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History of the United States dollar

The history of the United States dollar began with moves by the Founding Fathers of the United States of America to establish a national currency based on the Spanish silver dollar, which had been in use in the North American colonies of the Kingdom of Great Britain for over 100 years prior to the United States Declaration of Independence. The new Congress's Coinage Act of 1792 established the United States dollar as the country's standard unit of money, creating the United States Mint tasked with producing and circulating coinage. Initially defined under a bimetallic standard in terms of a fixed quantity of silver or gold, it formally adopted the gold standard in 1900, and finally eliminated all links to gold in 1971.

Since the founding of the Federal Reserve System in 1913 as the central bank of the United States, the dollar has been primarily issued in the form of Federal Reserve Notes. The United States dollar is now the world's primary reserve currency held by governments worldwide for use in international trade.

Origins: the Spanish dollar
The United States Mint commenced production of the United States dollar in 1792 as a local version of the popular Spanish dollar or piece of eight produced in Spanish America and widely circulated throughout the Americas from the 16th to the 19th centuries. Made with similar silver content to its counterparts minted in Mexico and Peru, the Spanish, U.S. and Mexican silver dollars all circulated side by side in the United States, and the Spanish dollar and Mexican peso remained legal tender until the Coinage Act of 1857.

Continental Currency
After the American Revolutionary War began in 1775, the Continental Congress began issuing paper money known as Continental currency, or Continentals. Continental currency was denominated in dollars from $$1/undefined$ to US$80, including many odd denominations in between. During the Revolution, Congress issued US$241552780 in Continental currency. By the end of 1778, this Continental currency retained only between $1/undefined$ to $1/undefined$ of its original face value. By 1780, Continental bills – or Continentals – were worth just $1/undefined$ of their face value. Congress tried to reform the currency by removing the old bills from circulation and issuing new ones, but this met with little-to-no success. By May 1781, Continentals had become so worthless they ceased to circulate as money. Benjamin Franklin noted that the depreciation of the currency had, in effect, acted as a tax to pay for the war. In the 1790s, after the ratification of the United States Constitution, Continentals could be exchanged for treasury bonds at 1% of face value.

Congress appointed Robert Morris to be Superintendent of Finance of the United States following the collapse of the Continental currency. In 1782, Morris advocated the creation of the first financial institution chartered by the United States. The Bank of North America was funded in part by bullion coin, loaned to the United States by France. Morris helped finance the final stages of the war by issuing promissory notes in his name, backed by his own money. The Bank of North America also issued notes convertible into gold or silver.

Runaway inflation and the collapse of the Continental currency prompted delegates at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787 to include the gold and silver clause in the United States Constitution, preventing individual States from issuing their own bills of credit. Article One states they were prohibited to "make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts." Some people use this clause to argue that federal paper money is unconstitutional, though very few constitutional scholars hold that position.

Coinage Act of 1792
On July 6, 1785, the Continental Congress of the United States authorized the issuance of a new currency, the US dollar. The word dollar is derived from Low Saxon cognate of the High German Thaler; the term had already been in common usage since the colonial period when it referred to eight-real coin (Spanish dollar) or the "Spanish milled dollar" issued by the Spanish from New Spain and used throughout the rest of the Americas. The Spanish dollar was the most commonly circulated and readily available currency used by common Americans and was valued for its high silver content.

Subsequently, the American administration of President George Washington turned its attention to monetary issues again in the early 1790s, under the leadership of Alexander Hamilton, the Secretary of the Treasury at the time. Congress acted on Hamilton's recommendations, with the Coinage Act of 1792 that established the dollar as the basic unit of account for the United States.

The United States Mint was created by Congress following the passing of the Coinage Act. It was primarily tasked with producing and circulating coinage. The first Mint building was in Philadelphia, then the capital of the United States. The Mint was originally placed within the Department of State, until the Coinage Act of 1873 when it became part of the Department of the Treasury (in 1981 it was placed under the auspices of the Treasurer of the United States). The Mint had the authority to convert any precious metals into standard coinage for anyone's account with no seigniorage charge beyond refining costs.

19th century

In the early 19th century, the intrinsic value of gold coins rose relative to their nominal equivalent in silver coins, resulting in the removal from commerce of nearly all gold coins, and their subsequent private melting. Therefore, in the Coinage Act of 1834, the 15:1 ratio of silver to gold was changed to a 16:1 ratio by reducing the weight of the nation's gold coinage. This created a new U.S. dollar that was backed by 1.50 grams (23.22 grains) of gold. However, the previous dollar had been represented by 1.60 g (24.75 grains) of gold. The result of this revaluation, which was the first devaluation of the U.S. dollar, was that the value in gold of the dollar was reduced by 6%. Moreover, for a time, both gold and silver coins were useful in commerce.

In 1853, the weights of U.S. silver coins (except the dollar itself, which was rarely used) were reduced. This had the effect of placing the nation effectively (although not officially) on the gold standard. The retained weight in the dollar coin was a nod to bimetallism, although it had the effect of further driving the silver dollar coin from commerce. Foreign coins, including the Spanish dollar, were also widely used as legal tender, until 1857.

With the enactment of the National Banking Act of 1863—during the American Civil War—and its later versions that taxed states' bonds and currency out of existence, the dollar became the sole currency of the United States and remains so today.

During the 19th century the dollar was less accepted around the world than the British pound. Nellie Bly carried Bank of England notes on her 1889–1890 trip around the world in 72 days; she also brought some dollars, Bly wrote, "to use at different ports as a test to see if American money was known outside of America". Traveling east from New York, she did not see American money until she found $20 gold pieces used as jewelry in Colombo; there Bly found that as currency dollars were accepted at a 60% discount.

In 1878, the Bland–Allison Act was enacted to provide for freer coinage of silver. This act required the government to purchase between $2 million and $4 million worth of silver bullion each month at market prices and to coin it into silver dollars. This was, in effect, a subsidy for politically influential silver producers.

The discovery of large silver deposits in the Western United States in the late 19th century created a political controversy. Due to the large influx of silver, the intrinsic value of the silver in the nation's coinage dropped precipitously. On one side were agrarian interests such as the Greenback Party that wanted to retain the bimetallic standard in order to inflate the dollar, which would allow farmers to more easily repay their debts. On the other side were Eastern banking and commercial interests, who advocated sound money and a switch to the gold standard. This issue split the Democratic Party in 1896. It led to the famous Cross of Gold speech given by William Jennings Bryan, and may have inspired many of the themes in The Wizard of Oz. Despite the controversy, the status of silver was slowly diminished through a series of legislative changes from 1873 to 1900, when a gold standard was formally adopted. The gold standard survived, with several modifications, until 1971.

Gold standard
Note: all references to 'ounce' in this section are to the troy ounce as used for precious metals, rather than to the (smaller) avoirdupois ounce used in the United States customary units system for other goods.

Bimetallism persisted until March 14, 1900, with the passage of the Gold Standard Act, which provided that:

"... the dollar consisting of twenty-five and eight-tenths grains of gold nine-tenths fine, as established by section thirty-five hundred and eleven of the Revised Statutes of the United States, shall be the standard unit of value, and all forms of money issued or coined by the United States shall be maintained at a parity of value with this standard ..."

Thus the United States moved to a gold standard, making both gold and silver the legal-tender coinage of the United States, and guaranteed the dollar as convertible to 23.22 grains (1.50463 grams, 0.048375 troy ounces) of pure gold, or a little over $20.67 per ounce.

The gold standard was suspended twice during World War I, once fully and then for foreign exchange. At the onset of the war, U.S. corporations had large debts payable to European entities who began liquidating their debts in gold. With debts to Europe falling due, the dollar to (British) pound sterling exchange rate reached as high as $6.75:£1, far above the nominal (gold) parity of 4.8665:1. This caused large gold outflows until July 31, 1914, when the New York Stock Exchange closed and the gold standard was temporarily suspended. In order to defend the exchange rate of the dollar, the US Treasury Department authorized state and nationally chartered banks to issue emergency currency under the Aldrich-Vreeland Act, and the newly created Federal Reserve organized a fund to assure debts to foreign creditors. These efforts were largely successful, and the Aldrich-Vreeland notes were retired starting in November and the gold standard was restored when the New York Stock Exchange re-opened in December 1914.

For as long as the United States remained neutral in the war, it remained the only country to maintain its gold standard, doing so without restriction on import or export of gold from 1915 to 1917. When the United States became a belligerent in the war, President Wilson banned gold export, thereby suspending the gold standard for foreign exchange. After the war, European countries slowly returned to their gold standards, though in somewhat altered form.

During the Great Depression, every major currency abandoned the gold standard. Among the earliest, the Bank of England abandoned the gold standard in 1931 as speculators demanded gold in exchange for currency notes or in settlement of debts, threatening the solvency of the British monetary system. This pattern repeated throughout Europe and North America. In the United States, the Federal Reserve was forced to raise interest rates in order to protect the gold standard for the US dollar, worsening already severe domestic economic pressures. After bank runs became more pronounced in early 1933, people began to hoard gold coins as distrust for banks led to distrust for paper money, worsening deflation and depleting gold reserves.

The Gold Reserve Act
In early 1933, in order to fight severe deflation, Congress and President Roosevelt implemented a series of Acts of Congress and Executive Orders which suspended the gold standard except for foreign exchange, revoked gold as universal legal tender for debts, and banned private ownership of significant amounts of gold coin. These acts included Executive Order 6073, the Emergency Banking Act, Executive Order 6102, Executive Order 6111, the Agricultural Adjustment Act, 1933 Banking Act, the gold clause resolution, and later the Gold Reserve Act. These actions were upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in the "Gold Clause Cases" in 1935.

