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Hitotsubashi University

Hitotsubashi University (一橋大学), also known as a Tokyo University of Commerce (東京商科大学) is a national university located in Tokyo, Japan. It has campuses in Kunitachi, Kodaira, and Chiyoda.

In 1920, it was officially renamed as the Tokyo University of Commerce as a Japan's first national college specialized in commercial studies. It underwent further name change in 1949 to adopt its modern name "Hitotsubashi". In 1962, the name "Tokyo University of Commerce" was legally modified to "Hitotsubashi University".

The university has produced over 40 senior bureaucrats for the Japanese government, including Masayoshi Ōhira, who served as the Prime Minister of Japan. The university was ranked 4th in 2023 Nikkei Survey "University Image held by Human Resources" (人事が見る大学イメージ) of leading companies of Japan

Detailed History
When founded by Arinori Mori in 1875, Hitotsubashi was called the Institute for Business Training (商法講習所), where it trained businessmen for the Meiji Era. The last Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu, prior to the end of his reign, sent Eiichi Shibusawa to Europe during the 1860s, where he learned of their advanced banking and economic system and brought it back to modernize Japan. The school expanded gradually with the support of Eiichi Shibusawa and Takashi Masuda and other influential individuals. Shibusawa is regarded as the father of the modern Japanese economy. Eiichi Shibusawa and Tokugawa Yoshinobu's son, Tokugawa Iesato worked together to established a number of large business enterprises, as well as academic institutions and other social service agencies which still active today, while Masuda was the founder of Mitsui & Co Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu was the head of the Hitotsubashi family, and that may well be why in 1949, the school adopted the name of Hitotsubashi University.

There were talks about a merger with The University of Tokyo, but alumni and students objected—the merger was not fulfilled. This is known as the "Shinyu Incident".

 * 1875: Arinori Mori established Institute for Business Training (商法講習所|Shōhō Kōshūjo) at Ginza-owarichō, Tokyo
 * 1884: became a national school under the direct supervision of the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce of Japan, and changed its name to the Tokyo Commercial School (東京商業学校|Tokyo Shōgyō Gakkō)
 * 1885: came under the control of the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture of Japan, and absorbed the Tokyo Foreign Language School. The school then relocated to the site of the latter institution in an education district called Hitotsubashi, Tokyo in the vicinity of the Imperial Palace
 * 1887: the status of the Tokyo Commercial School was raised to that of the Higher Commercial School (高等商業学校|Kōtō Shōgyō Gakkō)
 * 1897: established affiliated institutions for foreign-language education
 * 1899: separated affiliated institutions for foreign-language education as Tokyo School of Foreign Languages (now Tokyo University of Foreign Studies)
 * 1902: changed its name to the Tokyo Higher Commercial School (東京高等商業学校|Tōkyō Kōtō Shōgyō Gakkō) due to the establishment of another such school in Kansai district (now Kobe University)
 * 1920: raised to and became the Tokyo University of Commerce (東京商科大学|Tōkyō Shōka Daigaku) which is the first university of commerce in Japan
 * 1927: moved to Kunitachi and Kodaira, Tokyo, its present location, on account of the Great Kanto earthquake
 * 1944: changed its name to the Tokyo University of Industry (東京産業大学|Tōkyō Sangyō Daigaku) under the order of the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture of Japan
 * 1947: changed its name back to the Tokyo University of Commerce (東京商科大学|Tōkyō Shōka Daigaku)
 * 1949: adopted the new system and the name of Hitotsubashi University (一橋大学|Hitotsubashi Daigaku) through a student ballot, when the American education system was introduced as part of the postwar education reforms, and established Faculties of Commerce, Economics, and Law & Social Sciences
 * 1951: separated Faculty of Law & Social Sciences into Faculty of Law and Faculty of Social Science.
 * 1962: changed Tokyo University of Commerce's legal name to Hitotsubashi University
 * 1996: established the Graduate School of Language and Society
 * 1998: established the Graduate School of International Corporate Strategy (ICS) which is now part of Hitotsubashi Business School (HUB)
 * 2004: corporatized in 2004 as a National University Corporation. Established Law School due to the introduction of Law School system in Japan
 * 2005: established School of International and Public Policy
 * 2018: established Hitotsubashi University Business School (HUB) which includes ICS (SBA)
 * 2019: selected as a "Designated National University"
 * 2023: established School of Social Data Science & Graduate School of Social Data Science

Faculties and graduate schools
Hitotsubashi University has about 4,500 undergraduate and 2,100 postgraduate students with some 630 faculty members.

Undergraduate programs

 * Commerce (275)
 * Economics (275)
 * Law (175)
 * Social Sciences (235)

Graduate programs

 * Commerce (Master Program: 108, Doctor Program: 30)
 * Economics (Master Program: 70, Doctor Program: 30)
 * Law (Master Program: 15, Doctor Program: 26 Juris Doctor Program: 100)
 * Social Sciences (Master Program: 87, Doctor Program: 44)
 * Language and Society (Master Program: 49, Doctor Program: 21)
 * International Corporate Strategy (ICS) (including MBA Program)
 * International and Public Policy (55)

Parentheses show the numbers of admitted students per year.

Research institutes and centers

 * Institute of Economic Research
 * Research Center for Information and Statistics of Social Science
 * Center for Economic Institutions
 * Center for Intergenerational Studies
 * Research and Development Center for Higher Education
 * Information and Communication Technology Center
 * Center for Student Exchange
 * International Joint Research Center
 * Institute of Innovation Research
 * Center for Historical Social Science Literature

Academic exchange agreements overseas
As of 2007, Hitotsubashi University had academic exchange agreements with 84 overseas universities and research institutions, including those between departments and departments, as follows:

Academic rankings
Hitotsubashi University is considered one of the most prestigious universities in Japan, consistently ranking amongst the top universities in Japanese university rankings. It is one of the highest ranked national universities that is not one of the National Seven Universities.

Hitotsubashi is a specialized institution only in social science, thus it is not as well known as other big universities such as University of Tokyo and Kyoto University. Although it has only social science departments and the place in the university rankings is always underrated, the reputation is very high.

General rankings
The university was ranked 7th out of 181 major universities in 2011 in the ranking called "Truly strong universities (本当に強い大学)" by Toyo Keizai. In this ranking, Hitotsubashi is 1st in average graduate salary.

According to QS World University Rankings, Hitotsubashi was ranked 314th, 314th, 420th, 378th and 365th in the world during 2005–2009. It has been ranked 114th, 101st, 99th and 178th during 2007–2010 in its social science ranking.

Research performance
The Weekly Diamond reported that Hitotsubashi has the 4th highest research standard in Japan in research funding per researcher in COE Program. In the same article, it is ranked seventh in quality of education by GP funds per student.

The economics department especially has a high research standard. According to the Asahi Shimbun, Hitotsubashi was ranked 4th in Japan in economic research during 2005–2009. More recently, Repec in January 2011 ranked Hitotsubashi's Economic Department as Japan's 5th best economic research university. Currently three researchers in Hitotsubashi are listed as top 10% economists in its world economist rankings. Hitotsubashi has provided seven presidents of the Japanese Economic Association in its 42-year history; this number is the second largest.

Asahi Shimbun summarized the number of academic papers in Japanese major legal journals by university, and Hitotsubashi was ranked 7th during 2005–2009.

Graduate school rankings
Hitotsubashi Law School is considered one of top law schools in Japan, as it was ranked No. 1 in the passing rate of Japanese Bar Examination in 2006, 2008 and 2009. On average, Hitotsubashi Law School was 1st out of all the 74 law schools in Japan according to the ratio, 81.5%, of the successful graduates who passed the bar examinations from 2007 to 2017. In 2019, Hitotsubashi Law School became 2nd out of all the 72 law schools in Japan according to the ratio, 59.82%, of the successful graduates who passed the bar examination.

Hitotsubashi Business School is ranked 2nd in Japan by Nikkei Shimbun. Eduniversal ranked Japanese business schools and Hitotsubashi was ranked 3rd in Japan (100th in the world). In this ranking, Hitotsubashi is one of three Japanese business schools categorized in "Universal business schools with major international influence". It is one of the few Japanese business schools teaching in English.

Alumni rankings
According to the Weekly Economist 2010 rankings and the President's article on October 16, 2006, graduates from Hitotsubashi have the best employment rate in 400 major companies; the average graduate salary is the second best in Japan. Mines ParisTech : Professional Ranking World Universities ranks Hitotsubashi University as 25th in the world in 2011 in the number of alumni listed among CEOs in the 500 largest worldwide companies, although Hitotsubashi is small compared to other Japanese universities in the ranks.

The university is ranked 8th in Japan for the number of alumni holding executive positions in the listed companies of Japan, and this number per student (probability of becoming an executive) is 2nd in Japan.

Popularity and selectivity
Hitotsubashi is one of the most selective universities in Japan. Its entrance difficulty is usually considered one of the most difficult, alongside University of Tokyo, Kyoto University and Tokyo Institute of Technology among 180 national and public universities.

Notable faculty

 * Tsuru Shigeto: ex-president of Hitotsubashi University
 * Haruhiko Kuroda: former governor of the Bank of Japan and ex-professor of Hitotsubashi University Graduate School of Economics
 * J. Mark Ramseyer: ex-adjunct instructor, Mitsubishi professor of Japanese Legal Studies of Harvard Law School
 * Ikujiro Nonaka: Professor Emeritus, a member of Japan Academy, director of Seven & I Holdings Co., director of Mitsui & Co.
 * Kotaro Suzumura: Professor Emeritus, Person of Cultural Merit
 * Fumio Hayashi: professor, foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
 * Takeshi Mizubayashi: professor of Graduate School of Law
 * Irmela Hijiya-Kirschnereit: ex-professor, Faculty of Social Sciences
 * Hirotaka Takeuchi: professor emeritus
 * Joseph Schumpeter: visiting professor in 1931

Notable alumni
The university's alumni association is called Josuikai (如水会) and its main building (Josui Kaikan) is next to the building where Graduate School of International Corporate Strategy (ICS) is in Kanda, Tokyo.

