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Episcopal Diocese of New Hampshire

The Episcopal Church of New Hampshire, a diocese of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America (ECUSA), covers the entire state of New Hampshire. It was originally part of the Diocese of Massachusetts, but became independent in 1841. The see city is Concord. The diocese has no cathedral.

Recent bishops
On June 7, 2003, the diocese elected Gene Robinson, the first openly gay bishop consecrated in the Anglican Communion. Robinson retired in 2013 at 65. His successor is the current bishop, A. Robert Hirschfeld, who was elected bishop coadjutor on May 19, 2012, and consecrated bishop in Concord on August 4, 2012. Hirschfeld served with Robinson until Robinson's formal retirement in January 2013.

In 2016, the diocese reported 11,903 members in 49 open parishes and missions.

Bishops of New Hampshire
Source:
 * 1) Alexander Viets Griswold, bishop of the Episcopal Eastern Diocese from 1811 to 1832, when the Diocese of New Hampshire was split off. The Episcopal Church lists him as I New Hampshire.
 * 2) Carlton Chase (1844-1870)
 * 3) William Woodruff Niles (1870-1914)
 * 4) Edward Melville Parker (1914-1925)
 * 5) John Thomas Dallas (1926-1948)
 * 6) Charles Francis Hall (1948-1973)
 * 7) Philip Alan Smith (1973-1986)
 * 8) Douglas E. Theuner (1986-2003)
 * 9) V. Gene Robinson (2003-2013)
 * 10) A. Robert Hirschfeld (2013–present)

title: Episcopal Diocese of New Hampshire


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John Herrmann

John Theodore Herrmann (November 9, 1900 – April 9, 1959) was a writer in the 1920s and 1930s and is alleged to have introduced Whittaker Chambers to Alger Hiss.

Biography
Herrmann was born in Lansing, Michigan in 1900. He lived in Paris in the 1920s, as part of its famous expatriate American writers' circle, when he met his first wife, Josephine Herbst in 1924. Herbst enjoyed more success as a writer than Herrmann; the couple lived a few years in rural Pennsylvania, and were friends with Katherine Anne Porter, Ernest Hemingway, John Dos Passos, William Carlos Williams, and others.

Herrmann's first novel, What Happens, was original published in Paris by Robert McAlmon's Contact Editions press. Copies were seized by U.S. Customs upon their arrival in the United States on the charge of violating the 1922 Tariff Act, which banned the import of obscene materials from foreign countries. Herrmann fought the charge in a jury trial in New York City in October 1927 but ultimately lost. Despite supporters such as Genevieve Taggard, H.L. Mencken, and Katharine Anne Porter, the jury responded with a negative verdict, and the judge ordered the seized copies destroyed.

After returning to Michigan in 1924, Herrmann wrote a manuscript about anti-German backlash during World War I but was unable to get it published. Researcher Sara Kosiba found the manuscript in the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin and arranged to have it published in 2018 under the title "Foreign Born."

In 1932, Herrmann's short novel, "The Big Short Trip," tied with Thomas Wolfe for the Scribner's Magazine short novel prize.

In 1934, he went to work with Harold Ware and his organization Farm Research, Inc., which worked with the Agricultural Adjustment Administration. Herrmann soon was a part of the Ware group, a secret apparatus of the CPUSA and Comintern in Washington, D.C., which supplied classified information to Soviet intelligence. From early 1934 until the summer of 1935, Herrmann was a paid courier for the CPUSA, delivering material emanating from the secret cells of sympathetic government employees being cultivated by Hal Ware to New York City. Herrmann also was the person who introduced Whittaker Chambers to Alger Hiss.

In 1940, Herrmann divorced Herbst and married Ruth Tate. He served in the United States Coast Guard, enlisting in New Orleans, in World War II. The couple fled the country and went to Mexico, when the FBI's Hiss-investigations began. He was placed under surveillance and questioned many times in Mexico by the FBI.