For foreign exchange purposes, the set $20.67 per ounce value of the dollar was lifted, allowing the dollar to float freely in foreign exchange markets with no set value in gold. This was terminated after one year. Roosevelt attempted first to restabilize falling prices with the Agricultural Adjustment Act; however, this did not prove popular, so instead the next politically popular option was to devalue the dollar on foreign exchange markets. Under the Gold Reserve Act the price of gold was fixed at $35 per ounce, making the dollar more attractive for foreign buyers (and making foreign currencies more expensive for those holding dollars). This change led to more conversion of gold into dollars, allowing the U.S. to effectively corner the world gold market.

The suspension of the gold standard was considered temporary by many in markets and in the government at the time, but restoring the standard was considered a low priority to dealing with other issues.

Under the post-World War II Bretton Woods system, all other currencies were valued in terms of U.S. dollars and were thus indirectly linked to the gold standard. The need for the U.S. government to maintain both a $35 per troy ounce (112.53cents/gram) market price of gold and also the conversion to foreign currencies caused economic and trade pressures. By the early 1960s, compensation for these pressures started to become too complicated to manage.

In March 1968, the effort to control the private market price of gold was abandoned. A two-tier system began. In this system all central-bank transactions in gold were insulated from the free market price. Central banks would trade gold among themselves at $35/ounce (112.53¢/g) but would not trade with the private market. The private market could trade at the equilibrium market price and there would be no official intervention. The price immediately jumped to $43/ounce (138.25¢/g). The price of gold touched briefly back at $35/ounce (112.53¢/g) near the end of 1969 before beginning a steady price increase. This gold price increase turned steep after President Richard Nixon unilaterally ordered the cancellation of the direct convertibility of the United States dollar to gold in 1971, an act later known as the Nixon Shock. In 1972, the price hit a high of over $70/ounce (2.25$/g). By that time floating exchange rates had also begun to emerge, which indicated the de facto dissolution of the Bretton Woods system. The two-tier system was abandoned in November 1973. By then the price of gold had reached $100/ounce (3.22$/g).

In the early 1970s, inflation caused by rising prices for imported commodities, especially oil, and spending on the Vietnam War that was not counteracted by cuts in other government expenditures, combined with a trade deficit to create a situation in which the dollar was worth less than the gold used to back it.

U.S. dollar value vs. gold value
The sudden jump in the price of gold after the demise of the Bretton Woods accords was a result of the significant prior debasement of the US dollar due to excessive inflation of the monetary supply via central bank (Federal Reserve) coordinated fractional reserve banking under the Bretton Woods partial gold standard. In the absence of an international mechanism tying the dollar to gold via fixed exchange rates, the dollar became a pure fiat currency and as such fell to its free market exchange price versus gold. Consequently, the price of gold rose from $35/ounce (1.125 $/g) in 1969 to almost $500 (29 $/g) in 1980.

Shortly after the dollar price of gold started its ascent in the early 1970s, the price of other commodities such as oil also began to rise. While commodity prices became more volatile, the average price of oil as expressed in gold (or vice versa) remained much the same in the 1990s as it had been in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s.

Silver certificates
United States silver certificates were a type of representative money printed from 1878 to 1964 in the United States as part of its circulation of paper currency. They were produced in response to silver agitation by citizens who were angered by the Fourth Coinage Act, and were used alongside the gold-based dollar notes. The silver certificates were initially redeemable in the same face value of silver dollar coins, and later in raw silver bullion.

Since the early 1920s, silver certificates were issued in US$1, US$5, and US$10 denominations. In the 1928 series, only US$1 silver certificates were produced. Fives and tens of this time were mainly Federal Reserve notes, which were backed by and redeemable in gold. In 1933, Congress passed the Agricultural Adjustment Act which included a clause allowing for the pumping of silver into the market to replace the gold. A new 1933 series of US$10 silver certificate was printed and released, but not many were released into circulation.

In 1934, a law was passed in Congress that changed the obligation on Silver Certificates so as to denote the current location of the silver.

The last government regulation regarding the silver standard was in 1963, when President John F. Kennedy issued Executive Order 11110, delegating to the Treasury Secretary his authority to authorize the US Department of Treasury to issue silver certificates for any silver held by the U.S. Government in excess of that not already backing issued certificates. This was necessary because of Kennedy's signing of Public Law 88-36 on the same day, one of the effects of which was a repeal of the Silver Purchase Act of 1934-this act had authorized the Treasury Secretary to purchase silver bullion and issue silver certificates against it. Silver certificates continued to be issued for a short period of time in the US$1 denomination, but were discontinued in late 1963.

Gold certificates
Gold certificates were another form of representative paper money issued by the United States Treasury from 1865 to 1933 and redeemable in gold. While the United States observed a gold standard, the certificates were a convenient way to pay in gold.

Wildcat Notes
Paper currency was issued by poorly capitalized state-chartered "wildcat" banks in the United States during the Free Banking Era from 1836 to 1865.

Demand Notes
Demand Notes are a type of United States paper money issued from August 1861 to April 1862 during the American Civil War in denominations of 5, 10, and 20 US$. They were the first issue of paper money by the United States that achieved wide circulation.

National Bank Notes
National Bank Notes were United States currency banknotes issued by National Banks chartered by the United States Government between 1863 and 1935. The notes were usually backed by United States bonds the bank deposited with the United States Treasury. While the notes were not legal tender in general, they were satisfactory for nearly all payments to and by the federal government.

United States Notes
A United States Note, also known as a Legal Tender Note, was a type of paper money that was issued from 1862 to 1971 in the U.S. Having been current for over 100 years, they were issued for longer than any other form of U.S. paper money. They were known popularly as "greenbacks" in their day, a name inherited from the Demand Notes that they replaced in 1862.

While issuance of United States Notes ended in January 1971, existing United States Notes are still valid currency in the United States today, though rarely seen in circulation.

Both United States Notes and Federal Reserve Notes are parts of the national currency of the United States, and both have been legal tender since the gold recall of 1933. Both have been used in circulation as money in the same way. However, the issuing authority for them came from different statutes. United States Notes were created as fiat currency, in that the government has never categorically guaranteed to redeem them for precious metal - even though at times, such as after the specie resumption of 1879, federal officials were authorized to do so if requested.

The difference between a United States Note and a Federal Reserve Note is that a United States Note represented a "bill of credit" and was inserted by the Treasury directly into circulation free of interest. Federal Reserve Notes are backed by debt purchased by the Federal Reserve, and thus generate seigniorage for the Federal Reserve System, which serves as a lending intermediary between the Treasury and the public.

Federal Reserve Notes
Congress continued to issue paper money after the Civil War, the most important of which was the Federal Reserve Note that was authorized by the Federal Reserve Act of 1913. Since the discontinuation of all other types of notes (Gold Certificates in 1933, Silver Certificates in 1963, and United States Notes in 1971), US dollar notes have since been issued exclusively as Federal Reserve Notes.

History
World War II devastated European and Asian economies while leaving the United States' economy relatively unharmed. As European governments exhausted their gold reserves and borrowed to pay the United States for war material, the United States accumulated large gold reserves. This combination gave the United States significant political and economic power following the war.

The Bretton Woods agreement codified this economic dominance of the dollar after the war. In 1944, Allied nations sought to create an international monetary order that sustained the global economy and prevented the economic malaise that followed the First World War. The Bretton Woods agreement laid the foundations for an international monetary order that created rules and expectations for the international economic system. It created the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the predecessor of the World Bank, and an international monetary system based on fixed exchange rates. It valued the dollar at $35 per ounce of gold and the remaining signatories pegged their respective currency relative to the dollar, leading some economists to argue that Bretton Woods "dethroned" gold as the default asset.

While Bretton Woods institutionalized the dollar's importance following the war, Europe and Asia faced dollar shortages. The international community needed dollars to finance imports from the United States to rebuild what was lost in the war. In 1948 Congress passed the European Recovery Program - generally known as the Marshall Plan – giving dollars to European countries to purchase imports needed to rebuild their economies. The plan helped European countries by providing them dollars to purchase the imports needed to produce exports, eventually allowing the countries to export enough of their own goods to obtain the dollars necessary to sustain their economies without reliance on any Marshall-like plan. At the same time, Joseph Dodge worked with Japanese officials and Congress to pass the Dodge Plan in 1949, which worked similarly to the Marshall Plan, but for Japan rather than Europe.

The Marshall and Dodge plans' successes have brought new challenges to the U.S. dollar. In 1959, dollars in circulation around the world exceeded U.S. gold reserves, which became vulnerable to the equivalent of a bank run. In 1960, Yale economist Robert Triffin described the problem to Congress: either the dollar was not freely available and other countries could not afford to import American goods, or the dollar was freely available but confidence that the dollar could be converted to gold would wane.

Eventually, the United States chose to devalue the dollar. During the early 1960s American officials largely prevented the conversion of dollars to gold with a series of "gentlemanly" agreements and other policies – which included the London Gold Pool - but these actions were not sustainable; the danger of a run on U.S. gold reserves was too high. With Nixon's election in 1968, American officials became increasingly concerned until Nixon finally issued Executive Order 11615 in August 1971, ending the direct convertibility of dollars to gold. He said, "We must protect the position of the American dollar as pillar of monetary stability around the world ... I am determined that the American dollar must never again be hostage in the hands of the international speculators." This became known as the Nixon Shock and marked the dollar's transition from the gold standard to a fiat currency.