World leaders

 * The 68th and 69th Prime Minister of Japan Masayoshi Ōhira (1978–1980)
 * The 4th Prime Minister of South Korea Baek Du-jin (1952–1953)
 * The 20th Prime Minister of Mongolia Rinchinnyamyn Amarjargal (1999–2000)

Other politicians

 * Shōzō Murata: ex-Minister of Japanese Government Railways, ex-Minister of Communications of Japan, president of Osaka Shosen Kaisha (now Mitsui O.S.K. Lines)
 * Mitsujirō Ishii: ex-Speaker of the House of Representatives (Japan), ex-Deputy Prime Minister of Japan
 * Paek Nam-un: ex-Chairman of the Supreme People's Assembly, ex-Minister of Education (North Korea)
 * Togmidyn Dorjkhand: current Deputy Prime Minister of Mongolia
 * Aziz Abduhakimov:current Deputy Prime Minister of the Republic of Uzbekistan
 * Michio Watanabe: ex-Vice Prime Minister of Japan, ex-Minister of Finance (Japan), ex-Foreign Minister of Japan
 * Shinzō Ōya: ex-Ministry of Commerce and Industry (Japan), ex-Minister of Finance (Japan)
 * Zentaro Kosaka: ex-Minister for Foreign Affairs (Japan)
 * Kumakichi Nakajima: ex-Ministry of Commerce and Industry (Japan)
 * Koji Omi: ex-Minister of Finance (Japan)
 * Tetsuo Kondo: ex-Minister of Labour
 * Saburō Eda: ex-Chairman of Japan Socialist Party
 * Shintarō Ishihara: author, ex-Governor of Tokyo, ex-Minister of Transportation
 * Tsunei Kusunose: former Governor of Hiroshima Prefecture
 * Yasuo Tanaka: author and former Governor of Nagano Prefecture
 * Katsutoshi Kaneda: current Minister of Justice (Japan)
 * Naoki Minezaki:ex-Senior Vice Minister of the Ministry of Finance (Japan)
 * Yoshitake Kimata: ex-Chairman of Committee on Economy, Trade and Industry
 * Shigeyuki Tomita: ex-State Secretary for Foreign Affairs of Japan, ex-Senior Vice Minister of the Ministry of Justice (Japan)
 * Hajime Seki: ex-mayor of Osaka City
 * Taizō Mikazuki: current Governor of Shiga Prefecture, ex-Senior Vice-Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism
 * Takashi Kawamura: current mayor of Nagoya City
 * Zenjiro Kaneko: ex-Parliamentary Secretary for Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan
 * Koichiro Ichimura: ex-Parliamentary Secretary for Land, Infrastructure and Transport of Japan
 * Asahiko Mihara: ex-Parliamentary Vice‐Minister of Defense of Japan
 * Yoshinori Suematsu: ex-Senior Vice-Minister of the Cabinet Office (Japan)
 * Sumiko Takahara: ex-chief of the Economic Planning Agency
 * Leong Mun Wai: current Secretary-General of the Progress Singapore Party

Diplomats

 * Kōichirō Asakai: Ex-Japan's ambassador to the United States
 * Sadao Iguchi: Ex-Japan's ambassador to the United States
 * Katsuji Debuchi: Ex-Japan's ambassador to the United States
 * Saburō Kurusu: Imperial Japan's Ambassador to Germany
 * Naotake Satō: Ex-President of House of Councillors of Japan, Ex-Foreign Minister of Japan
 * Toshikazu Kase: Japan's first Ambassador to the United Nations
 * Mami Mizutori: Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Disaster Risk Reduction in the UNDRR
 * Ichiro Komatsu: Ex-Director-General of the Cabinet Legislation Bureau, Ex-Japan's Ambassador to France
 * Kenichi Itō: Ex-CEO of The Japan Forum on International Relations
 * Makoto Taniguchi: Ex-Japan's Ambassador to the United Nations, Ex-Chairman of UNICEF
 * Yukio Okamoto: Diplomatic advisor and analyst
 * Maria Zeneida Collinson: The President of the 61st International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) General Conference
 * Umarjadi Notowijono: The 2nd Secretary-General of ASEAN, Indonesia's first Ambassador to the United Nations
 * Asako Okai: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) assistant administrator, director for the UNDP Crisis Bureau, and United Nations Assistant Secretary-General.

Judges, bureaucrats

 * Harumi Takahashi: current governor of Hokkaidō Prefecture
 * Kei Komuro: lawyer, husband of former Japanese princess Mako Komuro
 * Yoshihiro Yasuda: lawyer
 * Saburo Tokura: The 20th Chief Justice of Japan

Industry

 * Fusanosuke Kuhara: entrepreneur, politician and cabinet minister in the pre-war Empire of Japan, founder of Kuhara Zaibatsu
 * Masaru Hayami: Ex-Governor of the Bank of Japan, Ex-CEO of Nissho Iwai Corp.
 * Kenkichi Kagami: Ex-chairman of Tokio Marine & Fire Insurance Co., Ltd., Ex-President of Mitsubishi Bank, Ltd.
 * Rizaburo Toyoda: first President of Toyota Motor
 * Kizo Yasui: former Chairman of Toray Industries, Inc., former vice-chairman of Nihon Keidanren (Japan Business Federation)
 * Hiroshi Okuda: Ex-Chairman of Toyota Motor and Chairman of Nihon Keidanren (Japan Business Federation)
 * Otogo Kataoka: first President of Nomura Securities Co., Ltd.
 * Kunio Egashira: Ex-Chairman of Ajinomoto Co., Inc.
 * Taikichiro Mori: founder of Mori Building (Forbes ranked him as the richest man in the world in 1991 and 1992.)
 * Masaaki Tsuya: CEO of Bridgestone Co., Inc.
 * Hiroshi Mikitani: founder and CEO of Rakuten Group, Inc.
 * Tatsumi Kimishima: current President of Nintendo, former CEO and chairman of Nintendo of America
 * Hidesaburō Shōda: Ex-CEO of Nisshin Seifun Group, father of the Empress Michiko
 * Masatsugu Nagato: current CEO of Japan Post Holdings, former CEO of Japan Post Bank, former Chairman of Citibank Japan
 * Noritoshi Kanai: Ex-Chairman of Mutual Trading Co., Inc.

Academia

 * Tokuzō Fukuda: Economist, Professor Emeritus at Tokyo College of Commerce
 * Eiichi Sugimoto: Economist
 * Ichiro Nakayama: Economist, President of the Tokyo College of Commerce, the first Chairman of The Tax Commission of Japan
 * Heizō Takenaka: Economist, former Minister of State for Economic and Fiscal Policy of Japan, Professor at Keio University
 * Hiroko Ōta: Economist, Professor of National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies, Ex-Minister of State for Special Missions of Japan
 * Hiroshi Mizuta:Economist, Professor Emeritus at Nagoya University and a member of the Japan Academy
 * Hiroshi Shimizu: Economist, Professor at Waseda University, Winner of 2020 Schumpeter Prize
 * Ryuzo Sato: Economist, C.V. Starr Professor of Economics at New York University
 * Thomas T. Sekine: Economist, Professor at York University
 * Takatoshi Ito: Economist, Professor of School of International and Public Affairs, Columbia University, Ex-Deputy Vice Minister of Finance for International Affairs
 * Kotaro Suzumura: Economist, Person of Cultural Merit, Professor Emeritus at School of Political Science and Economics, Waseda University, Professor Emeritus at Hitotsubashi University
 * Jinkichi Tsukui: Economist, Professor at Osaka University
 * Seiichiro Yonekura: Economist, Professor at Hitotsubashi University and Hosei University, Director of Nippon Genki Juku
 * Tran Van Tho: Economist, Professor of School of Social Sciences, Waseda University
 * Takashi Hikino: Economist, Associate Professor of Graduate School of Economics, Kyoto University
 * Yoshinori Fujikawa: Economist, Associate Vice President at Hitotsubashi University
 * Yoon Ki-jung: Economist, Professor of Yonsei University
 * Hideroku Hara: Legal Scholar, Professor Emeritus at Shiga University
 * Mau-sheng Lee: Professor of College of Law, National Taiwan University
 * Hisashi Inoue: Historian, Professor at Surugadai University
 * David Toshio Tsumura: Linguist, Old Testament scholar, Dean of Faculty and professor at Japan Bible Seminary
 * Noriko H. Arai: Mathematician, professor at the National Institute of Informatics

Others

 * Zenzo Shimizu in 1921 - LCCN2014712904 (cropped).jpgen Fumio Hamao: Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church
 * Adebayo Alonge: Nigerian pharmacist
 * Aya Domenig: filmmaker (Als die Sonne vom Himmel fiel) of Japanese–Swiss origin.
 * Kiyoshi Nishimura: filmmaker
 * Sumio Kobayashi: composer
 * Akira Kume: actor
 * Hiroshi Koike: playwright
 * Tamotsu Nakamura: explorer, Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society
 * Seiichiro Kashio: athlete, Silver Medalist of men's tennis doubles in 1920 Summer Olympics
 * Masaji Kiyokawa: athlete, Gold Medalist of backstroke in 1936 Summer Olympics, Ex-Vice Chairman of International Olympic Committee, Ex-CEO of Kanematsu Corp.
 * Shinpei Mykawa: rice farmer who introduced rice farming to an area of Texas; he came from a college that became Hitotsubashi University
 * Zenzo Shimizu: athlete, tennis player
 * Hiroshi Nakano: rower
 * Ryuta Arakawa: rower
 * Masabumi Hosono: the only Japanese passenger on the RMS Titanic's disastrous maiden voyage
 * Hyozo Omori: physical education specialist
 * Kichimatsu Kishi: "Baron Kishi", oil developer in the U.S.
 * George Shima: "The Potato King", the first President of the Japanese Association of America
 * Futabatei Shimei: author, translator
 * Kafū Nagai: author
 * Christian Polak: author
 * Kim Su-yeong: poet
 * Takashi Hiraide: poet
 * Wataru Yoshizumi: Manga artist
 * Iō Kuroda: Manga artist
 * Ken Ishii: musician
 * Yoshiki Mizuno: musician, member of Ikimono-gakari
 * Ichiro Yoshizawa: mountaineer
 * Junpei Yasuda:journalist
 * Riko Muranaka:medical doctor and journalist
 * Yoshiharu Sekino: explorer, surgeon
 * Dan Weiss:former Head coach of the Tokyo Excellence
 * Kenji Tokitsu: practitioner of Japanese martial arts
 * Yasusato Gamō: educator
 * Kenkichi Ueda: Imperial Japan's Governor-General of Kwantung

title: Hitotsubashi University


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Talk:Gettext

Only about GNU gettext
This page seems to be only about GNU gettext, but has a generic gettext title. It should at least mention that gettext originated at Sun, and is still used by Sun's software and OS. The portable environment variable is named, not  , the latter being a GNU extension with certain additional features.
 * I changed it to GNU gettext for now. If a generic gettext page is later made, this can be merged back in. Superm401 - Talk 00:01, 8 September 2008 (UTC)
 * ✅ This is now a generic page and not only GNU specific. The article has been renamed to gettext. Wget (talk) 22:01, 25 June 2016 (UTC)

