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WCRB

WCRB (99.5 FM) is a non-commercial radio station licensed to Lowell, Massachusetts, which serves the Greater Boston area. It broadcasts classical music. The station's studios are located in Brighton, and its transmitter is located west of Andover.

WCRB was a commercial station from the early 1950s to December 2009, when it was acquired by the WGBH Educational Foundation. Since then, the station has relied on the listener-supported method of funding, which dominates public radio stations in the United States: minor government funding is supplemented by tax-deductible gifts from individuals and by payments that corporations and other groups make.

WCRB programming is simulcast on the second HD Radio channel of WGBH, allowing WCRB to reach some portions of the Boston area that cannot receive 99.5, and on two other stations: WJMF, in Smithfield, Rhode Island, serving nearby Providence and the second HD Radio channel of WCAI, in Woods Hole.

History of WCRB intellectual property
WCRB began broadcasting on 1330 kHz in Waltham on January 30, 1948. In 1950, the station was sold entirely to Theodore Jones, who would own the station under the name of Charles River Broadcasting until his death in 1991. Jones set up the Charles River Broadcast Trust to guarantee that his establishment would continue in perpetuity.

Around the time Jones acquired the station, WBMS, a daytime AM radio station that had played classical music, changed format. Jones decided to change WCRB's format from that of a typical suburban AM station of the era to full-time classical music. FM service at 102.5 MHz was added by 1954 upon the purchase of the WHAV FM transmitter. FM brought WCRB's classical music to parts of the Boston area that did not get good reception of WCRB's directional AM signal, and improved the quality of the sound.

In 1961, WCRB-FM became the first Boston-area station to broadcast in multiplex stereo; for a few years before that, WCRB had broadcast some of its programming in stereo by carrying one channel on AM, the other on FM. WCRB was directly involved in the development of FM multiplex stereo. Station WCRB and H. H. Scott, then of Maynard, Massachusetts, developed prototype stereophonic equipment that was used to prove the General Electric multiplex method being evaluated by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). H. H. Scott was an early stereophonic-receiver manufacturer and developed and built high-quality home stereo equipment. Once the FCC approved stereo broadcasting, WCRB created a special "stereo" studio in downtown Boston, the first in the world. There was no dual channel (stereo) studio equipment at the time. Much of the equipment was handmade by the engineering staff.

WCRB is noted for many other innovations. It was the first radio station to obtain a permanent waiver of the FCC rules requiring average modulation in excess of eighty-five percent. This was necessary to preserve the dynamic range of the concert music broadcasts. The station also obtained a permanent waiver of the FCC rule that required a station identification announcement every thirty minutes. This meant that a live concert performance no longer had to be interrupted for station identification.

The WCRB engineering staff worked with the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB) to codify the RIAA LP record frequency-response curve, and create the NAB standard. Other technical innovations followed. Before the early days of FM stereo broadcasting, nobody had encountered the necessity of amplitude- and phase-matching two 15 kHz stereo leased lines. The telephone company called such a channel type "Program channel A". To them, as long as the frequency response and noise level matched their specifications, stereo simply meant that there would be two lines. It was just a matter of labeling them! Not so. WCRB engineering worked with AT&T to generate a specification involving matching both the phase and frequency response. This became the standard of the industry. Eventually, as stereo caught on across the country, these methods and specifications were used to install stereophonic leased lines to transmitters across the country, until they were made obsolete by the development of composite-signal studio-transmitter links. In the early days of radio, stations had full-time engineers on duty. Therefore, the WCRB engineering staff also recorded live performances for the Boston Symphony Orchestra Transcription Trust.

Although Charles River Broadcasting had acquired other radio stations, WCRB remained as the company's flagship station.

In 1975, WCRB ended simulcasting of WCRB-FM, changing callsigns to WHET, and its format to big-band/adult standards. In 1978, Charles River Broadcasting sold off WHET (later renamed WRCA), but retained WCRB, which became increasingly successful over the years as a 24/7 classical music station.

WCRB was under a long-term commitment by Charles River Broadcasting Trust, established by Theodore Jones, to continue to air classical music in perpetuity, and it carried no non-classical music programs. However, the decision to interpret the commitment as a request rather than a demand resulted in the announced sale of the station to Greater Media on December 19, 2005. The trustees of the Charles River Broadcast Trust had already sold off portions of the trust's property so that there was little physical property and real estate left. The AM transmitter site in Waltham was sold to a developer who built the Watermill Complex. This, and the sales of stations such as WCRQ in Providence, Rhode Island, marked the beginning of the gradual dissolution of the Theodore Jones trust. It was upon the death of Richard L. Kaye, an early manager, minority stockholder, and trusted associate of Jones, that the Charles River Trust would no longer maintain the commitments made by its founder.

Greater Media already owned five FM stations in the Boston market—the maximum allowed by the FCC and one of Greater Media's Boston stations would have to be sold before the company could acquire WCRB. Speculation arose that Greater Media would sell off 99.5 WKLB-FM, as its Andover transmitter location provided poor overall coverage of the Boston market, in contrast to the company's other stations. These thoughts were confirmed on July 31, 2006, when Greater Media announced that it would sell the physical property of WKLB-FM and the intellectual property of WCRB to Nassau Broadcasting, thus saving the commercial classical format for the Boston area, albeit on a station with poorer coverage of Boston. At the same time, Greater Media announced that the country format and intellectual property of WKLB would relocate to the prime signal of 102.5 MHz. WCRB's transition from 102.5 to 99.5 was completed on December 1, at noon local time. The first selection broadcast on the new frequency was the Hallelujah Chorus from Handel's Messiah.

It was announced on September 21, 2009, that the WGBH Educational Foundation would acquire WCRB from Nassau and convert the station to non-commercial operation, complementing sister station WGBH. The sale was completed on December 1, 2009. Since assuming control of WCRB, WGBH has sought to expand the reach of the station, particularly to areas that had been served by the station prior to the frequency shift in 2006, WCRB's programming was added to WNCK, which formerly simulcast WGBH, concurrent with the sale's completion, and April 8, 2010, W242AA also switched from carrying WGBH to WCRB, via the 89.7 HD2 simulcast. WJMF began carrying WCRB programming in September 2011, since the frequency change in 2006, Providence had been one of the largest markets without access to a full-time classical music station. Because of this expanded reach, the station rebranded from 99.5 All Classical (the branding used since the sale to WGBH) to Classical New England on October 3, 2011. By 2015, the station was branded as "Classical Radio Boston, 99.5 WCRB". In 2020, the station announced it would rebrand as "CRB Classical 99.5", as part of a wider rebranding of WGBH and its stations to remove the letter "W".

History of the 99.5 FM broadcast license
The 99.5 FM broadcast license began broadcasting October 6, 1948, as WLLH-FM, the FM counterpart to WLLH, programming a full-service format to the Merrimack Valley.

During the 1970s, 99.5 became WSSH (for Wish 99.5), which programmed a format of chiefly soft instrumental renditions of pop tunes with a few vocalists an hour, consisting of soft AC (adult contemporary) and standards cuts. In 1982, WSSH evolved to a soft AC format gradually eliminating the instrumental renditions and became home to popular nighttime radio personality Delilah Rene before she became nationally syndicated. Ratings were very high through the 1980s and WSSH often led other AC stations. By then, the station was separated from WLLH, but later gained a sister station on 1510 (now WMEX). WSSH had high ratings and was often the top-rated adult contemporary radio station in the market throughout the 1980s.

However, in the early 1990s, ratings went from excellent to mediocre; part of the reason was the perception that WSSH was still an elevator music station. By 1991, the station modified its format to mainstream AC by adding current product and some up-tempo AC tunes. WSSH became the third place radio station, following WMJX and WVBF (now known as WROR, which subsequently became a sister station to 99.5). On December 13, 1995, the owner of WSSH, Granum Communications, changed the format to smooth jazz as WOAZ (99.5 The Oasis), mirroring Granum's KOAI in Dallas.

Then, in 1997, Granum sold WOAZ and WBOS to Greater Media, which already owned WMJX, WBCS (the incarnation of WKLB at that time) and WROR (the former WVBF and WCLB). On August 22 of that year, Greater Media swapped the frequencies of WOAZ and WKLB in a move where the format and personalities of WOAZ moved to 96.9 (adopting the call sign WSJZ), while WKLB moved to 99.5 and became Country 99.5 WKLB, where it stayed until December 1, 2006. Greater Media noted that the move was made because the 99.5 signal is stronger than that of 96.9 in Essex County, home to many country music listeners.

The 99.5 frequency was spun off to Nassau Broadcasting Partners as a consequence of a deal where Greater Media acquired WCRB's current frequency, with 102.5 adopting the WKLB format and call sign. Nassau also acquired WCRB's call letters and programming. Nassau already owned WBACH, a network of four classical-formatted stations in Maine affiliated with WCRB's World Classical Network. The two stations switched frequencies at noon on December 1, 2006. The last broadcast by WKLB on 99.5 was of the Star Spangled Banner as performed by country band Ricochet. The first song played by WKLB at 102.5 was "Life Is A Highway" by Rascal Flatts. The last air personality on 99.5, and consequently the first live voice on 102.5, was longtime midday host Carolyn Kruse. A redesigned website was launched immediately after the frequency change.