Herrmann applied in March 1949 to Mexico City College (MCC) as a speech and drama major but attended for only the Fall 1950 and Winter 1951 quarters. A photograph in the November 16, 1950, issue of MCC's student paper, the Collegian, shows Earl Sennett speaking to twelve students in his "Studio Stages" drama group; among them are Frank Jeffries, Alice Hartman, and John Herrmann. During his time at MCC, Herrmann was also, according to James W. Grauerholz's 2002 investigation, in an apartment located at 122 Monterrey hours before William Burroughs shot and killed his wife Joan Vollmer Burroughs.

Death
Herrmann died near the Pacific Ocean in April 1959, at the Hotel Navidad, in Barra de Navidad, Jalisco, Mexico from a heart attack. He is buried at Mount Hope Cemetery in Lansing, Michigan.

Books

 * What Happens. Contact Editions, Paris 1926 (reissued 2015 by Hastings College Press, with new introduction by Sara Kosiba)
 * Foreign Born. Hastings College Press, 2018.
 * Summer is Ended (1932)
 * The Salesman (1939)

Other Publications by John Herrmann
"The Big Short Trip." Scribner's Magazine August 1932, p. 65-69, 113-128.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: John Herrmann


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Keith Crofford

Keith Crofford (born April 14, 1956) is the former executive vice president of production for Adult Swim, the adult-oriented division of Cartoon Network, and general manager of Williams Street. He was executive producer for several Williams Street in-house productions such as Space Ghost Coast to Coast, Aqua Teen Hunger Force, The Brak Show and Squidbillies. He also served as the executive producer for Williams Street out-of-house productions such as Sealab 2021, Robot Chicken, Tom Goes to the Mayor, Minoriteam and Moral Orel. Crofford was also the executive in charge of production for Adult Swim's The Venture Bros. More recently, he has worked on the Adult Swim animated production Primal; for his work on the episode "Plague of Madness", he was listed as a recipient of the Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program.

Crofford was born in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, and attended Florida State University from 1974 to 1978.

In 1996, Crofford voiced MOE 2000, an unfeeling computer director, in an episode, "$20.01", of Space Ghost Coast to Coast on Cartoon Network. He also voiced himself in Robot Chicken four times from 2005 to 2008 on Adult Swim.

In December 2020, Crofford retired from the company.

title: Keith Crofford


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Disorientation

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was Merge. -- Jonel | Speak 07:25, 23 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Disorientation
dicdef and no hope of becoming more Gblaz 21:31, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge with Orientation (mental) --Xcali 21:54, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * And then make it a redirect. Ambush Commander 22:58, Jun 14, 2005 (UTC)

 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages.  Please do not edit this page .


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Hugh the Drover

Hugh the Drover (or Love in the Stocks) is an opera in two acts by Ralph Vaughan Williams to an original English libretto by Harold Child. The work has set numbers with recitatives. It has been described as a modern example of a ballad opera. Contemporary comment noted the use of humour and the role of the chorus in the work, in the context of developing English opera.

History
According to Michael Kennedy, the composer took first inspiration for the opera from this question to Bruce Richmond, editor of The Times Literary Supplement, around 1909–1910:

 * "I want to set a prize fight to music. Can you find someone to make a libretto for me?"

Vaughan Williams worked on the opera for a number of years, before and after World War I. The work did not receive its first performance until 4 July 1924 at the Royal College of Music, London, in performances described as "private dress rehearsals". The "professional premiere" was at His Majesty's Theatre, London, on 14 July 1924. The opera's first performance in the United States took place on 21 February 1928 under the auspices of the Washington National Opera, a semi-professional company not related to its present namesake. Tudor Davies created the role of Hugh in both these productions.

The opera was performed by the professional Canadian Opera Company in Toronto in November 1929, at the Royal Alexandra Theatre in Toronto, with a live radio broadcast from the Royal York Hotel on 13 November 1929. In the broadcast, hockey broadcaster Foster Hewitt provided narrative for the fight sequence. These Toronto performances were conducted by Sir Ernest MacMillan, music director of the Toronto Symphony Orchestra from 1931 to 1955, and featured American tenor Allan Jones in the title role of Hugh. Jones would soon become a Hollywood star. Vaughan Williams continued to revise the libretto and the opera over the remainder of his life. The final version was performed in 1956 and published in 1959.

