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Female sexual arousal disorder

Female sexual arousal disorder (FSAD) is a disorder characterized by a persistent or recurrent inability to attain sexual arousal or to maintain arousal until the completion of a sexual activity. The diagnosis can also refer to an inadequate lubrication-swelling response normally present during arousal and sexual activity. The condition should be distinguished from a general loss of interest in sexual activity and from other sexual dysfunctions, such as the orgasmic disorder (anorgasmia) and hypoactive sexual desire disorder, which is characterized as a lack or absence of sexual fantasies and desire for sexual activity for some period of time.

Although female sexual dysfunction is currently a contested diagnostic, it has become more common in recent years to use testosterone-based drugs off-label to treat FSAD. It is a subtype of female sexual dysfunction. It occurs in distress due to the inability to attain or maintain adequate vaginal lubrication.

Types
There are three types of FSAD which have been identified: genital arousal disorder, subjective arousal disorder, and combined arousal disorder.

With genital arousal disorder, there is still a mental feeling of arousal, but it is not matched by any physical response. For example, a woman may be "turned on" by her partner, but her vagina does not produce lubrication and there is little-to-no increase in blood flow to the genitals. Subjective arousal disorder is the reverse issue, where there is a physical response to sexual circumstances, but an inability to feel mentally aroused. Combined arousal disorder combines both genital arousal disorder and subjective arousal disorder, presenting as a lack of sexual feeling altogether, both mentally and physically.

Causes
A number of studies have explored the factors that contribute to female sexual arousal disorder and female orgasmic disorder. These factors include both psychological and physical factors.

Individual factors
There has been little investigation of the impact of individual factors on female sexual dysfunction. Such factors include stress, levels of fatigue, gender identity, health, and other individual attributes and experiences, such as dysfunctional sexual beliefs that may affect sexual desire or response. An individual's sexual activity is disrupted by overwhelming emotional distress resulting in inability to attain sexual pleasure. Sexual dysfunction can also occur secondary to major psychiatric disorders, including depression.

Relationship factors
A substantial body of research has explored the role of interpersonal factors in female sexual dysfunction, particularly in relation to orgasmic response. These studies have largely focused on the impact of the quality of the relationship on the sexual functioning of the partners. Some studies have evaluated the role of specific relationship variables, whereas others have examined overall relationship satisfaction. Some studies have explored events, while others have focused on attitudes as an empirical measure of relationship functioning. Subject populations have varied from distressed couples to sexually dysfunctional clients to those in satisfied relationships.

Social context
In addition to past experience and personal psychology, social context plays a factor:
 * Human sexual behavior also varies with hormonal state, social context, and cultural conventions. Ovarian hormones influence female sexual desire, but the specific sexual behaviors engaged in are affected by perceived pregnancy risk, suggesting that cognition plays an important role in human sexual behavior.

Physical factors
Estimates of the percentage of female sexual dysfunction attributable to physical factors have ranged from 30% to 80%. The disorders most likely to result in sexual dysfunction are those that lead to problems in circulatory or neurological function. These factors have been more extensively explored in men than in women. Physical etiologies such as neurological and cardiovascular illnesses have been directly implicated in both premature and retarded ejaculation as well as in erectile disorder, but the contribution of physiological factors to female sexual dysfunction is not so clear. However, recent literature does suggest that there may be an impairment in the arousal phase among diabetic women. Given that diabetic women show a significant variability in their response to this medical disorder, it is not surprising that the disease's influence on arousal is also highly variable. In fact, the lack of a clear association between medical disorders and sexual functioning suggests that psychological factors play a significant part in the impact of these disorders on sexual functioning.

Kenneth Maravilla, Professor of Radiology and Neurological Surgery and Director of MRI Research Laboratory at the University of Washington, Seattle, presented research findings based on neuro-imaging of women's sexual function. In a small pilot study of four women with female sexual arousal disorder, Maravilla reported there was less brain activation seen in this group, including very little activation in the amygdala. These women also showed increased activation in the temporal areas, in contrast to women without sexual difficulties, who showed deactivation in similar areas. This may suggest an increased level of inhibition with an arousal stimulus in this small group of women with FSAD.

Several types of medications, including selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), can cause sexual dysfunction and in the case of SSRI and SNRI, these dysfunctions may become permanent after the end of the treatment.

One third of post operation transgender women experience FSAD roughly consistent with menopause women. HSDD in transgender women is largely caused by a lack of testosterone especially after the gonads are removed during bottom surgery, as androgens are produced in smaller concentrations lower then ovulating women. Progesterone has shown to alleviate some symptoms of HSDD in transgender women, as well as other hormone treatments.

Interplay of causes
Kaplan proposed that sexual dysfunction was based on intrapsychic, interpersonal, and behavioural levels. Four factors were identified that could have a role in the development of sexual dysfunction: 1) lack of correct information regarding sexual and social interaction, 2) unconscious guilt or anxiety regarding sex, 3) performance anxiety, and 4) failure to communicate between the partners.

DSM-5
The DSM-5 lists the diagnostic criteria as including a minimum of three of the following:

 * 1) Little interest in sex
 * 2) Few thoughts related to sex
 * 3) Decreased start and rejecting of sex
 * 4) Little pleasure during sex most of the time
 * 5) Decreased interest in sex even when exposed to erotic stimuli
 * 6) Little genital sensations during sex most of the time

DSM-IV
The DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association 1994) diagnostic criteria were:

 * 1) persistent or recurrent inability to attain, or to maintain until completion of the sexual activity, an adequate lubrication-swelling response of sexual excitement,
 * 2) the disturbance causes marked distress or interpersonal difficulty, and
 * 3) the sexual dysfunction is not better accounted for by another Axis I disorder (except another sexual dysfunction) and is not due exclusively to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or a general medical condition.

Marita P. McCabe noted:"Difficulties arise with this definition in terms of what constitutes an adequate lubrication-swelling response. There is no 'gold standard' regarding the length of time it should take to become aroused or the level of arousal that should be achieved. These responses may vary from one woman to another and are dependent on a range of factors, which include her general mood when sexual stimulation commences and her partner's skill in stimulating her. There may also be differences in physiological and subjective levels of arousal, with some women reporting no feelings of sexual arousal despite evidence of vaginal vasocongestion and others reporting arousal in the absence of such evidence. The expectations and past experiences of clinicians and clients may also lead them to classify the same symptoms as female sexual arousal disorder in one woman but not in another."

Subtypes
There are several subtypes of female sexual arousal disorders. They may indicate onset: lifelong (since birth) or acquired. They may be based on context: they may occur in all situations (generalized) or be situation-specific (situational). For example, the disorder may occur with a spouse but not with a different partner.

The length of time the disorder has existed and the extent to which it is partner- or situation-specific, as opposed to occurring in all situations, may be the result of different causative factors and may influence the treatment for the disorder. It may be due to psychological factors or a combination of factors.

Treatment
The FDA has approved flibanserin and bremelanotide for low sexual libido in women.

Criticism
One problem with the current definition in the DSM-IV is that subjective arousal is not included. There is often no correlation between women's subjective and physiological arousal. With this in mind, recently, FSAD has been divided up into sub-types: The third sub-type is the most common in clinical settings.
 * Genital Arousal Disorder
 * Subjective Sexual Arousal Disorder
 * Combined Genital and Subjective Arousal Disorder

One criticism is that "the meaningful benefits of experimental drugs for women's sexual difficulties are questionable, and the financial conflicts of interest of experts who endorse the notion of a highly prevalent medical condition are extensive."

Professor of bioethics and sociology Jennifer R. Fishman argues that the categorization of female sexual dysfunction as a treatable disease has only been made possible through the input of academic clinical researchers. Through ethnographic research, she believes she has shown how academic clinical researchers have provided the scientific research needed by pharmaceutical companies to bio-medicalize female sexual dysfunction and consequently identify a market of consumers for it. She questions the professional ethics of this exchange network between researchers and pharmaceutical companies, as the clinical research trials are funded by pharmaceutical companies and researchers are given considerable financial rewards for their work. She argues that the conferences where definition of the disease and diagnostic criteria are defined and research is presented to clinicians are also ethically ambiguous, as they are also funded by pharmaceutical companies.

Heather Hartely of Portland State University, Oregon is critical of the shift from female sexual dysfunction being framed as an arousal problem to a desire problem. In her article, "The 'Pinking' of Viagra Culture", she states that the change from female sexual arousal disorder to hypoactive sexual desire disorder is indicative of "disease mongering" tactics by the drug industry through an effort to match up a drug to some subcomponent of the DSM classification.

Additionally, Leonore Tiefer of NYU School of Medicine voiced concerns that the success of Viagra, in combination with feminist rhetoric, were being used as a means of fast-tracking public acceptance of pharmaceutical treatment of female sexual arousal disorder. The justification behind this, she says, is that "the branding of Viagra has succeeded so thoroughly in rationalizing the idea of sexual correction and enhancement through pills that it seems inevitable and only fair that such a product be made available for women," giving a dangerous appeal to "nonapproved drugs though off-label prescribing".

title: Female sexual arousal disorder


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Portal:Trains/Anniversaries/January 10/More

19th century

 * 1863 – The first section of the London Underground Railway opens (Paddington to Farringdon Street).
 * 1864 – The Illinois Central, Columbus and Indianapolis and Richmond and Covington railroads sign an agreement for joint operation as the Great Central Line between Columbus, Ohio, and Indianapolis, Indiana, headed by the Indiana Central Railway.
 * 1865 – The California Pacific Railroad absorbs the Sacramento and San Francisco Rail Road Company and the San Francisco and Marysville Rail Road Company.
 * 1883 – The Columbus, Chicago and Indiana Central Railway enters bankruptcy and is sold at foreclosure.

