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Baháʼí–Azali split

The Baháʼí–Azali split occurred when most Bábís accepted Baháʼu'lláh as the promised one of the Báb's writings, and thus became Baháʼís, leaving a remnant of Bábís who became known as Azalis. The split occurred after Baháʼí founder Baháʼu'lláh made his public claim in 1863, leading to expressions of support from the majority of the Bábí community, and opposition from Subh-i-Azal, who became the leader of the remaining group.

The Báb
Siyyid ʻAlí-Muhammad was a merchant from Shiraz, Persia, who at the age of 25, claimed to be a new and independent Manifestation of God, and the promised Qá'im, or Mihdí of Islam. In his early writings he took on the title of the Báb, meaning "Gate", after a Shaykhi concept that explained he was only a, 'door', or 'gate', for a soon to come Manifestation of God, or Prophet. His followers were therefore known as Bábís. He later declared that he was not just 'a Gate to the Mihdi', or the Bab, but he was the Qa'im, or Promised One himself.

The Báb's writings had the concept of the returning messiah called, "He whom God shall make manifest". As the Báb's teachings spread, the Islamic government saw his following as a threat to the state religion. Several military confrontations took place between government and Bábí forces. The Báb was imprisoned and executed by firing squad in Tabriz on July 9, 1850.

Succession
In most of his prominent writings, the Báb alluded to a Promised One, most commonly referred to as "Him whom God shall make manifest", and that he himself was "but a ring upon the hand of Him Whom God shall make manifest." The Bayán is essentially a discourse on Him whom God shall make manifest, and the Báb always discussed his own writings in the context of the coming of Him Whom God shall make manifest. Several of the Báb's writings state the coming of Him Whom God shall make manifest would be imminent.

The Báb eliminated the institution of successorship or vicegerency to his movement, and stated that no other person's writings would be binding after his death until Him Whom God shall make manifest would appear.

He did, however, appoint a nominal leader after himself. Shortly before the Báb's execution, a follower of the Báb, Abd al-Karim, brought to the Báb's attention the necessity to appoint a leader; thus the Báb wrote a certain number of tablets which he gave to Abd al-Karim to deliver to Subh-i-Azal and Baháʼu'lláh. These tablets were later interpreted by both Azalis and Baháʼís as proof of the Báb's delegation of leadership. Baháʼí sources state that the Báb did this at the suggestion of Baháʼu'lláh.

In one of the tablets, which is commonly referred to as the "Will and Testament of the Báb", Subh-i-Azal is viewed to have been appointed as leader of the Bábis after the death of the movement's founder; the tablet, in verse 27, also appears to order Subh-i-Azal "...to obey Him Whom God Shall Make Manifest." Multiple versions of this tablet exist, and Browne notes in his translation that this copy of the letter is actually in Subh-i-Azal's handwriting rather than the Báb's. Browne, discussing a visit with Subh-i-Azal in Cyprus, notes that he saw the original document in the Báb's own handwriting.

In addition to the difficulties of collecting original Bábí documents at such a distance — Browne was at Cambridge — was the widespread Azali practice of Taqiyya (Dissimulation), or concealing one's beliefs. Browne appears to have been unaware of this. (See Azali Taqiyya (Dissimulation) below.)

Leadership and confrontation
Subh-i-Azal's leadership was controversial. He generally absented himself from the Bábí community spending his time in Baghdad in hiding and disguise; and even went so far as to publicly disavow allegiance to the Báb on several occasions. Subh-i-Azal gradually alienated himself from a large proportion of the Bábís who started to give their alliance to other claimants. During the time that both Baháʼu'lláh and Subh-i-Azal were in Baghdad, since Subh-i-Azal remained in hiding, Baháʼu'lláh performed much of the daily administration of the Bábí affairs.

Baháʼu'lláh claimed that in 1852, while a prisoner in Tehran, he was visited by a "Maid of Heaven", which symbolically marked the beginning of his mission as a Messenger of God. In 1863 as he was leaving Baghdad in the Garden of Ridván, he made his first public declaration to be Him Whom God Shall Make Manifest, the messianic figure in the Báb's writings, to a small number of followers. This declaration started a new phase of leadership in the Bábí community that would eventually lead to the emergence of the Baháʼí Faith as a separate movement distinct from Bábism. While in Adrianople (current-day Edirne, Turkey), Baháʼu'lláh was the clear leader of the newly established Bábí community, and a permanent break between Baháʼu'lláh and Subh-i-Azal occurred.

In 1865 Subh-i-Azal was accused of attempting to plot to kill Baháʼu'lláh. In contemporary accounts, Subh-i-Azal is reported to have tried to have Baháʼu'lláh assassinated at the hands of the barber of the local bath. The barber, Muhammad ʻAlí of Isfahán, apparently refused and spread word of the danger around the community. Baháʼu'lláh is reported to have counselled "on all patience, quietude and gentleness". This pattern was repeated when, according to the personal account of Ustád Muhammad-ʻAlíy-i Salmání, Subh-i Azal attempted to persuade him likewise to murder Baháʼu'lláh in the bath. Eventually Subh-i-Azal attempted to poison Baháʼu'lláh that left him gravely ill for a time, and left him with a shaking hand for the rest of his life. Later, followers of Azal made the counter-claim that Baháʼu'lláh had accidentally poisoned himself while trying to poison others. Smith also notes that the Baháʼí accounts of this dispute seem to be credible.

After this event in 1866 Baháʼu'lláh made his claim to be Him Whom God Shall Make Manifest public, as well as making a formal written announcement to Subh-i-Azal referring to his followers for the first time as the "people of Bahá". After his public announcement, Baháʼu'lláh secluded himself in his house and instructed the Bábís to choose between himself and Subh-i-Azal. Baháʼu'lláh's claims threatened Subh-i-Azal's position as leader of the religion since it would mean little to be leader of the Bábís if "Him Whom God Shall Make Manifest" were to appear and start a new religion. Subhh-i-Azal responded by making his own claims, but his attempt to preserve the traditional Bábísm was largely unpopular, and his followers became the minority.

In 1867, Subh-i-Azal challenged Baháʼu'lláh to a test of the divine will in a local mosque in Edirne (Adrianople), such that "God would strike down the impostor." Baháʼu'lláh agreed, and went to the Sultan Selim mosque at the appointed time, but Mirza Yahya lost face and lost credibility when he refused to show up.

Eventually Baháʼu'lláh was recognized by the vast majority of Bábís as "He whom God shall make manifest" and his followers began calling themselves Baháʼís. The small minority of Bábís that followed Subh-i-Azal became known as Azalis.

Exile of community
After the Bábí community was separated into two, the Azalis tried to discredit Baháʼu'lláh to the Ottoman authorities, accusing him of 	 causing agitation against the government. While an investigation cleared Baháʼu'lláh, it did notify the government that Baháʼu'lláh and Subh-i-Azal were propagating religious claims, and may cause future disorder, and thus led to the further exile of the 'Bábí' leaders. A royal command was issued in July 1868 condemning the Bábís to perpetual imprisonment and isolation in far-flung outposts of the Ottoman Empire — Famagusta, Cyprus for Subh-i-Azal and his followers, and ʻAkká, in Ottoman Palestine, for Baháʼu'lláh and his followers.

While most of those that followed Subh-i-Azal were sent to Cyprus, some were sent to Akká, intended to serve as spies. In 1872 a few Baháʼís decided to kill the followers of Subh-i-Azal as they were causing endless difficulties to the Baháʼí community. Baháʼu'lláh strongly condemned the action, and publicly condemned the murderers as clear violators of Baháʼí law. The Ottoman authorities initially hardened the imprisonment of Baháʼu'lláh. But as Baháʼu'lláh was later exonerated by the authorities as having no connection to the murders, their imprisonment was eased.

After the split
Eventually Baháʼu'lláh was recognized by the vast majority of Bábís as "He whom God shall make manifest" and his followers began calling themselves Baháʼís. By 1908 there were probably from half a million to a million Baháʼís, and at most only a hundred followers of Subhh-i-Azal. Subh-i Azal died in Famagusta, Cyprus in 1912, and his followers are known as Azalis or Azali Bábis. MacEoin notes that after the deaths of those Azali Babis who were active in the Constitutional Revolution in Iran, the Azali form of Babism entered a stagnation from which it has not recovered as there is no longer any acknowledged leader or central organization. Current estimates of Azalis are that there are no more than a few thousand. The World Religion Database estimated 7.3 million Baháʼís in 2010 and stated: "The Baha'i Faith is the only religion to have grown faster in every United Nations region over the past 100 years than the general population; Baha'i(sic) was thus the fastest-growing religion between 1910 and 2010, growing at least twice as fast as the population of almost every UN region." Baháʼí sources since 1991 usually estimate the worldwide Baháʼí population at "above 5 million". See Baháʼí statistics.

After Baháʼu'lláh's death, leadership of the religion then passed on to ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, Baháʼu'lláh's son, who was appointed by Baháʼu'lláh, and was accepted by almost all Baháʼís. After the death of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá in 1921, the leadership of the Baháʼí community was passed on to his grandson, Shoghi Effendi, who was appointed in ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's will. The document appointed Shoghi Effendi as the first Guardian, and called for the election of the Universal House of Justice once the Baháʼí Faith had spread sufficiently for such elections to be meaningful. Shoghi Effendi died in 1957, and in 1963 the Universal House of Justice was elected. Since 1963 the Universal House of Justice has been elected every five years and remains the successor and leading institution of the religion.

There are conflicting reports as to whom Subh-i-Azal appointed as his successor. Browne reports that there was confusion over who was to be Subh-i-Azal's successor at his death. Subh-i-Azal's son, Rizwán ʻAli, reported that he had appointed the son of Aqa Mirza Muhammad Hadi Daulatabadi as his successor; while another, H.C. Lukach's, states that Mirza Yahya had said that whichever of his sons "resembled him the most" would be the successor. None appear to have stepped forward. MacEoin notes that Subh-i-Azal appointed his son, Yahya Dawlatabadi, as his successor, but he notes that there is little evidence that Yahya Dawlatabadi was involved in the affairs of the religion, and that instead he spent his time as that of secular reformer. Shoghi Effendi reports that Mirza Yahya appointed a distinguished Bábí, Aqa Mirza Muhammad Hadi of Daulatabad (Mirza Hadiy-i-Dawlat-Abadi) successor, but he later publicly recanted his faith in the Báb and in Mirza Yahya. Mirza Yahya's eldest son apparently became a Baháʼí himself.