LANG and LANGUAGE?
What is the difference between LANG and LANGUAGE? This is not defined in the gettext manual http://www.gnu.org/software/gettext/manual/html_mono/gettext.html

 * The proper variable which refers to translation only is neither but LC_MESSAGES. LANG is a very generic (mostly historic despite being most known) variable which affects also the character set, the date format and others. This is especially problematic as LANG often unnecessarily implies something inferior to UTF-8. --82.141.49.90 16:49, 9 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Replying to an old comment for clarity's sake. Here's what the ABOUT-NLS file (distributed with gettext) says:

 * "Not all programs have translations for all languages. By default, an English message is shown in place of a nonexistent translation. If you understand other languages, you can set up a priority list of languages.  This is done through a different environment variable, called `LANGUAGE'.  GNU `gettext' gives preference to `LANGUAGE' over `LANG' for the purpose of message handling, but you still need to have `LANG' set to the primary language; this is required by other parts of the system libraries.  For example, some Swedish users who would rather read translations in German than English for when Swedish is not available, set `LANGUAGE' to `sv:de' while leaving `LANG' to `sv_SE'."

 * 80.233.255.7 23:58, 29 October 2007 (UTC)

Thread safe
It reads on this article that gettext isn't thread safe! But it is locales that aren't thread safe! I'm removing the whole sentence. 80.244.73.230 22:47, 21 October 2007 (UTC)

MIME type
Is there any MIME type for .po files? I have seen text/x-po used, but I want to know if there is anything (semi-)official.

Portable Object
Some articles link to this one for a discription of PO = portable object, but PO is not mentioned here. Maybe it should be. --LA2 (talk) 02:18, 7 January 2008 (UTC)

Merger from msgfmt
Any objections to merging the content from msgfmt into this article and leaving that as a redirect to here? That article has forever been only a 2-sentence stub and almost could be deletable for lack of asserted notability. Is there anything major to say about that utility, and is it so important on its own vs just being a component of the gettext system? DMacks (talk) 19:44, 4 July 2008 (UTC)

How to update a .po file
It should be interesting to present not only how to create, but also how to update a .po file. http://live.gnome.org/TranslationProject/SvnHowTo shows these steps: intltool-update xy ; vi xy.po ; msgfmt -cv -o /dev/null xy.po —Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.238.108.175 (talk) 17:03, 25 February 2009 (UTC)

History, background and perspective
It would be nice to have some background story available. Initially, POSIX provided no means of localizing messages. Then, some time in the late 1980's, two proposals emerged: in 1988, the X/Open consortium specified the catgets interface in the X/Open Portability Guide Issue 3 (XPG-3), where the messages are indexed by an integer, and in 1989, the UniForum group specified the gettext interface, where the messages are indexed by string constants. Sun Microsystems was the first to implement the gettext interface in their SunOS, but for a long time, most commercial Unices offered support to both interfaces. The gettext specifications eventually became part of POSIX.1b in 1993. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Peterlin~enwiki (talk • contribs)

Translator comments
The article uses /// to indicate translator comments. This is probably OK but why does the comment also start with " TRANSLATORS:"? This could be used as keyword instead of /// (multiline C-style comments would be required in this case). —Preceding unsigned comment added by 139.20.52.73 (talk) 11:21, 9 July 2010 (UTC)

 * To make it easier and more convenient to parse, Gettext uses "///" to tell whenever to add the comment to the translation file.

 * The "TRANSLATORS:" part is redundant. I think it's here to make a example on a situation on how it might be used for.

 * Take note however that the talk page is to talk about the article only. So don't talk about the subject. Karjam, AKA KarjamP (talk) 11:35, 23 June 2012 (UTC)

Incorrect output for example given
I'm just starting with gettext and the like, but I've noticed that if I run gettext with the options given in the example, i.e. run "xgettext --add-comments=/", then the pot (and po) content will include the leading '/' used as the comment tag. I.e. I get:

#: src/name.c:36 msgid "My name is %s.\n" msgstr ""
 * 1) . / TRANSLATORS: Please leave %s as it is, because it is needed by the program.
 * 2) . / Thank you for contributing to this project.

I have no idea if this is an error here in the article, or if this behaviour may occur for some version(s) of gettext.

It's also the case that, in the case of a continuous set of single-line comments, the tag is only needed on the first single-line, and not on the subsequent lines. Logical, of course, and this means that it's not necessary to add the tag to each line, as in the example (which could imply that it's necessary). You could have:

/// TRANSLATORS: Please leave %s as it is, because it is needed by the program. // Thank you for contributing to this project. printf(_("My name is %s.\n"), my_name);

..for an output of:

#: src/name.c:36 msgid "My name is %s.\n" msgstr ""
 * 1) . / TRANSLATORS: Please leave %s as it is, because it is needed by the program.
 * 2) . Thank you for contributing to this project.

Phylasnier (talk) 17:57, 22 August 2014 (UTC)

The example given in the article("TRANSLATORS: Please leave %s as it is, because it is needed by the program." "Thank you for contributing to this project.") is ridiculous. Nobody will set such a comment. It is best to find a comment from a real life open source project. Otherwise perhaps a comment such as "%s contains the user's name as specified in Setting Dialog" or something like that. Kotz (talk) 08:12, 14 January 2019 (UTC)

When was the first release?
The infobox claims it was 1990, its reference suggests it was 1987, the History-section says “Sun Microsystems implemented the first gettext in 1993.”. --MüffelSchnüffel (talk) 03:23, 7 March 2020 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Gettext


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Nordkehdingen

Nordkehdingen is a Samtgemeinde ("collective municipality") on the left bank of the Elbe, north west of Hamburg (Germany). Nordkehdingen has a population of 7,732 and belongs to the district of Stade, Lower Saxony. The seat of the municipality is in Freiburg.

The Samtgemeinde Nordkehdingen consists of the following municipalities:

 * 1) Balje
 * 2) Freiburg
 * 3) Krummendeich
 * 4) Oederquart
 * 5) Wischhafen

title: Nordkehdingen


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Fredenbeck

Fredenbeck is a municipality northwest of Hamburg (Germany) in the district of Stade in Lower Saxony.

It belonged to the Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen. In 1648 the Prince-Archbishopric was transformed into the Duchy of Bremen, which was first ruled in personal union by the Swedish and from 1715 on by the Hanoverian Crown. In 1823 the Duchy was abolished and its territory became part of the Stade Region.

Fredenbeck is also the seat of the Samtgemeinde ("collective municipality") Fredenbeck.

title: Fredenbeck


text:
Talk:Mega-Dragonzord

Something to do with Zord, apparently. Secretlondon 15:36, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mega-Dragonzord


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Harsefeld

Harsefeld (in High German, in Low Saxon: Harsfeld; literally in horse field) is a municipality situated south-west of Hamburg (Germany). Harsefeld has a population of c. 12,500 and belongs to the district of Stade, Lower Saxony.

Harsefeld is also the seat of the Samtgemeinde ("collective municipality") Harsefeld.

History
In 1104 a Benedictine was founded in Harsefeld, then within the Duchy of Saxony. After the carve-up of the duchy in 1180, Harsefeld belonged to the Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen, a new territory of imperial immediacy of the Holy Roman Empire. In the mid-16th century, when most inhabitants of the prince-archbishopric adopted Lutheranism, the archabbey remained a stronghold of Catholicism. During the Leaguist occupation under Tilly (1628–1630), the archabbey became a starting point for the attempts of re-Catholicisation.

In 1648 the prince-archbishopric was transformed into the Duchy of Bremen, which was first ruled in personal union by the Swedish crown. The new rulers dissolved the archabbey and most of its structures fell in ruins after 1648. From 1715 on, the House of Hanover ruled the duchy. In 1807 the ephemeric Kingdom of Westphalia annexed the Duchy, before France annexed it in 1810. In 1813 the Duchy was restored to the Electorate of Hanover, which – after its upgrade to the Kingdom of Hanover in 1814 – incorporated the Duchy in a real union and the Ducal territory, including Harsefeld, became part of the Stade Region, established in 1823.

People born in Harsefeld

 * Otto Albrecht von Düring (1807–1875), Justice Minister of the Kingdom of Hanover
 * Jürgen Fitschen (1948– ), German banker and former co-CEO of Deutsche Bank
 * Erich Prigge (1879–1955), German Army officer and military memoirist

title: Harsefeld


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Himmelpforten

Himmelpforten (Low Saxon: Himmelpoorten) is a municipality west of Hamburg (Germany) in the district of Stade in Lower Saxony. It is located on the creek. Himmelpforten is also part and the seat of the Samtgemeinde ("collective municipality") Oldendorf-Himmelpforten.

History
Himmelpforten belonged to the Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen. The families von Brobergen and von Haseldorf had donated a Cistercian nunnery in near Lamstedt. In 1255 it moved to Himmelpforten, then named Eulsete. The Himmelpforten Convent used to be called in Porta Coeli (heaven's gate), which became the place's name Himmelpoorten (in Low Saxon) or Himmelpforten (in High German) respectively. The church of the nunnery was also used as a parish church. The nuns elected a provost, first mentioned in 1255 (a certain Albert), who had the privilege to nominate priests to the churches in the Himmelpforten parish, to wit the churches in Himmelpforten itself, in Großenwörden, Hechthausen and in.