20th century

 * 1977 – Passenger service on Boston and Maine Railroad's Lexington Branch ends when a train consisting of a Budd Rail Diesel Car and a switcher locomotive are stranded by a snowstorm at the Bedford, Massachusetts, depot.
 * 2000 – The Tama Toshi Monorail Line extension from Tachikawa-Kita Station to Tama-Center Station in Japan opens.

Deaths

 * 2009 – Jean Pelletier, chairman of VIA Rail 2001-2004, dies (b. 1935).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Matthew Yglesias

Matthew Yglesias (born May 18, 1981 ) is an American blogger and journalist who writes about economics and politics. Yglesias has written columns and articles for publications such as The American Prospect, The Atlantic, and Slate. In 2014 he co-founded the news website Vox.

In November 2020, he left his position as an editor and columnist at Vox to publish the Substack newsletter Slow Boring. In the same month, he joined the Niskanen Center as a Senior Fellow.

Early life and education
Yglesias's father Rafael Yglesias is a screenwriter and novelist, and he has a brother named Nicolas. His paternal grandparents were novelists Jose Yglesias and Helen Yglesias (née Bassine). His paternal grandfather was of Cuban and Spanish Galician descent, and his three other grandparents were of Eastern European Jewish descent.

Yglesias went to high school at the Dalton School in New York City. He attended Harvard University, where he was editor in chief of The Harvard Independent and graduated in 2003 with a B.A. magna cum laude in philosophy.

Personal life
Yglesias is married to Kate Crawford. Yglesias and Crawford met in 2008, and have one son together. Crawford now serves as editor for his Slow Boring newsletter.

Early career
Yglesias started blogging in early 2002, while still in college, focusing mainly on American politics and public policy issues, often approached from an abstract, philosophical perspective.

Yglesias joined the American Prospect as a writing fellow upon his graduation in 2003, subsequently becoming a staff writer. His posts appeared regularly on the magazine's collaborative weblog TAPPED.

From June 2007 until August 2008, he was a staff writer at The Atlantic Monthly, and his blog was hosted on the magazine's website, The Atlantic. In July 2008, he announced that he would leave The Atlantic Monthly for the Center for American Progress where he wrote for its blog, ThinkProgress, because he missed "the sense of collegiality that comes from working with like-minded colleagues on a shared enterprise" and thought he could "help advance their mission." On November 21, 2011, he left ThinkProgress to work as a business and economics correspondent at Slate's Moneybox.

Vox
In February 2014, he left Slate and joined Vox Media to co-found Vox with Ezra Klein and Melissa Bell. On November 13, 2020, Yglesias announced that he would no longer be writing for Vox.com. Yglesias moved to Substack for editorial independence.

Controversy
In 2013, Yglesias garnered controversy for his statements about the 2013 Dhaka garment factory collapse, with Yglesias arguing that the lower building standards that partially led to the factory's collapse make "economic sense" in developing countries, later tweeting that "foreign factories should be more dangerous than American factories" and "the current system of letting different countries have different rules is working fine." His comments were widely criticized in The Daily Beast, Time and other outlets, with The Guardian commenting that Yglesias is "confusing a person's human worth with their socio-economic status. That's wrong." Yglesias later clarified some of his comments, but stood by his original position.

Yglesias deleted his past Twitter feed in November 2018, after controversy over tweets which defended the motivation of protesters who gathered outside the house of Tucker Carlson. The tweets also expressed a lack of empathy for Carlson's wife, which caused outrage.

Books
Yglesias authored the political nonfiction book One Billion Americans: The Case for Thinking Bigger, released on September 15, 2020. It was inspired by Doug Saunders' Maximum Canada. According to an analysis by British digital strategist Rob Blackie, Yglesias was one of the most commonly followed political writers among Biden administration staff on Twitter.

Andrew Sullivan, a fellow blogger, takes nominations on his blog for the Yglesias Award, an honor "for writers, politicians, columnists or pundits who actually criticize their own side, make enemies among political allies, and generally risk something for the sake of saying what they believe."

Political views
In 2011, The Economist noted that Yglesias has been accused of espousing "left-leaning neoliberalism" in his writing. In 2017, Vice listed Yglesias among a group of political writers who were attached with a "neoliberal shill" label in left-wing Twitter communities. Yglesias himself embraced the "neoliberal shill" label in a 2019 podcast.

In 2002, Yglesias was a strong supporter of invading Iraq, Iran and North Korea, calling the countries on his blog "evil" and stating that "we should take them all out", although he was critical of the term "axis of evil". In 2010, he called his attitudes about the war a mistake.

In or before 2010, Yglesias coined the term "pundit's fallacy" to denote "the belief that what a politician needs to do to improve his or her political standing is do what the pundit wants substantively." In 2012, Yglesias stated that he voted for Mitt Romney when he won the office for governor of Massachusetts in 2002.

Works

 * Heads in the Sand: How the Republicans Screw Up Foreign Policy and Foreign Policy Screws Up the Democrats, Wiley, April 2008, ISBN 978-0-470-08622-3.
 * "Long Philosophical Rant about Spider-Man 2", Ultimate blogs: masterworks from the wild Web, Editor Sarah Boxer, Random House, Inc., 2008, ISBN 978-0-307-27806-7
 * "The Media", The 12-Step Bush Recovery Program, Gene Stone, Carl Pritzkat, Tony Travostino, Random House, Inc., 2008, ISBN 978-0-8129-8036-3
 * The Rent Is Too Damn High, Simon and Schuster, March 2012, ASIN B0078XGJXO
 * One Billion Americans: The Case for Thinking Bigger, Portfolio Penguin, September 2020, ISBN 978-0-593-19021-0.

title: Matthew Yglesias


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Portal:Trains/Anniversaries/January 11/More

19th century

 * 1859 – The Atchison and Topeka Railroad Company, forerunner of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, is chartered to build a railroad from Topeka, Kansas, to Santa Fe, New Mexico.

20th century

 * 1951 – The San Diego and Arizona Eastern Railway discontinues passenger train service.
 * 1994 – Kansas City Southern Railway (KCS) begins operating over former MidSouth Rail Corporation tracks (previously spun off from Illinois Central Gulf Railroad in 1986) following the recent merger of MidSouth into KCS.
 * 1999 – Amtrak begins operations of Talgo trainsets between Seattle, Portland and Eugene, Oregon.

Births

 * 1859 – Charles Bowen Cooke, Chief Mechanical Engineer of the London and North Western Railway 1909–1920 (d. 1920).
 * 1938 – Alastair Morton, chief executive of Eurotunnel 1987-1996, chairman of Strategic Rail Authority 1999-2001, is born (d. 2004).


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Legaia 2: Duel Saga

Legaia 2: Duel Saga, known as Legaia: Duel Saga (レガイア デュエルサーガ) in Japan, is a turn-based role-playing video game and sequel to Legend of Legaia.

Reception
The game had an average score of 70.46% at GameRankings based on 40 reviews and 67% at Metacritic for 21 reviews. Famitsu ranked it on 6th and sold 40,302 copies. It was ranked 198th by Dengeki Online and sold 53,808 copies.

title: Legaia 2: Duel Saga


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Mästerskapsserien

Mästerskapsserien (Championship League ) was a short-lived Swedish football league played 1991 and 1992 to decide the Swedish Champions. The top six teams from Allsvenskan qualified for Mästerskapsserien while the four bottom had to play the promotion and relegation Kvalsvenskan league with four (1991) and two (1992) teams from Division 1.

Champions
The winners and runners-up of the two seasons were:

title: Mästerskapsserien


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Portal:Trains/Anniversaries/January 12/More

19th century

 * 1882 – The first train between Cincinnati and Dayton, Ohio, delayed by poor trackwork on the Cincinnati Northern Railway, arrives in Dayton; it departed Cincinnati on January 9.
 * 1883 – The second transcontinental railroad line in North America is completed as the Southern Pacific Railroad tracks from Los Angeles, meet the Galveston, Harrisburg and San Antonio Railway at the Pecos River. The golden spike is driven by Col. Tom Pierce, the GH&SA president, atop the Pecos River High Bridge.

20th century

 * 1901 – France: tramway du Havre, inauguration of the line from gare du Havre to the pier via place Gambetta.
 * 1957 – Operations of the Santa Fe Railroad's Super Chief and El Capitan passenger trains are combined during off-peak seasons.

21st century

 * 2005
 * General Motors announces that it has agreed to sell its Electro-Motive Division to a partnership led by Greenbriar Equity Group and Berkshire Partners.
 * Five cars of a CN freight train derail in Fort St. John, Manitoba (a suburb of Winnipeg), Canada; as one of the cars was carrying propane, the area is evacuated. The tank car remains upright and intact, so local residents are allowed to return fairly quickly.


