilia Chavchavadze Society. Although another party with the same name also existed earlier among the Georgian intelligentsia and in the Democratic Republic of Georgia from 1917 to 1924, this group was independent of that.

During the 2012 elections, the party won 3,050 votes – 0.14% of the national total. Recently the party joined the Strength is in Unity–United Opposition coalition before the 2018 presidential election. The current leader of the party is Bachuki Kardava.

In 2023, the party halted its cooperation with the Strength Is in Unity coalition after endorsing the ruling party's preferred candidates to Georgia's High Council of Justice.

title: National Democratic Party (Georgia)


text:
Jumber Patiashvili – Unity

The Jumber Patiashvili – Unity is an electoral alliance in Georgia, formed by Unity and the Intellectuals League of Georgia. At the 2004 Georgian parliamentary election, the alliance won 2.4% of the popular vote.

title: Jumber Patiashvili – Unity


text:
Unity (Georgia)

Unity (Ertoba) is a left-wing political party in Georgia. At the 2004 Georgian parliamentary election, the party was part of the Jumber Patiashvili - Unity alliance, and the alliance won 2.4% of the vote.

title: Unity (Georgia)


text:
Intellectuals League of Georgia

The Intellectuals League of Georgia is a left-wing political party in Georgia. At the 2004 Georgian parliamentary election, the party was part of the Jumber Patiashvili - Unity alliance.

title: Intellectuals League of Georgia


text:
Talk:Huddersfield Narrow Canal Pylon

Assessment Report
Peter I. Vardy 15:36, 9 May 2007 (UTC)
 * 1) The article needs to be expanded.
 * 2) It should make use of sections.
 * 3) References and Citations are crucial for wikipedia, and so these must be added as the article is expanded. Make sure that as many as possible are "in-line" citations.(See WP:References, WP:V, and WP:CITE for guidance.)

Untitled
If someone knows more about this electricity pylon, please add these informations to the article. This pylon may be the only electricity pylon standing over a shipable waterway!
 * Scarcely "shipable" - "narrow" means it is limited to narrow boats, ie 7 ft (2.13 metres) beam. The external link I have added tells a bit more. -- RHaworth 07:41, 2005 Jun 12 (UTC)

"This may be the only electricity pylon in the world, under which you can pass by a boat.". This is a "may", and it's still an encylopedia article on an electricity pylon. Secretlondon 17:45, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)

It is not the only electricity pylon which straddles a canal, anyway - there's one on the Wey and Arun Canal. Look at this map on their site ("Unique to the W & A (?) a pylon straddles the canal") and this picture. Sorry.

Add to Category:Electricity pylons straddling canals. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 62.56.71.40 (talk) 23:29, 27 December 2008 (UTC)
 * That would be deleted as over categorisation within days. Mayalld (talk) 21:52, 28 December 2008 (UTC)

Photo added
I've just added a photo of the pylon. I confess to having no interest on the details about it but I was looking at Stalybridge (where I live) and saw a link to your pages which sparked me to remember that I had taken a photo of it when I had a new camera and was looking for anything and everything to picture.

Merge
I think this article should be merged with Huddersfield Narrow Canal.Geni 02:37, 9 December 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Huddersfield Narrow Canal Pylon


text:
Talk:Coombe Dean School

Untitled
infoboxVictuallers 20:26, 18 March 2007 (UTC)
 * ✅ Meaty♠Weenies (talk) 16:00, 30 May 2008 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Coombe Dean School


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Talk:Cello Suites (Bach)

Reqmusic
Johann Sebastian Bach's Cello Suite #1 (BWV 1007), movement 1 (prelude) - mutopia sheet music available here

Viola pomposa
I thought the sixth suite was for the "viola pomposa", not the violoncello piccolo...? 68.6.190.89 08:16, 30 April 2006 (UTC) Andrew

This opinion is HIGHLY controversial. There is valid evidence both for and against, and the discussion is ongoing in the early music community. The opinion about what instrument the suites were written for (stated by Kuijken in the cited article) is simply an opinion and it absolutely should not be treated as fact in this article. It is simply incorrect to state that this smaller instrument is what was considered a "cello" at the time. This needs to be changed.