Impact
The United States enjoys some benefits because the dollar serves as the international reserve currency. The United States is less likely to face a balance of payments crisis.

Fiat standard
Today, like the currency of most nations, the dollar is fiat money, unbacked by any physical asset. A holder of a federal reserve note has no right to demand an asset such as gold or silver from the government in exchange for a note. Consequently, some proponents of the intrinsic theory of value believe that the near-zero marginal cost of production of the current fiat dollar detracts from its attractiveness as a medium of exchange and store of value because a fiat currency without a marginal cost of production is easier to debase via overproduction and the subsequent inflation of the money supply.

In 1963, the words "PAYABLE TO THE BEARER ON DEMAND" were removed from all newly issued Federal Reserve notes. Then, in 1968, redemption of pre-1963 Federal Reserve notes for gold or silver officially ended. The Coinage Act of 1965 removed all silver from quarters and dimes, which were 90% silver prior to the act. However, there was a provision in the act allowing some coins to contain a 40% silver consistency, such as the Kennedy Half Dollar. Later, even this provision was removed, with the last circulating silver-content halves minted in 1969. All coins previously minted in silver for general circulation are now clad. During 1982, the composition of the cent was changed from copper to zinc with a thin copper coating. The content of the nickel has not changed since 1866 (except for 1942-1945 when silver and other metals were used to preserve nickel for war uses). Silver and gold coins are produced by the U.S. government, but only as non-circulating commemorative pieces or in sets for collectors.

All circulating notes, issued from 1861 to present, will be honored by the government at face value as legal tender. This means that the federal government will accept old notes as payments for debts owed to the federal government (taxes and fees), or exchange old notes for new ones, but will not redeem notes for gold or silver, even if the note states that it may be thus redeemed.

The only exception to this rule is the $10,000 gold certificate of Series 1900, a number of which were inadvertently released to the public because of a fire in 1935. This set is not considered to be "in circulation" and, in fact, is stolen property. However, the government canceled these banknotes and removed them from official records. Their value, relevant only to collectors, is approximately one thousand US dollars.

According to the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, there is $1.2 trillion in total US currency in worldwide circulation as of July 2013.

Color and design
The federal government began issuing paper currency during the American Civil War. As photographic technology of the day could not reproduce color, it was decided the back of the bills would be printed in a color other than black. Because the color green was seen as a symbol of stability, it was selected. These were known as "greenbacks" for their color and started a tradition of the United States' printing the back of its money in green. The author of that invention was chemist Christopher Der-Seropian. In contrast to the currency notes of many other countries, Federal Reserve notes of varying denominations are the same colors: predominantly black ink with green highlights on the front, and predominantly green ink on the back. Federal Reserve notes were printed in the same colors for most of the 20th century, although older bills called "silver certificates" had a blue seal and serial numbers on the front, and "United States notes" had a red seal and serial numbers on the front.

In 1928, sizing of the bills was standardized (involving a 25% reduction in their current sizes, compared to the older, larger notes nicknamed "horse blankets"). The Secretary of the Treasury directed a reduction in paper currency from a $7 7/16$ inch by $3 9/64$ inch size to a $6 5/16$ inch by $2 11/16$ inch (6.31"2.69") size, which allowed the Treasury Department to produce 12 notes per $16 1/4$ inch by $13 1/4$ inch sheet of paper that previously would yield 8 notes at the old size. Modern U.S. currency, regardless of denomination, is $2.61 inches$ ( $66.3 mm$) wide,  $6.14 inches$ ($156 mm$) long, and  $0.004 inches$ ( $0.109 mm$) thick. A single bill weighs about fifteen and a half grains (one gram) and costs approximately 4.2 cents for the Bureau of Engraving and Printing to produce.

Microprinting and security threads were introduced in the 1991 currency series.

Another series started in 1996 with the US$100 note, adding the following changes: Annual releases of the 1996 series followed. The US$50 note followed on June 12, 1997, and introduced a large dark numeral with a light background on the back of the note to make it easier for people to identify the denomination. The US$20 note in 1998 introduced a new machine-readable capability to assist scanning devices. The security thread glows green under ultraviolet light, and "USA TWENTY" and a flag are printed on the thread, while the numeral "20" is printed within the star field of the flag. The microprinting is in the lower left ornamentation of the portrait and in the lower left corner of the note front. , the US$20 note was the most frequently counterfeited note in the United States. The new design of the US$5 and US$10 notes were released in 2000.
 * A larger portrait, moved off-center to create more space to incorporate a watermark.
 * The watermark to the right of the portrait depicting the same historical figure as the portrait. The watermark can be seen only when held up to the light (and had long been a standard feature of all other major currencies).
 * A security thread that will glow pink when exposed to ultraviolet light in a dark environment. The thread is in a unique position on each denomination.
 * Color-shifting ink that changes from green to black when viewed from different angles. This feature appears in the numeral on the lower right-hand corner of the bill front.
 * Microprinting in the numeral in the note's lower left-hand corner and on Benjamin Franklin's coat.
 * Concentric fine-line printing in the background of the portrait and on the back of the note. This type of printing is difficult to copy well.
 * The value of the currency written in 14pt Arial font on the back for those with sight disabilities.
 * Other features for machine authentication and processing of the currency.

In 2003, the Treasury announced that it would introduce new colors into the $20 bill, the first U.S. currency since 1905 (not counting the 1934 gold certificates) to have colors other than green or black. The move was intended primarily to reduce counterfeiting, rather than to increase visual differentiation between denominations. The main colors of all denominations, including the new US$20 and $50, remain green and black; the other colors are present only in subtle shades in secondary design elements. This contrasts with notes of the euro, Australian dollar, and most other currencies, where strong colors are used to distinguish each denomination from the other.

The new US$20 bills entered circulation on October 9, 2003 and the new US$50 bills on September 28, 2004. The new $10 notes were introduced in 2006 and redesigned US$5 bills began to circulate March 13, 2008. Each has subtle elements of different colors but are still primarily green and black. "The soundness of a nation's currency is essential to the soundness of its economy. And to uphold our currency's soundness, it must be recognized and honored as legal tender and counterfeiting must be effectively thwarted," Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan said at a ceremony unveiling the US$20 bill's new design. Prior to its current design, the most recent redesign of the U.S. dollar bill was in 1996.

The 2008 US$5 bill contains significant new security updates. The obverse side of the bill includes patterned yellow printing that will cue digital image-processing software to prevent digital copying, watermarks, digital security thread, and extensive microprinting. The reverse side includes an oversized purple number 5 to provide easy differentiation from other denominations.

On April 21, 2010, the U.S. Government announced a heavily redesigned $100 bill that featured bolder colors, color shifting ink, microlenses, and other features. It was scheduled to start circulating on February 10, 2011, but was delayed due to the discovery of sporadic creasing on the notes and "mashing" (when there is too much ink on the paper, the artwork on the notes are not clearly seen). The redesigned US$100 bill was released October 8, 2013. It costs 11.8 cents to produce each bill.

As a result of a 2008 decision in an accessibility lawsuit filed by the American Council of the Blind, the Bureau of Engraving and Printing is planning to implement a raised tactile feature in the next redesign of each note, except the US$1 and the current version of the US$100 bill. It also plans larger, higher-contrast numerals, more color differences, and distribution of currency readers to assist the visually impaired during the transition period. In 2016, the Treasury announced a number of design changes to the US$5, US$10 and US$20 bills to be introduced in this next redesign. The redesigns include:

 * The back of the US$5 bill will be changed to showcase historical events at the pictured Lincoln Memorial by adding portraits of Marian Anderson (due to her famous performance there after being barred from Constitution Hall due to her race), Martin Luther King Jr.'s (due to his famous I Have A Dream speech), and Eleanor Roosevelt (who arranged Anderson's performance).
 * The back of the US$10 bill will be changed to show a 1913 march for women's suffrage in the United States, plus portraits of Sojourner Truth, Lucretia Mott, Susan B. Anthony, Alice Paul, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton.
 * On the US$20 bill, Andrew Jackson will move to the back (reduced in size, alongside the White House) and Harriet Tubman will appear on the front.

title: History of the United States dollar


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Coffee cup

A coffee cup is a container, a cup, for serving coffee and coffee-based drinks. There are three major types: conventional cups used with saucers, mugs used without saucers, and disposable cups. Cups and mugs generally have a handle. Disposable paper cups used for take-out sometimes have fold-out handles, but are more often used with an insulating coffee cup sleeve.

Coffee cups and mugs may be made of glazed ceramic, porcelain, plastic, glass, insulated or uninsulated metal, and other materials. In the past, coffee cups have also been made of bone, clay, and wood. Disposable coffee cups may be made out of paper or polystyrene foam (often mistakenly called Styrofoam).

History
Coffee cups, along with other coffee ware, originated in the Middle East. In the 17th century, coffee was consumed from small handle-less bowls, "Turkish cups". The cups were manufactured in Japan and China; the same cups were frequently intended for coffee and tea. In Europe, Meissen porcelain cups appeared around 1710, with large exports of "Turkish cups" to Turkey in the 1730s. These cups were tall due to the habit of drinking the liquid layer at the top, with the preparation sediment left at the bottom. As the drip coffee, invented in France in the 18th century, gained popularity, the need for tall cups disappeared, so the Sèvres porcelain signature cups were short.

The porcelain handles first appeared on the Meissen tall cups in the 1710s (some Oriental cups had handles, but these were made from silver). Handles became common by the 1730s.