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Meisel

Meisel or Meisels is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Dow Ber Meisels (1798–1870), Polish Orthodox rabbi
 * Edmund Meisel, German composer
 * Elazar Meisels, an American Orthodox rabbi
 * Hilde Meisel, (1914–1945), German Resistance fighter and writer
 * John Meisel, (born 1923), Canadian political scientist, professor, and scholar
 * Mordecai Meisel, (1528—1601), philanthropist and communal leader in Prague
 * Samuel J. Meisels (born 1945), American expert on early childhood assessment and child development
 * Steven Meisel (fashion photographer) Vogue
 * Tamar Meisels, Israeli political theorist
 * Wilhelm Meisel, (1891–1974), German admiral during World War II

title: Meisel


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Portal:Trains/Anniversaries/January 13/More

19th century

 * 1857 – Thaddeus Fairbanks is awarded for a railroad scale.
 * 1864 – Samuel C. Pomeroy succeeds Cyrus K. Holliday as president of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway.
 * 1874 – The Bergen city council in Norway begins issuing stock for the Voss Line, with 400,000 Norwegian speciedaler (NOK 1.6 million) issued.

20th century

 * 1928 – Henry Clay Hall leaves the Interstate Commerce Commission upon the appointment of his successor.

Births

 * 1832 – Zerah Colburn, locomotive designer and railroad author (d. 1870).

Deaths

 * 1883 – Webster Wagner, founder of Wagner Palace Car Company, dies (b. 1817).
 * 1931 – Kálmán Kandó, Hungarian engineer who designed the world's first AC traction electric railway in Italy in 1902, dies (b. 1869).


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Templo Mayor

The Templo Mayor (English: Main Temple) was the main temple of the Mexica people in their capital city of Tenochtitlan, which is now Mexico City. Its architectural style belongs to the late Postclassic period of Mesoamerica. The temple was called Huēyi Teōcalli in the Nahuatl language. It was dedicated simultaneously to Huitzilopochtli, god of war, and Tlaloc, god of rain and agriculture, each of which had a shrine at the top of the pyramid with separate staircases. The central spire was devoted to Quetzalcoatl in his form as the wind god, Ehecatl. The temple devoted to Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc, measuring approximately 100 by at its base, dominated the Sacred Precinct. Construction of the first temple began sometime after 1325, and it was rebuilt six times. The temple was almost totally destroyed by the Spanish in 1521, and the Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral was built in its place.

The Zócalo, or main plaza of Mexico City today, was developed to the southwest of Templo Mayor, which is located in the block between Seminario and Justo Sierra streets. The site is part of the Historic Center of Mexico City, which was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1987. It received 801,942 visitors in 2017.

Discovery and excavation
After the destruction of Tenochtitlan, the Templo Mayor, like most of the rest of the city, was disassembled to be used as construction materials to create the Spanish colonial city. The Temple's exact location was forgotten. By the 20th century, scholars had a good idea where to look for it based on archeological work completed at the end of the 19th and first half of the 20th centuries. Leopoldo Batres did some excavation work at the end of the 19th century under the Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral because, at the time, researchers thought the cathedral had been built over the ruins of the temple.

In the first decades of the 20th century, Manuel Gamio found part of the southwest corner of the temple, and his findings were put on public display. However, the discovery did not generate great public interest in excavating further as the zone was an upper-class residential area. In 1933, Emilio Cuevas found part of a staircase and beam. In 1948, Hugo Moedano and Elma Estrada Balmori excavated a platform containing serpent heads and offerings. In 1966, Eduardo Contreras and Jorge Angula excavated a chest containing offerings, which had first been explored by Gamio.

The push to fully excavate the site did not come until late in the 20th century. On 21 February 1978, workers for Comisión Federal de Electricidad (CFE), the city's electricity provider, were digging at a place in the city then popularly known as the "island of the dogs" as the area was slightly elevated and stray dogs would gather there during times of flooding. Just over two meters down, the diggers struck a massive pre-Hispanic stone disk of over 3.25 m in diameter, 30 cm thick, and weighing 8.5 t. The relief on the stone was later determined to be Coyolxauhqui, Huitzilopochtli's sister, and was dated to the end of the 15th century.

From 1978 to 1982, specialists directed by archeologist Eduardo Matos Moctezuma worked on the project to excavate the Temple. Initial excavations found that many of the artifacts were in good enough condition to study. Efforts coalesced into the Templo Mayor Project, which was authorized by presidential decree.

To complete the excavation, 13 buildings in this area were demolished including 9 built in the 1930s and 4 dating from the 19th century that had preserved colonial elements. During excavations, more than 7,000 objects were found, mostly offerings including effigies; clay pots in the image of Tlaloc; skeletons of turtles, frogs, crocodiles, and fish; snail shells; coral; gold; alabaster; Mixtec figurines; ceramic urns from Veracruz; masks from what is now Guerrero state; copper rattles; and decorated skulls and knives of obsidian and flint. These artifacts are now housed in the Templo Mayor Museum. This museum is the result of the work done since the early 1980s to rescue, preserve, and investigate Templo Mayor, its Sacred Precinct, and all objects associated with it while making these findings available to the public.

Earlier versions
The excavated site consists of two parts: 1) the temple itself, exposed and labeled to show its various stages of development, along with some other associated buildings, and 2) the museum, built to house the smaller and more fragile objects.

The process of expanding an Aztec temple was typically completed by new structures being built over earlier ones, using the bulk of the former as a base for the latter. The Aztecs began construction of Templo Mayor sometime after 1325, and the temple was rebuilt six times. All seven stages of the Templo Mayor, except the first, have been excavated and assigned to the reigns of the emperors who were responsible for them.

First Temple
The first temple is only known through historical records because the high water table of the old lakebed prevents excavation. According to these records, the first pyramid was built with earth and perishable wood, which may not have survived to the present time.

Second Temple
The second temple was built during the reigns of Acamapichtli, Huitzilihuitl and Chimalpopoca between 1375 and 1427. The upper part of this temple has been excavated, exposing two stone shrines covered in stucco on the north side. A chacmool was uncovered as well. On the south side, there is a sacrificial stone called a téchcatl and a sculpted face.

Third Temple
The third temple was built between 1427 and 1440 during the reign of Itzcoatl. A staircase with eight stone standard-bearers is from this stage bearing the glyph with the year Four-Reed (1431). These standard bearers act as "divine warriors" guarding the access to the upper shrines.

Fourth Temple
The fourth temple was constructed between 1440 and 1481 during the reigns of Moctezuma I and Axayacatl. This stage is considered to have the richest of the architectural decorations as well as sculptures. Most findings from the excavations date from this period. The great platform was decorated with serpents and braziers, some of which are in the form of monkeys and some in the form of Tlaloc. During this time, the stairway to the shrine of Tlaloc was defined by a pair of undulating serpents and the middle of this shrine was a small altar featuring a pair of sculpted frogs. The circular monolith of Coyolxauhqui also dates from this time.

Fifth Temple
The fifth temple (1481–1486) is dated to the short reign of Tizoc. During these five years, the platform was recovered in stucco and the ceremonial plaza was paved.

Sixth Temple
The sixth temple was built during the reign of Ahuizotl. He finished some of the updates made by Tizoc and added his own, as shown on the carvings of the "commemoration stone of the huei teocalli", depicting the two tlatoqueh celebrating the opening of the temple during the last day of the month Panquetzaliztli dedicated to Huitzilopochtli, day 7 acatl of the year 8 acatl (19 December 1487). The Sacred Precinct was walled off, and this wall was decorated with serpent heads. He built three shrines and the House of the Eagle Warriors.

Seventh Temple
Very little remains of the Seventh Temple because of the demolitions undertaken to build the cathedral. Only a platform to the north and a section of paving in the courtyard on the south side can still be seen. Most of what is known about this temple is based on the historical record. It was at the time the largest and most important active ceremonial center. Fray Bernardino de Sahagún reported that the Sacred Precinct had 78 buildings with Templo Mayor towering above them all.

The pyramid was composed of four sloped terraces with a passage between each level, topped by a great platform. It had two stairways to access the two shrines on the top platform. Facing the structure, the left shrine was dedicated to the water god Tlaloc while the right shrine was dedicated to the god of the sun and war, Huitzilopochtli. The two temples were approximately 60 m in height, including the pyramid, and each had large braziers where the sacred fires continuously burned. The entrance to each temple had statues of robust and seated men which supported the standard-bearers and banners of handmade bark paper. Each stairway was defined by balustrades flanking the stairs, terminating in menacing serpent heads at the base. These stairways were used only by the priests and sacrificial people. The entire building was originally covered with stucco and polychrome paint.

The deities were housed inside the temple, shielded from the outside by curtains. The figure of Huitzilopochtli was modeled from amaranth seeds held together with honey and human blood. Inside of him were bags containing jade, bones, and amulets to give life to the god. This figure was constructed annually, and it was richly dressed and fitted with a mask of gold for his festival held during the Aztec month of Panquetzaliztli. At the end of the festival, the image was broken apart and shared among the populace to be eaten.