I know there is another name for the violoncello piccolo and that is the "viola da spalla". My name on the Dutch Wiki is Celloman

Umm- why is there only a listing for suite no. 1? I guess I'll put the rest up someday- hopefully within the next week, if I have time. :) Flcelloguy 13:33, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)

i can't seem to edit this page. anyone else having a problem?tej 23:28, 10 December 2005 (UTC)

suite 1: experimental?
"It should be safe to assume that Bach was still experimenting in writing for solo cello when producing this Suite, since it is technically easier to play than any of the other suites."

do you have a source for this? i would be comfortable with more speculative wording about this unless you have specific scholarship to point to. it doesn't seem like a logical consequence of the relative simplicity of the G major suite that it was necessarily in any way an experiment in cello writing. thanks for the comments about all the suites!tej 00:21, 15 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Firstly, thanks 83.226.214.112 for your edits! I agree with tej here, and I've removed the part about the first suite--firstly, to my knowledge no evidence exists to suggest the chronology of the suites, (as I mention in one of the main paragraphs), and secondly, to assume it was written before the others simply on the grounds of compositional simplicity is rather dubious in my opinion.

 * By the way, please take your time to signup to Wikipedia. Best wishes, Lambyuk 20:32, 15 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Hello! I'm 83.226.214.112, and have now registered to this amazing service under the nick Miffopro (if anyone here ever visits the Internet Cello Society Forums, you might recognize me). First, I apologise for the part about the 1st suite in G-major could be assumed to be an experiment in writing for cello, which was an unfounded statement in every way possible. Thank you Lambyuk, for removing it. But being a cellist myself, as well as being acquainted with many other cellists, I stand by my statement about the G-major suite being technically easier to play than the others, even the 3rd suite in C-major. When studying cello, most students begin with the G-major suite for that very reason. Both technically and musically I think it functions better than the others as an introduction to Bach's musical languange and common technical issues on the cello (apart from being a great musical work on its own, of course). The rythmics are not as complicated, great tonal leaps and string crossings are not as common, the left hand positions more comfortably calculated, and each movement is more coherent. I don't know either if this suite was in fact written before the others, but regardless of that I can very well imagine that it was written as a sort of introduction to the others, although I'm not historically informed enough to prove such a theory.

 * Even within the suite itself I see a build-up pattern, where one could say the Prelude warms up your right hand, the bowing, with its constant flowing arpeggios, and the following Allemande warms up your left hand with its very scale based movement, before the more complicated note reading starts in the following Courante. The Sarabande then fine-tunes your chord intonation. All this within the fantastic music that comes out. If any of this is worth putting in the article, let me know. :) Botten upp! Miffopro, 11:00, 23 Januari 2006

 * Added a sentence re. student study under the G major subsection. :) Lambyuk 14:59, 21 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Hello :) Does somebody remember that Suite 1 was used in Adidas Torsion advert in 1990? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 78.88.210.84 (talk) 10:48, 8 May 2010 (UTC)

Musical Keys
This is not exclusive to this article, but what's the wiki protocol for musical keys? I always assumed it was capital letter for major, and lower case for minor. This is what you find in music programs of professional orchestras, and it is the same on classical music CD's. I've always felt that "D major" was repetitive, and my guess is that professional musicians would frown on the method of labelling used in this article. - Darkhawk

 * I don't think it matters that much in English. In German it's always G-Dur and e-moll, but I've seen "D major" on plenty of programs and records. --Quadalpha 21:13, 20 March 2006 (UTC)

 * D Major, D minor. That's english. Justin Tokke 01:41, 3 December 2006 (UTC)

Translation
Can I have permission to translate the text of this great work for the cello from Bach. My username on the Dutch Wikipedia is : Celloman.

Go right ahead! I don't think you need permission at all. It's certainly a good article. Sandover 04:26, 24 May 2006 (UTC)

Editions?
Should there be information on different editions of the suites? While I realize there are dozens of editions by later cellists, there should probably at least be some information on the Magdalena Bach, Kellner, and Westphal manuscripts. If someone has access to such sources, that would be great; unfortunately, I don't. Adso de Fimnu 15:38, 16 August 2006 (UTC)
 * I have photostat copies of the editions you mention, but Wikipedia doesn't particulary like original research. What sort of things were you interested in? Lambyuk 18:41, 21 November 2006 (UTC)