Nunneries had traditionally been institutions to provide unmarried daughters of the better off, who couldn't be provided a husband befitting their social status or who didn't want to marry, with a decent livelihood. So when an unmarried woman of that status joined a nunnery she would bestow earning assets (real estate) or – restricted to her lifetime – regular revenues paid by her male relatives, on the nunnery, making up in the former case part of the nunnery's estates.

In 1556 Himmelpforten's then Lutheran Provost Segebade II von der Hude appointed the first Lutheran pastor, Peter Schlichting, in Himmelpforten. When in the mid-16th century the majority of the population in the Prince-Archbishopric adopted Lutheranism, the function of the nunnery, to provide sustenance for unmarried women, wasn't to be given up. So the formerly Roman Catholic nunnery of Himmelpforten with its estates was turned into a Lutheran foundation (das Stift, more particular: Frauenstift, literally in Damsels' foundation).

During the Leaguist occupation under Johan 't Serclaes, Count of Tilly (1628-1630), the administrator regnant of the Bremian See, John Frederick had to agree to Catholic visitations in the nunneries. By November 1629 the Roman Catholic visitors issued an ultimatum to the prioress of the Lutheran conventuals to convert to Catholicism or to leave the nunnery.

No conversion had been recorded, so on 6 August 1630 all Lutheran conventuals left, the day before their announced forced eviction from the nunnery. In accordance with the Edict of Restitution the estates of Himmelpforten's nunnery were then bestowed to the Catholic Jesuits, in order to finance them and their missioning in the course of the Counter-Reformation in the Prince-Archbishopric. The expelled conventuals were denied restitution of the real estate which they bestowed on the nunnery when they had entered it.

After the Leaguist troops left Himmelpforten, the Lutheran conventuals returned and elected a new provost in 1638, Casper Schulte. After the Swedes had occupied Himmelpforten in 1645, on 27 October 1647 Queen Christina of Sweden promised Himmelpforten's nunnery and its estates to Count Gustaf Adolf Lewenhaupt as a fief heritable in the male line (Mannlehen).

On 30 July 1651 Lewenhaupt was officially invested with the nunnery, while the eleven still remaining conventuals under Prioress Gertrud von Campe were to be supplied a livelihood until their death. New conventuals were not to be accepted anymore. Since the enfeoffment of Lewenhaupt the estates and jurisdictions of the Himmelpforten Convent formed the seigniorial Amt Himmelpforten, seated in Himmelpforten. In 1648 the Prince-Archbishopric was transformed into the Duchy of Bremen, which was first ruled in personal union by the Swedish Crown - interrupted by a Danish occupation (1712-1715) - and from 1715 on by the Hanoverian Crown. After a Prussian and then French occupation from 1806 to 1810, the ephemeric Kingdom of Westphalia annexed the Duchy in 1810, replacing the Amt Himmelpforten by the Canton of Stade and Himmelpforten, established on 1 September 1810 and seated in Stade. With effect of 1 January 1811 France annexed all the South Elbian German coast and its hinterland and the area of the former Amt Himmelpforten formed part of the Himmelpforten-based Canton de Himmelpforten in the Bouches-de-l'Elbe Department.

In 1813 the Duchy was restored to the Electorate of Hanover, which - after its upgrade to the Kingdom of Hanover in 1814 - incorporated the Duchy in a real union and the ducal territory, including the restituted Amt Himmelpforten with Himmelpforten, became part of the new Stade Region, established in 1823. Since in 1885 the Amt Himmelpforten merged in the new District of Stade Himmelpforten forms part of it.

Himmelpforten is one of Germany's oldest Weihnachtspostämter or Christmas Post Offices, to which children can write letters to Santa and volunteers send responses.

Name
When in 1255 the Conventus Porta Coeli moved to Himmelpforten it still bore the name Eylsede/ Eulsete (literally: Eylo's/Eilhard's seat). The Latin name Porta Coeli (Gate of Heaven) refers to the Christian imagery of Mary of Nazareth as the Gate of Heaven derived from Ezekiel's "closed gate", considered to have been opened by Mary as an incarnation of this prophecy. Eylsede later adopted the Low Saxon translation tor Hemmelporten or to der Himilporten of the convent's Latin name, now given in modern Low Saxon as Himmelpoorten and in standard High German as Himmelpforten.

Components of Himmelpforten
Today's Himmelpforten comprises the following localities and formerly independent municipalities:

 * (Low Saxon: Bredenwisch), since 1972 a locality of Himmelpforten
 * (Low Saxon: Kuhla), since 1972 a locality of Himmelpforten
 * (Low Saxon: Löh), a locality of Himmelpforten of old
 * Neukuhla (Low Saxon: Neekuhla), a locality of Himmelpforten of old
 * (Low Saxon: Ossenpohl), a locality of Himmelpforten of old
 * (Low Saxon: Ramels), a locality of Himmelpforten of old

Traffic
Himmelpforten is connected by the B 73 highway with the net of federal routes. Since 1 July 1881 the town is connected to the railway net with Himmelpforten station located almost at the middle of the Niederelbebahn line with 51.9 km towards Hamburg-Harburg station and 50.9 km towards Cuxhaven station.

title: Himmelpforten


text: User talk:216.100.89.66

title: User talk:216.100.89.66


text:
Category:Physical activity and dexterity toys

This category includes 'dexterity play' and 'flow arts' items or activities utilising these items, such as a Cup stacking, Yo-yo, Hula hoop, Pen spinning, Frisbee, Boomerang, or the like, using skills and props related to sport, fitness, recreation, juggling and twirling activities in a dextrous, skilled or practised manner.

A sister category, Category:Juggling is also available, containing skills and props used specifically for different forms of juggling.


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Lühe

Lühe is a Samtgemeinde ("collective municipality") in the Altes Land west of Hamburg (Germany). Lühe has a population of about 10,000 and belongs to the district of Stade, Lower Saxony. The seat of the municipality is in Steinkirchen in Altes Land. Lühe is named after the river Lühe which runs through Guderhandviertel, Mittelnkirchen, Neuenkirchen in Altes Land and Steinkirchen.

Component municipalities
The Samtgemeinde Lühe consists of the following municipalities:

 * 1) Grünendeich
 * 2) Guderhandviertel
 * 3) Hollern-Twielenfleth
 * 4) Mittelnkirchen
 * 5) Neuenkirchen in Altes Land
 * 6) Steinkirchen in Altes Land

title: Lühe


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/A state of affairs

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE. Golbez 01:11, Jun 20, 2005 (UTC)

A state of affairs
Wikipedia still isn't a dictionary. Sonic Mew 15:39, Jun 14, 2005 (UTC)
 * Support - Can't see how this can turn into anything else either. Secretlondon 15:43, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete - I've read it four times and I still don't understand the definition... need more coffee... -- Francs2000 | Talk 15:59, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * Delete. The text of this entry looks more like a definition for actus reus (which already has a better page on Wikipedia) than a definition or explanation of "a state of affairs". --Metropolitan90 17:00, Jun 14, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete The first bit is actus reus, the rest is who-knows-what. Xoloz 05:09, 15 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete not encyclopedic - almost a speedy candidate with its lack of content. JamesBurns 05:59, 15 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages.  Please do not edit this page .


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Amy Linker

Amy Meredith Linker (born October 19, 1966) is an American former child actress. She is best known for her starring role in the television sitcom Square Pegs (1982–1983).

Career
Born in Brooklyn, New York, Linker's first major acting role was as Kelly Lewis in the television series Lewis & Clark, which ran for one season from 1981 to 1982. Shortly thereafter, Linker was cast as central character Lauren Hutchinson on the teen comedy/drama Square Pegs. Square Pegs told the story of two high school freshmen, Hutchinson and Patty Greene (played by Sarah Jessica Parker), and their at times desperate attempts to fit in and achieve popularity. Linker was forced to wear fake braces and a fatsuit in order to appear less attractive than she actually was for the character she portrayed. Even though the show was praised by critics, it was cancelled after its first season.

After Square Pegs, Linker voiced the character of "Robin" on the animated Mister T series in 1983. After the show ended she enrolled in Wellesley College, graduating in 1989 with a degree in French studies. Other notable roles for Linker were as Sherie Lee Fox in the 1985 science fiction film D.A.R.Y.L., and as Jenny Pennoyer in the 1984 TV movie When We First Met. Linker appeared as the character Esmerelda on the television series Don't Make Me Sick in 2009.

Personal life
Linker attended Beverly Hills High School in Beverly Hills, California and Frenchwoods Festival of the Performing Arts camp. Since apparently quitting acting, she has worked in Internet marketing and worked as a second grade teacher. In 2012, she obtained her Master of Social Work from the University of Southern California, and now works as a psychotherapist.

title: Amy Linker


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Palestine Exploration Fund

The Palestine Exploration Fund is a British society based in London. It was founded in 1865, shortly after the completion of the Ordnance Survey of Jerusalem by Royal Engineers of the War Department. The Fund is the oldest known organization in the world created specifically for the study of the Levant region, also known as Palestine. Often simply known as the PEF, its initial objective was to carry out surveys of the topography and ethnography of Ottoman Palestine – producing the PEF Survey of Palestine. Its remit was considered to fall between an expeditionary survey and military intelligence gathering. There was also strong religious interest from Christians; William Thomson, Archbishop of York, was the first President of the PEF.

As a result, the PEF had a complex relationship with Corps of Royal Engineers of the War Department. The PEF members sent back reports to the UK on the need to salvage and modernise the Levant region.

History
Following the completion of the Ordnance Survey of Jerusalem, the Biblical archaeologists and clergymen who supported the survey financed the creation of the fund. It was founded on 22 June 1865 with initial funding of £300. The most notable of the founders were Arthur P. Stanley, the Dean of Westminster, and George Grove, who later founded the Royal College of Music and was responsible for Grove's Dictionary of Music. Its founders established the fund "for the purpose of investigating the Archaeology, Geography, manners, customs and culture, Geology and Natural History of the Holy Land".