In his description of the city, Cortés records that he and the other Spaniards were impressed by the number and magnificence of the temples constructed in Tenochtitlan, but that was tempered by this disdain for their beliefs and human sacrifice. On 14 November 1519, Cortes seized the emperor Moctezuma II and ordered the destruction of all Aztec religious relics. Cortes ordered a Catholic cross placed on the Templo Mayor. While Cortes left for Veracruz to confront Spaniards looking to arrest him, Pedro de Alvarado learned of a plan to attack the Spaniards and staged a preemptive attack on the Aztecs in the Sacred Precinct while they celebrated a religious festival. Unarmed and trapped within the walls of the Sacred Precinct, an estimated 8,000–10,000 Aztec nobles were killed. When word of the massacre spread throughout the city, the people turned on the Spaniards, killing seven, wounding many, and driving the rest back to their quarters. The Spaniards were trapped between two Aztec forces, and 68 were captured alive. Ten of these Spanish captives were immediately sacrificed at the Temple, and their severed heads were thrown back to the Spaniards. The others were sacrificed at the Great Temple that night, which could be seen from the Spanish camps. The sacrificed Spaniards were flayed, and their faces – with beards attached – were tanned and sent to allied towns, both to solicit assistance and to warn against betraying the Triple Alliance.

After the fall of Tenochtitlan in 1521, the lands controlled by the Aztecs became part of the Spanish empire. All the temples, including Templo Mayor, were sacked, taking all objects of gold and other precious materials. Cortés, who had ordered the destruction of the existing capital, had a Mediterranean-style city built on the site. Essential elements of the old imperial center, including the Templo Mayor, were buried under similarly key features of the new city in what is now the historical downtown of the Mexico City. The Templo Mayor and Sacred Precinct were demolished and a Spanish church, later the main cathedral, was built on the western half of the precinct.

Orientation
Fray Toribio de Motolinía, a Spanish friar who arrived to Mexico soon after the invasion, writes in his work Memoriales that the Aztec feast of Tlacaxipehualiztli "took place when the sun stood in the middle of [the Temple of] Huitzilopochtli, which was at the equinox". This statement has become very famous, as it is the only textual reference known so far that explicitly relates a Mesoamerican temple with astronomical observations. The measurements in the Templo Mayor confirmed the veracity of this comment. The orientation of stage II, the earliest of the archaeologically attested construction phases, is different from that adopted by stage III and preserved in all subsequent stages. One of the sunset dates corresponding to the east–west axis of the late stages, including the last, is 4 April, which in the Julian calendar of the 16th century was equivalent to 25 March. In 1519, this was the last day of Tlacaxipehualiztli, that is, precisely the day of the feast of the month. Furthermore, 25 March, the Feast of the Annunciation, was in the Middle Ages commonly identified with the vernal equinox. Consequently, Motolinía did not refer to the astronomical equinox (the date of which would have hardly been known to a non-astronomer at that time), but rather only pointed out the correlation between the day of the Mexica festival, which in the last years before the invasion coincided with the solar phenomenon in the Templo Mayor, and the date in the Christian calendar that corresponded to the traditional day of spring equinox.

Symbolism

According to tradition, the Templo Mayor is located on the exact spot where the god Huitzilopochtli gave the Mexica people his sign that they had reached the promised land: an eagle on a nopal cactus with a snake in its mouth.

The Templo Mayor was partially a symbolic representation of the Hill of Coatepec, where according to Mexica myth, Huitzilopochtli was born. Huitzilopochtli emerged from his mother Coatlicue fully grown and fully armed to battle his sister Coyolxauhqui and her brothers the Centzon Huitznahua who intended to kill him and their mother. Huitzilopochtli was victorious, slaying and dismembering his sister. Her body was then thrown to the bottom of the hill. As the southern half of the Great Temple represented Coatepec (on the side dedicated to Huitzilopochtli), the great stone disk with Coyolxauhqui's dismembered body was found at the foot of this side of the temple. The northern half represented Tonacatepetl, the mountain home of Tlaloc.

The sacred ballcourt and skull rack were located at the foot of the stairs of the twin temples, to mimic, like the stone disk, where Huitzilopochtli was said to have placed the goddess' severed head. These locations served as a place for the reenactment of the mythical conflict.

The various levels of the Temple also represent the cosmology of the Aztec world. First of all, it is aligned with the cardinal directions with gates that connect to roads leading in these directions. This indicates the place where the plane of the world that humans live in intersects the thirteen levels of the heavens, called Topan and the nine levels of the underworld, called Mictlan.

Archaeologist Eduardo Matos Moctezuma, in his essay "Symbolism of the Templo Mayor", posits that the orientation of the temple is indicative of the total vision that the Mexica had of the universe (cosmovision). He states that the "principal center, or navel, where the horizontal and vertical planes intersect, that is, the point from which the heavenly or upper plane and the plane of the Underworld begin and the four directions of the universe originate, is the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan." Matos Moctezuma supports his supposition by claiming that the temple acts as an embodiment of a living myth where "all sacred power is concentrated and where all the levels intersect." Said myth is the birth and struggle between Huitzilopochtli and Coyolxauhqui.

Sacred Precinct and surrounding buildings
The Sacred Precinct of the Templo Mayor was surrounded by a wall called the "coatepantli" (serpent wall). Among the most important buildings were the ballcourt, the Calmecac (area for priests), and the temples dedicated to Quetzalcoatl, Tezcatlipoca and the sun. The Templo Mayor itself delineated the eastern side of the Sacred Precinct. On the sides of the Templo Mayor, archeologists have excavated a number of palatial rooms and conjoining structures. One of the best preserved and most important is the Palace (or House) of the Eagle Warriors. This area dates back to the fourth stage of the temple, around 1469. It was excavated in 1981 and 1982 by José Francisco Hinojosa. It is a large L-shaped room with staircases decorated with sculptures of eagle heads. To enter this main room, one had to pass through an entrance guarded by two large sculpted representations of these warriors. The Eagle Warriors were a privileged class who were dedicated to the god Huitzilopochtli, and dressed to look like eagles. Adjoining this palace is the temple for these warriors—also known as the Red Temple. This temple shows clear Teotihuacan influence in its paintings (mostly in red) and the design of its altar. Almost all the interior walls of the House of the Eagles are decorated with beautiful paintings and contain long benches, which are also painted. These benches are composed of two panels. The upper one is a frieze with undulating serpents in bas-relief. The lower panel shows processions of armed warriors converging on a zacatapayolli, a grass ball into which the Mexica stuck bloody lancets during the ritual of autosacrifice. This palace specifically imitates much of the style of the Burnt Palace, located in the ruins of Tula. A number of important artifacts have been found in this area, the most important of which are two nearly identical large ceramic sculptures of Mictlantecuhtl, the god of death. Despite being found in fragile pieces, they were both reconstructed and are on display at the on-site museum.

Another conjoining area was dedicated to the Ocelot Warriors. Their temple, dedicated to the god Tezcatlipoca, lies under the current Museo de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público to the south of the Templo Mayor.

The Calmecac was a residence hall for priests and a school for future priests, administrators and politicians, where they studied theology, literature, history and astronomy. Its exact location is on one side of what is now Donceles Street. The Temple of Quetzalcoatl was located to the west of the Templo Mayor. It is said that during the equinox, the sun rose between the shrines dedicated to Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc and shone directly on this temple. Due to the god's serpentine nature, the temple had a circular base instead of a rectangular one.

The ball field, called the tlachtli or teutlachtli, was similar to many sacred ball fields in Mesoamerica. Games were played barefoot, and players used their hips to move a heavy ball to stone rings. The field was located west of the Templo Mayor, near the twin staircases and oriented east–west. Next to this ball field was the "huey tzompanti" where the skulls of sacrifice victims were kept after being covered in stucco and decorated.

The Temple of the Sun was located west of the Templo Mayor also and its remains lie under the Metropolitan Cathedral. The project to shore up the cathedral at the end of the 20th century and beginning of the 21st brought to light a number of artifacts.

Offerings
Most of the objects found in the Templo Mayor were offerings. Although many are of Mexica design, there are also abundant items from other peoples, brought in as tribute or through trade. Sculptures, flint knives, vessels, beads and other sumptuary ornaments—as well as minerals, plants and animals of all types, and the remains of human sacrifice—were among the items deposited in offerings. All of these fulfilled a specific function within the offering, depending on the symbolism of each object. In excavations at the Templo Mayor, different types of offerings have been found and have been grouped by researchers in terms of Time (the period in which the offering was deposited); Space (the location of the offering within the structure); Container (type and dimensions of the receptacle containing the objects); internal distribution (placement of objects within the offering) and value of the items. The offerings were usually contained in cavities, in stone urns, and in boxes made of slabs. These are found under floors; in platforms, architectural bodies, stairways and in temples. These offerings were placed accompanied by complex rituals following set temporal, spatial and symbolic patterns, depending on the intention of the offering.

The oldest Mexica objects, located in the second temple, are two urns which contain the remains of incinerated bones; one of the urns was made of obsidian and the other of alabaster. A small silver mask and a gold bell were found inside one urn, and second gold bell and two green stone beads were placed in the other.

Images of the gods Huehueteotl-Xiuhtecuhtli, together with Tlaloc, presided over most of the offerings found in the Templo Mayor. Representing fire and water respectively, this pair of deities probably symbolized the concept of "burning water," a metaphor for warfare.