Espresso
The Italian Espresso National Institute recommends serving espresso in a white china cup holding 50−100 ml, usually served on a saucer. In the US, espresso cups are sometimes called demitasse cups. The espresso macchiato, made with a shot of espresso and a dash of steamed milk, is also served in a demitasse.

Cappuccino
The Italian Espresso National Institute recommends serving cappuccino in a china cup holding approximately 160 ml, usually served on a saucer.

Gibraltar or cortado
Some shops serve a cortado in a 4-ounce Libbey Gibraltar glass, calling the drink a Gibraltar.

Sini
Traditional Ethiopian cups are called sini. These are small, pottery or porcelain cups, slightly larger than a demitasse, used to serve coffee from a jebena.

Cafe drinkware
Cafes use various sizes of coffee cups to serve mochas, lattes, and other coffee drinks. They are typically 225, 336, 460, and sometimes 570 ml. These cups are made of porcelain and shaped to encourage and aid in creating latte art.

Shape innovation
NASA designed "Space Cups" for use by astronauts in the International Space Station. The specially-shaped coffee cups are 3D printed and are used by sucking the liquid out of a bag. The sharp inner corner of the Space Cup allows the liquid to flow toward the drinker's lips through capillary flow. Data from experiments conducted with Space Cups can be used to design better fluid systems used in space, such as toilets, oxygen, air conditioning, and water coolants. The data can also be applied to societal uses of fluid systems on Earth, such as improving the design of portable medical blood testers for infectious diseases.

Porcelain and ceramic
Porcelain and ceramic cups are widely used for coffee. Ceramic is sturdier, cheaper than porcelain, and retains heat better because it is thicker.

Paper
Paper cups are usually lined with wax or plastic to prevent leakage. A famous design of a paper coffee cup is the Anthora, which has become symbolic of New York City's daily life.

Bamboo
Reusable bamboo coffee cups, promoted as a "natural" product, are made of powdered bamboo fibres suspended in glue containing melamine and formaldehyde. The German consumer group Stiftung Warentest raised concerns that these substances constitute a health hazard when used for hot drinks. The cups are also not recyclable. The UK Food Standards Agency advised retailers in June 2023 to withdraw bamboo cups, making further sales unlawful.

Polystyrene
Polystyrene, sometimes known as styrofoam (not actually Styrofoam), is used mainly because of its insulating abilities.

Coffee cup lids
Usually made of plastic, the first patent for a coffee cup lid design was filed in 1967 and focused on creating a tight seal between the cup and the lid to reduce leaking and a vent hole to allow steam to escape. However, there was no opening for drinking, and the consumer would have to tear into the lid. In 1986, the Solo Traveler lid was created; it is found in the Museum of Modern Art's 2004 exhibit "Humble Masterpieces". Recent lid designs like the Viora have improved on Solo Traveler's design, which has too small a vent to allow sufficient air to enter while drinking. Louise Harpman, co-owner of the world's most extensive collection of coffee cup lids and co-author of the book Coffee Lids (Princeton Architectural Press, 2018), suggests that coffee cup lids "represent a major shift in American 'to-go' culture".

Coffee cup sleeve
Coffee cup sleeves are roughly cylindrical sleeves that fit tightly over handle-less paper coffee cups to insulate the drinker's hands from hot coffee. The coffee sleeve was invented and patented by Jay Sorensen in 1993 and is now commonly utilized by coffee houses and other vendors that sell hot beverages dispensed in disposable paper cups. Coffee sleeves are typically made of textured paperboard, but can be made of different materials.

Environmental issues with disposable cups
The United States uses about 120 billion disposable coffee cups annually, almost all of which end up in landfills. Polystyrene foam cups have the reputation of not being recyclable, non-biodegradable, a major part of marine litter, and has various health risks. It is banned as a food and drink container in several U.S. cities including Portland, Ore., San Francisco, Calif., and Amherst, Mass. The doughnut company and coffeehouse chain Dunkin' Donuts has been criticized for continuing to use styrofoam cups. The company has argued that there is no other material that is as insulated, and has an official statement about their foam cups on their website. However, in 2013 they began phasing in doubled-walled paper cups designed to look like their signature foam cup.

Polystyrene foam cups are easier to recycle than the alternative, paper coffee cups, which are lined with polyethylene to make them impermeable. The few composting facilities which do accept them produce plastic fragments, contaminating the environment, and biodegrading very slowly. Paper coffee cups also release trillions of microplastic nanoparticles per liter into the water during normal use.

Reusable cups
By 2019, coffee shop customers increasingly used reusable coffee cups as a sustainable option; shops were offering a discount as an incentive. Cups made of bamboo fiber, polypropylene, and other organic materials such as starch and paper pulp were used. Only 1 in 400 single-use cups were recycled in 2017, and media coverage encouraged consumers to look for alternatives. Use of reusable cups declined sharply to reduce the chance of infection with the onset of the covid pandemic in 2020, and as of 2023 had not returned to previous levels.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Coffee cup


text:
Talk:Portraits in Hogwarts

HELP!!!
I cant get Violet's infobox to align properly!!! HELP!!!!! Supersaiyanplough|(talk) 11:27, 14 July 2005 (UTC)
 * False alarm, i fixed it. My bad! Supersaiyanplough|(talk) 11:29, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

Individual pages discussion
Please participate in the discussion at Talk:Harry_Potter regarding having individual pages for characters rather than group pages. --billlund 21:26, July 17, 2005 (UTC)

Note to anyone intending on splitting off a section
This page has been processed by N-Bot, which, for browsing convenience, changes links to redirects to lists to links to the relevant list sections: e.g. Sir Cadagon is changed to Sir Cadagon.

As a result, anyone who intends to split a section out of this page should be aware that, as of 27 August 2005, the following sections were linked to from the following pages:

 * The Fat Lady: Harry Potter cast, Hogwarts Houses, Elizabeth Spriggs
 * Sir Cadogan: Paul Whitehouse, Hogwarts, Harry Potter cast, Cadogan

N-Bot (t/c) 20:45, 27 August 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Portraits in Hogwarts


text:
Archives of Ohio United Methodism

The Archives of Ohio United Methodism, (AOUM) a collective history of The United Methodist Church in Ohio, are held at Ohio Wesleyan University in Delaware, Ohio. The current collection comprises documents from the two conferences of The United Methodist Church in Ohio; the West Ohio Conference and the East Ohio Conference. The collections of the two conferences were unified to form the Archives of Ohio United Methodism in 2003.

The first archive for documents pertaining to the church in Ohio, then known as the Methodist Episcopal Church, was established at Cincinnati, Ohio in 1839, the purpose of which was to "collect and preserve. . .materials for a complete and authentic history of the Methodist Episcopal Church west of the Allegheny Mountains. . ." This collection was later moved to Ohio Wesleyan in 1851.

Included in the collection are original, primary, documents dating from the establishment of the Methodist Episcopal Church in Ohio, and all of its antecedent denominations through and including the emergence of The United Methodist Church in 1968.

title: Archives of Ohio United Methodism


text:
Mohawk Chapel

His Majesty's Royal Chapel of the Mohawks in Brantford, Ontario is the oldest surviving church building in Ontario and was the first Anglican church in Upper Canada. It is one of only three Chapels Royal in Canada. In 1981, the chapel was designated a National Historic Site of Canada.

History
Constructed in 1785 by the British Crown, the chapel was given to the Mohawk people led by Joseph Brant for their support of the Crown during the American Revolution. They had migrated to Canada after Britain lost the Thirteen Colonies and were awarded land for resettlement. Originally called St. Paul's, the church is commonly referred to as the Mohawk Chapel. It is part of the Anglican Diocese of Huron and has a chaplain appointed by the Bishop of Huron, in consultation with the congregation.

In 1850, the remains of Joseph Brant were moved from the original burial site in Burlington to a tomb at the Mohawk Chapel. His son, John Brant, was also interred in the tomb. Next to Brant's tomb is a boulder memorializing the writer Pauline Johnson, who was born in the nearby Six Nations Reserve and attended services in the chapel.

In 1904, it was designated as a Chapel Royal by King Edward VII.

Design
Architecturally, the chapel is a simple building with a rectangular floor plan; it is constructed of a wood frame faced with painted clapboards. It has been renovated several times. In November 2001, it suffered minor damage during two failed arson attempts.

Originally, the entrance faced east to the canoe landing site on the bank of the Grand River, the transportation route. Eight stained glass windows, installed between 1959 and 1962, depict events from the history of the Six Nations of the Iroquois.

Chaplains and associated clergy
1786 to 1827 (the first missionaries - no resident clergy):
 * The Reverend John Stuart of Kingston
 * The Reverend Dr. Addison of Niagara
 * The Reverend R. Leeming of Ancaster
 * The Reverend Mr. Hough of England

1827 to present (chapel incumbents - resident clergy):
 * The Reverend Robert Lugger (1827–1837)
 * The Reverend Canon Jame Campbell Usher (1837)
 * The Reverend A. Nelles (1837–1884)
 * Archbishop R. Ashton (1885–1915)
 * The Reverend C. M. Turnell (1915–1917)
 * The Reverend C. H. P. Owen (1922–1929)
 * The Reverend H. W. Snell (1929–1945)
 * The Reverend Canon W. J. Zimmerman (1945–1981)
 * The Reverend John Stables (1982–1999)
 * The Reverend Norman Casey (2000–2003)
 * The Reverend Larry Brown (2004–2016)
 * The Reverend Rosalyn Elm (2017–present)

title: Mohawk Chapel


text:
Jesse Powell

Jesse Powell (September 12, 1971 – September 13, 2022) was an American R&B and soul singer. Discovered by Louil Silas Jr., Powell was best known for his hit "You", which peaked at No. 2 on the R&B chart and No. 10 on the Billboard Hot 100. Powell released four albums and was the older brother of fellow contemporary R&B singers Trina & Tamara. Powell was credited with a four-octave vocal range. He was a Grammy nominee.