Audience
WCRB claimed to have about 500,000 listeners who tune into the live Boston Symphony Orchestra broadcasts and the station's other programming, a longtime claim by management. According to Arbitron, the Metropolitan Boston market contains 3.8 million individuals 12 years of age or older. An FM station of WCRB's power transmitting on 102.5 MHz could reach parts of Worcester, Massachusetts, Providence, Rhode Island; and Southeastern New Hampshire. One could reasonably assume that such coverage adds one-half million individuals, for a total of 4.3 million. If the WCRB programming did in fact reach half a million people, it would generate a rating of close to 12 per cent of the market. The most popular radio programs on Boston radio stations are heard in morning and afternoon drive on weekdays and do not reach as many listeners as WCRB claimed. These numbers predate the move to 99.5 MHz and the switch to a non-commercial format. , the station enjoyed a 2.0 share, which added up to 252,400 listeners.

Community and innovation
WCRB engineers worked with Bell Telephone to develop frequency and phase matching technology for using pairs of 15 kHz leased lines throughout the country to carry stereo signals for studio to transmitter links and improved geographical coverage of broadcast signals (leased-line technology has since been replaced by microwave links, satellite feeds, and high-quality transmission using the Internet).

They were also at the center of the development of modern multiplexed FM stereo technology and its approval by the FCC, in cooperation with FM receiver manufacturer H. H. Scott, Inc.

Translators
WCRB was formerly carried on a separately-owned translator in Manchester, New Hampshire, W295BL (106.9); this ended after the translator was sold by Basic Holdings to Saga Communications in September 2019. In January 2020, W295BL began carrying the third HD Radio channel of Saga-owned WZID.

WCRB was also carried on translator W242AA (96.3) in Beacon Hill, Massachusetts, until the translator's license was surrendered and cancelled on October 11, 2022.

title: WCRB


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Bent

Bent may refer to:

Places

 * Bent, Iran, a city in Sistan and Baluchestan Province, Iran
 * Bent District, an administrative subdivision of Iran
 * Bent, Netherlands, a village in the municipality of Rijnwoude, the Netherlands
 * Bent County, Colorado, United States
 * Bents, Saskatchewan, an unincorporated community in Canada
 * Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site, frontier trading post, in La Junta, Colorado

Arts and entertainment

 * Bent (play), a 1979 play by Martin Sherman
 * Bent (1997 film), a 1997 film by Sean Mathias based on the play
 * Bent (2018 film)
 * Bent (TV series), an NBC romantic television comedy series
 * Bent (band), an electronica duo from England
 * "Bent" (song), a 2000 song by Matchbox Twenty
 * "Bent" (41 song), 2023
 * Bent (magazine), a UK magazine
 * Bent (album), a 2012 album by Ssion
 * Bent, a 2019 album by Stonefield

Science

 * Bent molecular geometry, in chemistry
 * Bent's rule, about atomic orbital hybridization
 * Bent grass or bent, the plant genus Agrostis

People

 * Bent Fabric (1924–2020), Danish composer
 * Bent Flyvbjerg (born 1952), Danish economic geographer
 * Bent Hegna (born 1959), Norwegian politician
 * Bent Larsen (1935–2010), Danish chess grandmaster
 * Bent Mejding (born 1937), Danish actor
 * Bent Melchior (1929–2021), Danish rabbi

Other uses

 * Bent (surname)
 * Bent (structural), a repeated cross-sectional sub-structure of a frame
 * Bent, the insignia of the engineering honor society Tau Beta Pi

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Bent


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Talk:NV1

The intro to this page
The intro to this page is extremely abrupt, and unclear. What was the NV1? We know when it was released and what it had, but not what it is. I would fix it my self, but I dont know what it is.
 * Hope I've fixed this now ThomasHarte
 * I think the article is still confusing. It makes several references to Sega Saturn, how the relationship with with Sega "changed" and how nVidia was affected by the relative failure of the Saturn, BUT, it does not state anything regarding what the Saturn has to do with NV1 in the first place. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Kungmidas (talk • contribs) 20:11, 18 April 2009 (UTC)

Quadratic?
It rendered quadratic surfaces? That can't be right. Quadrilaterals, maybe? Is there an article that details this rendering approach and how it differs from polygonal rendering? Phlake 14:58, 5 November 2006 (UTC)

 * NV2 and the Sega Saturn used the same technique. I believe it's actually called "quadratic texture mapping". I bet a Google search would find some good info. --Swaaye 21:23, 5 November 2006 (UTC)

 * After some looking, I agree that's the term. I have not yet found any detailed information about how it works or how it differs from the conventional polygonal rendering methods, however.  Still looking, there. -- Phlake 19:30, 6 November 2006 (UTC)

 * From : "In addition, the Diamond Edge 3D can create realistic 3D graphics by using nine control points to create a curved surface, called quadratic texture mapping (QTM)." The Sega Saturn used plain quadrilaterals, so there really is very little in common between the two. 85.156.236.246 12:20, 6 May 2007 (UTC)

Graphics card or GPU?
Is the NV1 a graphics card or GPU? I don't know much about this topic, but the Microprocessor Report described the NV1 as a chip developed by Nvidia and fabricated by SGS-Thomson. Rilak (talk) 01:05, 24 May 2009 (UTC)

The ethernet port
Does anybody know what the ethernet port was used for? I find no mention of it on the arcived Diamond Multimedia page, nor in the drivers that you can download from their website. Win95 doesn't even recognise it's there... Dominar_Rygel_XVI (talk) 15:12, 8 December 2010 (UTC)

 * That was the digital game port connector - instead of including a standard game port NVIDIA used an RJ45 -> game port adapter. Even back when the card was new it seems that no-one used it. There's a photo here. -Ashley Pomeroy (talk) 17:51, 15 May 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:NV1


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Password synchronization

Password synchronization is a process, usually supported by software such as password managers, through which a user maintains a single password across multiple IT systems.

Provided that all the systems enforce mutually-compatible password standards (e.g. concerning minimum and maximum password length, supported characters, etc.), the user can choose a new password at any time and deploy the same password on his or her own login accounts across multiple, linked systems.

Where different systems have mutually incompatible standards regarding what can be stored in a password field, the user may be forced to choose more than one (but still fewer than the number of systems) passwords. This may happen, for example, where the maximum password length on one system is shorter than the minimum length in another, or where one system requires use of a punctuation mark but another forbids it.

Password synchronization is a function of certain identity management systems and it is considered easier to implement than enterprise single sign-on (SSO), as there is normally no client software deployment or need for active user enrollment.

Uses
Password synchronization makes it easier for IT users to recall passwords and so manage their access to multiple systems, for example on an enterprise network. Since they only have to remember one or at most a few passwords, users are less likely to forget them or write them down, resulting in fewer calls to the IT Help Desk and less opportunity for coworkers, intruders or thieves to gain improper access. Through suitable security awareness, automated policy enforcement and training activities, users can be encouraged or forced to choose stronger passwords as they have fewer to remember.

Security
If the single, synchronized password is compromised (for example, if it is guessed, disclosed, determined by cryptanalysis from one of the systems, intercepted on an insecure communications path, or if the user is socially engineered into resetting it to a known value), all the systems that share that password are vulnerable to improper access. In most single sign-on and password vault solutions, compromise of the primary or master password (in other words, the password used to unlock access to the individual unique passwords used on other systems) also compromises all the associated systems, so the two approaches are similar.

Depending on the software used, password synchronization may be triggered by a password change on any one of the synchronized systems (whether initiated by the user or an administrator) and/or by the user initiating the change centrally through the software, perhaps through a web interface.

Some password synchronization systems may copy password hashes from one system to another, where the hashing algorithm is the same. In general, this is not the case and access to a plaintext password is required.

Videos
Two processes which yields synchronized passwords are shown in the following animations, hosted by software vendor Hitachi ID Systems: 1

title: Password synchronization


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/SPUD (game)

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was KEEP. JeremyA 20:30, 19 Jun 2005 (UTC)

SPUD (game)
I have been a child for several decades and have yet to hear of this game. Denni ☯ 04:39, 2005 Jun 9 (UTC)

 * Keep Strong. This game exists: Gameskidsplay.net JemeL  talk   07:39, 2005 Jun 10 (UTC)
 * Keep I can tell you the game certainly exists. The article as is may not do it justice, but it does exist: of that, I am positive. --Mysidia 07:44, 9 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep, game exists and I can remember playing a Dutch variation of it when I was younger. Mgm|(talk) 09:25, Jun 9, 2005 (UTC)
 * Strong Keep. Being not-knowledgeable about something doesn't imply that it's unworthy of knowledge. Plus, now you've heard of it ;).  jglc | t | c 17:27, 9 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Verifiable. Double Blue  (Talk) 00:36, 10 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * P.S. I could not help but smile upon seeing some children playing this game at the school playground today. Double Blue  (Talk) 22:31, 15 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep but rename to fix capitalization. Radiant_ >|< 09:24, Jun 10, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. I played it as a kid. --UsaSatsui 21:14, 15 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Strong Keep. It belongs here as much as kickball or tag.  I just finished up a massive edit, so it should be up to standards now.--TLEberle 04:36, 17 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages.  Please do not edit this page .


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Corey lehman

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE. Golbez 08:15, Jun 18, 2005 (UTC)

Corey lehman
Can't find evidence of this person or his accomplishments on Google. "corey lehman" returns hits for a golfer and a table tennis player, but no teenage armwrestlers. --Xcali 04:39, 9 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete as vanity. --Jeffrey O. Gustafson 07:10, 9 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete obvious vanity. JamesBurns 11:01, 9 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete: Geogre's Law failure and an outright joke article. I'm sure Corey has gotten more than enough humor out of his time at Wikipedia. Geogre 14:12, 9 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Not notable. -- BD2412 talk 14:47, 2005 Jun 9 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages.  Please do not edit this page .