Another theme exhibited in this hall is autosacrifice, a ritual that was conducted in private as a personal act of communication with the gods. Widespread throughout the entire population, this practice was performed by perforating certain fleshy parts of the body—such as the earlobes, lips, tongue, chest, calves, et cetera—with obsidian blades, agave needles or bone perforators. Once the implement was covered with blood, it was inserted in straw balls called Zacatapayoli. The entirety was probably placed in ceremonial boxes—tepetlacalli—as an offering to the gods. Objects associated with human sacrifice are the "face blades" or knives decorated with eyes and teeth, as well as skull masks. Other ceremonial items include musical instruments, jewelry, and braziers for the burning of copal.

Museum

The museum of the Templo Mayor was built in 1987 to house the Templo Mayor Project and its finds—a project which continues work to this day. In 1991, the Urban Archeology Program was incorporated as part of the Templo Mayor Project whose mission is to excavate the oldest area of the city, around the main plaza. The museum building was built by architect Pedro Ramírez Vázquez, who envisioned a discreet structure that would blend in with the colonial surroundings. The museum has four floors, three of which are for permanent exhibitions and the fourth houses offices for the director, museum administration and research staff. Other departments are located in the basement, where there is also an auditorium.

The museum has eight main exhibition halls, each dedicated to a different theme. Room 1 is dedicated to the goddesses Coatlicue and Coyolxauhqui, mother and sister to Huitzlipochtli, respectively. Here are displayed the first finds associated with the temple, from the first tentative finds in the 19th century to the discovery of the huge stone disk of Coyolxauhqui, which initiated the Templo Mayor Project.

Room 2 is dedicated to the concepts of ritual and sacrifice in Tenochtitlan. This room contains urns where dignitaries where interred, funerary offerings, as well as objects associated with self and human sacrifice—such as musical instruments, knives and skulls.

Room 3 demonstrates the economics of the Aztec empire in the form of tribute and trade, with examples of finished products and raw materials from many parts of Mesoamerica. Room 4 is dedicated to the god Huitzilopochtli. His shrine at the temple was the most important and largest. This room contains various images of him as well as offerings. Also located here are the two large ceramic statues of the god Mictlantecuhtli which were found in the House of the Eagle Warriors who were dedicated to Huitzilopochtli.

Room 5 is dedicated to Tlaloc, the other principal deity of the Aztecs and one of the oldest in Mesoamerica. This room contains various images of the god usually worked in green or volcanic stone or in ceramic. The most prized work is a large pot with the god's face in high relief that still preserves much of the original blue paint. Room 6 is dedicated to the flora and fauna of Mesoamerica at this time, as most contained divine aspects for the Aztecs. Also many of the offerings found at the Templo Mayor were or were made from various plants and animals. Related to Room 6, Room 7 contains exhibits of the agricultural technology of the time, especially in the growing of corn and the construction of chinampas, the so-called "floating gardens". The last room is Room 8, which is dedicated to the archeology and history of the site.

title: Templo Mayor


text:
Max Bentley

Maxwell Herbert Lloyd Bentley (March 1, 1920 – January 18, 1984) was a Canadian professional ice hockey player who played for the Chicago Black Hawks, Toronto Maple Leafs, and New York Rangers in the National Hockey League (NHL) as part of a professional and senior career that spanned 20 years. He was the NHL's leading scorer twice in a row, and in 1946 won the Hart Trophy as most valuable player. He played in four All-Star Games and was twice named to a post-season All-Star team.

Bentley was one of six hockey-playing brothers, and at one point played with four of his brothers with the Drumheller Miners of the Alberta Senior Hockey League. In 1942–43, he made NHL history when he played on the league's first all-brother line with Doug and Reg. He played five seasons in Chicago with Doug before a 1947 trade sent him to the Maple Leafs in one of the most significant transactions in NHL history to that point. Bentley won three Stanley Cup championships with the Maple Leafs before spending a final NHL season with the Rangers in 1953–54. He then returned to his home in Saskatoon to finish his playing career. Considered one of the best players of his era, Bentley was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1966. Bentley was named one of the NHL's 100 greatest players of all-time by the NHL in 2017.

Early life
Bentley was born March 1, 1920, in Delisle, Saskatchewan. He was the youngest of six boys, and one of thirteen children. His father Bill was a native of Yorkshire, England who emigrated to the United States as a child and became a speed skating champion in North Dakota before settling in Delisle. He became mayor and helped build the town's covered skating rink. All of the Bentley children were athletes, and all six brothers played hockey. Bill Bentley believed that all six boys could have played in the National Hockey League (NHL), though responsibilities on the family farm resulted in the eldest four boys spending the majority of their careers playing senior hockey on the Canadian Prairies.

His father taught Bentley to play hockey on their farm, where the family patriarch believed the daily chores would give his children the strength to have strong shots. Bentley's father also taught him to use his speed to elude bigger and stronger opponents as he weighed only 155 pounds fully grown. He played two years in Rosetown, Saskatchewan between 1935 and 1937 where he led the Saskatchewan Intermediate league in scoring as a 16-year-old. He moved onto the Drumheller Miners of the Alberta Senior Hockey League (ASHL) in 1937, leading that league in scoring while playing on a line with brothers Roy and Wyatt. The trio were joined in Drumheller by Doug and Reg for the 1938–39 season. The family operated a gas station in town when not playing hockey.

Chicago Black Hawks
While playing for Rosetown, Bentley attended a tryout camp for the Boston Bruins. Believing him too small to play in the NHL, the Bruins sent him home. He then traveled to Montreal for a tryout with the Canadiens. The team advised him to see a doctor who stated he had a heart condition, and that if he did not quit hockey, he would be dead within a year. Bentley chose to continue playing, but developed into a hypochondriac following the diagnosis. He constantly complained of aches, pains and ailments, and carried so many drugs and medications he was known as a "walking drug store".

He played two years of senior hockey in Drumheller, and one more with the Saskatoon Quakers in the Saskatchewan Senior Hockey League (SSHL) before playing his first professional games with the Providence Reds of the American Hockey League (AHL) in 1940–41. He caught the attention of the Chicago Black Hawks, and while the team was impressed with his play, they wanted him to start with their American Hockey Association (AHA) affiliate in Kansas City. Bentley initially refused, and considered retiring. He was convinced to report by Kansas City's coach, Johnny Gottselig, and played only five games before injuries in Chicago led the Black Hawks to request a call-up. Gottselig sent Bentley up, reuniting him with brother Doug who had joined Chicago in 1939. Max played his first NHL game on November 21, 1940, against the Bruins. He scored his first goal on December 1 against the New York Rangers.

In his third NHL season, 1942–43, Bentley scored 70 points to finish third in the league in scoring. He finished three points behind brother Doug, who won the scoring title. Max tied an NHL record by scoring four goals in one period of a 10–1 victory over the Rangers on January 28, 1943. He added three assists in the game, tying the league record at the time for points in one game with seven. He was called for only one penalty during the season, and as a result was voted the winner of the Lady Byng Trophy as the league's most sportsmanlike player.

World War II had decimated the rosters of all NHL teams, and with the Black Hawks searching for players, Max and Doug convinced the team to sign their brother Reg. The trio made history on January 1, 1943, when they became the first all-brother line the NHL had seen. Two nights later, Max and Doug assisted on Reg's first, and only, NHL goal, the only time in league history that a trio of family members recorded the goal and assists on a scoring play. While Max and Doug were established NHL stars, Reg played only 11 games in his NHL career.

Bentley's career was interrupted in 1943 when he joined the Canadian Infantry Corps. He was briefly stationed in Victoria, British Columbia, where he completed the 1942–43 season playing with the Victoria Navy team then spent the following two years stationed in Calgary where he played with the Calgary Currie Army team in the Canadian military leagues. He led the Alberta league in goals and points with 18 and 31 respectively in 1943–44.

Following the war, Bentley returned to the Black Hawks where he was reunited with his brother Doug and joined on a line by Bill Mosienko. The trio, who were all small and exceptionally fast, were dubbed the "Pony Line" and emerged as one of the top scoring lines in the league. Max led the league in scoring with 61 points, and was awarded the Hart Trophy as the league's most valuable player. He was the first Black Hawk to ever win the award.

Bentley again led the league in scoring in 1946–47, recording 72 points in 60 games. He won the title on the final night of the season, finishing one point ahead of Montreal's Maurice Richard. In doing so, he became only the third player in NHL history to win consecutive scoring titles after Charlie Conacher and Sweeney Schriner, both of whom accomplished the feat in the 1930s. He then played in the 1st National Hockey League All-Star Game on October 13, 1947, for the NHL All-Stars, a 4–3 victory over the Toronto Maple Leafs.

Toronto Maple Leafs
Three weeks later and six games into the season, the Maple Leafs completed a deal to acquire Bentley. He was sent to Toronto with Cy Thomas in exchange for Gus Bodnar, Bud Poile, Gaye Stewart, Ernie Dickens and Bob Goldham, on November 2, 1947. The trade sent shockwaves throughout the league. The five players sent to Chicago essentially formed an entire starting unit; NHL President Clarence Campbell stated he was "astounded" by the deal, and stated it ranked with the Maple Leafs' purchase of King Clancy in 1930 as one of the most significant transactions in league history. The trade was still being discussed weeks later as observers throughout the league attempted to assess which team received the better deal. Bentley was initially disappointed to leave his brother in Chicago, but quickly adapted to Toronto where he was immediately popular.