Life and career
Powell was born in Gary, Indiana, and raised with his siblings Trina, Tamara and Jacob. The family performed in local talent shows; and, in 1993, he attracted the attention of producer Carl Roland in Kansas City. Following an artist showcase, Louil Silas signed him to his Silas Records imprint.

Three years later, he completed work on his debut album. His first single, "All I Need", was written by Powell, Sam Salter and Laney Stewart and was released in March 1996, peaking at #32 on the Billboard R&B chart. His self-titled album was released on March 12, 1996, opening at #35 on the Billboard R&B and #32 on the Billboard Heatseekers chart. The follow-up single, a remake of the 1976 Enchantment song "Gloria", reached #51 R&B.

Powell then began work on his second album, debuting the lead single "I Wasn't with It" in 1998, which became his first single to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 (#85 US, #25 R&B). Bolstered by the success of the single, his second album 'Bout It was released on September 8, 1998, topping the Heatseekers chart. The album's second single, "You", was released in February 1999 and became his biggest hit, peaking at #2 on the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip Hop Songs chart and #10 on the Billboard Hot 100. The record was certified gold by the RIAA, peaking at #15 on R&B and #63 on the Billboard 200.

Following Silas Records' merge into MCA Records, Powell's first release on the label was the single "If I" in 2000, which peaked at No. 58 on the R&B chart. His third studio album, JP, was released on March 27, 2001, opening at #18 on the R&B chart and #71 on the Billboard 200. A second single, "Something in the Past" (#67 R&B), followed, in addition to Powell doing some promotion for the release. In 2002, he left the label and signed with Riviera Records. His fourth studio album, Jesse, was released on October 14, 2003, and was supported by the singles "By the Way" (#99 R&B) and "Touching It Tonight" (#85 R&B).

Death
Powell died in his Los Angeles home on September 13, 2022, a day after his 51st birthday from a methamphetamine overdose.

title: Jesse Powell


text: User talk:81.134.63.182

title: User talk:81.134.63.182


text: Category:Roman Catholic vestments

title: Category:Roman Catholic vestments


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/CharterSkool

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. CDC  (talk)  18:45, 13 Jun 2005 (UTC)

CharterSkool
Apparently a website forum for kids complaining about their charter school. Fawcett5 16:56, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete drini ☎ 17:00, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Speedy delete. Fits the Speedy criteria for an article that is only a see also or redirect somewhere else.  Same for the Charterskool redirect/article/link. Wikibofh 17:16, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. For the same reasons and with the same comments as my vote at Votes for deletion/Charterskool. Sarg 18:50, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * [Quoted CSD criteria removed by A и D я 01D  TALK  EMAIL ; better to link directly to them and un-clutter this discussion]
 * Correction, there is no reason to speedily delete the article. However, there are several reasons to delete this article, including WP:NOT (advertising), WP:VAIN, and the nice little notice that says Please do not create an article to promote yourself, a website, a product, or a business whenever you create a new article. Delete. A и D я 01D  TALK  EMAIL  20:00, Jun 2, 2005 (UTC)
 * The section I believe applies for speedy is "Any article whose contents consist only of an external link, "See also" section, book reference, category tag, template tag, or interwiki link.". These articles are only a link to the forum a description of the forum, and little else.  If the experienced users and admins disagree with this interpretation, feel free to let me know.  Wikibofh 20:20, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * Delete You are correct Android79. It should be deleted, but not as a speedy deletion, just a normal deletion.  Go ahead when ready admin.
 * Vote by User:R6MaY89 Wikibofh 20:19, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * 'Delete, minor internet forum, not notable. Thue | talk 20:33, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, non-notable schoolcruft and quite POV. --Idont Havaname 21:12, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Redirect to Charter School of Wilmington. Dpbsmith (talk) 23:26, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete or Redirect torn on which one is the best. Vegaswikian 06:06, 3 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Talk:Madam Rosmerta

I was just looking at the page on Madam Rosmerta and I noticed it references Aberforth Dumbledore as one of her employees--but according to the JKR interview and other pages on the subject, he is the barman in Hog's Head. I'll let someone else make the changes they see fit.

 * Fixed. H e rmione1980 14:02, 27 November 2005 (UTC)

It is still not clear who place the imperius curse on Madam Rosmerta. So could someone please look into that ? (Abhishek-Kumar 12:31, 3 December 2006 (UTC))

Merge
Why don't we merge Rosmerta's article with some other minor characters? Her background is short and she is not that important. Lord Opeth 22:34, 27 July 2007 (UTC)
 * I agree, she doesn't really qualify for an article of her own. Gran2 18:12, 1 September 2007 (UTC)
 * I second that. The series would change not an ounce were she not in it. asyndeton 22:54, 1 September 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Madam Rosmerta


text:
Petters Limited

Petters Limited (known as JB Petter & Sons of Yeovil until 1910), were a maker of stationary petrol and diesel engines from 1896 onwards. In 1915 Petter founded Westland Aircraft Works (renamed "Westland Aircraft" in 1935). In 1986 Petters Limited merged with one-time rival R A Lister and Company to form Lister Petter.

Car
James Bazeley Petter, an agricultural engineer and iron founder, had premises in the Borough, Yeovil. It was there that Ernest and Percival, his twin sons, designed and built a self-propelled oil engine in 1892. Three years later they designed the first internal combustion engined motor car to be made in the United Kingdom. The car, using a converted four-wheel horse-drawn phaeton and a 3 hp (2 kW) twin-cylinder horizontal oil engine, had a top speed of 12 mph. The vehicle was constructed at the Park Road carriage works of Hill and Boll. It weighed 9 cwt (457 kg) including the 120 lb (55 kg) of the Petter engine with its flywheel and side bars.

A contemporary report said:
 * The carriage is intended for two persons, with which a speed of ten miles an hour [16 km/h] is obtained on level road. It will mount the hills of the neighbourhood with two persons, but larger power would be used for four persons … The exhaust is, we are informed, quite invisible, and the engine almost noiseless'. The removable handle (indicated in the plan drawing) was used to start the engine 'in the first place, and an arrangement is made so that the handle, when put in position, automatically opens the exhaust valve which closes instantly when, a good impulse being given, the handle is withdrawn and the engine starts … Tube ignition is adopted, and a small heating lamp is used … The engine starts in ten minutes and runs, we are told, without attention.' The larger road wheels of the vehicle were 42 in (1.07 m.) in diameter.

The twins continued to develop vehicles, the twelfth of which they entered to a competition at Crystal Palace in 1897, without success.

Engines
Percival Petter, who in 1893 took over as manager of the Yeovil Foundry and Engineering Works, together with B. J. Baker, in 1894 designed and built first the Yeovil Engine, a high-speed steam engine. The following year he designed and built a small 2.5 hp oil engine for agricultural use that was immediately successful and the enterprise expanded, with Jacobs becoming chief engineer - a position he held until his death in 1936 - such that by 1904 over a thousand Petter oil engines were sold, ranging in capacity from 1 hp to 30 hp.

In parallel with these efforts in 1902 Petter and Jacobs created the first agricultural tractor, powered by a 30 hp oil engine.

By 1908 sales had increased principally against very large orders from Russia where two-stroke engines were preferred.

In 1911 the company, whose machines now ranged from 70 hp to 300 hp, won the Gran Prix at the Milan International Exhibition, and production hovered around 1,500 per annum.

Petter Standard and Handyman
Petter Standard oil engines were horizontal open crank engines made to very high standards, which was put into production under way in the same year but around 1903 cheap American imports arrived disrupting the British market, including the newly created J. B. Petter Company Limited. Highly competitive US-manufactured engines like those manufactured by the Fairbanks Morse Company "Jack of all Trades" threatened the nascent British industry but unlike most British engine manufacturers Petter reacted by creating a new low-cost engine, the Petter Handyman. Costing approximately 80% of the Petter Standard and available only in batches of 50 or more units for more economic production, the young company's market position was preserved for the next two decades, enabling Petters to produce both two-stroke and four-stroke engines from 1920.

A and M types
Petters models as the M-type and the A-type were highly successful and were competitors for Lister's D-Type.

SS type
The last two-stroke design was the "SS" introduced in 1938, available in two- to six-cylinder versions delivering 125 hp-375 hp. The SS designation stood for "superscavenge", the design employing the Kadenacy principle to charge the cylinders. The exhaust gases left the cylinder at sufficiently high speed to create a partial vacuum, drawing air into the cylinder like a supercharger, while improved airflow cooled the valves and scavenging, this 'inertial' supercharging being supplemented by a blower.

Running at low temperatures due to a patented oil-cooled piston, and featuring a spherical small end bearing, they were used in British Rail 15107 and British Rail Class D3/14 locomotives.

Specification of Petter SS engines
Bore           8.5 inch (216 mm) Stroke        13.0 inch (330 mm) Speed         500 revolutions per minute Piston speed  1,082 feet per minute

Power output
In the railway locomotives, the SS4 was uprated to 360 BHP.

Some Petter manuals are available for download at Internal Fire – Museum of Power.