The roots of the Palestine Exploration Fund lie in a literary society founded by British Consul James Finn and his wife Elizabeth Anne Finn. Many photographs of Palestine have survived from this period. Frederick J. Bliss wrote of the foundation that "[a]s far as its aims were concerned this organization was but a re-institution of a Society formed about the year 1804 under the name of the Palestine Association... it is interesting to note that the General Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund recognized an organic connection with the earlier Society."

The preliminary meeting of the Society of the Palestine Exploration Fund took place in the Jerusalem Chamber of Westminster Abbey. William Thomson, the Archbishop of York, publicly read the original prospectus at this meeting; "[O]ur object is strictly an inductive inquiry. We are not to be a religious society; we are not about to launch controversy; we are about to apply the rules of science, which are so well understood by us in our branches, to an investigation into the facts concerning the Holy Land. 'No country should be of so much interest to us as that in which the documents of our Faith were written, and the momentous events they describe enacted. At the same time no country more urgently requires illustration ... Even to a casual traveller in the Holy Land the Bible becomes, in its form, and therefore to some extent in its substance, a new book. Much would be gained by ...bringing to light the remains of so many races and generations which must lie concealed under the accumulation of rubbish and ruins on which those villages stand ..."

The PEF conducted many early excavations of biblical and post-biblical sites around the Levant, as well as studies involving natural history, anthropology, history and geography. In 1867, Charles Warren led PEF's biggest expedition. Warren and his team improved the topography of Jerusalem and discovered the ancient water systems that lay beneath this city. The water system was later named Warren's Shaft, after his work. They also made the first excavations of Tell es-Sultan, site of the biblical city of Jericho. A 2013 publication, The Walls of the Temple Mount, provides more specifics about Warren's work, as summarized in a book review: "'... he concentrated on excavating shafts down beneath the ground to the level of the lower parts of the external Temple Mount walls, recording the different types of stonework he encountered at different levels and other features, such as Robinson's Arch on the western side and the Herodian street below it. ... in 1884 the PEF published a large portfolio of 50 of Warren's maps, plans and drawings titled Plans, Elevations, Sections, etc., Shewing the Results of the Excavations at Jerusalem, 1867–70 (now known as the 'Warren Atlas').'"

In 1875, the Earl of Shaftesbury, a prominent social reformer, told the Annual General Meeting of the PEF that "We have there a land teeming with fertility and rich in history, but almost without an inhabitant – a country without a people, and look! scattered over the world, a people without a country." It was one of the earliest usages by a prominent politician of the phrase "A land without a people for a people without a land," which was to become widely used by advocates of Jewish settlement in Palestine. And, he added: "But let it return into the hands of the Israelites..."

In 1878, the Treasurer's statement listed over 130 local associations of the PEF in the United Kingdom (including Ireland). There were also branches in Canada and Australia, and Gaza City and Jerusalem. Expenditure in 1877 amounted to £2,959 14s 11d.

Notable persons associated with PEF:

 * Claude R. Conder
 * Charles Warren
 * Lord Kitchener
 * Edward Henry Palmer
 * T. E. Lawrence
 * Kathleen Kenyon
 * Conrad Schick
 * Charles Wilson

Early projects
The first 21 years of the fund are summarised in PEF (1886). Its chapters and persons mentioned include the following: In his opening address (p.8), Archbishop Thomson laid down three basic principles for the Society: Regarding the latter, great emphasis was placed upon the nomenclature "Holy Land", so the notion of religion could never have been far away. Also (p.10) stress was laid upon the fact that "The Society numbers among its supporters Christians and Jews". (Muslims were not mentioned.)
 * The Foundation of the Society
 * Claude Conder
 * Charles Warren
 * Lord Kitchener
 * Edward Henry Palmer
 * Kathleen Kenyon
 * Conrad Schick
 * William Thomson (Archbishop of York)
 * Charles Wilson
 * That whatever was undertaken should be carried out on scientific principles
 * That the Society should, as a body, abstain from controversy
 * That it should not be started, nor should it be conducted, as a religious society.
 * The Chronicle of the Society
 * The First Expedition
 * The Excavations at Jerusalem
 * The Desert of the Exodus
 * The Survey of Western Palestine
 * The Archaeological Expeditions
 * The Survey of Eastern Palestine
 * The Geological Survey
 * Smaller Expeditions
 * The Monuments of the Country
 * Obituary
 * The Work of the Future
 * Chronological Summary of the Fund's Work
 * Captain Conder's identifications

Elsewhere the following activities have been reported:

 * Excavations in Jerusalem (1867–1870); conducted by Charles Warren and Henry Birtles
 * The PEF Survey of Palestine (1872–1877); The majority of the work of the survey was carried out by men from the Royal Engineers.
 * The Ordnance Survey of Sinai (1872); undertaken by Edward Palmer.
 * Excavations at Tell el-Hesi (1890–1893); under the direction of Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie, and Frederick J. Bliss.
 * Excavations resumed at Jerusalem (1890); led by F. Bliss, focussing on the southern edge of Mount Zion round to the Pool of Siloam.
 * Excavations at Tell Zakariya (Azekah) (1897–1899); led by Frederick J. Bliss and R. A. Stewart Macalister.
 * Excavations at Gezer (1902–1908); led by R. A. Stewart Macalister.
 * Excavation at Beth-Shemesh (1911); led by Duncan Mackenzie.
 * The Wilderness of Zin Archaeological Survey (1913–1914); conducted by Sir Leonard Woolley and T. E. Lawrence.
 * Excavation at Ashkelon (1920s); led by John Garstang.
 * Excavation of paleolithic site on the Mount Carmel (1925); led by Dorothy Garrod.
 * Excavations south of Gaza and at Beth Pelet (1929-1933); led by Petrie.
 * Excavation at Samaria (1931–1933); led by John W. Crowfoot with Harvard and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
 * Excavation at Tel el-Duweir (1934–1938); led by James Leslie Starkey until his murder in 1938. Finds included some of the earliest examples of Hebrew written on over twenty ostraca.

The Palestine Exploration Fund was also involved in the foundation of the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem in 1919. The School worked with the Fund in joint excavations at Jerusalem's Ophel in the 1920s. The school's second director, John Winter Crowfoot, was Chairman of the PEF from 1945 to 1950.

Women of the Palestine Exploration Fund
Through the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, women were frequently employed by the Fund to carry baskets of soil from the excavations to the dump. These women also cut back brush and dug. The majority of these women remain nameless, as they were hired to perform hard labour on behalf of the trained archaeologists. Bliss took an active interest in the lives of his workers—though not necessarily in their well-being—recording a few names and stories. In his diary, Bliss wrote that most of the workers were from Bureir, a village six miles away from the Tell. Most of the men slept at camp, "digging little shallow graves for a bed", but "the women and girls had the long walk both before and after work. Six miles' walk before 6.30a.m., and six miles' walk after 5p.m., with a hard day's work of carrying earth-piled baskets on the head in between". He comments that this does not seem like an easy life, but more women and girls applied for work than he could employ.

Heuda is one woman employed to work on an excavation with Bliss, at Tell el-Hesi. He first writes about her in 1891, noting that she is a capital worker though "a bolder, wilder girl I never saw". He describes her capacity to run all over the site and clear the trenches for excavation with wonder, also commenting on her good looks and marriage prospects. He writes about her cousin, Rizq, as well, and her abilities to haul earth. Bliss provided a unique insight into the lives of two of the women comprising the PEF workforce. Subsequent directors only referred to the women in their employ as anonymous labourers, sometimes complaining that they brought too much gossip—though in Bliss' journals, he recounts more familial and romantic tension that caused trouble on site among the men.

PEF today
For some years, the fund's office was located north of Wigmore Street in the Marylebone section of the City of Westminster, London, but in early 2019, the PEF moved to 5-6 Dreadnought Walk, Greenwich, London.

Chief Executive and Curator of the PEF, Felicity Cobbing, told The Jordan Times that the Ottoman's Palestine region included historical Palestine, Jordan, southern Syria, Lebanon, the Sinai Peninsula and the island of Cyprus. The PEF's "goal was – and remains – to study the country, its people and its natural, ancient and cultural heritage," she added. The new Greenwich headquarters provides more space for PEF collections and its specialist library. "Now we can welcome many more scholars and we can look forward to developing collaborative projects with other institutions both in the UK and internationally," Cobbing said.

Events
The PEF holds regular events and lectures and provides annual grants for various projects. In partnership with the British Museum Department of Middle East, the Palestine Exploration Fund hosts free lectures that reflect the diverse interests of their membership. The PEF also co-ordinates joint lectures with the Council for British Research in the Levant, the Anglo-Israel Archaeological Society, the Society for Arabian Studies, and the Egypt Exploration Society. Once a year, an Annual General Meeting (AGM) is held before an lecture.

Grants
Each year the Palestine Exploration Fund offers grants for travel and research related to topics connected with its founding aims.

The committee welcomes interdisciplinary applications relating to the fund's aims, as well as those relating to the PEF's archival collections. The PEF grants are open to all members of the PEF or someone who is becoming a member.

Collection
The PEF's offices also house collections of photographs, maps, specimens, manuscripts, and paintings. At their location in London, there are collections over 6,000 artefacts that range in date from 40,000 B.C. to the 19th century. The archives contain over 40,000 photographs of Palestine, Jordan, and Syria. Objects come from sites in the South Levant, in particular from Jerusalem, Tell el Hesi, and Samaria. The material comes almost exclusively from PEF excavations carried out between the 1860s to the 1930s. Items on display include artefacts from excavations by Charles Warren, Sir William Flinders Petrie, Frederick Jones Bliss, and John Crowfoot. The PEF also has a collection of casts from original items that now reside in different areas around the world.

Also at the PEF is an archive of maps that is composed mainly of documents, letters, reports, plans and maps compiled by the explorers and scholars who worked for the PEF. These explorers include Charles Warren in Jerusalem and Palestine (1867–1870), Claude Conder and Horatio Kitchener on the Survey of Western Palestine (1872–1878), the Survey of Eastern Palestine (1880–81) and the Wady Arabah (1883-4), the excavations of Flinders Petrie and Frederick Jones Bliss at Tell el Hesi (1890–1892), the excavations of R.A.S. Macalister at Gezer (1902–06), Duncan Mackenzie's excavations at Ain Shems-Beth Shemesh in 1910–1912, C. L. Woolley and T. E. Lawrence on the Wilderness of Zin Survey (1913–14), and many others.