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Stingray Juicebox

Stingray Juicebox is a Canadian discretionary music specialty channel owned by Stingray Group. It is a commercial-free channel that broadcasts music and music videos aimed towards children and teens.

The channel was first established in 2001 by Craig Media as MTV2; it operated as a licensed version of the U.S. channel of the same name, and acted as a sister to its MTV Canada channel. The service was licensed by the CRTC as part of a planned suite of five channels devoted to specific genres of music videos; MTV2 was the only channel of the suite to launch. After the sale of Craig to CHUM Limited in 2004, the channel was relaunched in 2005 as PunchMuch—an interactive spin-off of MuchMusic featuring viewer-voted music videos.

In 2011 under Bell Media ownership, the network adopted its current format. In 2016, Juicebox and its sister channels were sold to Stingray Digital.

As MTV2
In November 2000, Craig Broadcast Systems Inc. (later known as Craig Media) was granted approval from the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) to launch a specialty service called "Music 5" that would consist of five separate music video channels that would each focus on a specific musical genre – dance, pop, urban, R&B and "hot hits".

Before any of the channels had launched, in August 2001, Craig announced that it had reached an agreement with MTV Networks to license the MTV brand in Canada for several their channels. Although it was expected that 3 MTV branded genre-specific music channels would launch, on December 6, 2001, only one channel was launched, the channel devoted to "Pop", as MTV2. Shortly after the launch, MTV Networks acquired a minority interest in the channel, along with sister network MTV Canada. MTV2 was structured as a free-form music video channel that aired music videos from various artists from different genres aimed at teenagers to young adults, in addition to a small number of concert series including the MTV Canada original series, Pepsi Breakout.

In April 2004, CHUM Limited announced it would purchase Craig Media for CAD$265 million; Craig's interest in MTV2 was included in the sale. The sale was approved by the CRTC on November 19, 2004, and the transaction was completed two weeks later on December 1.

As PunchMuch
After the sale, MTV Networks chose to terminate its licensing agreement with Craig due to a clause in the contract allowing it to end it if a change in control occurred. CHUM was required to pay CAD$10 million in licensing fees to MTV Networks for the time remaining in their contract. The contract termination also meant that MTV Networks was no longer able to retain interest in the channel. On June 9, 2005, CHUM announced it would rebrand the channel on June 30 as PunchMuch, changing the format to an automated music video service that would allow viewers the ability to request music videos and participate in on-screen chat, polling, and other interactive participation with their mobile phone. MTV Canada was rebranded Razer on the same day.

In July 2006, Bell Globemedia (later CTVglobemedia) announced that it would purchase CHUM for an estimated CAD$1.7 billion, including PunchMuch. The sale, also needing approval from the CRTC, was approved on June 8, 2007, with the transaction completed on June 22. After a three-year absence, the MTV2 brand returned in Canada when CTVglobemedia rebranded Razer as MTV2 on August 1, 2008.

From its inception, the channel had operated as an advertiser-supported service; on August 31, 2009, PunchMuch and its sister channels MuchLoud, MuchMoreRetro, and MuchVibe all switched to commercial-free formats, while MuchMusic and MuchMoreMusic would continue to run commercials during programs.

Ownership changed hands once again when on September 10, 2010, Bell Canada (a minority shareholder in CTVglobemedia) announced that it planned to acquire 100% interest in CTVglobemedia for a total debt and equity transaction cost of $3.2 billion CAD. The deal was approved by the CRTC on March 7, 2011, and was finalized on April 1 of that year, on which CTVglobemedia was rebranded Bell Media.

As Juicebox
PunchMuch was subsequently rebranded as Juicebox on November 17, 2011, focusing on music videos aimed at children, with an emphasis on videos aimed at preteen audiences. The videos on the channel were approved by a committee consisting of parents and employees, who determine the appropriateness of a specific video for the channel's target audience. As part of the channel's relaunch as Juicebox, CTV began airing a two-hour block of Juicebox-branded music videos on Saturday mornings, and even running commercials unlike the actual channel, later abandoned in April 2016, when they sold the service to Stingray Group.

On June 21, 2016, it was announced that Stingray Digital would acquire Juicebox and its sister channels from Bell Media; the networks were sold for $4 million. The deal for Juicebox would later close on August 15, 2016, with the channel changing its name to Stingray Juicebox on August 12, 2016.

On June 1, 2017, Stingray announced the completion of the rebranding process for all four music video channels, which included new programming and a national promotional campaign.

Since its launch in 2019, a number of television providers have replaced Juicebox with Stingray Country, although the channel continues to be available on some providers.

title: Stingray Juicebox


text:
WFCC-FM

WFCC-FM (107.5 MHz) is a 50,000-watt effective radiated power radio station licensed to Chatham, Massachusetts, on Cape Cod, with studios and offices in Hyannis and transmitter facilities in Brewster. It broadcasts with a classical format. Current hosts on WFCC-FM include Mark Calder, Dave Read, Don Spencer, and Larry King.

History
The station started broadcasting on March 24, 1987, from state-of-the-art facilities on Route 28 in West Chatham. It was owned at the time by First Class Communications, run by Joseph A. Ryan and his family, who all worked at the station, including wife Pauline (receptionist), son Kevin (sales manager), and daughter Justine (sales). Joe Ryan, who worked at NBC as a writer for Today during Dave Garroway's tenure, then at WCVB-TV (channel 5) in Boston, hired WCVB personalities to be on his staff at WFCC-FM, including newsman Jack Hynes, meteorologists Bob Copeland (a Chatham resident) and Bill Hovey, and sportscaster Bill O'Connell, complemented by local classical announcers Janice Gray, Dick Eressy, Paul Jimerson, Paul Nossiter, Steve Murphy, Don Lawrence, Pierre Paquin, Don Merna, and Dick O'Connor. The station played mostly classical music on weekdays, with the afternoon drive show being big band, hosted by Lou Dumont. On the weekends, classical was complemented by the Metropolitan Opera radio broadcasts and other syndicated classical shows, as well as local specialty shows Jazz on the Half-Shell and Folk Roots and Branches with Paul Jimerson, and a program devoted to classical piano, Klavier, produced by Jimerson and hosted by his wife, pianist and teacher Melinda Isaacson.

The stock market crash of 1987 had a devastating effect on the Cape's economy, and WFCC-FM lost significant advertising revenue. As a result, stronger-rated classical music programming replaced the evening folk and jazz shows. Pierre Paquin, a well-known southern New England classical music recording engineer and broadcaster, was hired in 1989 to help bring up the ratings. His Sunday morning broadcasts earned the highest ratings for the station and his special programs garnished several Massachusetts Broadcasters Association awards, including the award for Best Station I.D., featuring his daughter, MaryAnne "Mim" L. Paquin. In fall of 1990, Mim was bought in as an apprentice to write and produce four, one hour-long programs written for a younger audience. Her production "Witches, Goblins, Jack-o-lanterns and Ghouls" won an honorable mention Massachusetts Broadcasters Association. Don Merna was also hired in 1989 to host weekdays as well as weekend evenings. Both Paquin and Merna broadcast for WFCC until 1995 and 1996 respectively and are still Cape Cod residents. In 1991, the station's offices and studios were moved to new facilities on Route 6A in Brewster. WFCC-FM was subsequently sold in 1992 to Dolphin Communications, owned by Allan Stanley. WFCC-FM was purchased by Charles River Broadcasting (then owners of Boston's WCRB) in 1996, with its studios and offices moving to a former bank building on Route 28 in West Yarmouth. WFCC-FM's programming became automated full-time as a result.

WFCC-FM has been the flagship station of the World Classical Network syndicated service (started by Charles River Broadcasting) since 1998. The station and the network were sold in 2007 to Sandab Communications (doing business as Cape Cod Broadcasting Media), owners of Cape Cod radio stations WQRC, WOCN-FM, and WKPE-FM), and now broadcast from studios and offices in Hyannis.

Original WFCC-FM staff member Steve Murphy returned to the station's airwaves as morning host on September 16, 2008, after an 18-year absence.

title: WFCC-FM


text:
Talk:Government Category List

Untitled
I haven't the foggiest idea what this means. Could someone add some practical examples or something please. Gillian Tipson 04:42, 9 Jun 2005 (UTC)

GCL has now been replaced, hence the edits. Sometime someone (?me) needs to do an article on the Integrated Public Sector Vocabulary (IPSV) which replace GCL. Then we might explain what it all means.... --BenPlouviez 13:48, 6 May 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Government Category List


text:
Talk:Abbotsford, Scottish Borders

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 29 August 2018 and 22 December 2018. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Obensel. Peer reviewers: Akrosley.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 13:13, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

Copyright issues
I have reasons to believe that the edits made on 21 May 2010 are copyright violations from a pamphelet:
 * Abbotsford by Walter Maxwell-Scott (Sir.), James Clarkson Corson (Photo Precision, 1969).

This is because some of the text starts with new lines (as such copies often do when cup and pasted from another source) and phrases taken from the text added on that day, when searched using Google Books returns that pamphlet. However as the pamphlet is not available to view under Google Books I can not view the page to confirm it visually.