Azali Taqiyya (Dissimulation)
The practice of Taqiyya (Dissimulation, or concealing one's beliefs) was widespread among the Bábís. While the primary means of transmitting copies of documents was manually copying them which could introduce discrepancies between copies the practice of taqiyya led some to actually alter and falsify Bábí teachings and history. This compromised their campaign against Baháʼu'lláh. One Baháʼí historian has concluded:

""Bahaullah clearly announced that the recognition of the manifestation of God and 'steadfastness' [in] His Cause is more important than observing any of the other teachings. Gradual abandonment of taqiyyah amongst the Bahaʼis was one of the distinguishing feature[s] of the new religion from the Babi era. After this time the practice of taqiyyah became unofficially superseded after the execution of the Bab. [...] In contrast the Azali Babis glorified taqiyyah in their literature. taqiyyah [sic] was considered a virtue and classified into various levels of concealment. Prominent Azali leaders openly recanted their faith and even abused Bab and Azal in the process. The extent of taqiyyah in their words and actions caused Mirza Abu'l-Faḍl to question Edward Browne's method of portraying of Azali Babis. Taqiyyah became one of the distinguishing features of the Azali-Bahai split.""

Compounding the problem of collecting reliable manuscripts, Azali taqiyya had the effect of rendering many early Bábí documents unreliable afterwards, as Azali Bábís would often alter and falsify Bábí teachings and history.

The completion of the Bayán
The Arabic Bayán is a book written by the Báb around 1848, and is the smaller sister book to the Persian Bayán. The work is incomplete, containing only eleven chapters of a supposedly total nineteen. In the tablet that is considered the Báb's will and testament, he gives permission to Subh-i-Azal to finish the remaining eight, with the permission of Him Whom God Shall Make Manifest. The Azalis believe that this means that the Báb authorized Subh-i-Azal to finish the text of the Arabic Bayán. However, Saiedi states that even if it is assumed that Subh-i-Azal was allowed to finish the remaining chapters of the book, it could only happen if He whom God shall make manifest had already appeared and had revealed the eight chapters for him. The Báb states that after his death no one else's writings will be binding until the appearance of He whom God shall make manifest, and the text of the Arabic Bayán was written in a style termed "divine verses", and the Báb states that in another one of his writings that after him only He whom God shall make manifest can reveal divine verses. Subh-i-Azal did write a book that was supposed to complete the Bayán, the Mutammim-i-Bayan, but instead of completing the Arabic Bayán, he tries to extend the Persian Bayán; it seems Subh-i-Azal, unlike his followers, did not understand the reference of the Báb to mean that he had to complete the Arabic Bayán.

Saiedi also points to another translation and interpretation of the version in the Báb's letter: the Báb's use the word manahij (paths) in two ways; in one way it refers to the chapters of the Bayán, and in another way it refers to the entire Bayán and his laws. Saiedi states that the reference to manifesting the eight paths may refer to the distribution of the eight copies of the Bayán that the Báb had sent to Subh-i-Azal, to the eight individuals who are identified in the letter, when the Promised One appears.

Year of revelation
The Báb prophesied that the messianic figure He whom God shall make manifest would emerge some time in the future. Many of the Báb's writings support the belief that He whom God shall make manifest's arrival would be imminent. The Baháʼí belief is that the Báb's writings allude to the year 9, while the Azali belief is that He whom God shall make manifest would come after 2000 years.

In Azali belief, the Promised One could not appear until the realization of the laws of the Bayán and the maturation of the Bayán in 2000 years. However, there are problems with this belief and inconsistencies in Azali belief. The Azalis believe that the Báb gave permission for Subh-i-Azal to complete the Arabic Bayán with the permission of He whom God shall make manifest, thus pointing to He whom God shall make manifest appearing in Subh-i-Azal's own lifetime. Also, the Nuqtatu'l-Kaf, an Azali text, states that the laws of the Bayán may be abrogated a few years after the Báb's death, and that He whom God shall make manifest may appear within Subh-i-Azal's lifetime. The Azali view that the appearance of He whom God shall make manifest can only occur thousands of years in the future is also problematic, since in some of their texts they state that Subh-i-Azal is He whom God shall make manifest.

The Báb writes in many of his texts about the imminent appearance of the Promised One. In many of his writings he refers to the year nine and nineteen from the beginning of his claimed revelation (1844) as to the appearance of He whom God shall make manifest. He also uses the Abjad numerals of Arabic, a system of providing numerical values for letters and words, to identify the coming of He whom God shall make manifest, referring the manifest aspect of the Most Great Name of God as "Vahid" which has a numerical value of 19 and the hidden aspect of the same name as "Bahá" which has a numerical value of 9. Baháʼís point to the Báb's allusions to the years nine (1853) and nineteen (1863) in the Báb's writings as a prophecy of Baháʼu'lláh being He whom God shall make manifest. Baháʼu'lláh claimed that while being imprisoned in the Siyah-Chal in 1853 in Iran he underwent a series of mystical experiences including having a vision of the Maid of Heaven who told him of his divine mission, and the promise of divine assistance. In 1863 as he was leaving Baghdad in the Garden of Ridván, Baháʼu'lláh made his first public declaration to be Him Whom God Shall Make Manifest.

Baháʼí views of the split
Baháʼís argue that succession in the Bábí religion was superseded when the Baháʼí Faith's founder Baháʼu'lláh declared himself to be He whom God shall make manifest – they often describe Subh-i-Azal as an "interim head."

Baháʼís view Subh-i-Azal's leadership largely as a nominal head. According to Taherzadeh:

"Mirza Yahya [Subh-i-Azal] came into prominence not because he possessed any outstanding qualities, but rather through his close link with Baháʼu'lláh. In order to divert the attention of the enemies of the Faith from the person of Baháʼu'lláh, Who had emerged as a focal point among the early believers, the Báb wholeheartedly approved the suggestion of nominating the youthful and relatively unknown Mirza Yahya [Subh-i-Azal] as the chief of the Bábí community. This suggestion had come from Baháʼu'lláh, and only two others were aware of the plan, namely, Baháʼu'lláh's faithful brother Mírzá Músá (Áqáy-i-Kalím) and a certain Mulla Abdu'l-Karim-i-Qazvini, who had been entrusted by the Báb, shortly before His martyrdom, with the task of delivering His pen-case, seals and writings to Baháʼu'lláh; he was subsequently martyred in Tihran at the time of Baháʼu'lláh's imprisonment in the Siyah-Chal.

The advantages of this nomination were obvious and, as this system operated for some time, those who were endowed with insight and wisdom were able to see that Mirza Yahya was only a figurehead, and that it was the guiding hand of Baháʼu'lláh alone that was unobtrusively directing the affairs of the Bábí community after the martyrdom of the Báb."

This view is supported by the Báb's long-time secretary Mulla Abdu'l-Karim-i-Qazvini, believed to be the only other person who participated in the plan. John Walbridge writes:

"'With him [Mulla Abdu'l-Karim-i-Qazvini] Baháʼu'lláh originated the plan to proclaim Mirza Yahya as the Báb's successor while keeping him in hiding — this in order to deflect attention from Baháʼu'lláh, who was well known to the authorities and the people.'"

Qazvini himself wrote in a letter in 1851 describing the urgency that the friends do nothing to call attention to Baháʼu'lláh during his period of messianic secrecy:

"But it is requested, according to his [Baháʼu'lláh] command, that the friends should desist from hinting around (shivih-ha) about him, as they had in the past, in such a way that they provoked troubles for the friends of God; and that they should avoid bringing sorrow upon that gentleman, who is of gentle disposition. ... Let them not provoke investigations or cause the encounter with God to become more distant, or become a veil of chains and manacles between the servants and the Lord of Lords any more than they already have been."

Near the end of his life the Báb had his remaining writings, other accoutrement, as well as a particular tablet addressed to Baháʼu'lláh, delivered to him.

"'In Qum, shortly before the Báb's martyrdom, he received a coffer from the Báb containing the last of his writings and his pen-case, seals, rings, and the famous pentacle tablet containing 350 derivatives of the word Bahá. He left the same day for Tehran, explaining that the Báb's accompanying letter ordered him to deliver it to Baháʼu'lláh.'"

Baháʼís believes there is symbolism in the Báb sending to Báhá'u'llah not only all of his remaining writings, but his seals and his pens, literally handing over the instruments of revelation, along with the pentacle tablet written in his own hand confirming Baháʼu'lláh's station. The Báb's Will & Testament, which was unambiguously directed to Subh-i-Azal, makes it clear that he would not be the One promised by the Báb:

"'We order you to obey Him Whom God Shall Make Manifest. He will verily appear amongst this people with a sublime reign in the final resurrection. Verily we are all servants and kneel down before Him. He shall carry out whatever He wishes, with permission from His Lord. He shall not be questioned for his actions. However, all others are responsible for everything they do.' [verses 27–29]"

Regarding Subh-i-Azal, common Baháʼí belief is summarised by Shoghi Effendi, who wrote that Subh-i-Azal was "good-natured yet susceptible to the slightest influence". This is a reference to Siyyid Muhammad-i-Isfahani, who is accused of conspiring with Subh-i-Azal and leading him astray. He is sometimes described as the Baháʼí "anti-Christ".

Azali view of the split
Azalis rejected the divine claims of Baháʼu'lláh as premature, arguing that the world must first accept the laws of the Báb before He Whom God Shall Make Manifest can appear.

title: Baháʼí–Azali split


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Clark–Wilson model

The Clark–Wilson integrity model provides a foundation for specifying and analyzing an integrity policy for a computing system.

The model is primarily concerned with formalizing the notion of information integrity. Information integrity is maintained by preventing corruption of data items in a system due to either error or malicious intent. An integrity policy describes how the data items in the system should be kept valid from one state of the system to the next and specifies the capabilities of various principals in the system. The model uses security labels to grant access to objects via transformation procedures and a restricted interface model.

Origin
The model was described in a 1987 paper (A Comparison of Commercial and Military Computer Security Policies) by David D. Clark and David R. Wilson. The paper develops the model as a way to formalize the notion of information integrity, especially as compared to the requirements for multilevel security (MLS) systems described in the Orange Book. Clark and Wilson argue that the existing integrity models such as Biba (read-up/write-down) were better suited to enforcing data integrity rather than information confidentiality. The Biba models are more clearly useful in, for example, banking classification systems to prevent the untrusted modification of information and the tainting of information at higher classification levels. In contrast, Clark–Wilson is more clearly applicable to business and industry processes in which the integrity of the information content is paramount at any level of classification (although the authors stress that all three models are obviously of use to both government and industry organizations).

Basic principles
According to Stewart and Chapple's CISSP Study Guide Sixth Edition, the Clark–Wilson model uses a multi-faceted approach in order to enforce data integrity. Instead of defining a formal state machine, the model defines each data item and allows modifications through only a small set of programs. The model uses a three-part relationship of subject/program/object (where program is interchangeable with transaction) known as a triple or an access control triple. Within this relationship, subjects do not have direct access to objects. Objects can only be accessed through programs. Look here to see how this differs from other access control models.