Various
Petter models included the two-stroke M-type (petrol), the S-type (stationary diesel) and the A- and A1 (air-cooled) - the only noticeable difference between the last two being the position of the magneto (in the type A it protrudes; in the type A1 it is tucked away below), and an economy 'handyman' version of the M-type, and a comprehensive range of air-cooled diesels that included the PAZ1, AVA range, and the 3.5 hp AA1.

Re-organization
In 1912 the company went public and began engine production in a new factory named the Nautilus Works (after the fire grates that had made James Petter's fortune) in Reckleford, Yeovil. Its workforce of 500 men produced 1500 engines a year.

Vickers-Petters
Petters was renamed Vickers-Petters Ltd after it bought the former Vickers factory in Ipswich in 1920 but that part of the business was renamed Petters (Ipswich) in 1927. The Ipswich factory was closed by mid 1929 and the Ipswich works and land sold.

Petters joined the Associated British Oil Engine Company in 1937. After the war the group was obtained by British Electrical Group, with Petter spun off in 1949 joining another engine manufacturer, J&H McLaren & Co., at the old Lagonda works in Egham Hythe near Staines, Middlesex, employing over 1,000 people at its peak. In 1957 the company was acquired by Hawker Siddeley and some production was moved to Hamble as the reorganized company was split into four groups within Hawker Siddeley Brush Group—Petter Staines (small engines), Petter Generator Divisions, Petter Marine Division, Petter Service Division and Thermo-King Division (building refrigeration units under license from the US firm Thermo-King). In 1984 Petter was merged with Lister to form Lister Petter Co. Ltd. The Staines site was sold in 1988 and all production was concentrated at the former Lister factory in Dursley, Gloucestershire.

Calculators
In the 1930s the company manufactured mechanical calculators. The company obtained a patent on calculator technology in 1923 and two more in 1930. Guy Bazeley Petter then took out equivalent US patents and assigned the rights to the company. The company subsequently sold its calculator designs to the Bell Punch company.

Petteroid
"Petteroid" is a nickname given to engines built under licence in India to Petter design. While rural contraptions in work used for casual heavy transport in Indian Punjab are known as "peter rehras" after the brand of engine that gained popularity there in days gone by.

title: Petters Limited


text:
St. Matthew Island

St. Matthew Island (Остров Святого Матвея) is an uninhabited, remote island in the Bering Sea in Alaska, 183 mi west-northwest of Nunivak Island. The entire island's natural scenery and wildlife is protected as it is part of the Bering Sea unit of the Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge.

The island has a land area of 137.857 sqmi, making it the 43rd largest island in the United States. Its most southerly point is Cape Upright which features cliff faces which exceed 1000 ft. Similar heights are found at Glory of Russia Cape on the north, and the highest point, 1476 ft above sea level, lies south from the island center.

There is a small island off its northwestern point called Hall Island. The 3.1 mi wide sound between the two islands is called Sarichef Strait. A small rocky islet called Pinnacle Rock lies 9.3 mi to the south of Saint Matthew Island.

The United States Coast Guard maintained a staffed LORAN station on the island during the 1940s.

Geology and climate
The climatic conditions in the entire Bering Sea Area, according to National Climatic Data Center (1986), is reported as maritime with "considerable wind and cool, humid and cloudy conditions" with mean annual temperature of 37.8 F and annual precipitation of 15.3 in on St. Matthew Island. The geological formation recorded on St. Matthew Island consists of calc-alkaline volcanic rocks of Late Cretaceous and earliest tertiary age with Pergelic Cryaquolls and Pergelic Cryoborolls soil types.

Human habitation
The first recorded attempt at settlement occurred in 1809, when a Russian group led by Demid Ilyich Kulikalov, under the guise of the Russian-American Company, established an experimental outpost.

A 2013 sailing expedition to the island showed that, in spite of the lack of human habitation, extensive areas of beach were heavily contaminated with plastic marine debris, particularly from the fishing industry.

Mammals
Presently, Arctic foxes and insular voles are the only mammals resident on the island, though polar bears occasionally visit via pack ice. Notably, St. Matthew Island represents the southern limit of the range of polar bears in the Bering Sea.

In 1944, 29 reindeer were introduced to the island by the United States Coast Guard to provide an emergency food source. The Coast Guard abandoned the island a few years later, leaving the reindeer. Subsequently, the reindeer population rose to about 6,000 by 1963 and then died off in the next two years to 42 animals. A scientific study attributed the population crash to the limited food supply in interaction with climatic factors (the winter of 1963–64 was exceptionally severe in the region). By the 1980s, the reindeer population had completely died out. Environmentalists see this as an issue of overpopulation. For example, ecologist Garrett Hardin cited the "natural experiment" of St. Matthew Island of the reindeer population explosion and collapse as a paradigmatic example of the consequences of overpopulation in his essay An Ecolate View of the Human Predicament.

Birds
Despite its high latitude, St. Matthew Island contains significant populations of endemic and migratory birds. In fact, the Department of the Interior has called the island "one of the richest seabird nesting colonies in the world", with over 5 million seabirds nesting during breeding season. Over 140 different species of birds have been identified on the island. The island, along with its small satellites Hall Island and Pinnacle Rock, contains the entire breeding range of McKay's bunting. Additionally, a subspecies of rock sandpiper (Calidris ptilocnemis ptilocnemis) and a subspecies of gray-crowned rosy finch (Leucosticte tephrocotis umbrina) breed only on the island and the nearby Pribilof Islands. Both McKay's bunting and Calidris ptilocnemis ptilocnemis, with their restricted breeding ranges, are among the rarest birds in North America, making their preservation among the top priorities for conservation groups.

Fish
There are two major lakes on the island, North Lake and Big Lake. The lakes contain a greater number of fish species (at least 5) than other nearby islands.

Lichen
Lichen studies were conducted on the island in the 1990s to prepare a list of lichens with their habitat, composition and distribution pattern. These studies were considered important for characterizing the eating habits of caribou and air quality. The vegetation of the islands has been classified as wet, moist and alpine tundra, based on landforms and drainage patterns. The plant communities were attributed to five categories. In the area of rock rubble fields and high ridges the vegetation was mainly crustose lichens. Among the 148 lichen species of the islands, 125 showed the Arctic–alpine geographic distribution, 74 boreal, 18 were coastal, 9 amphi-Berengian and 41 widespread, with many species falling into more than one category. The lichen diversity was characterized by wide-ranging Arctic–alpine and boreal species; it was evaluated as luxuriant that was linked to reindeer species disappearing from the area.

title: St. Matthew Island


text: User talk:207.213.162.242

title: User talk:207.213.162.242


text:
Beer Money

"Beer Money" is a song co-written and recorded by American country music artist Kip Moore. It was released in July 2012 as his third single from his debut album Up All Night (2012). Moore wrote the song with Blair Daly and Troy Verges. The song received positive reviews from critics who praised Moore's vocals and storytelling abilities for elevating the ordinary material.

"Beer Money" peaked at number three on the Billboard Country Airplay chart. It also charted at numbers seven and 51 on both the Hot Country Songs and Hot 100 charts respectively. It was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting sales of over one million units in that country. In Canada, it peaked at number one on the Country chart and number 58 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart. An accompanying music video for the song, directed by Peter Zavadil, tells two stories: Moore picking up his girlfriend from work to a late night barn party where he performs and a group of men stealing a beer keg to said party. It was nominated for Breakthrough Video of the Year at the 2013 CMT Music Awards.

Critical reception
Billy Dukes of Taste of Country gave the song three and a half stars out of five, writing that "what takes this song past ordinary is Moore's grave vocals and story-telling ability." Matt Bjorke of Roughstock also gave the song a favorable review, calling it "another strong mood-setting, sing-a-long ready country/rocker." In 2017, Billboard contributor Chuck Dauphin placed "Beer Money" at number one on his top 10 list of Moore's best songs.

Music video
The accompanying music video was directed by Peter Zavadil and premiered in September 2012. The video starts with Moore playing a mechanic who gets into an argument with his boss (played by Moore's real-life manager Shawn McSpadden). It then follows him picking up his girlfriend from a diner and taking her to a late night barn party where he performs. The video also follows a group of men stealing a keg from a beer delivery truck driver and taking it to said party. It was nominated for Breakthrough Video of the Year at the 2013 CMT Music Awards but it went to Florida Georgia Line's "Cruise".

Chart performance
"Beer Money" debuted at number 57 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart for the week of July 7, 2012. It peaked at number seven the week of December 28, and remained on the chart for thirty-two weeks. On the Billboard Hot 100, it debuted at number 99 for the week of October 6. Twelve weeks later, it peaked at number 51 the week of December 28, and stayed on the chart for twenty weeks. In Canada, the song debuted at number 90 on the Canadian Hot 100 for the week of November 24. Eight weeks later, it peaked at number 58 and stayed on the chart for twelve weeks.

title: Beer Money


text:
Goldstar (beer)

Goldstar (גולדסטאר) is an Israeli brand of 4.9% abv lager brewed by Tempo in Netanya, Israel. It is marketed as a dark lager beer, though it is amber in appearance.

History
According to Tempo Beer Industries, Goldstar was developed by brewmaster Menachem Berliner in 1950 and was the first Israeli draft beer. In 1965 "Israeli Beer Industry Ltd" merged with "Leumit Brewery". It was among the products acquired by Tempo in 1985.

Goldstar was initially marketed as a sub-brand of the company's flagship beer, Nesher Beer, and was called "Goldstar Eagle". The familiar eagle of Nesher beer appeared on the label, to which the name Goldstar was added.