With the Leafs, Bentley challenged for his third consecutive scoring title. He eventually finished fifth with 54 points, seven behind Elmer Lach's league-leading 61. The Leafs finished in first place in the regular season standings, then went on to win the Stanley Cup in a four-game sweep over the Detroit Red Wings in the 1948 Stanley Cup Finals. Bentley was overjoyed, stating: "I waited a long time for this. A Stanley Cup championship at last!"

Bentley and the Leafs struggled in the 1948–49 regular season. He fell to 41 points on the year – 31 less than his total of two seasons previous – while the Leafs finished fourth out of six teams. The team recovered in the playoffs, eliminating the Red Wings in four consecutive games for the second year in a row to win the team's third consecutive Stanley Cup. Bentley scored the third goal in a 3–1 win in the deciding contest.

The Leafs' championship streak came to an end in 1949–50 but Bentley showed a modest improvement offensively, leading the team with 23 goals. He contemplated retiring and returning to Saskatchewan, but chose to return to Toronto for the 1950–51 season. He finished the season with significantly improved scoring totals, finishing third in the league with 62 points, behind Maurice Richard's 66, and Gordie Howe's league-record 86. The Leafs faced the Canadiens in the 1951 Stanley Cup Finals, which was won by Toronto in five games. Bentley finished with 13 points in the playoffs, tying him with Richard for the league lead.

After finishing the 1951–52 season with 41 points, Bentley contemplated his future in hockey. He mused about an opportunity to coach the Calgary Stampeders of the Western Hockey League (WHL) and stated a desire to play again with his brother Doug, but ultimately returned to Toronto. He only played in 36 games in 1952–53 after suffering a back injury, but reached 500 career points on November 5, 1952, with two goals against the Rangers.

New York and Saskatoon
Following the season, the New York Rangers offered Max and Doug Bentley the opportunity to play together again. The Rangers acquired both players in cash transactions over the summer. Max finished the season with 32 points in 54 games, while Doug played only 20 games. Bentley's rights reverted to the Maple Leafs in the fall of 1954 when he refused to report to the Rangers for the 1954–55 NHL season. From the Leafs, he demanded a C$20,000 contract, more than the team was willing to pay. He was initially placed on the suspended list by Toronto after he refused to report to training camp and attempted to purchase his release from the team. Bentley expressed a desire to leave the NHL and play for the WHL's Saskatoon Quakers, where Doug had become coach. The Maple Leafs ultimately supported Bentley's request. At the time he was granted his release, he was second amongst all active players with 245 goals, behind only Richard.

He joined the Quakers in November 1954 to great excitement in Saskatoon. Bentley finished the season with 41 points in 40 games. He began the 1955–56 season with Saskatoon, but retired on November 15, 1955, due to recurring back problems. He played his final game on that night, scoring his final goal in an 8–3 victory over the Winnipeg Warriors.

In 1956, Bentley joined his brother Doug in hockey management when the brothers launched a new Saskatchewan Junior Hockey League (SJHL) team in Saskatoon. He attempted to get into coaching, first offering his services to the WHL's Vancouver Canucks in the winter of 1961, before going south to coach the Burbank Stars of the California Hockey league in 1962. His nephew Bev and son Lynn played with him in Burbank, while Doug was the player-coach of the rival Long Beach Gulls.

Playing style
Max Bentley was known for his speed, passing and puck handling skills. He learned his trade with his brothers as they constantly played street hockey in the summers and on the ice in the winters. Bentley's father flooded a sheet of ice that was the length of a regulation NHL hockey rink but much narrower, forcing the boys to develop the ability to maintain control of the puck while making fast, hard turns to reach the net. He was nicknamed the "Dipsy Doodle Dandy from Delisle" in reference to his ability to skate around opponents who often found that the only way to stop him was via rough play. Bentley was able to score from nearly any angle, an ability that confounded even his brother Doug. Long-time prairie hockey promoter Bill Hunter said Bentley was "a phenomenal hockey player, an absolute artist with the puck". Opponents occasionally attempted to use Bentley's hypochondria against him, making remarks on how he looked ill in a bid to distract him during the game.

Bentley was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1966, two years after his brother Doug. One year later, Max and Doug were inducted together into the Saskatchewan Sports Hall of Fame. The Hockey News ranked him 48th on its 1998 list of the top 100 players of all time.

Personal life
In addition to hockey, Bentley and his brothers played baseball in the summers. Representing their hometown of Delisle, they participated in regional tournaments and were repeat winners. Bentley played summer baseball throughout the 1950s, and was a member of the Saskatoon Gems of the Western Canada Senior League. He was also a long-time curler, often playing with his brothers, son and nephews.

The majority of Bentley's time away from the hockey rink was spent on the family farm outside Delisle. The Bentleys operated a large farm, raising cattle and growing wheat, and Max tended to return to the farm to recuperate during hockey seasons when he felt he needed to rest up. He and his wife Betty had a son, Lynn, who was also a hockey player and a younger son, Gary. Bentley died at his home in Saskatoon on January 18, 1984, at the age of 63.

title: Max Bentley


text:
User talk:Quadell/copyright

You write: "If a work was prepared by an officer or employee of the United States Federal Government, or of the State Government of California, as part of that person's official duties, then it is not copyrightable and is thus in the public domain." Does this mean that a court order like this one is in the public domain ? --84.139.58.18 12:37, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * Yes, court orders are in the public domain. – Quadell (talk) (bounties) 20:13, 8 January 2006 (UTC)

About aircraft drawings
I'm not an expert about these copyrights-related matters at all, but could you please explain?

Looking at the histories of Image:Bristol 198.jpg and Image:Bristol 223.jpg, once you put {unverified}, then changed them to {PD-ineligible}. I mean, I'm not so sure those drawings contain "no new creative content whatsoever" and are "not copyrightable". This concern came from a past discussion on ja.wp.

Once on ja.wp, a similar drawing scanned from an old publication of the aeronautical society of Japan, was rejected to be treated as PD and deleted after the discussion at village pump (link to the log (Japanese)). In this case, they regared it as copyrighted work (without doubts), and the discussion focused on whether or not the copyright is valid today, then the conclusion came: "No-go. The copyright might not be dissapered yet"...

So I'd like to ask you those drawings really are PD or not. If there are sources that assure these drawings are PD, please tell me thier existance (not necessarily show me all of them, because I'm afraid I cannot understand anyway...). Or, the nonexistence of the confirmation that they are copyrighted is the answer...? - Marsian // talk 2005-07-01 13:58:00 (UTC) - Marsian // talk 2005-07-02 03:24:44 (UTC) added

 * This is a very difficult case. The specifications themselves are not copyrightable, but the drawings might be. A judge might rule that when an artist chooses the thickness of a line, or the color, or the distance between separate views, et cetera, that that is creative content. Unfortunately, the only way to know for sure is if the creator were to sue, and a copyright judge were to rule on the case. This is a grey area, and I don't know for sure. – Quadell (talk) (bounties) 20:13, 8 January 2006 (UTC)

Questions

 * 1) What exactly does "published" mean? Printed in a book that was never sold? Put up for display at an exhibition?
 * Good question. All I can find is this:
 * "Publication" was not explicitly defined in the Copyright Law before 1976, but the 1909 Act indirectly indicated that publication was when copies of the first authorized edition were placed on sale, sold, or publicly distributed by the proprietor of the copyright or under his authority.
 * That doesn't shed much light, I'm afraid. – Quadell (talk) (bounties) 20:13, 8 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 1) I understand an example of "no creative content whatsoever" would be photographs of paintings. Are there other examples?
 * Yes. Browsing through Category:Public domain images ineligible for copyright show some good examples, such as Image:11gon.png, a simple shape; Image:Aliceroosblue.jpg, a color; or Image:2-methylbutane.png, a chemical formula. U.S. courts have also ruled that typefaces (fonts) are not "creative", so pictures of letters or numbers are not copyrightable. – Quadell (talk) (bounties) 20:13, 8 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 1) Alternatively, if a work was FIRST published in 2003 or later, even though it was created before 1935, it is still legally considered an "unpublished work". That doesn't sound right. Shouldn't it say "published in 2003" rather than "unpublished work"? Algae 17:11, 8 January 2006 (UTC)
 * I know it's weird, but trust me, copyright is very unintuitive. The example you give would legally be considered an unpublished work, as crazy as that sounds. – Quadell (talk) (bounties) 20:13, 8 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Thank you very much for your answers. I suspect I am misunderstanding something. Is that some sort of special treatment for old unpublished texts so they never count as published and their copyright protection never expires? In other words: If a work was created before 1935 and published after 2003, it's "unpublished work", if it was created in 2003 and published in 2003, it is "published work"? If a pre-1935 work hasn't been published before 2003, can it ever be published? How? What are the consequences for copyright duration? And what law or treaty is responsible for this? What was the intention behind this? Algae 20:43, 8 January 2006 (UTC)

I wish I could find an actual example, but I can't, so I'll make one up. Let's say I was digging in my backyard and I found an old trunk full of unpublished manyscripts. There's "Hamlet II: the Ghost's Revenge", a lost play by Shakespeare; "1920", by Hemmingway, written in 1920; and two poems with no information on their authors, one written in 1883, and one written in 1889. Are they in the public domain?

The Shakespearian play is, because Shakespeare died before 1935. The Hemmingway book would still be copyrighted by the Hemmingway estate, since he died in 1961. The 1883 poem would be public domain, but the 1889 one would presumably be copyrighted, although I would have no way of knowing who owns the copyright.