The model's enforcement and certification rules define data items and processes that provide the basis for an integrity policy. The core of the model is based on the notion of a transaction.

 * A well-formed transaction is a series of operations that transition a system from one consistent state to another consistent state.
 * In this model, the integrity policy addresses the integrity of the transactions.
 * The principle of separation of duty requires that the certifier of a transaction and the implementer be different entities.

The model contains a number of basic constructs that represent both data items and processes that operate on those data items. The key data type in the Clark–Wilson model is a Constrained Data Item (CDI). An Integrity Verification Procedure (IVP) ensures that all CDIs in the system are valid at a certain state. Transactions that enforce the integrity policy are represented by Transformation Procedures (TPs). A TP takes as input a CDI or Unconstrained Data Item (UDI) and produces a CDI. A TP must transition the system from one valid state to another valid state. UDIs represent system input (such as that provided by a user or adversary). A TP must guarantee (via certification) that it transforms all possible values of a UDI to a “safe” CDI.

Rules
At the heart of the model is the notion of a relationship between an authenticated principal (i.e., user) and a set of programs (i.e., TPs) that operate on a set of data items (e.g., UDIs and CDIs). The components of such a relation, taken together, are referred to as a Clark–Wilson triple. The model must also ensure that different entities are responsible for manipulating the relationships between principals, transactions, and data items. As a short example, a user capable of certifying or creating a relation should not be able to execute the programs specified in that relation.

The model consists of two sets of rules: Certification Rules (C) and Enforcement Rules (E). The nine rules ensure the external and internal integrity of the data items. To paraphrase these:

 * C1—When an IVP is executed, it must ensure the CDIs are valid.

 * C2—For some associated set of CDIs, a TP must transform those CDIs from one valid state to another.

Since we must make sure that these TPs are certified to operate on a particular CDI, we must have E1 and E2.

 * E1—System must maintain a list of certified relations and ensure only TPs certified to run on a CDI change that CDI.

 * E2—System must associate a user with each TP and set of CDIs. The TP may access the CDI on behalf of the user if it is "legal".

 * E3-The system must authenticate the identity of each user attempting to execute a TP.

This requires keeping track of triples (user, TP, {CDIs}) called "allowed relations".

 * C3—Allowed relations must meet the requirements of "separation of duty".

We need authentication to keep track of this.

 * C4—All TPs must append to a log enough information to reconstruct the operation.

When information enters the system it need not be trusted or constrained (i.e. can be a UDI). We must deal with this appropriately.

 * C5—Any TP that takes a UDI as input may only perform valid transactions for all possible values of the UDI. The TP will either accept (convert to CDI) or reject the UDI.

Finally, to prevent people from gaining access by changing qualifications of a TP:

 * E4—Only the certifier of a TP may change the list of entities associated with that TP.

CW-lite
A variant of Clark-Wilson is the CW-lite model, which relaxes the original requirement of formal verification of TP semantics. The semantic verification is deferred to a separate model and general formal proof tools.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Clark–Wilson model


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Vindonissa

Vindonissa (from a Gaulish toponym in *windo- "white") was a Roman legion camp, vicus and later a bishop's seat at modern Windisch, Switzerland. The remains of the camp are listed as a heritage site of national significance. The city of Brugg hosts a small Roman museum, displaying finds from the legion camp.

History
Excavations along the western edge of the Roman camp have discovered a few funeral pyre graves dating to the late Bronze Age (c. 1000–800 BC). The first settlement of Vindonissa was a 1st-century BC Helvetii fortified village on the peninsula between the Aare and Reuss rivers. The settlement was protected by an approximately 350 m long wood and earth wall, with an up to 7 m deep trench which stretched across the narrow neck of the peninsula. The settlement came under Roman control either after the 58 BC conquest of the Helvetii by Julius Caesar or the 15 BC conquest of the Alps.

A small guard post was established on the site around 15 BC. The Roman settlement and legion camp was probably established in 15 AD. In an expansion around 30, thermal baths were added. The Legio XIII Gemina was stationed at Vindonissa until 44 or 45. With the arrival of the 21st legion (XXI Rapax) the camp was rebuilt with stone fortifications. After the 21st legion had looted the countryside in 69, it was replaced by the 11th legion (XI Claudia) which remained stationed until 101. After this date, Vindonissa was a civilian settlement, with a castle built in the 4th century.

The camp established around 15 AD covered an area of about 20 ha and was surrounded by an 1.8 km long wooden and earthen wall with wooden gates and low watchtowers surrounded by a double ditch. By 72 AD this had been replaced by a 3.6 m thick wall with massive gates, watchtowers and a single ditch.

The first systematic excavation of the ruins began in 1896. This and later excavations discovered the ruins of several buildings and numerous artifacts. A 2 km long Roman underground canal still provides water to the fountain at Königsfelden Monastery. Vindonissa included the largest Roman amphitheater in modern Switzerland with seats for about 10,000. The foundations of the west and north walls and the remains of a Roman bath have been discovered.

title: Vindonissa


text: Talk:Manumit

title: Talk:Manumit


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Eugénio de Andrade

Eugénio de Andrade was the pseudonym of GOSE, GCM José Fontinhas (19 January 1923 - 13 June 2005), was a Portuguese poet. He is revered as one of the leading names in contemporary Portuguese poetry. He won the Camões Prize in 2001.

Early years
Eugénio de Andrade was born in Póvoa de Atalaia, Concelho do Fundão, Beira Baixa, on 19 January 1923. After his parents' marriage broke apart, he moved to Lisbon in 1933 and attended the Lyceum Passos Manuel and the Escola Técnica Machado de Castro where he wrote his first poems three years later. In 1938, he sent some of those poems to António Botto who encouraged him to keep writing, so much that he had his first book Narciso published in 1939 under his real name which would be dropped sometime later.

Career
In 1943, Eugénio de Andrade moved to Coimbra and then to Tavira the following year, cities where he did the military service finished back in Coimbra in 1944. The same year he strengthened his friendship with Afonso Duarte, Eduardo Lourenço, Joaquim Namorado, Carlos de Oliveira, and Miguel Torga, friends he made during his time in the army. Having worked as administrative inspector for the Ministry of Health from 1947, a position held for 35 years, he finally settled in Porto in 1950 where he lived for more than four decades until he moved to the building of the former Eugénio de Andrade Foundation in Foz do Douro.

During the years that followed, the poet traveled extensively, having been invited to take part in various events where befriended many personalities of Portuguese and foreign culture such as Sophia de Mello Breyner Andresen, José Luis Cano, Luis Cernuda, Mário Cesariny, Ángel Crespo, Herberto Helder, João Miguel Fernandes Jorge, Óscar Lopes, Agustina Bessa Luís, Joaquim Manuel Magalhães, Jaime Montestrela, Vitorino Nemésio, Teixeira de Pascoaes, Jorge de Sena, Joel Serrão, Ângelo de Sousa, Marguerite Yourcenar, and many others. Despite his national and international prestige he always lived apart from the so-called social, literary or bohemian life, having himself justified his rare public appearances due to "this weakness of the heart called friendship".

Awards
Eugénio de Andrade received numerous awards including the Prize of the Associação Portuguesa de Escritores (1986), Prize D. Dinis from Casa de Mateus Foundation (1988), the Great Poetry Prize of the Portuguese Association of Writers (1989) and the Camões Prize (2001). On 8 July 1982, he was made Grande Official da Ordem Militar de Sant'Iago da Espada, having been awarded also with the Grã-Cruz da Ordem do Mérito on 4 February 1989. He died in Porto on 13 June 2005 after prolonged neurological disease.

Literary works
Eugénio de Andrade debuted with Narciso (1939), and became a better-known personality in the literary field with his book of verses Adolescente (1942). His well-deserved recognition came with the publication of As Mãos e os Frutos in 1948, which earned him critical acclaim from Jorge de Sena and Vitorino Nemésio. During the 1940s he took part in the World Literature Seminar (1946-1948). His essentially lyrical body of work was considered by José Saramago as one reached through continuous debugging.

Among dozens of published works are Os amantes Sem Dinheiro (1950), As Palavras Interditas (1951), Escrita da Terra (1974), Matéria Solar (1980), Rente ao Dizer (1992), Ofício da Paciência (1994), O Sal da Língua (1995), and Os Lugares do Lume (1998). In prose he published Os afluentes do Silêncio (1968), Rosto Precário (1979) and À Sombra da Memória (1993), as well as children's stories História da Égua Branca (1977) and Aquela Nuvem e as Outras (1986). His work Os Sulcos da Sede was awarded the Poetry Prize of the Pen Clube Português in September 2003.

Eugénio de Andrade was also translator of works by Federico García Lorca, Antonio Buero Vallejo, the classical Greek poet Sappho (Poemas e Fragmentos in 1974), and also of works by Yannis Ritsos, René Char, and Jorge Luis Borges.

Translations

 * Inhabited Heart: The Select Poems of Eugénio de Andrade. Trans. of Alexis Levitin, Van Nuys, California: Perivale Press, 1985.
 * White on White. Trans. of Alexis Levitin, in “Quarterly Review of Literature”, Princeton, New Jersey.
 * Memory of Another River. Trans. of Alexis Levitin, St. Paul, Minnesota: New Rivers Press, 1988.
 * The Slopes of a Gaze. Trans. of Alexis Levitin, Plattsburgh, New York: Apalachee Press, 1992.
 * Dark Domain. Trans. of Alexis Levitin, Toronto: Guernica, 2000.
 * Forbidden Words: Selected poetry of Eugenio de Andrade. Trans. of Alexis Levitin, New York, NY: New Directions Publishing, 2003.

title: Eugénio de Andrade


text:
Ibn Humaid

Abdullah Ibn Humaid (1908–1981) also known as Abdullah bin Muhammad bin Humaid was the Chief Justice of Saudi Arabia and Imam of the Great Mosque of Mecca. He was succeeded as Great Mosque imam by his son Salih bin Abdullah al Humaid.