Name
The name of the beer Goldstar and the emblem, a six-pointed star, originate from the emblem of the brewers' guild in the Middle Ages. The star, known as "Bierstern" or "Brauerstern" was the symbol of the guild, and has been stamped since the Middle Ages on beers that were considered pure and high quality.

Markets
Goldstar is considered Tempo's "flagship brand". Certified kosher, it is currently the top-selling beer in Israel.

Advertising and sponsorship
A number of celebrity images have been used to advertise the beer, ranging from Paul Newman to Claudia Schiffer. In 2015, Tempo has faced media criticism for a "sexist" ad.

Goldstar is the title sponsor of the Goldstar Zappa Sound System music festival.

Reception
The Forward called Goldstar and several other beers commonly consumed in Israel "light, easy-drinking beers — the stuff zayde might drink on a hot day". However, Haaretz has referred to Goldstar as "beer few Israelis are proud of".

External link
gold-star official

title: Goldstar (beer)


text:
Lewesdon Hill

Lewesdon Hill is a hill in west Dorset, England. With a maximum elevation of 279 m, it is the highest point in Dorset.

Location
Lewesdon Hill stands about 4 km west of Beaminster, 1½ km south of Broadwindsor, 2 miles south of Mosterton, 1½ km west-northwest of Stoke Abbott and 3 km east of another hillfort-topped eminence, Pilsdon Pen. To the south of the hill is the Marshwood Vale and to the north is the valley of the River Axe.

Summit
Lewesdon is the county top of Dorset. Its summit is an elongated ridge surrounded by beech woods. The actual summit is a low grassy mound at the east end of the ridge. For many years, nearby Pilsdon Pen (277 m) was thought to be Dorset's highest hill, until modern survey revealed that Lewesdon Hill was 2 metres higher. Dorset's third highest point is Bulbarrow Hill (274 m). Lewesdon's topographic prominence of 185 metres qualifies it as a Marilyn.

Geology
The hill is formed from upper greensand which is more resistant to erosion than the surrounding clay.

History
Many of the high hills in Dorset, including its neighbour Pilsdon Pen, are sites of an Iron Age hillfort. However Lewesdon's status as a hillfort is disputed, partly due to its small size and lack of any clear evidence. Parts of a possible bank and ditch are still visible although they have been disturbed or created by gravel quarrying and timber removal. The remains of the hillfort are a scheduled monument.

Lewesdon was also the site of one of the Armada Beacons in 1588 used to warn of impending attack by Spain.

Access
It is a National Trust property. There are two main footpaths leading up to the summit, one from the village of Broadwindsor, and one from Coombe Lane (off the B3162 between Broadwindsor and Bridport, just before the Four Ash crossroads). The Coombe Lane footpath leads to the hill via another, smaller hill, Crabb's Hill, which is privately owned. The east–west footpath is part of the Wessex Ridgeway.

1942 Spitfire Crash
Jean Verdon Marie Aime Decloedt was born in the St Giles district of London to parents working at the Belgian Embassy, Prosper & Jeanne Decloedt. Jean was an engineer in the Belgian Air Component in 1940, which he left to join the Royal Air Force Reserves. He trained with the No.5 Flying School at MOD Sealand, and joined the 37 Maintenance Unit, Burtonwood at RAF High Ercall. Part of the deployment was to deliver Supermarine Spitfires around England as replacements.

On Sunday the 15th of March 1942 in the early afternoon, Jean entered his Spitifre Mk Vb BL463 (Berar 1), with the intention of delivering it to RAF Bolt Head. His path crossed over the hill and the nearby village of Broadwindsor, where, at 18:15, an aircraft's engine was heard spluttering. The impact into the north hillside killed Jean in an instant. The commonly accepted reason for the crash is the fog in the area, which had already downed 20 planes from the Polish 317 Squadron (the squadron he was delivering the Spitfire to). Three Home Guard members, Jack Frampton, Jack Wakely, and John Studley, were on guard that night, and climbed the hill to investigate. They found Jean's body, however the incident was kept secret by the MOD to not damage local morale. The body was taken to the Bridport Hospital Mortuary and buried at Brookwood Cemetery in Surrey, before being given to Brussels on Thursday October 20, 1949, 219 days after the crash. He received a headstone at Brussels Cemetery. One of the propellers was found by Dudley Tolley, a Home Guard and farmer in the area. He kept it under his bed for 75 years before donating it to the Beaminster Museum, where it now hangs.

Jean is known as "The Forgotten Pilot" in the area, as his legacy and the crash were forgotten after the 1960's after the initial memorial was overgrown. Andrew Framptom bought the name to public attention after a COVID infection forced him to stay home. He gathered funding and help from the National Trust and organised a memorial service on Tuesday, 15 March 2022, during which a new, permanent memorial was unveiled.

title: Lewesdon Hill


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Charterskool

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. CDC  (talk)  18:45, 13 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Charterskool
As above. Fawcett5 16:59, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)

There is no reason to delete this as it does not conflict with Wikipedia's policies. --R6MaY89 17:00, 2005 Jun 2 (UTC)
 * Please don't remove the VfD notice. Wikibofh 17:26, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * Speedy delete. Fits the Speedy criteria for an article that is only a see also or redirect somewhere else.  Same for the CharterSkool redirect/article/link. Wikibofh 17:16, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete: Advertising and a libel page, possibly speedy delete but definite regular delete. Geogre 18:23, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Just another vanity article. It might deserve a mention at Charter School of Wilmington if it could be verified by another source than the article's author. Sarg 18:48, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, a minor internet forum. Thue | talk 20:33, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. --Carnildo 22:24, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Redirect to Charter School of Wilmington. Dpbsmith (talk) 23:26, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Redirect to Charter school. No Account
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Talk:Cranes (band)

ethereal labyrinths
What the fuck does that mean? That should be destupified.

Gothic rock or shoegazers?
I've brought this up as our anonymous contributor from centurytel.net keeps changing the band's categorisation from "goth rock" to "shoegazers". Although this is arguably a rather subjective area, I don't think I've seen them referred to as anything other than a gothic rock band. I'm not particularly keen to get into a revert war (apart from it being against WP policy and all) but I also don't think that the article is correct in its current form. However, since this is supposed to be an encyclopaedia rather than my or anyone else's personal opinion I thought I'd ask for more input, eg citations etc. Anybody? Chris 18:58, 12 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I had a look around myself but was unable to find any clear consensus one way or the other, so I've included both categories in the description, although I'm not entirely happy with my wording. Chris 12:03, 16 July 2006 (UTC)

 * they're actually a dreampop band. but i'm not a wikifag, so i don't care. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.29.220.103 (talk • contribs) 02:30, 29 July 2006

 * Dreampop? So you haven't heard their first couple of albums then? NickW 16:32, 30 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I've heard all of their albums. If you're talking about "Self-Non-Self", that was almost 14 years ago. I think it's safe to say that the band has evolved a hell of a lot since then. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.29.220.103 (talk • contribs) 00:46, 31 July 2006

 * It's an encyclopaedic article about the band's entire history, not just what they sound like now. I assume that you're the same centurytel.net user who kept changing their description from goth rock to shoegaze, so why are you now saying that it should actually be dreampop?  The entry for dreampop includes shoegazing anyway, although personally I think that both titles sound rather twee and wouldn't choose either as a description. Chris 08:09, 31 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree. The article encompasses the band's entire history. Consequently shoehorning Cranes into a single category is absurd. As for which albums don't sound like 'Dreampop' then I'd suggest Fuse, Self-Non-Self, Wings Of Joy, and Forever at the very least. NickW 09:43, 31 July 2006 (UTC)

german article
i wrote the german article on cranes some months ago, but i'm not a native english speaker. but perhaps someone understands german well enough to grab some information there and make this a useful article? -- CabaretSauvignon 18:59, 2. Jun 2005 (CEST)

Band name
Why does it say "The Cranes" in the info. box? Shouldn't it just be "Cranes?" — Lee J Haywood 20:34, 3 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Yeah, although in practice it seems to vary a bit. The former main Cranes fansite referred to them consistently as "the Cranes", though without a capitalized "The". --Delirium (talk) 07:04, 22 July 2008 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Cranes (band)


text:
Talk:Charles Band

Stub?
It says that this article is a stub, is this right? Siamesehare (talk) 07:31, 26 May 2010 (UTC)
 * ✅ I have reassessed it as a start --Rpyle731talk 05:31, 23 June 2013 (UTC)

Mistakes
Walking The Edge (1985) appears both under Charles Band Productions and Empire International Pictures. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 176.63.24.86 (talk) 08:19, 5 May 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Charles Band


text:
Talk:Vincent Crabbe

Merge with Gregory Goyle
as they are ALWAYS together, and Colin and Dennis Creevey and Fred and George Weasley have to share an article, these idiots should too. You have three days to convince me otherwise, or i'm mergin em. Supersaiyanplough|(talk) 10:23, 12 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Two days left! Supersaiyanplough|(talk) 03:36, 13 July 2005 (UTC)
 * One day left. It doens't look like anyone has any opposition to this... Supersaiyanplough|(talk) 05:47, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Actually, I don't think they should be merged. One of the problems with merging them is finding them individually. Although I agree that they are always found together in the books, they are individuals. I'd like to see all of the merged entries separated so that they can ge categorized and searched individually. --billlund 03:21, July 17, 2005 (UTC)
 * Why not just set up four redirects, then? "Crabbe", "Goyle", "Vincent Crabbe" or "Gregory Goyle"->"Crabbe and Goyle".

title: Talk:Vincent Crabbe


text:
Eugene Wilson (American football)

Eugene W. Wilson, II (born August 17, 1980) is an American former professional football player who was a safety in the National Football League (NFL). He played college football for the Illinois Fighting Illini and was selected by the New England Patriots in the second round of the 2003 NFL Draft.