So although I suspect a copyright issue, I am removing the text under WP:BURDEN, and before it is returned sources should be added as specified in WP:BURDEN. --PBS (talk) 17:21, 25 June 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Abbotsford, Scottish Borders


text:
Pogonishte

Pogonishte is a folk dance from Pogon in southern Albania. It is related to the Greek dance Pogonisios (Πωγωνίσιος) or Sta Dyo (Στα Δύο). The time signature is in, and it is danced in an open circle; dancers bounce twice gently on every count.

title: Pogonishte


text:
Talk:Voiced postalveolar fricative

Palatalized
To me, this recording sounds too much palatalized. 85.221.134.193 17:03, 14 February 2006 (UTC)
 * I second that. Perhaps I'll record my own pronunciation upon getting a decent microphone. --Zx-man 16:40, 16 September 2007 (UTC)

Labialized
"In English the sound is labialized, [ʒʷ], although few transcriptions bother with this level of detail." Labialised? I don't labialise mine. This might be a (Australian) dialect thing, but I doubt it. Questioned. 150.203.2.85 06:57, 12 October 2006 (UTC)Willjsteed150.203.2.85 06:57, 12 October 2006 (UTC)
 * My introductory phonetics book says that all postalveolar consonants and [ɹ] are always rounded in English, same goes for French. My guess is that for [ʒ] this is not as noticeable because the consonant is quite rare in English, especially word-initially. --Chlämens (talk) 22:28, 18 December 2007 (UTC)

Russian/Polish
If you are going to delete the note about Russian (which seeks to clarify a common misunderstanding), you might as well delete the "Note" subsection header as well. But I think it is a net loss of information. --Ziusudra 17:26, 19 December 2006 (UTC)

 * I took that out but you're right. It is a common misunderstanding.  I'll put it back in.  Æµ§œš¹ [aɪm ˈfɻɛ̃ⁿdˡi] 21:05, 19 December 2006 (UTC)

Asia
Asia: This is not a good example to use for a voiced postalveolar fricative in English as many English people pronounce this word with a voiceless postalveolar fricative! Eroica 16:32, 12 November 2007 (UTC)

German
This sound also exists in German, but only in words of recent French origin. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.233.238.4 (talk) 21:40, 26 June 2008 (UTC)

English
Does this sound ever occur initially in English? If so, it might be good to include that as one of the examples.99.247.176.46 (talk) 02:18, 15 July 2010 (UTC)
 * It depends on speaker. Some speakers always have the affricate in word-initial position.  — Æµ§œš¹  [aɪm ˈfɹ̠ˤʷɛ̃ɾ̃ˡi]  03:11, 15 July 2010 (UTC)
 * It does in the word Genre [ˈʒɑnrə]. -- Moop ſtick |  (Talk)  04:07, 10 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Is it worth noting that there really isn't a letter in the alphabet that would typically represent this sound. Its sound is pretty sporadic in words like vision, treasure, fissure, garage, genre, mirage, measure, seizure, luxurious, Beijing. -- Moop ſtick |  (Talk)  04:07, 10 August 2010 (UTC)

Russian
Even though the Russian letter <Ж> sounds like a Voiced retroflex fricative, in many dialects in major cities (especially in Moscow, St. Petersburg, etc.) it is a Voiced postalveolar fricative. Here are the features of a Voiced postalveolar fricative:
 * Its manner of articulation is fricative, vvhich means it is produced by constricting air flovv through a narrovv channel at the place of articulation, causing turbulence.
 * Its place of articulation is postalveolar vvhich means it is articulated vvith the tip of the tongue betvveen the alveolar ridge and the palate, but closer to the alveolar ridge than for alveolo-palatal consonants.
 * Its phonation type is voiced, vvhich means the vocal cords are vibrating during the articulation.
 * It is an oral consonant, vvhich means air is allovved to escape through the mouth.
 * It is a central consonant, vvhich means it is produced by allovving the airstream to flovv over the middle of the tongue, rather than the sides.
 * The airstream mechanism is pulmonic egressive, vvhich means it is articulated by pushing air out of the lungs and through the vocal tract, rather than from the glottis or the mouth.
 * This includes many features in the letter Ж. So, vvhy is the Russian letter Ж classified ONLY in the phonology category of a Voiced retroflex fricative and not also in the category of a Voiced postalveolar fricative? There is a vvebsite that allovvs native speakers from their native countries to pronounce words (letters in this case) in fluent Russian, and here is "Zhe" (transliterised as either <žɛ>/<ʒɛ>, or in the case of a Voiced retroflex fricative: <ʐɛ>):
 * | Forvo Ж
 * Here is another vvebsite, shovving all the Russian letters pronounce by Russian natives: http://listen2russian.com/lesson01/a/

Please, If it is possible to consider BOTH VVIDELY KNOVVN DIALECTS OF RUSSIAN (Both vvhich are considered official to the USSR [Soviet Union] novv knovvn as the Russian Federation.) Thank you. :D
 * 序名三「Jyonasan」 Talk Stalk  01:03, 5 September 2010 (UTC)
 * People generally transcribe it as if it's palatoalveolar. I suspect the retroflexion is not well understood, though it is widely attested.  If you find a source that talks about dialectal variation in Russian postalveolar fricatives between retroflex and palatoalveolar pronunciations, that's welcome here and at Russian phonology.  I'm skeptical, though; all the sound files you've provided sound fairly retroflex to my ears. — Æµ§œš¹  [aɪm ˈfɹ̠ˤʷɛ̃ɾ̃ˡi]  01:06, 5 September 2010 (UTC)

Wrong sound sample
The sound sample is wrong! This is NOT a ʒ! This sound is from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Karmosin he makes several mistakes! --87.78.196.93 (talk) 10:50, 22 December 2010 (UTC)
 * Sounds fine to me. — Æµ§œš¹  [aɪm ˈfɹ̠ˤʷɛ̃ɾ̃ˡi] 15:11, 22 December 2010 (UTC)
 * It sounds fine. Please note that IPA symbols are not ment to represent exact sounds, the variation in sounds is virtually infinite so it's not possible or useful to create a symbol for each precise sound. IPA simply gives enough symbols to write down any language, but the precise sounds represented by them may differ from language to language.--90.179.235.249 (talk) 01:37, 2 January 2011 (UTC)
 * Incorrect, the sound sample is not within your "infinite" possibilities to pronounce ʒ; The sample is more palatalized, which can be represented by a different IPA symbol (ʑ or ʒʲ (that article and this one could use a switch of sound samples)). It is indeed the wrong sound. A similar problem is with the word examples that have been used for English. Many speakers pronounce words like "Asia" and "vision" (and even "leisure") with the palatalized sound. Something like "Genre" would be ideal.NotDomo (talk) 16:31, 16 May 2012 (UTC)

J'onn
Would I be correct in thinking this is the sound being used at the start of Martian Manhunter's name in these two instances?
 * Wonder Woman exclaiming "J'onn!" as she hugs him in cartoon
 * Martian Manhunter saying "my name is J'onn J'onzz" in live-action

I'm trying to figure out a proper phonetics code for MM's name. Having 2 examples for his first which sounds the same seems like a good start. The "J'onnz" in live-action sounds pretty much like 'Jones' to me but J'onn sounds different enough from John (more like how French pronounce Jean) that it seems worth noting. 184.145.18.50 (talk) 09:16, 11 March 2016 (UTC)

Is there a name for this symbol: ʒ ?
Does anyone know the name for this symbol? Or is it like Prince's symbol and has no name? DBlomgren (talk) 04:29, 6 July 2016 (UTC)
 * It's ezh. Mr KEBAB (talk) 09:03, 6 July 2016 (UTC)

Maltese?
The Wikipedia article on Maltese mentions this sound as being part of the language, so I clicked on the letter to get here - but Maltese isn't listed as one of the languages that contains it. Both articles can't be right.213.127.210.95 (talk) 18:18, 8 December 2016 (UTC)
 * There's no inconsistency, as the aim of this article isn't to list every single language that contains this sound; it also doesn't say that Maltese doesn't contain it. Mr KEBAB (talk) 18:57, 8 December 2016 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Voiced postalveolar fricative


text:
Load cell

A load cell converts a force such as tension, compression, pressure, or torque into a signal (electrical, pneumatic or hydraulic pressure, or mechanical displacement indicator) that can be measured and standardized. It is a force transducer. As the force applied to the load cell increases, the signal changes proportionally. The most common types of load cells are pneumatic, hydraulic, and strain gauge types for industrial applications. Typical non-electronic bathroom scales are a widespread example of a mechanical displacement indicator where the applied weight (force) is indicated by measuring the deflection of springs supporting the load platform, technically a "load cell".

Strain gauge load cell
Strain gauge load cells are the kind most often found in industrial settings. It is ideal as it is highly accurate, versatile, and cost-effective. Structurally, a load cell has a metal body to which strain gauges have been secured. The body is usually made of aluminum, alloy steel, or stainless steel which makes it very sturdy but also minimally elastic. This elasticity gives rise to the term "spring element", referring to the body of the load cell. When force is exerted on the load cell, the spring element is slightly deformed, and unless overloaded, always returns to its original shape. As the spring element deforms, the strain gauges also change shape. The resulting alteration to the resistance in the strain gauges can be measured as voltage. The change in voltage is proportional to the amount of force applied to the cell, thus the amount of force can be calculated from the load cell's output.

Strain Gauges
A strain gauge is constructed of very fine wire, or foil, set up in a grid pattern and attached to a flexible backing. When the shape of the strain gauge is altered, a change in its electrical resistance occurs. The wire or foil in the strain gauge is arranged in a way that, when force is applied in one direction, a linear change in resistance results. Tension force stretches a strain gauge, causing it to get thinner and longer, resulting in an increase in resistance. Compression force does the opposite. The strain gauge compresses, becomes thicker and shorter, and resistance decreases. The strain gauge is attached to a flexible backing enabling it to be easily applied to a load cell, mirroring the minute changes to be measured.