He is the author of Jihad in the Quran and Sunnah.

title: Ibn Humaid


text:
Talk:Hill climbing

Local search
What is the difference to local search? Stern 08:28, 13 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * They are the same thing. In Talk:Local search, there's an ongoing discussion of that article's relation to this one. The idea of merging this article with Local search is being raised. --Anthony Liekens 21:43, 11 October 2005 (UTC)

Hill climbing and Convex Problems
In the preamble it is stated that hill climbing is optimal if the problem is convex; but this only holds, if the goal is a minimization rather than a maximization. The rest of the article deals with maximization, however. In this case, hill climbing would be optimal only if the problem is concave, right? In any case, I think there should be a reference justifying this optimality statement. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 129.187.109.199 (talk) 14:24, 26 February 2015 (UTC)

Need a reference on Probabilistic Hill Climbing
The header/title says it (mostly). I still think we need a plain Metropolis Algorithm entry -- not just Metropolis-Hastings. Another user said the same thing (Metropolis is "more commonly used" than Metropolis-Hastings according to that user). In any case Metropolis Algoithm certainly merits an entry. 199.196.144.11 22:16, 21 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Hi, can you explain to me how Metropolis-Hasting is related to Hill Climbing? Thanks, Sander123 08:22, 22 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Hill-climbing can be reduced to: 1- pick a new sample point, 2- Measure the goodness of the new sample point, 3- go to step 1. Suppose you have some distribution that represents your belief about the goodness of points in your search space. It would be nice if you could draw your samples according to your believed-goodness distribution. This way, you will be fully utilizing your belief to climb the hill as fast as possible. (Note that your believed-goodness distribution will change as you gather more samples.) Metropolis is an algorithm that draws samples from an arbitrary distribution. (But it requires that you supply a symmetric candidate distribution that hopefully is at least somewhat close to your believed-goodness distribution. Almost everyone just uses a Gaussian for the candidate distribution.) Metropolis-Hastings is a generalization of Metropolis that can use any candidate distribution (but most people just stick to Metropolis and use a Gaussian because they don't know how to pick a better candidate distribution). Metropolis is commonly used in conjunction with Gibb's sampling to evaluate Bayesian Belief Networks. It is effective for hill-climbing in low-dimensional space (ie with univariate distributions), but in high-dimensional space it suffers severly from the curse of dimensionality and converges extremely slowly. The problem with high-dimensional space is that it tries to sample from your believed-goodness distribution rather than sampling points that are likely to improve your believed distribution. Gradient algorithms, on the other hand, are efficient for hill-climbing in high-dimensional space. For example, Empirical Gradient Ascent measures the gradient a tiny ways out in each dimension to compute the optimal direction to ascend the hill (assuming local linearity). Stochastic Gradient Ascent tends to be even faster than Empirical Gradient Ascent. It picks a random direction, measures the goodness of that direction, backs up, steps forward in the best direction yet found, and repeats. Gradient algorithms that add a momentum term to each dimension tend to perform even better than Stochastic Gradient Ascent.

I'm actually implementing a stochastic hill climbing algorithm and I have no earthly idea what the heck this page is on about.

This page could use an informal, intuitive description of the hill climbing concept. It would be useful for many people who are new to optimization. Eternallyoptimistic 14:19, 26 April 2007 (UTC)
 * I've added a description that avoids the mathematical notation. Sander123 09:52, 21 May 2007 (UTC)

Original
Random-restart hill climbing is a surprisingly effective algorithm in many cases. It turns out that it is often better to spend CPU time exploring the space, than carefully optimizing from an initial condition.[original research?] I agree we need a source, but I agree and I think it is definitely correct. Could someone please find an example to back this up. Good article, by the way. Gigitrix(90.216.108.161 (talk) 14:41, 8 November 2008 (UTC)) (Didn't login)

it is not guaranteed that hill climbing will ever come close to the optimal solution
The article states: When the algorithm cannot see any improvement anymore, it terminates. Ideally, at that point the current solution is close to optimal, but it is not guaranteed that hill climbing will ever come close to the optimal solution.

Shouldn't "ever" be "always"? If an algorithm may not ever even come close to an optimal solution, isn't it a waste? Can someone just run the algorithm on a solution set where all the solutions are optimal? fogus (talk) 20:02, 24 April 2009 (UTC)
 * To clarify the intended meaning, for a particular run of hill climbing on a particular problem, it may never reach a solution that is even approximately optimal (because once it reaches a local optimum it stays there). This is as opposed to methods like random-restart hill climbing, where the search will inevitably find the global optimum, but may take a very long time to do so. Dcoetzee 21:00, 24 April 2009 (UTC)

Greedy vs. Hill Climbing
There is also an article on Greedy algorithms. I can't tell the difference - is one more general than the other? If so, it seems like relevant page should explain that. This comment is also posted on the discussion page there. Thanks. --Jdvelasc (talk) 19:10, 10 September 2009 (UTC)

 * Commented on Talk:Greedy_algorithm. —ZeroOne ( talk / @ ) 21:43, 2 September 2010 (UTC)

 * Hill climbing is a greedy optimization technique. There are greedy algorithms that do other things besides optimization. For example, a greedy path planner finds a path from point A to point B by always stepping immediately toward B. A greedy packing algorithm packs objects in the configuration that immediately minimizes total space used so far. A greedy diffing tool always assumes the first matching lines it finds between two files correspond with each other.--Headlessplatter (talk) 04:43, 3 September 2010 (UTC)

What is it?
The article's lead section describes one relative quality after another of the algorithm without actually saying what the algorithm is or how it works. Can anyone fix that?--Father Goose (talk) 05:21, 2 December 2010 (UTC)

 * I agree that a lead section should say what it is, not just why it is wonderful. I did a pass over the "mathematical description" section to try to make the description more intuitive. Unfortunately, I am having a hard time figuring out how to explain the concept without sounding technical, so I am not sure how to make the description suitable for a lead section. Perhaps someone else could try another pass at it now?--Headlessplatter (talk) 15:57, 2 December 2010 (UTC)

 * All right, I think I understand it better now, so I've rewritten the lead according to my understanding. Maybe you will want to iteratively improve my solution. ;-) --Father Goose (talk) 22:10, 2 December 2010 (UTC)

"Although more advanced algorithms such as simulated annealing or tabu search may give better results, in some situations hill climbing works just as well. Hill climbing can often produce a better result than other algorithms when the amount of time available to perform a search is limited, such as with real-time systems.". What is the source of this sentence. Is there an article or book I can verify this statement? Rolb2 (talk) 09:43, 9 July 2013 (UTC)

 * Back in 2010, I merely did a copyedit and added a clearer summary of information already in the article. I don't know the source of the info – however, a google search for "hill climbing" "real-time" search produces promising results, as does a Google Books search for the same terms: .--Father Goose (talk) 22:33, 22 July 2013 (UTC)

Bubble sort
I added the counter-claim about bubble sort to trigger someone with more expertise to better characterize the efficiency trade-offs. My sentence doesn't belong where I put it, but without my addition, I regard the lead as promulgating a slanted perspective. There was nothing at all about the problem of edit distance (which can potentially be very large, even exponential). — MaxEnt 03:50, 18 April 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hill climbing


text:
Talk:Local search

Hill climbing
What is the difference to hill climbing? Stern 08:28, 13 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * This question was asked before the splitting into Local search (optimization) and Local search (Internet). The answer is now in the first article. Paolo Liberatore (Talk) 16:46, 18 October 2005 (UTC)

Split
There is not much to discuss here... two completely different things. The only doubt is about the titles of the two articles. Possible titles for the first one:

 * Local search (metaheuristics)
 * Local search (algorithm)
 * Local search (computer science)
 * Local search (optimization)
 * Local search algorithm

For the second one:

 * Local search (web search)
 * Local search (Internet)
 * Local search (search engine)
 * Web local search

Paolo Liberatore (Talk) 19:21, 7 October 2005 (UTC)

 * local search (optimization) and Local search (Internet) would be fine with me. And I do agree with the split. Oleg Alexandrov (talk) 00:45, 8 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I don't agree with the way it would be split up. The main usage of the term local search comes from optimization. I think it would be better to keep the contents of optimization in this article, and add a link to a Local search (internet) article from within, without the disambiguation article. --Anthony Liekens 09:10, 8 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Splitting off the internet search is even a better idea. Oleg Alexandrov (talk) 17:04, 8 October 2005 (UTC)

 * That's fine for me. I will wait some more days before doing the split. Paolo Liberatore (Talk) 11:56, 11 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Oleg is actually incorrect. Perhaps the main usage of "local search" within computer science and academic circles is regarding the metaheuristic programming approach. However, the more-common usage of "local search" by the general population has come to be about search engines and their movement to assist people in finding information about local geographic areas. Don't believe me, though - check out news stories for the past few years. Also, check out mentions of it by the usership of webmasterworld and searchenginewatch -- they probably have more users combined than the entire academic community which is concerned with the programming method. Using the term "optimization" to refer to the programming method would be extremely confusing to the general population, since Search Engine Optimization (methods for improving rankings of sites and pages in search engine results) is extremely well known, and "Local Search Optimization" has come to refer to improving the rankings of local information sites/pages in search engine results. I suggest that you either keep the articles combined since they are so brief, or else name both of them specifically. There are far more people involved in local search as a type of search engine and in search engine optimization than there are involved with the programming theory/method. No one has touched on the gentleman's suggestion for "hill climbing" -- why not? Use of that term would disambiguate the issue completely. Silvery 13:09, 11 October 2005 (UTC)

 * There's 11 "metaheuristic" articles pointing to this one, and only one search related article (Search Engine). Also because of this, it would not be a good idea to move the current metaheuristic contents out, into e.g. Hill climbing, as it would be confusing for the layman interested in optimization. "Local search" is an important optimization term on the web, in the text books and in the community. I understand however that the way this article should be split up is not that obvious. It might be indeed be useful to put a disambiguation page up, as Paolo originally proposed. We then also have to make sure that all (12 or so) articles that link here are updated to point to their specific Local search (internet) or Local search (optimization) article. --Anthony Liekens 21:33, 11 October 2005 (UTC)

Just to clarity a couple of points: the disambiguation page would say something like:

Local search may refer to: - local search (optimization), a method for problem solving; or   - local search (Internet), the web search engine for findind web sites relevant to a given place.

I do not see what's wrong with that. Rather, I would not keep two completely different concepts in the same article just because they have the same name.

In the naming convention of this encyclopedia, a title X (Y) means: the X relative to Y, or the X that is an Y; therefore, “local search (optimization)” means the local search relative to [the field of] optimization and not optimization of local search. A possible way for avoiding confusion is to use both the disambiguation page and the disamb link at the top of each article, that is, each article starts with the sentence making reference to the other concept rather than a link to the disambiguation page.

Hill climbing is a specific kind of local search . Moving the stuff of local search to the article on hill climbing will be wrong. This point should be clarified in the articles (I will do it after the split). Paolo Liberatore (Talk) 10:52, 12 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Ok, we do not have consensus, but at least there is a majority for the split. I will leave the talk page here, since it is more relevant to the disamb page than to the separated pages. Paolo Liberatore (Talk) 15:51, 18 October 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Local search


text:
Battery pack

A battery pack is a set of any number of (preferably) identical batteries or individual battery cells. They may be configured in a series, parallel or a mixture of both to deliver the desired voltage and current. The term battery pack is often used in reference to cordless tools, radio-controlled hobby toys, and battery electric vehicles.