Wilson was also a member of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and the Houston Texans. He earned two Super Bowl rings during his tenure with the Patriots.

Early life
Wilson attended Merrillville High School in Merrillville, Indiana and lettered in football and basketball. In football, he was a two-time All-State selection and, as a senior, he was named the Conference's Defensive Player of the Year. In basketball, he was a four-year varsity letterman and starter and was a two-time All-Conference selection.

College career
Wilson attended the University of Illinois where he majored in speech communications. He finished his career with 176 Tackles (139 Solo, 37 Assist), 11 INT, and 60 PD. He also had 93 punt returns for 896 yards and 2 TD.

New England Patriots
Wilson was selected by the Patriots in the second round (36th overall) of the 2003 NFL Draft. He won Super Bowl XXXVIII in 2003 and Super Bowl XXXIX in 2004 with the New England Patriots. In Super Bowl XXXVII, he was successfully stiff armed by Muhsin Muhammad, resulting in a Super Bowl record 85 yard touchdown play. He recovered a fumble by Philadelphia Eagles tight end L.J. Smith in Super Bowl XXXIX before leaving the game after sustaining an injury on a kickoff. He also intercepted Pittsburgh Steelers quarterback Ben Roethlisberger twice in the Patriots 41-27 victory in the 2004 AFC Championship Game.

In 2007, in a Week 15 game against the New York Jets, Wilson returned a Kellen Clemens interception for a touchdown, making him the 21st Patriot to score a touchdown that season, tying an NFL record.

Tampa Bay Buccaneers
On March 14, 2008, the Tampa Bay Buccaneers signed Wilson to a one-year, $1.8 million contract including $500,000 guaranteed. However, Wilson was released on September 1, 2008.

Houston Texans
Two days after his release from the Buccaneers, Wilson was signed by the Houston Texans on September 3, 2008.

During a preseason game against the Minnesota Vikings on August 31, 2009, Wilson fell victim to an illegal "crackback" block thrown by Brett Favre. He was injured on the play and was listed as "day-to-day". Wilson returned to the field on September 20, 2009 and started the second game of the season, recording an interception in the Texans' win over the Tennessee Titans.

Wilson was placed Injured Reserve on November 24, 2009 due to broken toes.

On February 18, 2011, the Texans released Wilson.

title: Eugene Wilson (American football)


text:
Bushey railway station

Bushey is a railway station in Hertfordshire which serves Bushey and Oxhey. It is situated on the West Coast Main Line, 5 mi north of Harrow & Wealdstone, on an embankment. Immediately north of the station, the railway crosses Watford's Lower High Street over Bushey Arches Viaduct and shortly afterwards crosses the River Colne on another viaduct.

The station is served by London Northwestern Railway semi-fast trains on the West Coast main line, and by London Overground services on the Watford DC line, a slow local service along the West Coast route. At Bushey, this branches west on a loop to serve Watford High Street railway station, before rejoining the main line at Watford Junction.

History
The London and Birmingham Railway first ran through here on 20 July 1837. A station was not initially provided, as the area was then sparsely populated.

A station was provided later in a similar red brick style to others along the route, larger than most although smaller than that at Harrow & Wealdstone. London Underground's Bakerloo line trains served the station from 16 April 1917 until 24 September 1982.

During the war years of 1939–1945 the station was often known as "Ampersand" – this was due to a typically bureaucratic application of emergency regulations. To hinder enemy troops in the event of an invasion it was ordered that all station names should be painted out on station name-boards, and this was interpreted at Bushey & Oxhey to mean the words 'Bushey' and 'Oxhey' but not the '&'. For the duration of the war, therefore, the station bore the designation '&'. Also during wartime a concrete pillbox (a small gun fortification) was provided under the viaduct, between platforms 2 and 3.

The station was renamed from "Bushey & Oxhey" to "Bushey" on 6 May 1974, even though it is actually sited in the neighbouring town of Oxhey, and the nearest part of Bushey (Bushey Village) is over 1 mi away. It was late in the 1980s before signage at the station reflected this change.

Notable Incidents
On 16 February 1980, faulty trackwork caused nine coaches of an express London Euston to Manchester Piccadilly passenger train to derail as it passed through the station. Three coaches were overturned and 19 passengers were seriously injured. The track required extensive repairs and did not reopen fully until 25 February 1980. The little used platform 3 was extensively damaged in the accident and remained closed until 2011.

On 20 April 1980, a passenger train heading for Bletchley derailed immediately before Bushey station after hitting track maintenance machinery. The leading bogie of the Class 310 EMU derailed, but the train remained upright and damage was slight. One member of the track maintenance team sustained a broken pelvis.

On 8 August 1996, the Watford rail crash occurred around 1 mi north of the station.

Design
The local London Overground DC service that loops to the west to serve Watford High Street before Watford Junction makes platforms 1 & 2 curve away from the main line route. There are four main line platforms: one for the down (northbound) fast line (platform 3), two for the up (southbound) fast and the down (northbound) slow lines (platforms 4 & 5) which form an island platform; one serving the up (southbound) slow line (platform 6). Platforms 3 and 4 are by far the least used, since these fast main line tracks are normally used by trains not stopping at Bushey. Platform 3 is accessed via the stairway for platform 2 and is fitted with a remotely operated gate to prevent access when the platform is not in operation. Platforms 3 and 4 were brought back into use for the December 2011 timetable, which marks some services as "front four coaches only for Bushey", allowing an improved late evening and weekend connection with London. Prior to this reinstatement, engineering works frequently meant that late-evening London Midland services could not stop at Bushey as a northbound platform was not available. It was overgrown after having fallen into disuse many years earlier and boarded off following its partial destruction during the crash of February 1980: the locomotive and leading two coaches passed through the station before coming to a stand having destroyed the platform face.

Between 2000 and 2007, a storage yard and redundant buildings were converted into a high-voltage substation to supply the significantly higher current required for the new, higher speed, Pendolino express trains.

Station Improvements
Starting in December 2007, Transport for London began a significant upgrade programme at the station. During the following four years, the underpass was relined with plasterboard walls and corrugated steel ceilings and repainted. The doors and windows were repainted, and the orange railings replaced the old green and blue railings. A non-slip surface had been added to areas of the floor and all of the stairways. Extensive CCTV was installed throughout and signage was changed to London Overground standards, as at other Overground stations. The alleyway linking the entrance of the station to Kingsfield Road was upgraded, replacing the repeatedly vandalised wooden fences with metal palisade. The level access from Platform 1 to the Kingsfield Road footpath was closed permanently. The bicycle shed was moved from the front of the station on Pinner Road to the Eastbury Road entrance. The space at the front was converted to a shop and newsagents which is soon to be made into a WHSmith.

Services

Services at Bushey are operated by London Overground and London Northwestern Railway.

The typical off-peak service in trains per hour is:
 * 6 tph to London Euston (4 of these call at all stations and 2 call at Harrow & Wealdstone only)
 * 4 tph to Watford Junction
 * 2 tph to Milton Keynes Central

During the peak hours, the station is served by an additional half-hourly service between London Euston and Tring, which usually passes through Bushey without stopping.

Connections
London Bus routes 142, 258, London Service Permit route 8 also serve the station and non-London Bus Routes 306, 306B, 602 and W19 serve the station.

title: Bushey railway station


text:
User talk:Jodilova

Wikipedia is not the appropriate place to advertise yoursef or make up fictional futures for "Matt Dugan" on real articles. Please consider creating a user account and placing these fictional futures on your user page. If you continue it will be considered vandalism and you may be blocked from editing. - Tεx  τ  urε  17:01, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jodilova


text:
Talk:Gregory Goyle

Merge with Vincent Crabbe
as they are ALWAYS together, and Colin and Dennis Creevey and Fred and George Weasley have to share an article, these idiots should too. You have three days to convince me otherwise, or i'm mergin em. Supersaiyanplough|(talk) 10:23, 12 July 2005 (UTC) I might as well opposeSGCommand
 * Two days left! Supersaiyanplough|(talk) 03:35, 13 July 2005 (UTC)
 * One day left. It doens't look like anyone has any opposition to this... Supersaiyanplough|(talk) 05:46, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

I put my comments under Vincent Crabbe, but I don't think that they should be merged for categorizaton and searching. Even if their entries are very similar, they are individual characters and should be treated individually. --billlund 03:22, July 17, 2005 (UTC)

They should be merged. Maybe not as Fred and George or Colin and Dennis, but they could share the same page just like the Dursleys, the Potters or Minor Characters. Lord Opeth 06:21, July 04, 2007 (UTC)

Edit War
Please stop the edit war. If you read the book, JK Rowling clearly states that Goyle and Crabbe are feeling lost at the end of the Half-Blood Prince. ForestH2 00:30, 29 June 2006 (UTC)

I added a sentence about that to the article. AgentPeppermint 02:30, 29 June 2006 (UTC)

Minor Spoiler Warning
Perhaps there should be a spoiler warning as Malfoy leaving Hogwarts before end of term is a bit of a spoiler.]E-flah 15:15, 17 November 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Gregory Goyle


text:
Liquid Amber

Liquid Amber may refer to:

 * Liquid Amber (record label), launched by American music producer DJ Shadow
 * The Liquid Amber EP, by DJ Shadow

title: Liquid Amber