Since the change in resistance measured by a single strain gauge is extremely small, it is difficult to accurately measure changes. Increasing the number of strain gauges applied collectively magnifies these small changes into something more measurable. A set of 4 strain gauges set in a specific circuit is an application of a Wheatstone bridge.

Wheatstone Bridge
A Wheatstone bridge is a configuration of four balanced resistors with a known excitation voltage applied as shown below:

Excitation voltage $$V_\text{EX}$$ is a known constant and output voltage $V_o$ is variable depending on the shape of the strain gauges. If all resistors are balanced, meaning $$\frac{R1}{R2} = \frac{R4}$$ then $V_o$ is zero. If the resistance in even one of the resistors changes, then $$V_0$$will likewise change. The change in $V_o$ can be measured and interpreted using Ohm's law. Ohm's law states that the current ($I$, measured in amperes) running through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the voltage $V$ across the two points. Resistance ($$R$$, measured in ohms) is introduced as the constant in this relationship, independent of the current. Ohm's law is expressed in the equation $$I=V/R$$. When applied to the 4 legs of the Wheatstone bridge circuit, the resulting equation is: $$V_o = \left(\frac{R3}{R3+R4} - \frac{R2}{R1+R2}\right) V_\text{EX} $$

In a load cell, the resistors are replaced with strain gauges and arranged in alternating tension and compression formation. When force is exerted on the load cell, the structure and resistance of the strain gauges changes and $V_o$ is measured. From the resulting data, $V_o$ can be easily determined using the equation above.

Common types of strain gauge load cells
There are several types of strain gauge load cells:
 * Single Point load cells; used in small to medium platform scales with platform sizes of 200x200mm up to 1200x1200 mm.
 * Planar Beam load cells; used in low profile solutions where space is limited, like medical scales and retail scales.
 * Bending Beam load cells; used in pallet, platform and small hopper scales.
 * Shear Beam load cells; used in low profile scale and process applications, available in capacities from 100kg up to 50t.
 * Dual Shear Beam load cells; used in truck scales, tank and hopper applications.
 * S-type load cells; used in tension applications where you will find static and dynamic loads.
 * Compression load cells; used in truck scales, large platform scales, weighbridges and hopper scales.
 * Ring Torsion load cells; used in high accuracy hoppers, silos, platforms and pallet scales.
 * Spoke Type load cells; used in low profile, high precision application. High forces varying from 1t-500t.
 * Onboard load cells; used for onboard weighing systems on trucks, tractors and other vehicles.
 * Loadpins; used in applications for measuring dynamic, static or hoisting forces.
 * Weighpads; portable weighpads for the weighing of cars and to measure the center of gravity of planes.
 * Specials; all kinds of special sensors.

Capacitive load cell
The digital capacitive technology is based on a non-contacting ceramic sensor mounted inside the load cell body. As the load cell contains no moving parts and the ceramic sensor is not in contact with the load cell body, the load cell tolerates very high overloads (up to 1000%), sideloads, torsion, and stray welding voltages. This allows for simple installation of the load cells without expensive and complicated mounting kits, stay rods, or overload protection devices, which in turn eliminates the need for maintenance.

The Basic Difference from Strain Gauge Load Cells
Capacitive and strain gauge load cells both rely on an elastic element that is deformed by the load to be measured. The material used for the elastic element is normally aluminum or stainless steel for load cells used in corrosive industrial applications. A strain gauge sensor measures the deformation of the elastic element, and the output of the sensor is converted by an electronic circuit to a signal that represents the load. Capacitive strain gauges measure the deformation of the elastic material using the change in capacitance of two plates as the plates move closer to each other.

Capacitive sensors have a high sensitivity compared to strain gauges. Because of the much higher sensitivity, a much lower deformation of the elastic element is needed, and the elastic element of a capacitive load cell is therefore strained around 5 to 10 times lower than the elastic element of a strain gauge load cell. The low strained element combined with the fact that a capacitive sensor is non-contacting, provides the very high shock resistance and overload capability of the capacitive load cell compared to the strain gage load cell. This is an obvious advantage in industrial environments and especially for the lower capacity load cells where the risk of damage because of shocks and overloads is high.

Connectivity of capacitive load cells
In a standard analog strain gauge load cell, the power supply and the low-level analog signal are normally conducted through a rather expensive 6-wire cable to the instrumentation where the analog signal is converted to a digital signal. Instead, digital capacitive load cells transmit the digital signal back to the instrumentation which may be placed several hundred meters away without influencing the reading.

Pneumatic load cell
The pneumatic load cell is designed to automatically regulate the balancing pressure. Air pressure is applied to one end of the diaphragm and it escapes through the nozzle placed at the bottom of the load cell. A pressure gauge is attached to the load cell to measure the pressure inside the cell. The deflection of the diaphragm affects the airflow through the nozzle as well as the pressure inside the chamber.

Hydraulic load cell
The hydraulic load cell uses a conventional piston and cylinder arrangement with the piston placed in a thin elastic diaphragm. The piston doesn't actually come in contact with the load cell. Mechanical stops are placed to prevent overstrain of the diaphragm when the loads exceed a certain limit. The load cell is completely filled with oil. When the load is applied on the piston, the movement of the piston and the diaphragm results in an increase of oil pressure. This pressure is then transmitted to a hydraulic pressure gauge via a high pressure hose. The gauge's Bourdon tube senses the pressure and registers it on the dial. Because this sensor has no electrical components, it is ideal for use in hazardous areas. Typical hydraulic load cell applications include tank, bin, and hopper weighing. By example, a hydraulic load cell is immune to transient voltages (lightning) so these type of load cells might be a more effective device in outdoor environments. This technology is more expensive than other types of load cells. It is a more costly technology and thus cannot effectively compete on a cost of purchase basis.

Vibrating load cell
Vibrating wire load cells, which are useful in geomechanical applications due to low amounts of drift,

Capacitive load cell
Capacitive load cells are load cells where the capacitance of a capacitor changes as the load presses the two plates of a capacitor closer together. Capacitive load cells are resistant to lateral forces when compared to strain gauge load cells.

Piezoelectric load cell
Piezoelectric load cells work on the same principle of deformation as the strain gauge load cells, but a voltage output is generated by the basic piezoelectric material – proportional to the deformation of load cell. Useful for dynamic/frequent measurements of force. Most applications for piezo-based load cells are in the dynamic loading conditions, where strain gauge load cells can fail with high dynamic loading cycles. The piezoelectric effect is dynamic, that is, the electrical output of a gauge is an impulse function and is not static. The voltage output is only useful when the strain is changing and does not measure static values.

However, depending on conditioning system used, "quasi static" operation can be done. Using a charge amplifier with a long time constant allows accurate measurement lasting many minutes for small loads up to many hours for large loads. Another advantage of Piezoelectric load cells conditioned with a charge amplifier is the wide measuring range that can be achieved. Users can choose a load cell with a range of hundred of kilonewtons and use it for measuring few newtons of force with the same signal-to-noise ratio; again this is possible only with the use of a charge amplifier for conditioning.

Common issues

 * Mechanical mounting: the cells have to be properly mounted. All the load force has to go through the part of the load cell where its deformation is sensed. Friction may induce offset or hysteresis. Wrong mounting may result in the cell reporting forces along undesired axis, which still may somewhat correlate to the sensed load, confusing the technician.
 * Overload: Within its rating, the load cell deforms elastically and returns to its shape after being unloaded. If subjected to loads above its maximum rating, the material of the load cell may plastically deform; this may result in a signal offset, loss of linearity, difficulty with or impossibility of calibration, or even mechanical damage to the sensing element (e.g. delamination, rupture). Capacitive load cells compared to strain gauges are more resistant to overloads, due to their contactless measuring principle.
 * Wiring issues: the wires to the cell may develop high resistance, e.g. due to corrosion. Alternatively, parallel current paths can be formed by ingress of moisture. In both cases the signal develops offset (unless all wires are affected equally) and accuracy is lost.
 * Electrical damage: the load cells can be damaged by induced or conducted current. Lightning hitting the construction, or arc welding performed near the cells, can overstress the fine resistors of the strain gauges and cause their damage or destruction. For welding nearby, it is suggested to disconnect the load cell and short all its pins to the ground, nearby the cell itself. High voltages can break through the insulation between the substrate and the strain gauges.
 * Nonlinearity: at the low end of their scale, the load cells tend to be nonlinear. This becomes important for cells sensing very large ranges, or with large surplus of load capability to withstand temporary overloads or shocks (e.g. the rope clamps). More points may be needed for the calibration curve.
 * Particularity of application: A load cell that is not well suited to the specific magnitude and type of pressure will have poor accuracy, resolution, and reliability.

Excitation and rated output
The bridge is excited with stabilized voltage (usually 10V, but can be 20V, 5V, or less for battery powered instrumentation). The difference voltage proportional to the load then appears on the signal outputs. The cell output is rated in millivolts per volt (mV/V) of the difference voltage at full rated mechanical load. So a 2.96 mV/V load cell will provide 29.6 millivolt signal at full load when excited with 10 volts.

Typical sensitivity values are 1 to 3 mV/V. Typical maximum excitation voltage is around 15 volts.

Wiring
The full-bridge cells come typically in four-wire configuration. The wires to the top and bottom end of the bridge are the excitation (often labelled E+ and E−, or Ex+ and Ex−), the wires to its sides are the signal (labelled S+ and S−). Ideally, the voltage difference between S+ and S− is zero under zero load, and grows proportionally to the load cell's mechanical load.