Components of battery packs include the individual batteries or cells, and the interconnects which provide electrical conductivity between them. Rechargeable battery packs often contain voltage and temperature sensors, which the battery charger uses to detect the end of charging. Interconnects are also found in batteries as they are the part which connects each cell, though batteries are most often only arranged in series strings.

When a pack contains groups of cells in parallel there are differing wiring configurations which take into consideration the electrical balance of the circuit. Battery Management System are sometimes used for balancing cells in order to keep their voltages below a maximum value during charging so as to allow the weaker batteries to become fully charged, bringing the whole pack back into balance. Active balancing can also be performed by battery balancer devices which can shuttle energy from strong cells to weaker ones in real time for better balance. A well-balanced pack lasts longer and delivers better performance.

For an inline package, cells are selected and stacked with solder in between them. The cells are pressed together and a current pulse generates heat to solder them together and to weld all connections internal to the cell.

Calculating state of charge
SOC, or state of charge, is the equivalent of a fuel quantity remaining. SOC cannot be determined by a simple voltage measurement, because the terminal voltage of a battery may stay substantially constant until it is completely discharged. In some types of battery, electrolyte specific gravity may be related to state of charge but this is not measurable on typical battery pack cells, and is not related to state of charge on most battery types. Most SOC methods take into account voltage and current as well as temperature and other aspects of the discharge and charge process to in essence count up or down within a pre-defined capacity of a pack. More complex state of charge estimation systems take into account the Peukert effect which relates the capacity of the battery to the discharge rate.

Advantages
An advantage of a battery pack is the ease with which it can be swapped into or out of a device. This allows multiple packs to deliver extended runtimes, freeing up the device for continued use while charging the removed pack separately.

Another advantage is the flexibility of their design and implementation, allowing the use of cheaper high-production cells or batteries to be combined into a pack for nearly any application.

At the end of product life, batteries can be removed and recycled separately, reducing the total volume of hazardous waste.

Disadvantages
Packs are often simpler for end users to repair or tamper with than a sealed non-serviceable battery or cell. Though some might consider this an advantage it is important to take safety precautions when servicing a battery pack as they pose a danger as potential chemical, electrical, and fire risks.

Power bank
A power bank or battery bank is a portable device that stores energy in its battery. Power banks are made in various sizes and typically based on lithium-ion batteries. A power bank contains battery cells and a voltage converter circuitry. The internal DC-DC converter manages battery charging and converts the battery stack's voltage to the desired output voltage. The advertised capacity on the product in many instances is based on the capacity of the internal cells, however the theoretical mAh available to output depends on the output voltage. The conversion circuit has some energy losses, so the actual output is less than theoretical. The theoretical mAh of a 3.7 V battery power bank with 5 V output is 74% of the battery mAh rating. The RavPower RP-PB41 with advertised capacity of 26,800 mAh that was evaluated in the journal has a theoretical capacity is 19,832 mAh, although the delivered capacity was 15,682 mAh, 78% of theoretical value. Authors attributed the difference to internal resistance in battery and converter losses. The circuit board can contain additional features such as over discharge protection, automatic shut off and charge level indication LEDs. Power banks may be able to detect a connection and power on automatically. If the current load is under a model-specific threshold for a specific duration, a power bank may power down automatically.

Some power banks are able to deliver power wirelessly, some are equipped with an LED flashlight for casual near-distance illumination when necessary, and some have a pass-through charging feature which allows providing power through their USB ports while being charged themselves simultaneously. Some larger power banks have DC connectors (or barrel connectors) for higher power demands such as laptop computers.

Battery cases
Battery cases are small power banks attached to the rear side of a mobile phone like a case. Power may be delivered through the USB charging ports, or wirelessly. Battery cases also exist in the form of a camera grip accessory, as was for the Nokia Lumia 1020. For mobile phones with removable rear cover, extended batteries exist. These are larger internal batteries attached with a dedicated, more spacious rear cover replacing the default one. A disadvantage is incompatibility with other phone cases while attached.

Rental/exchange
In some parts of the world, there are kiosk based power bank rental or subscription services. Customers pay for the use of power bank for a specified period of time and return the depleted power bank to the kiosk. In one case with a brand called FuelRod, it was sold at an elevated price at various amusement parks with the understanding that they get a perk of free exchange at participating locations. FuelRod moved to discontinue the free exchange in 2019 and resulted in a class-action lawsuit reaching a settlement that early adopters would be grandfathered to free exchange privileges.

Air travel restrictions
Per US Federal Aviation Administration regulations, power banks in the United States are not allowed in checked-in luggage. Power banks up to 100 Wh are allowed as carry-on and those 101 Wh to 160 Wh are allowed with airline approval.

title: Battery pack


text:
Talk:Noor

Disambig
This page has been successfully disambiguated. bd2412 T 22:59, 12 March 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Noor


text: Talk:Triradius

title: Talk:Triradius


text:
Talk:Staging (theatre, film, television)

Staging vs. Mise en scène
How is this different from Mise en scène ? Mathglot (talk) 09:28, 2 February 2023 (UTC)


text:
Animal science

Animal science is described as "studying the biology of animals that are under the control of humankind". It can also be described as the production and management of farm animals. Historically, the degree was called animal husbandry and the animals studied were livestock species, like cattle, sheep, pigs, poultry, and horses. Today, courses available look at a broader area, including companion animals, like dogs and cats, and many exotic species. Degrees in Animal Science are offered at a number of colleges and universities. Animal science degrees are often offered at land-grant universities, which will often have on-campus farms to give students hands-on experience with livestock animals.

Education
Professional education in animal science prepares students for careers in areas such as animal breeding, food and fiber production, nutrition, animal agribusiness, animal behavior, and welfare. Courses in a typical Animal Science program may include genetics, microbiology, animal behavior, nutrition, physiology, and reproduction. Courses in support areas, such as genetics, soils, agricultural economics and marketing, legal aspects, and the environment also are offered.

Bachelor degree
At many universities, a Bachelor of Science (BS) degree in Animal Science allows emphasis in certain areas. Typical areas are species-specific or career-specific. Species-specific areas of emphasis prepare students for a career in dairy management, beef management, swine management, sheep or small ruminant management, poultry production, or the horse industry. Other career-specific areas of study include pre-veterinary medicine studies, livestock business and marketing, animal welfare and behavior, animal nutrition science, animal reproduction science, or genetics. Youth programs are also an important part of animal science programs.

Pre-veterinary emphasis
Many schools that offer a degree option in Animal Science also offer a pre-veterinary emphasis such as Iowa State University, the University of Nebraska–Lincoln, and the University of Minnesota, for example. This option provides knowledge of the biological and physical sciences including nutrition, reproduction, physiology, and genetics. This can prepare students for graduate studies in animal science, veterinary school, and pharmaceutical or animal science industries.

Graduate studies
In a Master of Science degree option, students take required courses in areas that support their main interest. These courses are above courses normally required for a Bachelor of Science degree in the Animal Science major. For example, in a Ph.D. degree program students take courses related to their major that are more in-depth than those for the Master of Science degree, with an emphasis on research or teaching.

Graduate studies in animal sciences are considered preparation for upper-level positions in production, management, education, research, or agri-services. Professional study in veterinary medicine, law, and business administration are among the most commonly chosen programs by graduates. Other areas of study include growth biology, physiology, nutrition, and production systems.

Careers in Animal Science
There are a variety of careers available to someone with an animal science degree. Including, but not limited to, Academic researcher, Animal nutritionist, Animal physiotherapist technician, Nature conservation officer, Zookeeper, and Zoologist.

Animal Behavior
Animal behavior is the study of how animals interact with their environment, interact with each other socially, and how they may achieve understanding of their environment. Animal behavior is examined with the framework of its development, mechanism, adaptive value, and evolution.

Animal Genetics
Animal genetics is the study of an animal genes and how they effect an animal's appearance, health, and function. The information gained from such studies is often applied to livestock breeding.

Veterinary Medicine
Veterinary medicine is a specialization within the field of medicine focusing on the diagnosis, prevention, control, and treatment of diseases that effect both wild and domesticated animals. There are three main medical positions within veterinary medicine, veterinarians, veterinary technicians, and veterinary assistants.

title: Animal science


text:
Neurochip

A neurochip is an integrated circuit chip (such as a microprocessor) that is designed for interaction with neuronal cells.

Formation
It is made of silicon that is doped in such a way that it contains EOSFETs (electrolyte-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors) that can sense the electrical activity of the neurons (action potentials) in the above-standing physiological electrolyte solution. It also contains capacitors for the electrical stimulation of the neurons. The University of Calgary, Faculty of Medicine scientists led by Pakistani-born Canadian scientist Naweed Syed who proved it is possible to cultivate a network of brain cells that reconnect on a silicon chip—or the brain on a microchip—have developed new technology that monitors brain cell activity at a resolution never achieved before.

Developed with the National Research Council Canada (NRC), the new silicon chips are also simpler to use, which will help future understanding of how brain cells work under normal conditions and permit drug discoveries for a variety of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.

Naweed Syed's lab cultivated brain cells on a microchip. The new technology from the lab of Naweed Syed, in collaboration with the NRC, was published online in August 2010, in the journal Biomedical Devices. It is the world's first neurochip. It is based on Syed's earlier experiments on neurochip technology dating back to 2003.

"This technical breakthrough means we can track subtle changes in brain activity at the level of ion channels and synaptic potentials, which are also the most suitable target sites for drug development in neurodegenerative diseases and neuropsychological disorders," says Syed, professor and head of the Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, member of the Hotchkiss Brain Institute and advisor to the Vice President Research on Biomedical Engineering Initiative of the University of Chicago.

The new neurochips are also automated, meaning that anyone can learn to place individual brain cells on them. Previously it took years of training to learn how to record ion channel activity from brain cells, and it was only possible to monitor one or two cells simultaneously. Now, larger networks of cells can be placed on a chip and observed in minute detail, allowing the analysis of several brain cells networking and performing automatic, large-scale drug screening for various brain dysfunctions.

This new technology has the potential to help scientists in a variety of fields and on a variety of research projects. Gerald Zamponi, professor and head of the Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, and member of the Hotchkiss Brain Institute, says, “This technology can likely be scaled up such that it will become a novel tool for medium throughput drug screening, in addition to its usefulness for basic biomedical research”.

"In previous studies, researchers developed a neurochip that could directly stimulate and record brain cell activity. Now, Orly Yadid-Pecht and Naweed Syed have successfully developed a novel lab-on-a-chip technology that, through an ultra-sensitive component built directly on the microchip, also enables direct imaging of activity in brain cells."