 * You really need to include information on the main sources (of which Anna is only one). This is especially pressing since most editions actually include many parts of Kellner's source (usually without comment!) since they are more musical and seemingly without error. Anna's source has many errors. There's a dissertation that argues that Kellner is superior source. Given all this, Wikipedia really needs to at least mention the other sources and mention their discrepancies. Otherwise, you are misrepresenting the issue involving these works. – ishwar  (speak)  21:47, 16 March 2023 (UTC)

Transcribed for...
A while ago Lambyuk removed most of the instruments listed as having transcriptions of the suites, but various people keep adding more. I think this is a little silly, as it doesn't really matter whether there's an arrangement for (say) zither or kazoo. What does anyone else think? Adso de Fimnu 15:38, 16 August 2006 (UTC)

Suite 3
The thumb position is not strictly speaking mandatory to play the Prelude from measures 47 onward, but allows easier and more consistent playing by playing each chord note on a different string and by reducing the number of big position shifts while playing. The thumb position is marked in for instance the Bärenreiter version of the 6 cello solo suites (ISMN 979-0-006-40139-0, 1950), see page 17 starting from measure 74, where the C is played in 4th position on the D string and the D is played with the thumb on the A string so bigger portions can be played without leaving 4th position. A more experienced cellist may correct me. shutterfreak 21:25, 03 Nov 2011 (UTC)

Suite 4
It says that the second Bourree is notated in G minor. Yes, but it is in C minor. The reason being is because there was a different system for key signatures in the baroque and earlier times. Minor keys had one less flat (or one more sharp) than we know today. Should this be mentioned? Justin Tokke 01:43, 3 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Definitely no need to mention that the second Bourree is notated in G minor; toward-C (I guess one might call it) notation (actually, it was, I think, generally and often one less flat or one less sharp- bringing the notated key one fifth towards C, so that the rare E major work would have only 3 sharps in the key signature, e.g., not 5... and C major/A minor just stayed put,nothing added or subtracted) - this was - not invariable but - fairly standard practice. Maybe mention it on the major/minor page or some page (or the Baroque music era page?... hrm...- it did last a bit into the early Classical-- even the early Romantic period I think- if you count a movement that produced certain very retrograde liturgical works... - a thread of history that ... er... BIG tangent!...) - erm... right. Schissel | Sound the Note! 17:30, 3 May 2013 (UTC)

Suite 6
Other possible instruments for the suite include a version of the violoncello piccolo played on the arm like a viola, as well as a five-stringed normal sized cello, called a viola pomposa. As the range required in this piece is very large, the suite was probably intended for a larger instrument, although it is conceivable that Bach—who was fond of the viola—may have performed the work himself on an arm-held violoncello piccolo.

This does not agree with http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viola_pomposa. The viola-pomposa is played on the arm, whereas the violoncello piccolo is played like a cello (sometimes disputed, but generally assumed to be true)... Or maybe I'm wrong? Someone with more information may want to look into this.

I looked it up in Oxford Music, and the viola pomposa was indeed similar to a modern viola, with the addition of an E string. I will change the article. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.104.60.220 (talk) 20:47, 13 July 2009 (UTC)

Sample performances
I have a question about the performance samples. Early in the article it says that different interpretations are "fiercely defended" by their advocates, so I was curious as to why all the samples are by the same cellist. I edit on WP, but came to this article to read more about the suites and would have liked to compare/contrast different interpretations after seeing that bit about interpretative differences, so my question is, wouldn't it be a good idea to put up performance samples by at least one other cellist, Yo-Yo Ma, for example?--TEHodson 02:19, 4 January 2012 (UTC)
 * When you entered the text above, there was a notice below the edit box which pointed out that you "release your contribution under the CC-BY-SA 3.0 License and the GFDL." If you find recordings of the suites where the copyright holder releases them under this license, they can be uploaded to Wikipedia/Wikimedia; else, not. -- Michael Bednarek (talk) 04:49, 4 January 2012 (UTC)
 * I don't think I quite understand what that means, but I take it you're saying that the ones on the article are the only ones allowed due to copyright issues. I have seen sound files on recording artists' pages, so thought that there are circumstances under which samples are allowed where there is no for-profit motive. Oh well.--TEHodson 05:10, 4 January 2012 (UTC)