Sometimes a six-wire configuration is used. The two additional wires are "sense" (Sen+ and Sen−), and are connected to the bridge with the Ex+ and Ex- wires, in a fashion similar to four-terminal sensing. With these additional signals, the controller can compensate for the change in wire resistance due to external factors, e.g. temperature fluctuations.

The individual resistors on the bridge usually have resistance of 350 Ω. Sometimes other values (typically 120 Ω, 1,000 Ω) can be encountered.

The bridge is typically electrically insulated from the substrate. The sensing elements are in close proximity and in good mutual thermal contact, to avoid differential signals caused by temperature differences.

Using multiple cells
One or more load cells can be used for sensing a single load.

If the force can be concentrated to a single point (small scale sensing, ropes, tensile loads, point loads), a single cell can be used. For long beams, two cells at the end are used. Vertical cylinders can be measured at three points, rectangular objects usually require four sensors. More sensors are used for large containers or platforms, or very high loads.

If the loads are guaranteed to be symmetrical, some of the load cells can be substituted with pivots. This saves the cost of the load cell but can significantly decrease accuracy.

Load cells can be connected in parallel; in that case, all the corresponding signals are connected together (Ex+ to Ex+, S+ to S+, ...), and the resulting signal is the average of the signals from all the sensing elements. This is often used in e.g. personal scales, or other multipoint weight sensors.

The most common color assignment is red for Ex+, black for Ex−, green for S+, and white for S−.

Less common assignments are red for Ex+, white for Ex−, green for S+, and blue for S−, or red for Ex+, blue for Ex−, green for S+, and yellow for S−. Other values are also possible, e.g. red for Ex+, green for Ex−, yellow for S+ and blue for S−.

Ringing
Every load cell is subject to "ringing" when subjected to abrupt load changes. This stems from the spring-like behavior of load cells. In order to measure the loads, they have to deform. As such, a load cell of finite stiffness must have spring-like behavior, exhibiting vibrations at its natural frequency. An oscillating data pattern can be the result of ringing. Ringing can be suppressed in a limited fashion by passive means. Alternatively, a control system can use an actuator to actively damp out the ringing of a load cell. This method offers better performance at a cost of significant increase in complexity.

Uses
Load cells are used in several types of measuring instruments such as laboratory balances, industrial scales, platform scales and universal testing machines. From 1993 the British Antarctic Survey installed load cells in glass fibre nests to weigh albatross chicks. Load cells are used in a wide variety of items such as the seven-post shaker which is often used to set up race cars.

Load cells weighing performances
Load cells are commonly used to measure weight in an industrial environment. They can be installed on hoppers, reactors, etc., to control their weight capacity, which is often of critical importance for an industrial process. Some performance characteristics of the load cells must be defined and specified to make sure they will cope with the expected service. Among those design characteristics are:
 * Combined error
 * Minimum verification interval
 * Resolution

Load cell specifications
The electrical, physical, and environmental specifications of a load cell help to determine which applications it is appropriate for. Common specifications include:
 * Full Scale Output (FSO): Electronic output expressed in mV/V. Measured at full scale.
 * Combined Error: percent of the full scale output that represents the maximum deviation from the straight line drawn between no load and load at rated capacity. Often measured during decreasing and increasing loads.
 * Non-Linearity: The maximum deviation of the calibration curve from a straight line drawn between the rated capacity and zero load. Measured on increasing load and expressed as percent of full scale output.
 * Hysteresis: Maximum difference between load cell output signals for the same applied load. The first measurement can be obtained by decreasing the load from rated output and the second by increasing the load from zero.
 * Repeatability: Maximum difference between output measurements for repeated loads under identical conditions. Measured in percent of rated output.
 * Zero Balance (Offset): Output reading of the load cell with rated excitation under no load. The deviation in output between a true zero measurement and a real load cell under zero load expressed as a percentage of full scale output.
 * Compensated Temperate Range: The temperature range over which a load cell is compensated so that it can ensure zero balance & rated output within specified limits. Expressed as °F or °C.
 * Operating Temperature Range: Temperature range extremes in which a load cell can operate without permanent, adverse effects on any of its performance characteristics. Expressed as °F or °C.
 * Temperature Effect on Output: Modification of output readings caused by load cell temperature. Expressed as percent of full scale output per degree of °F or °C.
 * Temperature Effect on Zero: Change in zero balance caused by ambient temperature changes. Expressed as percent of full scale output per degree of °F or °C.
 * Input Resistance: Input resistance of the load cell's bridge circuit. Measured at the positive & negative excitation leads with no load applied. Measured in Ohms.
 * Output Resistance: Output resistance of the load cell's bridge circuit. Measured at the positive & negative excitation leads with no load applied. Measured in Ohms.
 * Insulation Resistance: The resistance measured along pathways between the: bridge circuit and transducer element, bridge circuit and the cable shield, and the transducer element and the cable shield. Typically measured at fifty volts under standard test conditions.
 * Recommended Excitation: Maximum recommended excitation voltage of the transducer for it to operate within its specifications. Expressed in VDC.
 * Cable Length: Length of the standard cable for which the load cell is calibrated. Cable length affects how the load cell is calibrated.
 * Safe Overload: The maximum load that can be applied to a load cell without causing permanent effects to its performance specifications. Measured as a percent of full scale output.
 * Ultimate Overload: Maximum load that can be withstood without causing structural failure.
 * Material: Substance that comprises the spring element of the load cell.

Load cell calibration
Load cells are an integral part of most weighing systems in industrial, aerospace and automotive industries, enduring rigorous daily use. Over time, load cells will drift, age and misalign; therefore, they will need to be calibrated regularly to ensure accurate results are maintained. ISO9000 and most other standards specify a maximum period of around 18 months to 2 years between re-calibration procedures, dependent on the level of load cell deterioration. Annual re-calibration is considered best practice by many load cell users for ensuring the most accurate measurements.

Standard calibration tests will use linearity and repeatability as a calibration guideline as these are both used to determine accuracy. Calibration is conducted incrementally starting working in ascending or descending order. For example, in the case of a 60 tonne load cell, then specific test weights that measure in 5, 10, 20, 40 and 60 tonne increments may be used; a five step calibration process is usually sufficient for ensuring a device is accurately calibrated. Repeating this five-step calibration procedure 2-3 times is recommended for consistent results.

Standards

 * ASTM E4 – Practices for Force Verification of Testing Machines
 * ASTM E74 – Practice for Calibration of Force Measuring Instruments for Verifying the Force Indication of Testing Machines
 * NTEP – National Conference on Weights and Measures (Certificate of Conformance)

title: Load cell


text:
Edmund Charaszkiewicz

Edmund Kalikst Eugeniusz Charaszkiewicz (14 October 1895 – 22 December 1975) was a Polish military intelligence officer who specialized in clandestine warfare. Between the World Wars, he helped establish Poland's interbellum borders in conflicts over territory with Poland's neighbours.

Also, for a dozen years before World War II, he coordinated Marshal Józef Piłsudski's Promethean movement, aimed at liberating the non-Russian peoples of the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union—an objective that Piłsudski deemed crucial if Poland, sandwiched between Germany and the Soviet Union, were to preserve her just-regained independence.

Early career
Edmund Charaszkiewicz was born on 14 October 1895 in Punitz (in Polish, Poniec), in the Province of Posen, an area of the German Empire that had been annexed from Poland by Prussia in the Third Partition of Poland (1795). He was the son of Stanisław Charaszkiewicz, a building contractor, and Bronisława, née Rajewska. Edmund completed his elementary schooling in Poniec, then attended secondary schools successively in Krotoszyn, Katowice and Kraków. In the latter city, before World War I, his family lived at ulica Długa 63 (63 Long Street). In Kraków Edmund graduated from secondary school on 17 December 1915, while already a soldier in the Polish Legions.

In that period, it was common for secondary-school students in Galicia to join Polish patriotic paramilitary organizations. On 1 November 1913 Charaszkiewicz, aged 18, joined the Riflemen's Association and in 1913–14 attended an Association noncommissioned-officers' school, using the pseudonym Kalikst (his second given name).

Soon after the outbreak of World War I, on 4 or 5 August 1914, Charaszkiewicz enlisted in the Polish Legions. He served successively in several units and convalesced from several illnesses. In November or December 1917 he was inducted into the Polish Auxiliary Corps (the former Second Brigade of the Polish Legions), in which he served till February 1918 as senior sergeant major. He was then released from the Legions to serve in the German Army. To avoid such service, and because he was liable to arrest and internment as a former Polish Legionnaire, he went into hiding from 18 February until June 1918 in Kraków, and from November 1918 in Warsaw, where he worked at the Ministry of Military Affairs of the Polish Armed Force. His superiors there were two future Polish generals: Colonel Marian Żegota-Januszajtis and Major Stefan Pasławski.

Just after the close of World War I, on 15 November 1918, Charaszkiewicz joined the Polish Army in the rank of sublieutenant. During the Polish-Soviet War (1919–21) he participated in battles at Švenčionėliai, Pabradė, Bezdonys, Vilnius and Eišiškės. During the Polish defence of Vilnius, he was taken prisoner by the Lithuanians and was interned from 19 July to 18 August 1920. He escaped and, on returning to the Białystok Rifle Regiment (Białostocki Pułk Strzelców), temporarily commanded the 11th Company (21 September – 6 October 1920), then served as a junior officer in the 9th Company. On 27 February 1921, for conspicuous valor behind Soviet lines, he was recommended for Poland's highest military decoration, the Virtuti Militari.