Let's say I published the 1883 poem and the Shakespearian play, and they were best-sellers, and the Hemmingway Estate published their book. Even afterwards, the play and the poem are still considered to be in the public domain, even though they were first published recently. If you wanted to re-publish them without my consent, and your lawyer said "No, you can't, because this was first published in the U.S. in 2005, so Quadell owns the copyright", your lawyer would be wrong and you should fire him. This is why previously-unpublished works that were first published after 2003 are still considered "unpublished" for legal purposes, even though they were obviously published.

Also note that Hemmingway's book, had it been published in 1920, would be in the public domain by now. But since it's still considered "unpublished", even though the Hemmingway estate published it in 2005, it's still under copyright. Hope this helps. – Quadell (talk) (bounties) 23:01, 8 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Thank you for your detailed explanation. So I take "unpublished work" in this context just means that points 5. and 6. (regarding unpublished works) apply!? I find the Hemingway case the most interesting one: It was published in 2005, but it is still considered unpublished – how can the copyright ever expire, and when? And if the estate had published it in 2002, what would be the difference? How long would the protection last? 2002+90 years? Oh, and which law/treaty do I have to check for this aspect of copyright law? Algae 23:22, 8 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Okay, this is an extremely tardy response, but I just now saw the question. Unpublished works are copyrighted for 70 years after the death of the author. – Quadell (talk) 22:40, 22 May 2009 (UTC)

iCopyright Question
Thank you for your insight, Quadrell. You wrote "Any of those [public displays of Guinnevere] would be derivative works, and therefore copyright infringements. Options 1 and 2 would possibly pass WP:NFCC, but it would be better to just have an ogg file of the original recording. This is analogous to an amateur drawing of Mickey Mouse: it's still a reproduction of Disney's copyright, so it's better to use an official portrait."

I know your time is valuable but if you have a moment I would enjoy hearing your initial impression of my LilyPond experiments here and here. I may take the whole thing down but am (evidently) currently fascinated with the possibilities of this WikiTex technology and wonder why it has not been embraced already by Wikipedia (I see security mentioned by Peter Danenberg...).

Copyright laws are complex and the internet seems to blur "public display" and "education." Many of these questions might not need answering unless someone's pocketbook were actually impacted or someone else wished to set a political example.

Anyway, please share your initial impression, as an experienced Wikipedia user, as to whether my Wikisophia examples are 1) Clearly inappropriate, should be removed immediately or 2) Hard to say, gray zone, maybe safer to avoid, or 3) Looks fine, attribution to authors, purpose is educational, not enough to be performable, or whatever.

As I mention on my talk page, there is little philosophical difference between,

 * 1) Reading a book and summarizing findings in prose with reference to the book;
 * 2) Listening to an album and summarizing findings in snippets with reference to the album;

but what do law and politics care about philosophy. ;-)

Regards, -- IDave2 (talk) 20:22, 22 May 2009 (UTC)

 * I would put it differently. I would say there is little difference between translating an entire book into another language, and translating a work of music from a sound file to sheet music. Both require the consent of the copyright holder of the original work. (This same analogy is used in Fishman's "The Public Domain" and other textbooks on copyright law.)
 * ASCAP represents song-writers in America, and it holds the copyright to the song "Guinnevere". In fact they, along with BMI and SESAC, hold the copyright to nearly every other song you've ever heard of. And they're ruthless. They routinely shut down websites that reproduce lyrics, sheet music, or guitar tablature of songs, even if you recreate the sheet music or lyrics by listening to the songs. They also watch for people publicly performing copyrighted works without an authorization and sue them. This is why all the lyric sites on the internet are fly-by-night throw-away organizations run out of Singapore or somewhere.
 * I'm very sorry to say it, and I wish it weren't true, but I'd have to go with "Clearly inappropriate, should be removed immediately". (Please note: This is not legal advice, and I am not authorized to give legal council. For that, you'll have to get a lawyer.) – Quadell (talk) 22:31, 22 May 2009 (UTC)

 * It's a goner. Too bad.  Thanks. IDave2 (talk) 01:08, 23 May 2009 (UTC)

title: User talk:Quadell/copyright


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Vijay R. Singh

Sir Vijay Raghubar Singh, KBE (13 July 1931 – 25 September 2006) was an Indo-Fijian lawyer and politician who held Cabinet office in the 1960s and 1970s. Vijay Singh served in Prime Minister Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara's government in a variety of positions, including Attorney-General, and was president of the Indian Alliance, a division of the ruling Alliance Party. He quit the party in 1979 following disagreement with Alliance leadership and later joined the opposition National Federation Party. Vijay Singh was involved in the restructure of the Fiji sugar industry and was a leading member of the Jaycees movement in Fiji.

Early life
Vijay Singh was born in Yalalevu, Ba, Fiji and was the eldest of 14 children. He came from a prominent Arya Samaj family in Ba. He attended the local Arya Samaj school for primary education and obtained his secondary education at Marist Brothers High School in Suva. With no tertiary education available in Fiji, and not able to afford to travel overseas for further education, he took up employment in his uncle, Hari Shankars', accountancy and import business. Seeing his determination to pursue further studies, his uncle offered to finance him to study law. He began legal studies at Lincoln's Inn in London in 1951. He graduated with a Law degree from the University of London in 1953 after only two years, the shortest period of study permissible to sit the final examination. He became a barrister of the High Courts of England, Australia, and Fiji. In February 1954, he returned to Fiji and began to practise in Labasa. He also had offices in Nadi and Suva. In 1956 he married Maya, with whom he had a son, Vinay, and a daughter, Madhu.

Contribution to the sugar industry
While in Labasa, Vijay Singh became involved in cane farmers unions and was the president of the Labasa Kisan Sangh. He was also a key player in the formation of the Federation of Cane Growers (an umbrella organisation of various sugar cane unions to negotiate with the CSR) and the subsequent negotiations that took place with the Colonial Sugar Refining Company regarding the 1960 sugar cane contract. He, together with Ayodhya Prasad, of the Viti Levu-based Kisan Sangh, signed the 1960 cane contract in defiance of the majority of the Federation of Cane Growers. He later became the President of a united Kisan Sangh and held this office until the mid-1990s. He was an active leader of the joint committee of all sugar cane growers associations, established to restructure the sugar industry and when the Sugar Cane Growers Council was established in 1985, he was selected as its first Chief Executive. He also became a director of the Fiji Sugar Marketing Company, thus providing sugar cane farmers a direct say in how Fiji's sugar was marketed.

Political legacy
In 1965, together with Ratu Kamisese Mara, and other organizations opposed to the Federation Party, he was involved in the formation of Fiji's first multi-racial political party, the Alliance Party. He joined the Alliance Party independently of Ayodhya Prasad's National Congress of Fiji and worked himself to a position of influence within the Party by taking up the posts of Treasurer and Publicity Manager. When the Congress was wound up in 1967, its members joined the Indian division of the Alliance Party, the Indian Alliance, with Vijay R. Singh as President. In the 1966 election, he was elected to the Legislative Council from the East-Central cross-voting seat which covered Vanua Levu and Lau. The Federation Party had no hope of winning the seat and to confuse voters selected another Vijay Singh. From then on he started to use the name, Vijay R. Singh (Vijay Raghubar Singh - using his father's first name as his middle name.) The ploy by the Federation Party backfired, as Vijay R. Singh's opponent was a clerk and he asked the electorate, "Which Vijay Singh do you wish to vote for - the clerk or the lawyer?"

Following the Alliance Party's win in the election, he was appointed the Member for Social Services, a portfolio that had been held by A. D. Patel prior to the election. This was not a ministerial post in the modern sense, as Singh and his fellow "members" comprised a minority of the Executive Council and were technically only advisers to the governor, who retained all power. However, the portfolio, which encompassed Health, Education, Housing and Social Welfare, was upgraded to a ministerial position when responsible government was introduced in September 1967. It was during his term as Minister that the University of the South Pacific was established. He also introduced a program to extend secondary education to rural areas by the establishment of Junior Secondary Schools. He was later appointed the minister of commerce, industry and cooperatives and was instrumental in the establishment of a flour mill, steel rolling mill and a second brewery in Fiji. He played an active part in multi-party talks held in London, culminating in the new constitution and Fiji's independence in 1970.

Alienation from the Alliance Party
In the 1972 election, it was clear that Vijay R. Singh was losing favour with the leadership of the Alliance Party, when he was not nominated for his existing safe seat and instead was given another (less safe) seat in a constituency where he did not have any political following. He won the election and was made Minister for Housing, Urban Development and Social Welfare. Not happy with this "demotion" he soon resigned as a Minister and resumed private practice. He was then elected Deputy Speaker of the House of Representatives of Fiji of the House of Representatives. In mid-1975, when the Minister of Education announced that the Government would not subsidize school fees for non-Fijians, Vijay Singh was among its most vocal critics, describing the decision as "deplorable because of its distressingly repellent odour of crude racialism." In 1976, he was elected the Speaker and resigned from the presidency of the Indian Alliance.

In June 1976, he became the first Indo-Fijian to be knighted by the Queen for his services as a citizen, as a member of parliament, Minister and Speaker. In the 1977 election, he lost the pre-selection for Alliance Party's nomination for his National seat to the prominent K.R. Latchan. He then began speaking out publicly on issues affecting the Indian community but accepted nomination for an Indian Communal seat that he could not win.