Suite 5
Yo Yo Ma played the Sarabande from the first suite on September 11, 2002, not the Sarabande from the 5th suite. Here is video of the the sarabande from suite 1: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZoJHd6VxE-4 I do not have definitive proof that he did not also play the sarabande from the 5th suite. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.15.219.60 (talk) 04:58, 29 November 2012 (UTC)

pre-1720
Trying to locate information on this; I think I've sort-of located a recent article that infers a 1718/1719 date from Bach's acquaintance with a Berlin cellist in that period prior to his return to Cöthen in 1720 (where, the argument goes, insufficient cellists who were good enough to play the suites are known to have been around to have inspired such comparatively difficult writing)- and presumably some other arguments (if that's all it seems a fairly weak reed, though admittedly not nothing.) ... Will have to look further, though. Schissel | Sound the Note! 17:23, 3 May 2013 (UTC)

Move?
Shouldn't this article use "suites" instead of "Suites" in its title? Did Bach actually give a collective title to these works? Toccata quarta (talk) 17:49, 28 May 2013 (UTC)
 * Support, as Orchestral suites (Bach). What Bach called them would not count here anyway, "this is the English Wikipedia". (See Wagner.) Anna Magdalena called them "Suites a Violoncello Solo senza Basso". --Gerda Arendt (talk) 17:59, 28 May 2013 (UTC)

WHERE are the refs for the Structure section of this article????
ANYONE????Coal town guy (talk) 20:47, 19 August 2013 (UTC)

 * Before we proceed, please see WP:SHOUT. Thank you. Toccata quarta (talk) 05:14, 20 August 2013 (UTC)
 * My apologies. Someone, anyone, might want to look at WP:CITE. A total paraphrasing with no refs of the structure section caused me great concern. I very much enjoy playing and listening to these pieces. It seems ironic, that I had to insert a diagram showing the parts of the cello in the cello article, which was a former good article......Imagine my delight and thrill when, I printed a hard copy of the Structure sections of this article and read a few passages from various texts at Google books as well as my own notations and music copies. The entire section is not ref'd, needs to be ref'd. Again, and with utmost respect, I would love to do the refs, I thought that asking the question would cause anyoine to say, golly, why is this person so concerned. I am concerned because, the whole thing reads like a RCA Victor cover sleeve. Yes, I actually still play vinyl, egad.......WE will not begin anything, ANYONE can insert the refs or you can or I can. Dont like it? I just thought that it is glaringly obviousCoal town guy (talk) 13:06, 20 August 2013 (UTC)

Suite 1
I'm a new Wikipedia user, so forgive me if this question is dumb - but why is there so little content about Suite 1 (arguably the most famous of all the suites, at least according to the page itself) other than the Prelude? Shouldn't there be more content about the other works in the suite? Stara729 (talk) 22:17, 22 October 2013 (UTC)

 * See WP:WIP and WP:BB. Toccata quarta (talk) 03:34, 23 October 2013 (UTC)

Listing of movements
This article should be listing the movements for each individual suite.

84.215.230.213 (talk) 21:05, 5 February 2014 (UTC)

Move
Cello Suites (Bach) => Cello Suites no disambiguation needed. All the best: Rich Farmbrough, 02:36, 8 November 2014 (UTC).

 * Britten wrote important cello suites, - it also looks like a article on cello suites in general without "Bach", --Gerda Arendt (talk) 08:49, 8 November 2014 (UTC)
 * I generally strongly support removal of unnecessary disambiguators, but as there is an article Cello suites (Britten) (and there must be more potential articles), having Cello Suites as a title for this article title seems unwise. -- Michael Bednarek (talk) 12:53, 8 November 2014 (UTC)

Infobox?
We could tell the reader at a glance a bit more, --Gerda Arendt (talk) 07:12, 21 November 2015 (UTC)

 * done --Gerda Arendt (talk) 07:58, 25 November 2015 (UTC)

Spammy list of cellists?
Pardon my uncouthness, but I have never heard of the following "renowned" cellists who are listed as having recorded the suites: Emanuel Feuermann, Pierre Fournier, André Navarra, Gregor Piatigorsky, Mischa Maisky, János Starker, Anner Bijlsma and Heinrich Schiff. Am I just an ignorant booby, or can some of them go? Plus I can think of more famous cellists who probably recorded (Lynn Harrell?) but are not listed ... -- Softlavender (talk) 08:58, 21 November 2015 (UTC)

 * Update: I went ahead and trimmed it to four rather incontrovertible major cellists of our time. Softlavender (talk) 07:37, 22 November 2015 (UTC)