Military intelligence
Meanwhile, on 15 December 1920, Charaszkiewicz had been assigned to the Second Department of Polish General Staff, or Intelligence – specifically, to its Upper Silesia Plebiscite Department. During the Third Silesian Uprising he served (2 May – 15 August 1921) as deputy commander of demolition squads known as the Wawelberg Group. For his courage and steadfastness in action against the Germans, as he blew up mined structures in the face of withering enemy fire and thereby halted the German advance, he was on 18 February 1922 again recommended for the Virtuti Militari. On 27 June 1922, Lt. Charaszkiewicz was decorated with the Virtuti Militari, 5th class.

Charaszkiewicz would later (16 February 1940, in Paris) describe the Polish military-intelligence operation in the Third Silesian Uprising as a model operation of its kind: its objectives were clearly defined; the requisite personnel were skilfully recruited and trained; the necessary explosives, weapons, ammunition, equipment and supplies were smuggled into the operational areas and cached well in advance; and the plans were efficiently and resourcefully executed. He would later favourably contrast the Third Silesian Uprising with the indecisive preparations for, and execution of, Poland's takeover of Trans-Olza 17 years later, in 1938. Moreover, the preponderant political circumstances in Poland, Germany and the world favoured the Polish cause. The Silesian-Polish population gave its enthusiastic support, and all its social groups were recruited except for the communists, who for their part evinced a benign neutrality, having been instructed to back the Polish proletariat.

Between 1918 and 1923, Charaszkiewicz completed three years of the four-year law curriculum at Warsaw University.

After the Third Silesian uprising (2 May – 5 July 1921), in 1922 Charaszkiewicz was assigned to the General Staff's Section II. In evaluations, he was commended for his strength of character, initiative, energy, enthusiasm, and devotion to duty, especially in covert operations in Lithuania, with which Poland had a running dispute over Vilnius. In 1927, when he was decorated with the Silver Cross of Merit, he was cited for actions in the rear of the Soviet Army in 1920, actions in the Third Silesian uprising, and actions in the Polish-Lithuanian neutral zone to secure the lives and property of Polish citizens against Lithuanian irregulars.

Charaszkiewicz's service record noted that his qualifications for intelligence work included a knowledge of German, French and English. He was promoted to lieutenant on 1 June 1919, to captain on 1 July 1925, and to major in 1935.

By 1931, until World War II, Charaszkiewicz served, last in the rank of major, as chief of "Office [Ekspozytura] 2" of the General Staff's Section II. Office 2, which had been so named on 1 April 1929, was charged with the planning, preparation and execution of clandestine-warfare operations.

In the face of growing threats from Germany and the Soviet Union, Polish organizing of a "behind-the-lines" (pozafrontowa) clandestine network had begun immediately after the post-World War I wars for Poland's borders. Charaszkiewicz had been assigned to this network already on 15 April 1922.

Especially after Adolf Hitler's accession to power in 1933, Polish clandestine organizations were vigorously built up. They were meant, in future military actions, to paralyse enemy road and rail transport and destroy enemy military depots. Clandestine centres were created in Poland as well as in neighbouring countries, chiefly Germany and the Soviet Union.

Personnel for the clandestine networks were recruited with great care. Thanks to this, the intelligence services of Poland's neighbours learned nothing about them until mid-1939, when the rising German threat prompted mass Polish training of irregular forces.

Prometheism
Office 2 was also responsible for "Promethean operations," conceived by Józef Piłsudski. The idea was to combat Soviet imperialism by supporting irredentist movements among the non-Russian peoples of the Soviet Union. Thus the Prometheists' ultimate goal was nothing less than the dismemberment of the Soviet Union.

As Piłsudski and his adherents (the "Piłsudskiites") exerted a preponderant influence on Poland's government through nearly the entire interwar period, the Promethean agenda became integral to the operations of many Polish public institutions concerned with eastern European affairs. After Piłsudski's May 1926 coup d'état, Section II intensified its engagement with Prometheism. The movement's leaders included prominent Sanation figures such as Colonel Walery Sławek and the publicist and Sejm deputy, Tadeusz Hołówko. Great importance was attached to Prometheism by Section II's successive chiefs, Colonel Tadeusz Schaetzel and Colonel Tadeusz Pełczyński, and by deputy chief Lieutenant Colonel Józef Englicht. The movement's intelligence operations were directed by Edmund Charaszkiewicz. Contacts were maintained with Ukrainians and Cossacks, and with representatives of several peoples of the Caucasus: Azeris, Armenians and Georgians.

In its prosecution of the Promethean agenda, Office 2 worked with official institutions such as the Institute for Study of Nationality Affairs (Instytut Badań Spraw Narodowościowych) and the Polish-Ukrainian Society (Towarzystwo Polsko-Ukraińskie) and its Polish-Ukrainian Bulletin (Biuletyn Polsko-Ukraiński), published from 1932. The latter Society included such experts on East European affairs as Leon Wasilewski, Stanisław Łoś and Stanisław Stempowski, and its founder and prime mover as well as the Bulletin's editor was Włodzimierz Bączkowski, a leading figure in the "Promethean movement." From March 1934 Charaszkiewicz was a member of the Commission for Scientific Study of [Poland's] Eastern Lands (Komisja Naukowych Badań Ziem Wschodnich) and the Committee on [Poland's] Eastern Lands and Nationalities (Komitet do Spraw Ziem Wschodnich i Narodowościowych) at the Council of Ministers. He had already become a spokesman for the oppressed peoples east of Poland who wished to deepen their national self-awareness and groom leaders for their liberation.

Since 1927, Wasilewski, Sławek, Schaetzel and Hołówko had been laying foundations for Promethean movements in Paris, Warsaw and Istanbul. They had been studying questions involving national self-determination and federative polities with help from academic experts at institutions such as the Eastern Institute (Instytut Wschodni) in Warsaw and an analogous one in Vilnius, as well as at an Institute for Study of Nationalities (Instytut Badań Narodowościowych) and at several publications.

Charaszkiewicz's deputies at Office 2 were two officers from the Third Silesian uprising: Major Feliks Ankerstein (1929–39), who during that Uprising had commanded a group (from 27 April 1921, the subgroup "Butrym"); and Major Włodzimierz Dąbrowski, who had commanded group "G" in the Destruction Office (Referat Destrukcji).

Covert operations
It appears that, as of 1935, Office 2 employed 11 officers, seven of them in Office [Referat] "A" (for the West—Germany, East Prussia, Danzig, Czechoslovakia), headed by Ankerstein, and 22 civilian contract workers. The officer cadre were fairly stable; most of the officers served in Office 2 for at least six years.

A principal task of Office 2 was organizing and conducting clandestine operations outside Poland, chiefly in bordering countries, and preparing resistance cells in areas of Poland that, in the event of war, might be occupied by enemy forces. Office "B" (responsible for the East), headed in 1937–39 by Major Dąbrowski, prepared clandestine actions against the Soviet Union, conducting "Promethean operations" among non-Russian peoples (e.g. Caucasus, Tatar, Ukrainian and Cossack émigrés) and creating covert organizations at Poland's borders with Soviet Belarus and Ukraine. Office "A" (the West) was tasked with preparing and running clandestine operations against "Western" countries of interest.

Agents of Office 2 operated in Germany, Danzig, Czechoslovakia and Lithuania. They also penetrated anti-Hitler German émigré communities in Czechoslovakia and especially in France. In 1935 Charaszkiewicz and Ankerstein organized in the Free City of Danzig a covert "Group Zygmunt", which in September 1939, on the outbreak of World War II, would conspicuously defend the Polish Post Office in Danzig. "Group Zygmunt's" networks were to cover Poland's western border, Pomerania and the Free City of Danzig, and were to concentrate on sabotage and clandestine operations in the event of these areas' temporary occupation by the enemy.

The signing of the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression of 26 January 1934, had produced a reorientation in Polish foreign policy. Czechoslovakia's Trans-Olza area (which was in dispute between Poland and Czechoslovakia) had lain outside Office 2's sphere of interest, but from spring 1934 covert propaganda and clandestine operations began to be developed there.

Charaszkiewicz suggested to an old Polish Legions comrade, Wiktor Tomir Drymmer – from 15 September 1933 to the outbreak of World War II, director of the Polish Foreign Ministry's Consular Department – the creation of an organization covering all countries that harboured substantial Polish communities. They agreed that this would be necessary due to the inevitability of war with Nazi Germany. They were also agreed that the organization was to be strictly covert, both in Poland and abroad; was to be of a nationalist character; and was to be elite rather than large-scale in nature. The organization's regulations were drawn up by Captain Ankerstein.

Eventually it was decided that the organization should be run by a "Committee of Seven" (K-7) comprising half Foreign Ministry personnel – Drymmer, his political deputy Dr. Władysław Józef Zaleski, Tadeusz Kowalski, and the latter's deputy Tadeusz Kawalec – and half Office 2 personnel: Charaszkiewicz, Ankerstein and the latter's deputy, Captain Wojciech Lipiński. Later, Lieutenant Colonel Ludwik Zych, chief of staff of Poland's Border Guard (Straż Graniczna), would be coopted.

K-7 set about recruiting young Poles residing in Czechoslovakia, Germany, Lithuania, Latvia and Romania's Bukovina. They were trained in small groups in Poland, to be deployed in wartime. Beginning in May 1938, K-7 conducted courses in Warsaw, Gdynia and several other Polish localities.

In Trans-Olza, about 1935, the first Polish clandestine operations had taken place; later, during Poland's 1938 annexation of that territory, K-7 members participated. The proceedings were directed from Warsaw by Drymmer and Charaszkiewicz, and on the ground by Ankerstein and later Zych.