In addition to these items, the PEF also maintains a collection of photographs of expeditions, coins, natural history, models, and historic forgeries.

The PEF also houses a library containing books pertaining to the diverse interests of itself and its members.

Quarterly publication
The journal of the PEF devoted to the study of the history, archaeology and geography of the Levant has appeared under two successive titles:
 * Quarterly Statement (Q.S., 1869–1937)
 * Palestine Exploration Quarterly (PEQ, since 1937).

For more see below under Further reading.

title: Palestine Exploration Fund


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Horneburg

Horneburg is a municipality southwest of Hamburg (Germany) in the district of Stade in Lower Saxony.

Horneburg is also the seat of the Samtgemeinde ("collective municipality") Horneburg.

History
Horneburg belonged to the Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen. In 1648 the Prince-Archbishopric was transformed into the Duchy of Bremen, which was first ruled in personal union by the Swedish and from 1715 on by the Hanoverian Crown. In 1823 the Duchy was abolished and its territory became part of the Stade Region.

Concentration camp
During World War II a concentration camp was established in Horneburg. It was a subcamp to the Neuengamme concentration camp. From October 1944 until February 1945 about 200 Hungarian Jewish women and 50 Dutch women were forced to work making valves for the Philips-Valvo-Röhrenwerke. Dutch women were also forced to work in the port of Horneburg. The Hungarian women came from Auschwitz-Birkenau camp, the Dutch women transported from Ravensbrück concentration camp. In mid-February 1945 the SS deported the women to the subcamp Porta Westfalica. 300 Hungarian women coming from a subcamp of Groß Rosen and Auschwitz were transported to Horneburg on February 24, 1945. These women were transported to Bergen-Belsen on April 8, 1945, where they arrived on April 11.

Memorial
On October 22, 1997 a memorial stone with a plaque were installed at the location of the camp, at the street crossing Vordamm/Auedamm, Horneburg.

Transport
The rapid transit system of Hamburg S-Bahn—with the trains of the line S3—and the regional rail serve Horneburg at the railway station.

title: Horneburg


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Wilhelm Wirtinger

Wilhelm Wirtinger (19 July 1865 – 16 January 1945) was an Austrian mathematician, working in complex analysis, geometry, algebra, number theory, Lie groups, and knot theory.

Biography
He was born at Ybbs on the Danube and studied at the University of Vienna, where he received his doctorate in 1887, and his habilitation in 1890. Wirtinger was greatly influenced by Felix Klein with whom he studied at the University of Berlin and the University of Göttingen.

Honours
In 1907 the Royal Society of London awarded him the Sylvester Medal, for his contributions to the general theory of functions.

Research activity
He worked in many areas of mathematics, publishing 71 works. His first significant work, published in 1896, was on theta functions. He proposed as a generalization of eigenvalues, the concept of the spectrum of an operator, in an 1897 paper; the concept was further extended by David Hilbert and now it forms the main object of investigation in the field of spectral theory. Wirtinger also contributed papers on complex analysis, geometry, algebra, number theory, and Lie groups. He collaborated with Kurt Reidemeister on knot theory, showing in 1905 how to compute the knot group. Also, he was one of the editors of the Analysis section of Klein's encyclopedia.

During a conversation, Wirtinger attracted the attention of Stanisław Zaremba to a particular boundary value problem, which later became known as the mixed boundary value problem.

Teaching activity
A partial list of his students includes the following scientists:

 * Alfred Berger (mathematician)
 * Wilhelm Blaschke
 * Hilda Geiringer
 * Kurt Gödel
 * Wilhelm Gross
 * Eduard Helly
 * Hans Hornich
 * Erwin Schrödinger
 * Karl Strubecker
 * Olga Taussky-Todd
 * Leopold Vietoris
 * Roland Weitzenböck

Selected publications

 * , available at DigiZeitschirften. In this important paper, Wirtinger introduces several important concepts in the theory of functions of several complex variables, namely Wirtinger derivatives and the tangential Cauchy–Riemann condition. The paper is deliberately written from a formal point of view, i.e. without giving a rigorous derivation of the properties deduced.

Biographical references

 * , available at DigiZeitschirften. An ample commemorative paper containing a list of Wirtinger's publications.

title: Wilhelm Wirtinger


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Talk:Crenellation

Untitled
I've added the above notice because this article presently seems to confine itself to Western medieval architecture. Crenellation has been employed for centuries in Islamic architecture, for example in the Mamluk Qala'un Mosque of Cairo, Egypt (to take one of the many examples). For starters, see Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (1989) 'Architecture of the Bahri Mamluks'. In Islamic Architecture in Cairo: An Introduction. Leiden/New York: E.J. Brill, pp. 94–132. — mark ✎ 15:41, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Proposed merger with Battlement
Agree. One article should be able to cover this type of structure. Although redirects should be used for all the various terms. Brendandh 15:16, 12 December 2006 (UTC)

The problem with the idea is that crenellations may be used for ornamentation, ie in Gothic pseudo castles of the 18th and 19th centuries, in short little more than ornamental parapets, whereas batlements are always the real thing used for fotification. If the page is merged this would have to made clear. Giano 14:55, 26 January 2007 (UTC)

There is a lot of junk in this article. It needs to be cut down, written in a more Encylopedic tone. Right now it suffers from knowitallism. Do not merge with the better battlement article CJ DUB 15:57, 5 March 2007 (UTC)

 * oppose merger. it would be cumbersome and separate articles may be warranted anyway.  Crenellation does need some work on it. Anlace 17:21, 5 March 2007 (UTC)

Disagree. Battlements include the wallwalk/parapet as well as the crenellated walls. A battlement doesn't have to be crenellated, though they normally are. The fault is in the Battlement article, which, while fairly good, implies that the two are synonyms. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 12.47.223.8 (talk) 13:14, 3 June 2009 (UTC)

 * totally hell no. I just felt like saying that. 02:09, 30 December 2008 (UTC) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 59.92.124.130 (talk)

Disagree. Battlements are not the only things that use a castellation shape. Although the current article doesn't make mention of it, it is widely used in machined parts, for example. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 216.123.246.60 (talk) 17:45, 23 April 2009 (UTC)

Copyright Infringement?
The text from the licences to crenellate section seems to be a cut'n'paste job from http://homepage.mac.com/philipdavis/LtoCren.html. Was permission granted? Steventee 10:06, 24 January 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Crenellation


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MTB 102

MTB 102 is one of few surviving motor torpedo boats that served with the Coastal Forces of the Royal Navy in the Second World War. She was built as a prototype, but was purchased and taken into service by the Admiralty.

She was the smallest vessel to ever serve as a flagship for the Royal Navy.

Construction
Designed by Commander Peter Du Cane, the Managing Director of Vosper Ltd, in 1936. She was launched and completed at Portsmouth in 1937, bought by the Admiralty and taken into service with the Royal Navy as MTB 102, the 100 series denoting a prototype vessel. She had an all-wood hull, described as "double diagonal Honduras mahogany on Canadian rock elm".

Besides the torpedo tubes she was built with, depth charges, machine guns and the Swiss Oerlikon 20 mm anti-aircraft cannon were all tested on her.

MTB 102 was the fastest wartime British naval vessel in service at 48 knots.

Wartime service
From 1939 to 1940 she was stationed in the English Channel. During Operation Dynamo (the evacuation from Dunkirk, May–June 1940) she crossed the channel eight times and acted as flagship for Rear Admiral Wake-Walker when his flagship, destroyer HMS Keith (H06), was disabled.

In 1943, she was transferred to the Army's 615 Water Transport Company, RASC and renamed Vimy.

In 1944, she carried Winston Churchill and General Dwight D. Eisenhower to review the fleet for Operation Overlord, the invasion of Normandy.

Postwar service
MTB 102 was sold off after the war, and converted to a private motor cruiser on the North Sea.

In April 1966, in an unseaworthy condition and partially converted into a houseboat, she was bought from Robinson's boatyard Oulton Broad by Derek Brown. Brown single-handedly completed extensive work and eventually relaunched MTB 102.

In 1973 she was acquired by the 1st Blofield and Brundall Sea Scouts, of Norfolk, in whose care she remained until 1995 when ownership passed to the MTB102 Trust. The vessel came with the purchase of the plot of land used as the group's water-base at Brundall Marina, on Hobros Dyke.

In 1976 she was refurbished by a film company for use in the film The Eagle Has Landed, and in the Dutch film Soldier of Orange the following year.

In 1977 she appeared for Queen Elizabeth II's Silver Jubilee pageant on the River Thames.

In 1983 and 1990 extensive structural repair work was carried out on the hull and decks totalling around £70,000.

Since 1979 she has made several appearances at Navy Days and is now listed as part of the National Historic Fleet.

The MTB 102 Trust was established in 1996 to fund the operation and maintenance of MTB 102; it is a registered charity under English law.

Several changes of engines have occurred over her life. The original Italian Isotta Fraschini engines became difficult to maintain during the early part of the war as Italy was allied to Germany, though they lasted until replaced after the war when MTB 102 was converted to civilian use. In 1985 Perkins Ltd donated two turbocharged diesel engines, and in 1996 and 2002 Cummins Marine provided new engines.

102 appeared as herself in the 2017 war film Dunkirk.

title: MTB 102


text:
Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi

Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi (31 July 1907 – 29 June 1966) was an Indian polymath with interests in mathematics, statistics, philology, history, and genetics. He contributed to genetics by introducing the Kosambi map function. In statistics, he was the first person to develop orthogonal infinite series expressions for stochastic processes via the Kosambi–Karhunen–Loève theorem. He is also well known for his work in numismatics and for compiling critical editions of ancient Sanskrit texts. His father, Dharmananda Damodar Kosambi, had studied ancient Indian texts with a particular emphasis on Buddhism and its literature in the Pali language. Damodar Kosambi emulated him by developing a keen interest in his country's ancient history. He was also a Marxist historian specialising in ancient India who employed the historical materialist approach in his work. He is particularly known for his classic work An Introduction to the Study of Indian History.