Belated response to original comment
I am assuming you are referring to the third paragraph in the History section of the article, Softlavender? I do not think the list of cellists about which you complained was actually spammy. The current shorter list, containing just Rostropovich, Tortelier, Starker, and Ma is perhaps more problematic. Though indisputably one of the greatest cellists of the twentieth century, Rostropovich was not known for his Bach, and many fans believe his recording of the suites is not a highlight of his discography. I believe too that Tortelier's Bach is not considered especially significant. All of the cellists you cut from the list have huge reputations, and at least two of them are especially known for their recordings of the Bach Suites: Pierre Fournier and Anner Bijlsma. I think this paragraph needs some work, which I would be happy to undertake, if I don't see any valid complaints. --HenryPurcell (talk) 17:28, 20 December 2018 (UTC)

More sources
Here are some more sources to cull if anyone wants to. This is obviously not exhaustive; just some things I picked up along the way:
 * https://books.google.com/books?id=Euf2Loch7YcC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false
 * https://chicagopresents.uchicago.edu/sites/chicagopresents.uchicago.edu/files/UCP%20Program%20Notes%20Oct%2015.pdf
 * https://costanzabach.stanford.edu/history/baroque-dance
 * https://costanzabach.stanford.edu/commentary
 * http://www.good-music-guide.com/reviews/065_bach_cello_suites.htm
 * https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2000/06/celo-j22.html
 * http://www.academia.edu/900243/The_Bach_Cello_Suites
 * http://www.signumrecords.com/catalogue/instrumental/j.s.bach:-six-solo-cello-suites/sigcd091.html
 * http://www.independent.com/news/2008/nov/20/lynn-harrell/

-- Softlavender (talk) 05:12, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

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History
The History section of this article contatins this very problematic, unsourced statement: "However, scholars generally believe that—based on a comparative analysis of the styles of the sets of works—the cello suites arose first, effectively dating the suites earlier than 1720, the year on the title page of Bach's autograph of the violin sonatas." No citation is given, and I am personally not aware of prominent scholars who have stated that cello suites likely were written before the violin solos. I believe the consensus is that they were written at about the same time (ca. 1720), and that the stylistic differences reflect Bach's nuanced way of addressing the different instruments. Schissel wrote in 2013 in the Talk section above called pre-1720 where Schissel mentioned having heard something about 1718 or 1719, but I do not see any follow up. HenryPurcell (talk) 15:10, 4 August 2017 (UTC)

Third Paragraph of this Article (on the history of the reception of the suites) needs work
The third paragraph of this article begins with a sentence that is full of unsupported, questionable statements.It says:

"Due to the works' technical demands, étude-like nature, and difficulty in interpretation because of the non-annotated nature of the surviving copies, the cello suites were little known and rarely publicly performed until they were revived and recorded by Pablo Casals in the early 20th century."

 * 1)  Many would disagree and it would be hard to prove that the suites are étude like.
 * 2)  By saying "because of the non-annotated nature of the surviving copies" it misleading suggests that if other sources, for example an autograph, did survive that they would have more annotation. Bach's own mss. of other pieces did not have more "annotation" than the surviving copy of the suites made by Anna Magdalena Bach.
 * 3)  It's hard to document that the suites were little known, when there were more than 50 different editions published between about 1824 and 1900.
 * 4)  As for Casals's role in revival of the suites, it was certainly large, but the above sentence overstates it.

This sentence really needs to be replaced. I would be happy to write it, if others agree with me.

--HenryPurcell (talk) 23:10, 23 February 2018 (UTC)

 * I disagree on all counts. Softlavender (talk) 04:17, 27 February 2018 (UTC)

Do you care to elaborate, Softlavender? As for my points above:
 * 1)  Other than having no accompaniment, Bach's suites bear little resemblance to pieces called études.
 * 2)  The surviving ms. copies of these suites are no less "annotated" than other music that survives by Bach, including the pieces that survive in his own hand. The way the above-referenced sentence from the article is worded, it would suggest that the cello suites as they survived were less annotated than other music, such as the violin sonatas and partias, or the keyboard music, which just is not the case.
 * 3)  It is misleading to say that the suites were not well known (prior to Casals) when at least nine different editions were published between 1825 and 1888, about the time Casals is said to have bought his copy of the Grützmacher edition from a music shop in Barcelona.
 * 4)  Casals deserves some credit in the revival of the suites, but so do the others, including cellists such as Dotzauer and Grützmacher.