Applications
Present applications are neuron research. Future applications (still in the experimental phase) are retinal implants or brain implants.

title: Neurochip


text:
The Ignorant Fairies

The Ignorant Fairies (Le fate ignoranti; released on DVD in the US as His Secret Life) is a 2001 Italian drama film directed by Turkish-Italian film director Ferzan Özpetek.

The story follows a woman who discovers that her recently deceased husband had been having an affair with another man.

In 2022, Disney+ released a TV serialization of the film, directed once more by Özpetek.

Plot
Antonia, a doctor specializing in AIDS treatment, and her husband Massimo live a seemingly perfect life. Antonia's quiet everyday life is irreparably changed when Massimo suddenly dies, run over by a car. Her violent detachment from her husband throws her into deep mourning that prevents her from working and challenges her relationship with her mother, also a long-time widow, even more difficult. Antonia receives personal objects from Massimo's office and discovers a painting, The Ignorant Fairy, with a declaration of love on the back. This leads her to search for the gift-giver, whose existence Antonia was unaware of.

Antonia discovers a reality very far from her imagination: Massimo was bisexual and had a clandestine relationship with a man, Michele. The impact with Massimo's secret life is dramatic for At first disbelieving, Michele pretends to be ignorant. Then he blames Antonia for all the sacrifices he made in order to be with Massimo. Antonia decides to meet Michele again to understand Massimo's life. An ambiguous friendship is established between the two, through which Antonia comes into contact with the colorful community to which Michele belongs: gay friends, a transgender woman, a Turkish refugee, the Turkish singer Emir and a true Neapolitan woman; a kind of extended family that lives in the attic of a public building located in one of the most characteristic neighborhoods of Rome, Ostiense.

Antonia begins to interact with the group constantly with the excuse of assisting Ernesto, a young friend of Michele's, who's HIV positive. Through the contact and impact with the reality represented by the group, mitigated by sharing the memory of Massimo, Antonia undergoes a process of personal maturation and liberation from her previous routine. She shares memories of Massimo with Michele. Both discover through the other the numerous lies that Massimo had told to lead the two parallel lives. The balance between the two is broken, when during a party, Antonia sees Michele flirting with two guys at the same time, which he will later have a ménage à trois. Michele feels it as an insult when Antonia presents him with a book by Nazım Hikmet, their favorite poet, which Massimo had pretended to appreciate in order to seduce Michele.

The feud between Antonia and Michele comes to an end when Ernesto runs away from home. Antonia finds him, remembering where he had met his lover and convinces Ernesto to take care of himself once and for all. Shortly after, Antonia and Michele exchange a passionate kiss, which sends both of them into crisis.

Antonia then discovers that she is pregnant with Massimo's child, and runs to Michele's house to give him the good news, but she overhears Michele talking to his friends, where he seems to want to distance himself from her. Antonia, saddened, decides to distance herself from Michele. She pretends to accept Emir's offer to travel, but instead, she leaves alone. The film ends with Antonia leaving secretly.

Production
The director Ferzan Özpetek, born in Turkey in 1959, and who has lived in Italy since 1976, created The Ignorant Fairies to portray the theme of homosexuality, which he deeply felt on a personal level. In the film, he depicts loneliness, family, and detachment caused by loss. Co-produced with French capitals, the film is one of the hits of the 2001 film season.

Stefano Accorsi and Margherita Buy both received the Nastro d'argento as best male and female performers.

Awards

 * 3 Nastro d'Argento Prizes (Best Actress: Margherita Buy – Best Actor: Stefano Accorsi – Best Producer: Tilde Corsi and Gianni Romoli)
 * Public's Choice, Image-Nation Festival
 * Best Film, New York Gay and Lesbian Film Festival
 * Best Film, Austin Gay and Lesbian International Film Festival

title: The Ignorant Fairies


text:
Garnish (cooking)

A garnish is an item or substance used as a decoration or embellishment accompanying a prepared food dish or drink. In many cases, it may give added or contrasting flavor. Some garnishes are selected mainly to augment the visual impact of the plate, while others are selected specifically for the flavor they may impart. This is in contrast to a condiment, a prepared sauce added to another food item primarily for its flavor. A food item which is served with garnish may be described as being garni, the French term for "garnished."

The difference between garnish and decoration, is garnish is edible. Plastic grass for sushi presentation is considered a decoration, not a garnish.

Overview
A garnish makes food or drink items more visually appealing. They may, for example, enhance their color, such as when paprika is sprinkled on a salmon salad. They may provide a color contrast, for example when chives are sprinkled on potatoes. They may make a cocktail more visually appealing, such as when a cocktail umbrella is added to an exotic drink, or when a Mai Tai is topped with any number of tropical fruit pieces. Sushi may be garnished with baran, a type of plastic grass or leaf. Sometimes a garnish and a condiment will be used together to finish the presentation of a dish; for example, an entrée could be topped with a sauce, as the condiment, along with a sprig of parsley as a garnish.

A garnish may be so readily identified with a specific dish that the dish may appear incomplete without the garnish. Examples include a banana split sundae with cherries on top or buffalo wings served with celery stick garnish and blue cheese dressing.

Foods and entree
Garnishes for foods and entrees include:
 * Amandine – a culinary term indicating a garnish of almonds
 * Bawang goreng – crisp fried shallot, a common garnish in Indonesian cuisine
 * Carrot
 * Caviar
 * Sun dried tomato
 * Celery
 * Chives
 * Chili pepper – julienne, rings or decoratively sliced
 * Chili threads
 * Cilantro – coriander leaves
 * Crouton
 * Cucumber – julienne, rings or decoratively sliced
 * Duxelles
 * Egg garnish
 * Fried onion – used as a garnish on steaks and other foods
 * Gremolata
 * Lemon basil
 * Radish
 * Manchette
 * Microgreens – young vegetable greens that are used both as a visual and flavor component, ingredient and garnish
 * Mint
 * Nuts
 * Ginger
 * Parsley
 * Persillade
 * Sautéed mushrooms – used on steaks and other foods
 * Edible seaweed – such as shredded nori sheet, used to garnish foods such as soups, entrees and sashimi
 * Sesame seeds
 * Walnut

Desserts and sweets
Garnishes for desserts and sweets include:
 * Caramel
 * Chocolate (shaved or curled)
 * Cocoa powder
 * Flaked coconut
 * (raspberry coulis, for example)
 * s
 * s
 * Nuts
 * Walnut pieces and candied walnuts
 * Wedding cake topper
 * Whipped cream
 * s
 * Nuts
 * Walnut pieces and candied walnuts
 * Wedding cake topper
 * Whipped cream
 * Nuts
 * Walnut pieces and candied walnuts
 * Wedding cake topper
 * Whipped cream

Beverages
Garnishes for beverages include: Coffee-based drinks may have:
 * Cinnamon sticks or ground powder
 * Cocoa powder

Savory drinks such as Bloody Mary may have:
 * Carrot sticks
 * Celery stalks (usually with leaves attached)
 * Pepper
 * Salt, coarse (applied to the rim of glasses)

Eggnog may have:
 * Nutmeg, grated

Various fruits are used:
 * Cherries
 * Lemon slice, twist, or wedge
 * Lime slice, twist, or wedge
 * Orange slice, twist, or wedge
 * Pineapple slice or wedge
 * wedge
 * Sugar, granulated or powdered
 * Sugar, granulated or powdered
 * Sugar, granulated or powdered
 * Sugar, granulated or powdered
 * Sugar, granulated or powdered
 * Sugar, granulated or powdered
 * Sugar, granulated or powdered
 * Sugar, granulated or powdered

French garnishes
Classic French garnishes include

For soups: For relevés and entrées:
 * Brunoise – one to three mm diced vegetables
 * Chiffonade – finely shredded lettuce or sorrel stewed in butter
 * Croutes – small pieces of halved French bread buttered and oven dried
 * Coulis – (a thicker soup) drizzled decoratively
 * Croutons – small pieces of bread (typically cubes) fried in butter or other oil
 * Julienne – thinly sliced vegetables
 * Pasta (tapioca, sago, salep) etc.
 * Pluches – a whole leaf spray of herbs, without the central stalk (traditionally chervil)
 * Profiterolles – puff pastry stuffed with purée
 * Royale – a small decoratively shaped piece of egg custard (in German this is called an Eierstich)
 * Threaded eggs
 * Croquettes
 * Potatoes (pommes dauphine, Duchess potatoes or Marquis)
 * Duxelles – fried onion, mushrooms and herbs
 * Matignon – minced carrots, onions, and celeries with ham stewed in butter and Madeira
 * Mirepoix – similar to Matignon but diced (cf. minced) with or without ham (or with bacon substituted for the ham)
 * Polonaise – Polish-style garnish with melted butter, bread crumbs, chopped boiled egg, lemon juice and herbs over cooked vegetables
 * Salpicon – a variety of other diced meats or vegetables
 * Fritters

Indonesian garnishes

 * Bawang goreng – crisp fried shallot, a common garnish in Indonesian cuisine
 * Young carrot leaf
 * Celery – locally known as daun seledri used as topping for soups or rice congee
 * Chili pepper – sliced decoratively
 * Cilantro
 * Cucumber – sliced decoratively
 * Flaked coconut – grated coconut flesh, usually used in traditional kue sweet dessert snacks; such as klepon, putu and lupis
 * Emping – melinjo nut crackers
 * Krupuk – various traditional crackers
 * Lemon basil – locally known as daun kemangi
 * Tomato – sliced decoratively

Japanese garnishes

 * Beni shōga – julienne pickled ginger, usually used as a garnish for gyudon and okonomiyaki
 * Gari – marinated thinly sliced ginger, usually used as a garnish for sushi and sashimi
 * Katsuobushi – dried bonito flakes, usually used as a garnish for takoyaki, sometimes called okaka
 * Scallion or tree onion (wakegi) – mostly used as topping of tofu and miso soup
 * Various edible seaweed – including thinly sliced kizami nori sheets, Aonori, Tororo Kombu used widely as topping of ramen, udon, yakiudon, Takoyaki, soba, okonomiyaki, yakisoba, or even pizza and hotdogs
 * Sesame seeds – sprinkled on steamed rice or noodles
 * Shiso leaf
 * Fukujinzuke, a condiment and garnish for curry dishes
 * Kinshi tamago, shredded strips of eggs popular on rice porridge, and hiyashi chuka a cold mixed ramen salad
 * Fish roe such as tobiko, masago, mentaiko, and ikura are popular on rice dishes such as chirashi and sushi as well
 * Shredded daikon and ground daikon called daikon oroshi, a winter radish, is popular in bento and sushi dishes, the latter is popular on oily foods such as fish and tempura
 * Sakura, star, heart and various shaped carrot garnishes are popular in bento
 * Garlic chives
 * Whitebait such as shirasu and chirimenjako
 * Edible flowers such as chrysanthemum
 * Furikake
 * Umeboshi
 * Nameko mushrooms
 * Menma fermented seasoned bamboo shoots
 * Soy egg
 * Narutomaki
 * Mitsuba, Cryptotaenia japonica
 * Tenkasu, fried bits of batter which defines tanuki udon
 * Aburage, fried tofu which defines kitsune udon
 * Kamaboko, a surimi often found in bento and hot pot udon
 * Wasabi
 * Yuzukosho