After the Trans-Olza takeover, preparations began on 7 October 1938 for a covert operation codenamed Łom ("Crowbar") in easternmost Czechoslovakia's Carpathian Rus, coordinated with Hungarian operations conducted from the south. The Polish commander on the ground was again Major Ankerstein, while at Warsaw Charaszkiewicz was again in overall command. The operation took place in October and November 1938 and helped bring about the First Vienna Award (2 November 1938). In mid-March 1939, the operation's objective was fully accomplished: the restoration of Carpathian Rus to its pre-World War I master, Hungary, and thereby also the recreation of the historic common Polish-Hungarian border.

Six months later, during the September 1939 invasion of Poland, the common Polish-Hungarian border would become of pivotal importance when Hungarian Regent Miklós Horthy's government, as a matter of "Hungarian honor," declined Hitler's request for permission to send German forces across Carpathian Rus into southeastern Poland to speed Poland's conquest. Horthy's refusal allowed the Polish government and tens of thousands of Polish military to escape into neighbouring Hungary and Romania; and from there, to France and French-mandated Syria, to carry on the war as the third-strongest Allied belligerent after Britain and France.

Office 2's next task was organizing "behind-the-lines covert-operation networks" (siatki dywersji pozafrontowej) that were to undertake intelligence, sabotage and covert operations upon the outbreak of war, especially in areas occupied by the Germans. Charaszkiewicz was a conceptual founder of these networks. Particularly intensive work on them began early in May 1939. These structures were given diverse names such as "Secret Military Organization" (Tajna Organizacja Wojskowa, or TOW) and "Mobile Combat Units" (Lotne Oddziały Bojowe). In many cases – in Silesia, in southwestern Poland, and in western Poland – after Poland had been overrun by Germany in September 1939, these networks became the foundations for the first local underground resistance organizations, which in many cases later became part of the Union for Armed Struggle (Związek Walki Zbrojnej, or ZWZ).

One such organization that arose on the foundation of a "behind-the-lines covert-operation network," in Kraków on 22 September 1939, was the White Eagle Organization (Organizacja Orła Białego, or OOB), which soon, in 1940, became part of ZWZ. The OOB was a major organization that, in addition to southern Poland, also held some sway in Silesia, Warsaw and Lublin. The order to form OOB was issued by Charaszkiewicz's deputy, Major Ankerstein, who had returned from Hungary to Kraków expressly for that purpose. He also conducted a three-day covert-operations training for Organization members before making his way back to Hungary and proceeding on to the West.

Before the war, a network of clandestine groups was created, tasked with paralysing lines of communication and destroying enemy supply depots and command networks. Their membership was drawn from varied backgrounds, including the Riflemen's Association (Związek Strzelecki), Reserve Noncommissioned Officers' Association (Związek Podoficerów Rezerwy), Reserve Officers' Association (Związek Oficerów Rezerwy), referrals by County Offices of Physical Education and Military Training (Powiatowe Urzędy Wychowania Fizycznego i Przysposobienia Wojskowego, or PUWFiPW), the Polish Scouting Association (Związek Harcerzy Polskich, or ZHP), the Polish Socialist Party (PPS), and a host of other organizations.

The preparatory work was coordinated by a Department for Planning Wartime Intelligence and Covert Operations (Wydział Planowania Wywiadu I Dywersji Wojennej), created in late 1937. Its tasks included organizing mobilization procedures for the foreign intelligence network and assuring its functioning under wartime conditions, as well as securing covert support for the army at the front.

Spring 1938 saw expanded training of clandestine networks. Courses organized by Office 2, disguised as civil-defense training, might cover cryptology, intelligence microphotography, toxicology, railway sabotage, hand-to-hand combat, new weapons, explosives, and suppression of fires. In view of the enemy's growing preponderance in armour, artillery and especially air forces, it had been decided to increase the tasks set for covert-operations networks. On 3 June 1939 Section II sent, to army commanders, regulations for covert operations; among other things, it was set down that only those members of a covert unit should know each other who were to carry out practically defined assignments.

In summer 1939, weapons and explosives began to be distributed to clandestine centres and patrols. Deliveries were also made to networks created within the Third Reich. Despite the secrecy of the preparations, German intelligence obtained information on the Polish networks, and German security agencies received orders to suppress the Polish networks. When overt war did come in September 1939, the mass terror applied to the Polish population by the Germans, in many instances – though by no means universally – paralysed the Polish clandestine networks.

In September 1939, during the Polish retreat before advancing German forces, Drymmer and other clandestine-operations leaders, as early as their stop at Kazimierz Dolny on the Vistula River, left behind K-7 members and freshly sworn-in individuals. Likewise, at a Polish consulate in Romania's Bukovina, K-7 trained a group of young men in covert action. Major Charaszkiewicz himself, at the outbreak of war, became head of Department (Wydział) F at the Staff of the Commander-in-Chief and carried on this function from 1 to 20 September 1939. According to other information, he was special-assignments officer to the Commander-in-Chief, Marshal Edward Rydz-Śmigły, and in that capacity with the Marshal's approval commissioned the creation of at least one underground organization about 12 September. Next Charaszkiewicz, along with other K-7 members, crossed Poland's border into Romania. There he organized a group of officers who were to return to occupied Poland to set up another underground organization. In Romania, Charaszkiewicz established ties with a Sanation group, the "Schaetzel-Drymmer group," that was ill-disposed to Marshal Rydz-Śmigły and supportive of Foreign Minister Józef Beck. Charaszkiewicz also played a substantial role in creating an Office (Ekspozytura) "R" of Polish intelligence headquartered in Bucharest, with satellite outposts scattered about Romania. It was important not only to the conduct of intelligence work but to liaison with occupied Poland.

In Bucharest, in October 1939, Charaszkiewicz received from his British colleague, Lt. Col. Colin Gubbins – soon to become the prime mover of the Special Operations Executive (S.O.E.) – a very warm letter informing him that Gubbins had been personally searching for him, and offering every possible assistance, including financial (Charaszkiewicz declined the money). Through Gubbins' good offices, Charaszkiewicz obtained from the British military attaché a British visa.

France and Britain
Charaszkiewicz never used the visa. On 31 October 1939 he arrived in France, where at first (November 1939 – April 1940) he found himself without assignment at the Bessieres barracks. After a brief stay (April–May 1940) in an officers' camp at Vichy, he joined the Officers' Legion at Niort.

During the "phony war," the new Polish premier and commander-in-chief in exile, General Władysław Sikorski, investigated the causes of Poland's defeat in September 1939. Officers with pertinent knowledge were instructed to submit reports. Probably it was in response to this that Charaszkiewicz drew up the series of intriguing reports in late 1939 and early 1940 that comprise the bulk of his Collection of Documents that was published 60 years later, in 2000.

Sikorski, whose own military and political career in Poland had been stymied while the Piłsudskiites held sway after the May 1926 coup d'état, now sidelined many officers deemed to have been close to the Piłsudskiites. Perhaps that was why an officer as experienced in clandestine warfare as Charaszkiewicz, then only 44 years old, apparently was never again entrusted with such operations.

After France's capitulation (22 June 1940) Charaszkiewicz managed to evacuate to Great Britain. In Scotland he was accommodated at the Douglas officers' camp (July–August 1940), then the Broughton officers' camp (August–September 1940).

He organized, and served as deputy commander, then commander, of armoured trains "C" and later "D" (October 1940 – August 1943) of the 1st Armored Train Command (1 Dywizjon Pociągów Pancernych). On 3 August 1943 he was transferred to the Polish Infantry Training Center (Centrum Wyszkolenia Piechoty), then to the Administrative Department (Oddział) of the Polish Ministry of National Defense. Next, to the conclusion of military operations and till February 1946, he was deputy chief, then chief, of the Information Department of the Inspectorate of Polish Military Headquarters. On 27 May 1945 he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. From February to April 1946 he directed the General Department (Wydział) in the Inspectorate for Civilian Affairs, and in September 1946 he joined the Polish Resettlement Corps. He was demobilized on 11 September 1948 and settled in London.

Charaszkiewicz took an active part in Polish émigré life: in the Piłsudskiite "League for Polish Independence" (Liga Niepodległości Polski) and in the Józef Piłsudski Institute (of which he was for many years president). He founded and for some years edited the institute's periodical, Niepodległość (Independence). He was also prominent in the Silesian Insurgents' Association (Związek Powstańców Śląskich). He continued to be a foremost exponent of Prometheism, whose perhaps most important voice he had been over the many years of his involvement with the movement.

During his career as an intelligence and covert-operations officer, Charaszkiewicz helped pioneer modern techniques of asymmetric warfare. Just before World War II, during a week's visit to London, he shared information on these with Britain's Colonel Holland, Lt. Colonel Gubbins (future leader of the Special Operations Executive), and technical specialists. In his reports about these meetings, Charaszkiewicz noted how far Poland's techniques outstripped Britain's.

He died in London on 22 December 1975.

Decorations
Charaszkiewicz received many Polish decorations, including the Cross of Virtuti Militari (Silver Cross, 1922), the Order of Polonia Restituta (3rd [Commander], 4th [Officer] and 5th [Knight] classes), the Cross of Independence with Swords (1931), the Cross of Valor (Krzyż Walecznych, 1922, three times), the Silver Cross of Merit, and the Silesian Sash of Valor and Merit (Śląska Wstęga Walecznych i Zasłużonych), as well as numerous foreign decorations.

title: Edmund Charaszkiewicz