The current sentence in the Wikipedia article seems to perpetuate myths, and add further confusion, rather than to sum up the current state of scholarly knowledge. --HenryPurcell (talk) 05:39, 1 April 2018 (UTC)

References in this Wikipedia article
Many of the citations in this article are to sources of little scholarly authority. One particular example is Siblin's book. While it might make for engaging reading and succeed in broadening interest in Bach's music, much of the book's content is not rigorously accurate.

Things get even trickier, when a review of this book by a reviewer without apparent specialist knowledge is used as a source, not for information about the Siblin's book, but about Bach's actual music. I therefore replaced the following misleading text: "in addition, some of the suites were written for four strings, and some for five", which is not accurate, since exactly one suite was written for a five-string instrument, with the following more detailed statement: "additionally, while four of the suites are written for a four-stringed instrument in the standard tuning, the fifth suite employs a variant tuning, and the sixth suite was written for an instrument with five strings." The text I replaced made reference to a NYT book review, Janet Maslin. "Bewitched by Bach, Bewildered by His Masterpiece" The New York Times, November 30, 2009, which did support the inaccurate information that was previously in our article, so I deleted the citation as well. The information I have added to the article does not strictly speaking need source. It is widely known in the literature on the suites. If someone wants a citation there, it should be a reference to Anna Magdalena Bach's manuscript of the suites. --HenryPurcell (talk) 18:32, 20 December 2018 (UTC)

Cöthen
I'm prepared, in a footnote, to give a list of 4 important musicological works in English where the "Cöthen usage" is standardized, but I'm not sure the best way to go about this. Can anyone help? Gerda, you've read the comments on my talk page where I list the 4 important works in question, so perhaps you could aid me in forming these into a useful side-note? --Alphaten (talk) 13:10, 19 January 2019 (UTC)
 * There are hundreds of important musicological works in English. There is no reason not to use the correct spelling of Köthen in this wiki article.
 * I think the discussion - if needed - would be better on the talk of the composer. This particlular article is just one written there. --Gerda Arendt (talk) 20:03, 19 January 2019 (UTC)

Editions
I miss a section about editions of the music, coming from the Main page which says that Edmund Kurtz made an edition published in 1983, and the article - sadly not the Main page - adds that it has a facsimile of A. M. Bach's manuscript opposite each page. Worth mentioning, but I hesitate to do it is a stand-alone section without contect. My knowledge is zero, unfortunately. --Gerda Arendt (talk) 07:54, 23 July 2020 (UTC)

Well, I gave it a start, - finding a bit strange that "Arrangements" is a subsection of Manuscripts, but not wanting to touch this too much. --Gerda Arendt (talk) 10:09, 23 July 2020 (UTC)

Connections to fractal geometry
Hello. How does the community feel about adding a section with a brief description of the rigorous connection between the cello suites and fractal geometry?

FULL DISCLOSURE: I appear to be the only researcher who has published on this subject.

FWIW, I believe this connection says something fundamental about Bach's sense of melody (though I would not include this observation in the proposed section). The research itself was an outgrowth of my work with Benoit Mandelbrot and Michael Frame at Yale and was published in the journal Fractals. If there is a consensus to add a short section, these are the references I would propose using:

GiantSteps (talk) 00:23, 23 August 2021 (UTC)

 * To be properly considered for inclusion in Wikipedia articles, references generally need to be secondary sources. Direct interpretation of WP:Primary sources qualifies as WP:Original research, and more generally speaking, secondary sources help establish the notability of research and the degree to which it is considered mainstream. StereoFolic (talk) 20:09, 30 April 2023 (UTC)

Interpololation regarding authorship
I removed from the section Cello_Suites_(Bach) the following, which was poorly formatted but more seriously is unsourced:
 * Georg Heinrich Ludwig Schwanberg has written on the title page, circa 1730 : "Pars 1. | Violino Solo | Composée | par | Sr. Jean Seb: Bach. | Pars 2. | Violoncello Solo. | Senza Basso. | composée | par | Sr. J. S. Bach. | Maitre de la Chapelle | et | Directeur de la Musique | a | Leipsic. | ecrite par Madame | Bachen. Son Epouse."

If anything, this contradicts the idea that "Mme. Bachen" composed the suites; it says "composée | par | Sr. J. S. Bach." If sourced, it could be reinserted as evidence. Zaslav (talk) 08:23, 14 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Cello Suites (Bach)