Korean garnishes
In Korean cuisine, decorative garnishes are referred to as gomyeong (고명), means to decorate or embellish food.
 * Chrysanthemum leaves
 * Egg garnish – a common topping in Korean cuisine, made with egg whites and egg yolks.
 * Gochu – red chili pepper
 * Chili thread – a traditional Korean garnish made with chili peppers.
 * Crushed garlic
 * Green onions
 * Manna lichen
 * Scallions
 * Shiitake
 * Shredded vegetables

Garnish tools
Tools often used for creating food garnishes include skewers, knives, graters, toothpicks, and parchment cones.

title: Garnish (cooking)


text: Category:Canadian disabled sportspeople

title: Category:Canadian disabled sportspeople


text:
EOSFET

An EOSFET or electrolyte–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor is a FET, like a MOSFET, but with an electrolyte solution replacing the metal for the detection of neuronal activity. Many EOSFETs are integrated in a neurochip.

title: EOSFET


text:
Lisgar GO Station

Lisgar GO Station is a railway station on GO Transit's Milton line in Mississauga, Ontario, Canada. It opened for service on September 4, 2007.

The station is located at Argentia Road and Tenth Line, near the interchange of Highway 401, and Highway 407. It is named after the Lisgar neighbourhood in which it is located, which is itself named after Lord Lisgar, second Governor General of Canada from 1869–1872.

The station was built to alleviate the congested Meadowvale GO Station and to provide better service for the local community. The station provides parking spaces for 788 vehicles. Construction began on new canopies, walkways, and shelters in August 2014 and was completed in early 2015.

In spring 2009, a 50 kW wind turbine was constructed at the station and was expected to supply up to 80% of the station's power. Taking advantage of the heavy prevailing winds from the west, the turbine is the first application of on-site wind generation for a North American transit system. However, after four years, the turbine was only producing 9% of its projected output.

Connecting buses

 * MiWay:
 * 38 Creditview
 * Brampton Transit:
 * 11 Steeles
 * 511 Züm Steeles
 * Milton Transit:
 * 21 Steeles
 * GO Transit:
 * 21 Milton/Toronto

title: Lisgar GO Station


text:
Pan-Iranist Party

The Pan-Iranist Party is a small opposition political party in Iran that advocates pan-Iranism. The party is not registered and is technically banned, however it continues to operate inside Iran.

During the Pahlavi dynasty, the party was represented in the Parliament and considered a semi-opposition within the regime, allowed to operate until officially denouncing Iran's assent to Bahraini independence in 1971. The party was forced to close down and merge into the Resurgence Party in 1975.

It is an occasional supporter of the major nationalist party, National Front, and was nationalist with respect to its ideology. Pan-Iranist Party was an anti-communist organization and regularly battled Tudeh Party of Iran mobs in the streets of Tehran. In the context of the 1940s, it is described as a "secular ultranationalist party", whereas in that of the mid-1960s, it is described as a "secular nationalist" party. Nowadays, the party is marked by being against the pan-Islamism of the post-1979 Iranian government, as well as of the external threats posed by pan-Arabist and pan-Turkist aimed at ruining Iran's territorial integrity and cultural-civilizational heritage. Unlike pan-Arabist and pan-Turkist parties in the region, the pan-Iranist party does not advocate the return of Iran's former lands through irredentist plans, and its political program does not incorporate such plans either. Rather, it advocates the cultural integration of the Iranian civilizational basin.

The Pan-Iranist Party spoke supportive of the Iranian Green Movement in 2009 and its discourse was revived in the 2010s by the conservatives who tactically adopted its positions amidst Iran–Saudi disagreements and clash.

Background
The invasion of Iran by Anglo-Soviet armies in the early 20th century led to insecurity among Iranians who saw the king, Reza Shah, powerless against such foreign presence in the country. There were soldiers from Russia, England, India, New Zealand, Australia and later on, America, present in the country, especially in the capital, Tehran.

The Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran influenced a series of student movements in 1941 where nationalism was gaining popularity more than ever among Iranians, one of these new groups was an underground nationalist guerrilla group called the Revenge group (also known as the Anjoman).

The Pan-Iranist Party was later founded by two of the members of the revenge group and two other students in the mid-to-late 1940s in Tehran University. Though the pan-Iranist movement had been active throughout the 1930s, it had been a loosely organized grass roots alliance of nationalist writers, teachers, students, and activists. The party was the first organization to officially adopt the pan-Iranist position, which believed in the solidarity and reunification of the Iranian peoples inhabiting the Iranian plateau.

History
In 1951, Mohsen Pezeshkpour and Dariush Forouhar came to a disagreement as to how the party should operate, and a division occurred. The Pezeskpour faction, which retained the party name, believed in working within the system of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. The Forouhar faction, which adopted a new name, Mellat Iran (Nation of Iran Party), believed in working against the system. Mellat Iran was far more fervently nationalist than the former party and strongly supported and was allied with the national movement of Mohammad Mossadegh, who had founded the National Front of Iran (Jebhe Melli) with other Iranian nationalist leaders.

The party was allegedly funded by the Central Intelligence Agency through TPBEDAMN.

After the British-American sponsored coup d'etat against Mossadegh, the Shah assumed dictatorial powers and outlawed almost all political groups, including Mellat Iran and the National Front. The Pan-Iranist Party soon became the official opposition in the Majlis, with Pezeshkpour as Speaker. However, in reality, the party had very little political power and influence and its position was primarily intended to be symbolic. Beginning in the late 1960s, under the government of Amir Abbas Hoveyda, Iran mostly became a one-party dictatorship under the Imperial Resurrection Party (Rastakhiz).

Pezeshkpour remained active in the Majlis and spoke out against British rule in Bahrain, which Iran claimed. He established a residence in the city of Khorramshahr, which at the time was home to some of the most exclusive neighbourhoods in Iran and also became his base of operations. In Khuzestan, the party was, for the first time, able to become a dominant influence, whereas in the rest of Iran, the party continued to have very little effect.

With the onset of revolution in 1978, Pezeshkpour and other politicians who had been allied with the Shah fled the country into exile. Mohammad Reza Ameli Tehrani, a party co-founder, was sentenced to death by the Revolutionary Court and subsequently executed in May 1979. Nationalist movements such as Mellat Iran and the National Front, which had been opposed to the Shah, remained in the country and played a crucial role in the revolutionary provisional government of Mehdi Bazargan. After the Islamic Revolution of 1979, which eventually saw the rise to power of Khomeini to the position of Supreme Leader after the collapse of the provisional government, all nationalist groups, as well as socialist and communist movements such as the Tudeh Party, were banned.

In the early 1990s, Pezeshkpour wrote a letter of apology to the new Supreme Leader, Ali Khamenei, stating that he wished to return to Iran and promised to stay out of politics for good. Khamenei accepted the apology and allowed Pezeshkpour to return so he would not resume his previous political activities. However, some time afterwards, Pezeshkpour became active in politics once again and reestablished the Pan-Iranist Party in Iran. He reformed the party structure and abandoned much of the old organizational ideology that Forouhar had opposed and originally led to the division. However, the Pan-Iranist Party and Mellat Iran did not reconcile and continued to function as separate organizations.

In the wake of the student demonstrations of 1999, many members of the Pan-Iranist Party were arrested and nine members of the party leadership, including Pezeshkpour himself, were summoned to the Islamic Revolutionary Court. The charges made against them included distribution of anti-government propaganda in the official party newspaper, National Sovereignty.

In the summer of 2004, an attempt by a motorist, allegedly an undercover operative of the Ministry of Intelligence, on the life of Mohsen Pezeshkpour failed in front of his residence in Tehran.

During January, 2011, co-founder of the Pan Iranist Party, Mohsen Pezeshkpour was announced dead when under house arrest by the Iranian Government. As a result, Reza Kermani was declared the new General Secretary of the Pan Iranist Party.

Reza Kermani died on January 30, 2013, due to health issues brought upon him by the 18 months imprisonment within Gohardasht Prison, where many have deemed conditions inhumane and criticized internationally.

Organization
The differences between Forouhar and Pezeshkpour lay mostly in organizational structure and policy, though there were also specific ideological differences. Forouhar strongly believed in democracy and cooperation with other Iranian parties, including leftist-oriented groups, whereas Pezeshkpour believed in a more authoritarian approach and opposed alliances with non-nationalist organizations. However, alliances with other nationalist groups were rare or non-existent as most were officially banned. Under Pezeshkpour, the Pan-Iranist Party also took on a decidedly paramilitary structure, with members assigned military ranks and titles. All male and female active members wore uniforms to party functions. Forouhar also strongly opposed this, though this paramilitary nature was largely symbolic, and party members did not carry weapons. Ordinary members were not required to wear uniforms. Beginning in the late 1960s, Pezeshkpour also had several personal bodyguards assigned to always protect him.

The party's symbol was a crossed-out equal sign (≠), signifying inequality. This was about foreign powers such as Britain and Russia and symbolized the Pan-Iranist view that Iran must uphold its national sovereignty and interests above all else. According to the party's literature, the philosophical meaning attributed to this symbol was that, in reality, there is no equality amongst nations and that each nation must struggle to rise above all others, otherwise risking oblivion. This symbolism and philosophy also played a crucial role in dividing Forouhar and Pezeshkpour.

Other nationalists often criticized Pezeshkpour for not supporting Mossadegh and his role in Shah's government as Speaker of Majlis, as this position had no real power. Nationalist leaders viewed the failure of his opposition to the separation of Bahrain as evidence that his function was strictly symbolic.

When Pezeshkpour set about restoring the party after returning to Iran, he and other former party leaders renounced the former paramilitary structure of the organization as well as its authoritarianism, instead proclaiming their commitment to plurality and democracy, as well as a willingness to cooperate with other opposition groups. They continue to maintain the original party symbolism.

title: Pan-Iranist Party


text:
Destination America

Destination America is an American cable television channel owned by the Warner Bros. Discovery Networks unit of Warner Bros. Discovery. The network carries programming focused on the culture of the United States—including food, lifestyles, and travel. The network first launched in 1996 as Discovery Travel & Living Network, as part of a suite of four digital cable networks the company launched that year. From its launch until 2008, the network primarily focused upon home improvement, cooking, and leisure-themed programs.