He is described as "the patriarch of the Marxist school of Indian historiography". Kosambi was critical of the policies of then prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru, which, according to him, promoted capitalism in the guise of democratic socialism. He was an enthusiast of the Chinese Communist Revolution and its ideals, and was a leading activist in the world peace movement.

Early life
Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi was born at Kosben in Portuguese Goa into a Saraswat Brahmin family to Dharmananda Damodar Kosambi. After a few years of schooling in India, in 1918, Damodar and his elder sister, Manik travelled to Cambridge, Massachusetts with their father, who had taken up a teaching position at the Cambridge Latin School. Their father was tasked by Professor Charles Rockwell Lanman of Harvard University to complete compiling a critical edition of Visuddhimagga, a book on Buddhist philosophy, which was originally started by Henry Clarke Warren. There, the young Damodar spent a year in a Grammar school and then was admitted to the Cambridge High and Latin School in 1920. He became a member of the Cambridge branch of American Boy Scouts.

It was in Cambridge that he befriended another prodigy of the time, Norbert Wiener, whose father Leo Wiener was the elder Kosambi's colleague at Harvard University. Kosambi excelled in his final school examination and was one of the few candidates who was exempt on the basis of merit from necessarily passing an entrance examination essential at the time to gain admission to Harvard University. He enrolled in Harvard in 1924, but eventually postponed his studies, and returned to India. He stayed with his father who was now working in the Gujarat University, and was in the close circles of Mahatma Gandhi.

In January 1926, Kosambi returned to the US with his father, who once again studied at Harvard University for a year and half. Kosambi studied mathematics under George David Birkhoff, who wanted him to concentrate on mathematics, but the ambitious Kosambi instead took many diverse courses excelling in each of them. In 1929, Harvard awarded him the Bachelor of Arts degree with a summa cum laude. He was also granted membership to the esteemed Phi Beta Kappa Society, the oldest undergraduate honours organisation in the United States. He returned to India soon after.

Banaras and Aligarh
He obtained the post of professor at the Banaras Hindu University (BHU), teaching German alongside mathematics. He struggled to pursue his research on his own, and published his first research paper, "Precessions of an Elliptic Orbit" in the Indian Journal of Physics in 1930.

In 1931, Kosambi married Nalini from the wealthy Madgaonkar family. It was in this year that he was hired by mathematician André Weil, then Professor of Mathematics at Aligarh Muslim University, to the post of lecturership in mathematics at Aligarh. His other colleagues at Aligarh included Tirukkannapuram Vijayaraghavan. During his two years stay in Aligarh, he produced eight research papers in the general area of Differential Geometry and Path Spaces. His fluency in several European languages allowed him to publish some of his early papers in French, Italian and German journals in their respective languages.

Mathematics
In 1932, he joined the Deccan Education Society's Fergusson College in Pune, where he taught mathematics for 14 years. In 1935, his eldest daughter, Maya was born, while in 1939, the youngest, Meera.

In 1944 he published a small article of 4 pages titled The Estimation of Map Distance from Recombination Values in Annals of Eugenics, in which he introduced what later came to be known as Kosambi map function. According to his equation, genetic map distance (w) is related to recombination fraction (θ) in the following way:

$$ w = \frac{1}{4} \ln \frac{1+2\theta}{1-2\theta} $$ or, put in another way, $$ \theta = \frac{1}{2} \frac{e^{4w}-1}{e^{4w}+1}. $$

Kosambi's mapping function adjusts the map distance based on interference which changes the proportion of double crossovers.

One of the most important contributions of Kosambi to statistics is the widely known technique called proper orthogonal decomposition (POD). Although it was originally developed by Kosambi in 1943, it is now referred to as the Karhunen–Loève expansion. In the 1943 paper entitled 'Statistics in Function Space' presented in the Journal of the Indian Mathematical Society, Kosambi presented the Proper Orthogonal Decomposition some years before Karhunen (1945) and Loeve (1948). This tool has found application to such diverse fields as image processing, signal processing, data compression, oceanography, chemical engineering and fluid mechanics. Unfortunately this most important contribution of his is barely acknowledged in most papers that utilise the POD method. In recent years though, some authors have indeed referred to it as the Kosambi-Karhunen-Loeve decomposition.

Historical studies
Until 1939, Kosambi was almost exclusively focused on mathematical research, but later, he gradually started foraying into social sciences. It was his studies in numismatics that initiated him into the field of historical research. He did extensive research in difficult science of numismatics. His evaluation of data was by modern statistical methods. For example, he statistically analyzed the weight of thousands of punch-marked coins from different Indian museums to establish their chronological sequence and put forward his theories about the economic conditions under which these coins could have been minted.

Sanskrit
He made a thorough study of Sanskrit and ancient literature, and he started his classic work on the ancient poet Bhartṛhari. He published exemplary critical editions of Bhartrihari's Śatakatraya and Subhashitas during 1945–1948.

Activism
It was during this period that he started his political activism, coming close to the radical streams in the ongoing Independence movement, especially the Communist Party of India. He became an outspoken Marxist and wrote some political articles.

Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
In the 1940s, Homi J. Bhabha invited Kosambi to join the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR). Kosambi joined TIFR as chair for mathematics in 1946, and held the position for the next 16 years. He continued to live in his own house in Pune, and commute to Mumbai every day by the Deccan Queen train.

After independence, in 1948–49 he was sent to England and to the US as a UNESCO Fellow to study the theoretical and technical aspects of computing machines. In London, he started his long-lasting friendship with Indologist and historian A.L. Basham. In the spring semester of 1949, he was a visiting professor of geometry in the Mathematics Department at the University of Chicago, where his colleague from his Harvard days, Marshall Harvey Stone, was the chair. In April–May 1949, he spent nearly two months at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, discussing with such illustrious physicists and mathematicians as J. Robert Oppenheimer, Hermann Weyl, John von Neumann, Marston Morse, Oswald Veblen and Carl Ludwig Siegel amongst others.

After his return to India, in the Cold War circumstances, he was increasingly drawn into the World Peace Movement and served as a Member of the World Peace Council. He became a tireless crusader for peace, campaigning against the nuclearisation of the world. Kosambi's solution to India's energy needs was in sharp conflict with the ambitions of the Indian ruling class. He proposed alternative energy sources, like solar power. His activism in the peace movement took him to Beijing, Helsinki and Moscow. However, during this period he relentlessly pursued his diverse research interests, too. Most importantly, he worked on his Marxist rewriting of ancient Indian history, which culminated in his book, An Introduction to the Study of Indian History (1956).

He visited China many times during 1952–62 and was able to watch the Chinese revolution very closely, making him critical of the way modernisation and development were envisaged and pursued by the Indian ruling classes. All these contributed to straining his relationship with the Indian government and Bhabha, eventually leading to Kosambi's exit from the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in 1962.

Post-TIFR days
His exit from the TIFR gave Kosambi the opportunity to concentrate on his research in ancient Indian history culminating in his book, The Culture and Civilisation of Ancient India, which was published in 1965 by Routledge, Kegan & Paul. The book was translated into German, French and Japanese and was widely acclaimed. He also utilised his time in archaeological studies, and contributed in the field of statistics and number theory. His article on numismatics was published in February 1965 in Scientific American.

Due to the efforts of his friends and colleagues, in June 1964, Kosambi was appointed as a Scientist Emeritus of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) affiliated with the Maharashtra Vidnyanvardhini in Pune. He pursued many historical, scientific and archaeological projects (even writing stories for children). But most works he produced in this period could not be published during his lifetime.

Death
Kosambi, aged 58, passed away due to a myocardial infarction in the early hours of June 29, 1966, despite being declared generally fit by his family doctor the day before.

He was posthumously decorated with the Hari Om Ashram Award by the government of India's University Grant Commission in 1980.

His friend A.L. Basham, a well-known indologist, wrote in his obituary:

 * At first it seemed that he had only three interests, which filled his life to the exclusion of all others — ancient India, in all its aspects, mathematics and the preservation of peace. For the last, as well as for his two intellectual interests, he worked hard and with devotion, according to his deep convictions. Yet as one grew to know him better one realized that the range of his heart and mind was very wide...In the later years of his life, when his attention turned increasingly to anthropology as a means of reconstructing the past, it became more than ever clear that he had a very deep feeling for the lives of the simple people of Maharashtra.

Kosambi's historiography
Although Kosambi was not a practising historian, he wrote four books and sixty articles on history: these works had a significant impact on the field of Indian historiography. He understood history in terms of the dynamics of socio-economic formations rather than just a chronological narration of "episodes" or the feats of a few great men – kings, warriors or saints. In the very first paragraph of his classic work, An Introduction to the Study of Indian History, he gives an insight into his methodology as a prelude to his life work on ancient Indian history:

 * "The light-hearted sneer “India has had some episodes, but no history“ is used to justify lack of study, grasp, intelligence on the part of foreign writers about India’s past. The considerations that follow will prove that it is precisely the episodes — lists of dynasties and kings, tales of war and battle spiced with anecdote, which fill school texts — that are missing from Indian records. Here, for the first time, we have to reconstruct a history without episodes, which means that it cannot be the same type of history as in the European tradition."

According to A. L. Basham, "An Introduction to the Study of Indian History is in many respects an epoch making work, containing brilliantly original ideas on almost every page; if it contains errors and misrepresentations, if now and then its author attempts to force his data into a rather doctrinaire pattern, this does not appreciably lessen the significance of this very exciting book, which has stimulated the thought of thousands of students throughout the world."

Professor Sumit Sarkar says: "Indian Historiography, starting with D.D. Kosambi in the 1950s, is acknowledged the world over – wherever South Asian history is taught or studied – as quite on a par with or even superior to all that is produced abroad."

In his obituary of Kosambi published in Nature, J. D. Bernal had summed up Kosambi's talent as follows: "Kosambi introduced a new method into historical scholarship, essentially by application of modern mathematics. By statistical study of the weights of the coins, Kosambi was able to establish the amount of time that had elapsed while they were in circulation and so set them in order to give some idea of their respective ages."

Legacy
Kosambi is an inspiration to many across the world, especially to Sanskrit philologists and Marxist scholars. He deeply influenced Indian historiography. The Government of Goa has instituted the annual D.D. Kosambi Festival of Ideas since February 2008 to commemorate his birth centenary.