The Alliance Party still needed him as they needed a qualified lawyer to be the Attorney General. He was appointed to the Senate and given the portfolio of Attorney General and Minister for Economic Development. Differences between him and the Alliance leadership widened and he resigned from both the party and the Senate in 1979. In 1982, he joined the National Federation Party (NFP), whose leader's moderate style appealed to him, and soon became a key adviser to its leader, Jai Ram Reddy. He won the 1982 election on the NFP ticket in a national constituency in his home town of Ba but his attempts to use foreign media to influence the election backfired and the NFP lost the election.

Later years
In 1985 he resigned his seat in the House of Representatives and began work as chief executive of the Sugar Cane Growers Council but this career was cut short by the Fiji coups of 1987. In order to bring pressure on the regime in Fiji to restore democracy, he lobbied at the Commonwealth Heads of Government meeting in Vancouver in October 1987 to have Fiji expelled from the Commonwealth. He succeeded but was barred from returning to Fiji, having been declared persona non-grata. He then settled in Australia. After the restoration of democracy in Fiji he returned and resumed his law practice in Suva in 1991.

Singh's last public contribution was his book, Speaking Out, published in 2006, in which he recited his version of the events surrounding the coups in Fiji. The book offended Saula Telawa (the leader of the fringe New Nationalist Party), who called for the book to be banned in Fiji. Singh's strident criticism of some ministers of the Methodist and other churches for supporting the coups was insensitive to Christian beliefs and to the predominantly Christian indigenous Fijians, claimed Telawa, whose party calls for indigenous supremacy and for Christianity to be established as the state religion.

Singh's memoir also made controversial claims that Sitiveni Rabuka, the architect of the 1987 coups, had personally told him that he was the main instigator behind the scenes of the 2000 coup also, and that his main target was not the government of Mahendra Chaudhry, but the aging Ratu Mara, who was now president. Pleading sub judice, Rabuka refused to comment. In an audio interview broadcast on Fiji Live on 17 August, barely six weeks before his death, Singh claimed that an emotional Ratu Mara, who had abruptly resigned the Presidency in the midst of the coup crisis, had told him of his own suspicions about Rabuka. Although unsubstantiated, Singh's claims were not new: Mara's own last recorded interview had expressed strong suspicions about Rabuka's possible involvement in the 2000 coup. Singh's claimed conversation with Rabuka was, however, the first known purported confession from Rabuka.

Sir Vijay R. Singh died on 25 September 2006 in Brisbane, Australia, after a long battle with cancer.

title: Vijay R. Singh


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Talk:Killara

Untitled
moved from article, needs npoving, wikifications, random information on a school is not very useful in a suburb article: clarkk 12:38, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Killara is also home to Killara High school, famous for having Elle Macpherson as a students. Killara High is situated in Koola avenue, East Killara. Killara High's current principal is Dr Mark Carter along with it's deputy principals Ken Hopley and Glenda Robinson. Killara is the only public non selective school on the north shore that offers Hebrew via the Board of jewish education. This makes Killara High a target for many Jewish students who can't afford Masada College in St. Ives. Killara High has an excellent reputation and brings out many top HSC marks each year.

Does David Koch actually live in Killara ? Dbmoodb 00:40, 1 November 2007 (UTC)

Repeated vandalism from 174.52.112.234
I suggest some kind of ban be placed on 174.52.112.234 for repeatedly vandalising the article. He keeps tampering with the list of notable residents, adding such people as:
 * Jono caroll-Goldin, a man, a myth, a legend
 * Mark Asbjerg, Son of the Great Benny Asbjerg Ice cream guru

(Huey45 (talk) 00:03, 27 March 2010 (UTC))

title: Talk:Killara


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Karlslunds IF

Karlslunds IF is a Swedish sports club with several departments, located in Örebro.

Karlslunds IF runs one of the biggest programme for athletics in Örebro, Sweden, with some 4000 members and more than 200 coaches coaching eight different sports. Currently women's football (known as KIF Örebro DFF) and skiing have the most successful teams.

History
The club was founded on April 27, 1920 by a group of young athletes living in the Karlslund area in western Örebro. With an original focus on athletics, skiing and football, the club quickly branched into other sports, becoming one of Örebro's most successful sports clubs of the 20th and 21st century.

Sports

 * Bandy: Karlslunds IF Bandy
 * Baseball and softball: KIF Eagles Baseball & Softball
 * Bowling: Karlslunds IF Bowling
 * Men's football: Karlslunds IF FK
 * Women's football: KIF Örebro DFF
 * Gymnastics: Örebro Gymnastikförening - KIF
 * Skiing: Karlslunds IF Skiing
 * Swimming: Örebro Simallians
 * American football: Karlsunds IF American football

title: Karlslunds IF


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Cosmas of Maiuma

Cosmas of Maiuma, also called Cosmas Hagiopolites ("of the Holy City"), Cosmas of Jerusalem, Cosmas the Melodist, or Cosmas the Poet (d. 773 or 794), was a bishop and an important hymnographer in the East. He is venerated as a saint by the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church.

Life
Cosmas (Κοσμάς) was born in Jerusalem, but he was orphaned at a young age. He was adopted by Sergius, the father of John of Damascus (ca.676 - 749), and became John's foster-brother. The teacher of the two boys was an elderly Calabrian monk, also named Cosmas (known as "Cosmas the Monk" to distinguish him), who had been freed from slavery to the Saracens by John's father. John and Cosmas went from Damascus to Jerusalem, where both became monks in the Lavra (monastery) of Sabbas the Sanctified near that city. Together they helped defend the Church against the heresy of iconoclasm.

Cosmas left the monastery in 743 when he was appointed Bishop of Maiuma, the port of ancient Gaza. He outlived John by many years and died in great old age.

Works
As a learned prose-author, Cosmas wrote commentaries, or scholia, on the poems of Gregory of Nazianzus. He is regarded with great admiration as a poet. Cosmas and John of Damascus are considered to be the best representatives of the later Greek classical hymnography, the most characteristic examples of which are the artistic liturgical chants known as "canons". They worked together on developing the Octoechos.

In the Eastern Orthodox Church, Cosmas has been called "a vessel of divine grace" and "the glory of the Church." He composed the solemn canons for Matins of Lazarus Saturday, Palm Sunday, the Triodes (canons with only three Canticles) which are chanted during Holy Week, the first canon of the Nativity (based on a Nativity sermon by Gregory the Theologian), and is known for his finest work, "Canon for Christmas Day". Altogether, fourteen canons are attributed to him in the liturgical books of the Orthodox Church. His most well-known composition is "More honourable than the cherubim…" (which is included in the Axion Estin), sung regularly at Matins, the Divine Liturgy and other services.

The hymns of Cosmas were originally intended for the Divine Services of the Church of Jerusalem, but through the influence of Constantinople their use became universal in the Orthodox Church. It is not certain, however, that all the hymns ascribed to Cosmas in the liturgical books were really his compositions, especially as his teacher of the same name was also a hymn writer.

The Eastern Orthodox Church observes his feast on October 12 (Julian Calendar, it is October 25 of the Gregorian Calendar) and in Greek Church on October 14 Julian, it is October 27).

title: Cosmas of Maiuma


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Kovačić

Kovačić (Serbo-Croatian, Ковачић), alternatively spelled Kovačič in Slovene and Slovak (feminine (Slovak): Kovačičová), Kovacsics in Hungarian, or transliterated as Kovacic/Kovacich/Kovachich in English, is one of the most common surnames in Croatia, Slovenia, as well as Hungary and Serbia. Etymologically it is a patronymic derivative of the surname Kovač, which is a Slavic cognate of the English surname Smith, and as such is closely related to the similar surname Kovačević.

In Croatia the form Kovačić is more common than Kovač, whereas in Slovenia it is the other way around. There are around 12,000 people with this surname in Croatia, making it the 7th most common in the country.

It may refer to:

 * Anikó Kovacsics (b. 1991), Hungarian handballer
 * Ante Kovačić (1854–1889), Croatian writer
 * Antun Kovacic (born 1981), Australian footballer
 * Bruno Kovačić (b. 1967), Croatian musician
 * Dieter Kovačič (b. 1973), real name of the Austrian musician better known as Dieb13
 * Emilio Kovačić (b. 1968), Croatian basketball player
 * Igor Kovačić (b. 1979), Serbian sprint canoer
 * Ivan Goran Kovačić (1913–1943), Croatian poet
 * Lojze Kovačič (1928–2004), Slovenian writer
 * Maria Kovacic, Australian politician
 * Mateo Kovačić (b. 1994), Croatian footballer
 * Miklós Kovacsics (1953–2005), Hungarian handball player
 * Miljenko Kovačić (1973–2005), Croatian footballer
 * Miodrag Kovačić (b. 1965), Serbian weightlifter
 * Peter Kovačič Peršin (b. 1945), Slovenian theologian
 * Risto Kovačić (1845–1909), Serbian scholar and writer
 * Viktor Kovačić (1874–1924), Croatian architect
 * William Kovacic, member of the United States Federal Trade Commission
 * Zdravko-Ćiro Kovačić (1925–2015), Croatian water polo player

title: Kovačić