, Destination America is available to approximately 23,000,000 pay television households in the United States-down from its 2013 peak of 60,000,000 households. Along with American Heroes Channel, Boomerang, Cooking Channel, Discovery Family, Discovery Life, and Science Channel, Destination America is among the less prevalent networks of Warner Bros. Discovery.

In recent years, Destination America has lost carriage with the growth of streaming alternatives including its parent company's Max, and has generally been depreciated by Warner Bros. Discovery in current retransmission consent negotiations with cable and streaming providers.

History
The network was originally one of four digital cable networks launched by Discovery Communications in 1996. The new networks were first announced in November 1994, with a launch planned for Spring 1995. At the time, the network had the working title Living and was described as "a home repair network". The launch was delayed, and the channel made its debut in October 1996, originally known as Discovery Travel & Living Network and offering programming including do-it-yourself projects, cooking, interior design and landscaping, and party planning.

By 1998, it had settled on the name Discovery Home & Leisure, but the "Leisure" part of the name was dropped on March 29, 2004, when the channel became Discovery Home Channel. Much of the travel-related programming was dropped in the process to provide more focus on home improvement and cooking.

Planet Green
In April 2007, during its upfronts, Discovery announced that Discovery Home would re-launch in 2008 as a new channel focused on environmentalism and sustainable living. The channel itself was announced as part of a $50 million corporate initiative known as "Planet Green", undertaken under Discovery's new CEO David Zaslav, which would include the production of programming on other Discovery channels (such as the Discovery Channel series Ten Ways to Save the Planet) that appeal to these themes, an "innovation conference", and making its headquarters carbon neutral. Zaslav stated that Discovery Home had been economically sound, but wasn't "serving this higher purpose". On August 1, 2007, Discovery announced its acquisition of TreeHugger, a blog focusing on sustainable living. The site was to be positioned as a digital companion to the new channel.

In October 2007, Discovery hired veteran producer Andy Friendly as a consultant for Planet Green's programming, and to executive produce a series for the channel. The new series, Supper Club, was announced in January 2008, and would be hosted by Tom Bergeron (whom Friendly had helped cast as host for the 1998 syndicated version of Hollywood Squares).

Further programming details were announced in Discovery's April 2008 upfronts, including specials hosted by NBC News correspondent Tom Brokaw, the reality show Battleground Earth with Ludacris and Tommy Lee, Emeril Green, Hollywood Green with Maria Menounos, and the Bill Nye-hosted Stuff Happens, among other series. It was announced that the network would launch on June 4, 2008, and that a "sneak peek" of the network's programming would become available via video on demand on April 17. Later that month, Planet Green ordered Focus Earth, a weekly environmental newsmagazine produced by ABC News and hosted by Bob Woodruff.

Planet Green was one of the two highly anticipated Discovery network re-launches spearheaded by Zaslav, the other being the Oprah Winfrey Network—a relaunch of Discovery Health that was ultimately delayed to January 2011.

Despite high expectations, the network's launch was unsuccessful; writing for NPR, Mark Hemingway observed that the majority of Planet Green's programs involved either home renovations or "self-righteous" celebrities, demonstrated that environmentalism was "pretty much a luxury item", and that it "[seemed] dedicated to airing three hours per day of Emeril Green, the chef's new cooking show, which despite a few feints at 'buying local' is indistinguishable from much of what's already on the Food Network." He did feel that Focus Earth and Stuff Happens were relatively better programs, describing the former as being "informative and shockingly fair to business interests".

In March 2010, Planet Green's programming was broadened to include non-ecology themed shows, such as The Fabulous Beekman Boys; despite this broadened focus, in February 2011, Discovery Communications executives were acknowledging the channel's failure. Zaslav stated in a conference call with investors that Discovery "can probably do something else with that that would be more meaningful." Shortly thereafter the channel had abandoned its theme, rerunning programs from other Discovery Communications channels and featuring programming blocks such as "Paranormal Fridays". Discovery announced a probable rebranding of the channel by the start of the summer of 2012.

Destination America
On April 4, 2012, Discovery announced through the early release of an article in USA Today that Planet Green would be re-branded as Destination America, a network focusing primarily on cuisine, natural history, and travel programming, appealing primarily towards Middle America. The launch lineup also featured programs that had previously aired on Travel Channel before its sale to Cox Communications. The channel was originally expected to have a Memorial Day launch on May 28, 2012.

In 2015, the network began to experiment with professional wrestling by picking up TNA programming (which had recently been dropped by Spike), including its flagship weekly program Impact Wrestling. Later that year, the network also announced that it had signed a 26-week television deal for Ring of Honor's weekly show, Ring of Honor Wrestling, which would begin on June 3, 2015. Impact moved to Pop in January 2016.

The network also began to increase its focus on programs dealing with paranormal topics and investigations; on October 30, 2015, it aired Exorcism Live—a live special broadcast from the St. Louis site of the exorcism of Roland Doe, featuring the cast of Ghost Asylum and Chip Coffey. The March 4, 2016 premiere of Paranormal Lockdown was among the highest-rated series premieres in the channel's history, which prompted further growth in the channel's focus on paranormal series. Destination America underwent a rebranding in 2017, with on-air presentation carrying a darker and "uneasy" atmosphere (including a signature "glitch" effect) to reflect its change in programming direction.

Discovery's 2018 acquisition of Scripps Networks Interactive brought Travel Channel back under its ownership; a rebranding of Travel Channel in October 2018 repositioned the network to focus more on paranormal programming. Since then, Destination America's schedule has largely shifted back towards its original format, drawing from Discovery and SNI's program libraries.

Planet Green
Planet Green programming included ecologically themed shows built around celebrities including Ed Begley Jr., Emeril Lagasse, Adrian Grenier, Leonardo DiCaprio, Ludacris, Tommy Lee, Tom Bergeron, SuChin Pak, Maria Menounos, Bob Woodruff, and Discovery Channel producer Tom Golden. In addition, celebrities gave 'green' tips within network bumpers that transitioned into and out of commercial breaks. The channel was programmed in eight-hour blocks, which repeated three times per day until April 2010. Lacking separate satellite feeds for the East and West coasts of the United States, prime-time programs ran from 8p.m. to 11p.m. Eastern Time and were then repeated.

Shows previously seen on Planet Green include:

 * 1 originally shown on Discovery Channel
 * 2 originally shown on Animal Planet
 * 3 originally shown on TLC
 * 4 originally shown on FX

 * A Haunting1
 * Airplane Repo
 * Blood Sweat and T-Shirts
 * Born Dealers
 * Coastwatch
 * Cool Fuel
 * Dean of Invention
 * Dresscue Me
 * Emeril Green
 * The Fabulous Beekman Boys
 * Famous, Rich and Homeless
 * Fast Forward
 * Future Food
 * G Word
 * Go for the Green
 * Gutted
 * In Search of Perfection
 * Living with Ed
 * Operation Wild
 * Planet Mechanics
 * Prehistoric1
 * Renovation Nation
 * Stuff Happens
 * Total Wrecklamation
 * Treehugger TV
 * Wa$ted!3
 * What Sank Titanic? 1

Former programming

 * Alaska Haunting: Dead of Winter
 * Alaska Monsters
 * Alaska Monsters: Bigfoot Edition
 * Alaska Wildlife Troopers
 * Alaska: The Last Frontier
 * Alien Mysteries
 * Aliens on the Moon
 * America: Facts vs. Fiction
 * America's Most Haunted Asylum
 * American Factory
 * American Loggers1
 * Amish Haunting
 * Armageddon Arsenals
 * Auction Kings
 * Babe Winkelman's Outdoor Secrets
 * Babies, Babies, Babies
 * BBQ Pitmasters
 * BBQ Pitmasters: Father vs. Son
 * BBQ Pit Wars
 * Beach Hunters
 * Big Beach Builds
 * Bill Dance Outdoors
 * Buying Alaska
 * Buying Hawaii
 * Buying the Bayou
 * Buying the Beach
 * Buying Rockies
 * Buying the Yukon
 * Carnival Eats
 * Cheating Vegas
 * Chopped Junior
 * Crikey! It's the Irwins2
 * The Demon Files
 * Destroyed in Seconds1
 * Disney's Animal Kingdom
 * Disney Cruise Line: Behind the Magic
 * Disneyland Resort: Behind the Scenes
 * Epic Homes
 * Epic Log Homes
 * Evil Things
 * Exorcism: Live!
 * The Exorcist File: Haunted Boy
 * Expedition Unknown
 * Extreme Homes
 * Fact or Faked: Paranormal Files
 * Fast Food Mania
 * Flip That House
 * Food Factory
 * Ghost Asylum
 * Ghost Brothers
 * Ghosts in My House
 * Ghosts of Shepherdstown
 * Ghost Stalkers
 * Haunted Case Files
 * The Haunted: Death Rises
 * Haunted Towns
 * A Haunting
 * Hauntings and Horrors
 * Helltown
 * Hometime
 * Hidden in America
 * Hooked on the Palm Beaches
 * House Hunters Family
 * How the Universe Works1
 * Impact Wrestling: Unlocked
 * Incredible Inventions
 * Kids Baking Championship
 * Killing Bigfoot
 * Kindred Spirits
 * Lakefront Bargain Hunt
 * Last Call Food Brawl
 * Little People, Big World 3
 * Log Cabin Living
 * Maine Cabin Masters
 * Man, Fire, Food
 * Man vs. Bear
 * Man's Greatest Food
 * Mega Engineering
 * Mighty Ships
 * Monsters and Mysteries in America
 * Monsters and Mysteries Unsolved
 * Moonshiners1
 * Mountain Monsters
 * MythBusters Jr.
 * On Location
 * OutDaughtered
 * Paranormal Lockdown
 * Paranormal Lockdown UK
 * Passport to the Palm Beaches
 * Pool Kings
 * Project Afterlife
 * Railroad Alaska
 * Ring of Honor Wrestling
 * Road Trip Masters
 * The Scott Martin Challenge
 * Steak Out with Kix Brooks
 * Swamp Loggers1
 * These Woods are Haunted
 * Tiny House Big Living
 * Tiny Luxury
 * TNA: Impact Wrestling
 * Too Cute2
 * The Treehouse Guys
 * UFOs Over Earth
 * UFOs: The Untold Stories
 * UFOs: Uncovering the Truth
 * Ultimate Walt Disney World
 * United States of Bacon
 * Walt Disney World Resort: Behind the Scenes
 * What History Forgot
 * When Ghosts Attack
 * Wild Food
 * The World's Strangest UFO Stories
 * Xtreme Waterparks
 * The Zoo2

title: Destination America


text: File:Out of the Valley.jpg

title: File:Out of the Valley.jpg