Historian Irfan Habib said, "D. D. Kosambi and R.S. Sharma, together with Daniel Thorner, brought peasants into the study of Indian history for the first time."

Kosambi was an atheist.

India Post issued a commemorative postage stamp on 31 July 2008 to honour Kosambi.

Works on history and society

 * 1956 An Introduction to the Study of Indian History (Popular Book Depot, Bombay)
 * 1957 Exasperating Essays: Exercise in the Dialectical Method (People's Book House, Poona)
 * 1962 Myth and Reality: Studies in the Formation of Indian Culture (Popular Prakashail, Bombay)
 * 1965 The Culture and Civilisation of Ancient India in Historical Outline (Routledge & Kegan Paul, London)

Posthumous

 * 1981 Indian Numismatics (Orient Blackswan, New Delhi)
 * 2002 D.D. Kosambi: Combined Methods in Indology and Other Writings – Compiled, edited and introduced by Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya (Oxford University Press, New Delhi).
 * 2009 The Oxford India Kosambi – Compiled, edited and introduced by Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya (Oxford University Press, New Delhi)
 * 2014 Unsettling The Past, edited by Meera Kosambi (Permanent Black, Ranikhet)
 * 2016 Adventures into the Unknown: Essays, edited by Ram Ramaswamy (Three Essays Collective, New Delhi)

Edited works

 * 1945 The Satakatrayam of Bhartrhari with the Comm. of Ramarsi, edited in collaboration with Pt. K. V. Krishnamoorthi Sharma (Anandasrama Sanskrit Series, No.127, Poona)
 * 1946 The Southern Archetype of Epigrams Ascribed to Bhartrhari (Bharatiya Vidya Series 9, Bombay) (First critical edition of a Bhartrhari recension.)
 * 1948 The Epigrams Attributed to Bhartrhari (Singhi Jain Series 23, Bombay) (Comprehensive edition of the poet's work remarkable for rigorous standards of text criticism.)
 * 1952 The Cintamani-saranika of Dasabala; Supplement to Journal of Oriental Research, xix, pt, II (Madras) (A Sanskrit astronomical work which shows that King Bhoja of Dhara died in 1055–56.)
 * 1957 The Subhasitaratnakosa of Vidyakara, edited in collaboration with V.V. Gokhale (Harvard Oriental Series 42)

Mathematical and scientific publications
In addition to the papers listed below, Kosambi wrote two books in mathematics, the manuscripts of which have not been traced. The first was a book on path geometry that was submitted to Marston Morse in the mid-1940s and the second was on prime numbers, submitted shortly before his death. Unfortunately, neither book was published. The list of articles below is complete but does not include his essays on science and scientists, some of which have appeared in the collection Science, Society, and Peace (People's Publishing House, 1995). Four articles (between 1962 and 1965) are written under the pseudonym S. Ducray.

 * 1930 Precessions of an elliptical orbit, Indian Journal of Physics, 5, 359–364
 * 1931 On a generalization of the second theorem of Bourbaki, Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences, U. P., 1, 145–147
 * 1932 Modern differential geometries, Indian Journal of Physics, 7, 159–164
 * 1932 On differential equations with the group property, Journal of the Indian Mathematical Society, 19, 215–219
 * 1932 Geometrie differentielle et calcul des variations, Rendiconti della Reale Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, 16, 410–415 (in French)
 * 1932 On the existence of a metric and the inverse variational problem, Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences, U. P., 2, 17–28
 * 1932 Affin-geometrische Grundlagen der Einheitlichen Feld–theorie, Sitzungsberichten der Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-mathematische klasse, 28, 342–345 (in German)
 * 1932 The Expanding Universe, Nature, 130, 507–508
 * 1933 Parallelism and path-spaces, Mathematische Zeitschrift, 37, 608–618
 * 1933 The problem of differential invariants, Journal of the Indian Mathematical Society, 20, 185–188
 * 1933 The classification of integers, Journal of the University of Bombay, 2, 18–20
 * 1934 Collineations in path-space, Journal of the Indian Mathematical Society, 21, 68–72
 * 1934 Continuous groups and two theorems of Euler, The Mathematics Student, 2, 94–100
 * 1934 The maximum modulus theorem, Journal of the University of Bombay, 3, 11–12
 * 1935 Homogeneous metrics, Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, 1, 952–954
 * 1935 An affine calculus of variations, Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, 2, 333–335
 * 1935 Systems of differential equations of the second order, Quarterly Journal of Mathematics (Oxford), 6, 1–12
 * 1936 Differential geometry of the Laplace equation, Journal of the Indian Mathematical Society, 2, 141–143
 * 1936 Path-spaces of higher order, Quarterly Journal of Mathematics (Oxford), 7, 97–104
 * 1936 Path-geometry and cosmogony, Quarterly Journal of Mathematics (Oxford), 7, 290–293
 * 1938 Les metriques homogenes dans les espaces cosmogoniques, Comptes rendus de l’Acad ́emie des Sciences, 206, 1086–1088 (in French)
 * 1938 Les espaces des paths generalises qu’on peut associer avec un espace de Finsler, Comptes rendus de l’Acad ́emie des Sciences, 206, 1538–1541 (in French)
 * 1939 The tensor analysis of partial differential equations, Journal of the Indian Mathematical Society, 3, 249–253 (1939); Japanese version of this article in Tensor, 2, 36–39
 * 1940 A statistical study of the weights of the old Indian punch-marked coins, Current Science, 9, 312–314
 * 1940 On the weights of old Indian punch-marked coins, Current Science, 9, 410–411
 * 1940 Path-equations admitting the Lorentz group, Journal of the London Mathematical Society, 15, 86–91
 * 1940 The concept of isotropy in generalized path-spaces, Journal of the Indian Mathematical Society, 4, 80–88
 * 1940 A note on frequency distribution in series, The Mathematics Student, 8, 151–155
 * 1941 A bivariate extension of Fisher's Z–test, Current Science, 10, 191–192
 * 1941 Correlation and time series, Current Science, 10, 372–374
 * 1941 Path-equations admitting the Lorentz group–II, Journal of the Indian Mathematical Society, 5, 62–72
 * 1941 On the origin and development of silver coinage in India, Current Science, 10, 395–400
 * 1942 On the zeros and closure of orthogonal functions, Journal of the Indian Mathematical Society, 6, 16–24
 * 1942 The effect of circulation upon the weight of metallic currency, Current Science, 11, 227–231
 * 1942 A test of significance for multiple observations, Current Science, 11, 271–274
 * 1942 On valid tests of linguistic hypotheses, New Indian Antiquary, 5, 21–24
 * 1943 Statistics in function space, Journal of the Indian Mathematical Society, 7, 76–88
 * 1944 The estimation of map distance from recombination values, Annals of Eugenics, 12, 172–175
 * 1944 Direct derivation of Balmer spectra, Current Science, 13, 71–72
 * 1944 The geometric method in mathematical statistics, American Mathematical Monthly, 51, 382–389
 * 1945 Parallelism in the tensor analysis of partial differential equations, Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, 51, 293–296
 * 1946 The law of large numbers, The Mathematics Student, 14, 14–19
 * 1946 Sur la differentiation covariante, Comptes rendus de l’Acad ́emie des Sciences, 222, 211–213 (in French)
 * 1947 An extension of the least–squares method for statistical estimation, Annals of Eugenics, 18, 257–261
 * 1947 Possible Applications of the Functional Calculus, Proceedings of the 34th Indian Science Congress. Part II: Presidential Addresses, 1–13
 * 1947 Les invariants differentiels d’un tenseur covariant a deux indices, Comptes rendus de l’Acad ́emie des Sciences, 225, 790–92 (in French)
 * 1948 Systems of partial differential equations of the second order, Quarterly Journal of Mathematics (Oxford), 19, 204–219
 * 1949 Characteristic properties of series distributions, Proceedings of the National Institute of Science of India, 15, 109–113
 * 1949 Lie rings in path-space, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 35, 389–394
 * 1949 The differential invariants of a two-index tensor, Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, 55, 90–94
 * 1951 Series expansions of continuous groups, Quarterly Journal of Mathematics (Oxford, Series 2), 2, 244–257
 * 1951 Seasonal variations in the Indian birth–rate, Annals of Eugenics, 16, 165–192 (with S. Raghavachari)
 * 1952 Path-spaces admitting collineations, Quarterly Journal of Mathematics (Oxford, Series 2), 3, 1–11
 * 1952 Path-geometry and continuous groups, Quarterly Journal of Mathematics (Oxford, Series 2), 3, 307–320
 * 1954 Seasonal variations in the Indian death–rate, Annals of Human Genetics, 19, 100–119 (with S. Raghavachari)
 * 1954 The metric in path-space, Tensor (New Series), 3, 67–74
 * 1957 The method of least–squares, Advancement in Mathematics, 3, 485–491 (in Chinese)
 * 1958 Classical Tauberian theorems, Journal of the Indian Society of Agricultural Statistics, 10, 141–149
 * 1958 The efficiency of randomization by card–shuffling, Journal of the Royal Statistics Society, 121, 223–233 (with U. V. R. Rao)
 * 1959 The method of least–squares, Journal of the Indian Society of Agricultural Statistics, 11, 49–57
 * 1959 An application of stochastic convergence, Journal of the Indian Society of Agricultural Statistics, 11, 58–72
 * 1962 A note on prime numbers, Journal of the University of Bombay, 31, 1–4 (as S. Ducray)
 * 1963 The sampling distribution of primes, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 49, 20–23
 * 1963 Normal Sequences, Journal of the University of Bombay, 32, 49–53 (as S. Ducray)
 * 1964 Statistical methods in number theory, Journal of the Indian Society of Agricultural Statistics, 16, 126–135
 * 1964 Probability and prime numbers, Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, 60, 159–164 (as S. Ducray)
 * 1965 The sequence of primes, Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, 62, 145–149 (as S. Ducray)
 * 1966 Scientific numismatics, Scientific American, February 1966, pages 102–111
 * 2016 Selected Works in Mathematics and Statistics, ed. Ramakrishna Ramaswamy, Springer. (Posthumous publication)

title: Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi


text:
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