Roles

 * Mary (soprano)
 * Aunt Jane (mezzo-soprano)
 * Hugh the drover (tenor)
 * John the butcher (baritone)
 * Sergeant (baritone)
 * Constable (bass)
 * A cheap-jack (tenor)
 * Shellfish seller (bass)
 * Primrose seller (soprano)
 * Showman (baritone)
 * Ballad seller (tenor)
 * Susan (soprano)
 * Nancy (mezzo-soprano)
 * William (tenor)
 * Robert (baritone)
 * Turnkey (tenor)
 * Fool (tenor)
 * Innkeeper (baritone)

Synopsis

 * Place: The Cotswolds
 * Time: 1812.

Act 1
The outskirts of the town

A fair is taking place; the people of the town have turned out; vendors hawk their wares. A showman presents an effigy of Napoleon Bonaparte and rouses the crowd to a fever-pitch of patriotic zeal.

Mary, the daughter of the local constable, appears with her aunt. Her father wants to marry her to John the butcher, a crass, overbearing man whom she does not love. When John roughly takes Mary’s arm to walk through the fairgrounds with her, she resists. He threatens her in turn, but when a troop of morris men passes through, the crowd follows along and John is pulled along with them, leaving Mary alone with her aunt.

As Mary sings of her dreams of freedom, a young man appears and tells her of his life on the open road. He is Hugh the Drover, a driver of animals, who makes his living by providing horses for the army. Mary is fascinated by his words, and Hugh tells her that he was fated to love her. The two declare their love for each other and embrace.

The crowd returns and the showman organises a prizefight, inviting all the men to challenge John the butcher. Hugh agrees to box, but only if the prize is Mary herself. He beats John in the match, only to have John spitefully accuse him of being a French spy. The crowd turns against Hugh and he is led off to the stocks.

Act 2
The town square, early morning

A troop of soldiers has been sent for to take Hugh into custody. Meanwhile, he remains a prisoner in the stocks.

Mary stealthily comes to rescue him, having stolen the key to the stocks from her father. She frees him, but before they can escape, they hear John and his comrades approaching. Each refuses to leave without the other, and they both get into the stocks (which are large enough to hold two), draping Hugh's cloak over their bodies. When they are exposed, Mary's father disowns her and John refuses to marry her.

The soldiers arrive, and their sergeant recognises Hugh as an old friend who once saved his life. Instead of arresting him, they acclaim him as a loyal Briton – but take John the butcher for a soldier and march off with him.

Hugh and Mary reaffirm their love. Hugh asks Mary to join him, and she at first is hesitant, as is Aunt Jane to lose her. However, Mary finally says 'yes', and she and Hugh bid the town farewell to begin their life together.

Recordings

 * HMV SLS 5162: Sheila Armstrong, Robert Tear, Helen Watts, Michael Rippon; Ambrosian Opera Chorus; Royal Philharmonic Orchestra; Sir Charles Groves, conductor (first recording)
 * Hyperion (original code CDA66901/2, reissue code CDD22049): Rebecca Evans, Bonaventura Bottone, Sarah Walker, Richard Van Allan, Alan Opie, Neil Jenkins, Harry Nicoll, Karl Morgan Daymond, Adrian Hutton, Julia Gooding, Wynford Evans, Jenny Saunders, Alice Coote, Lynton Atkinson, Paul Robinson, John Pearce, Paul Im Thurm, Robert Poulton; Corydon Singers; The New London Children's Choir; Corydon Orchestra; Matthew Best, conductor

title: Hugh the Drover


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Questprobe featuring Spider-Man

Questprobe: Featuring Spider-Man is the second video game in the Questprobe series.

Gameplay
The player takes the role of Spider-Man, with powers including super strength and the ability to climb walls. Unlike previous releases, this game was not limited to simple verb/noun input, and could accept complex sentences.

Plot
Spider-Man begins the game imprisoned in a skyscraper which he must explore. He encounters characters such as Sandman, Hydro-Man, and Ringmaster. The player must solve puzzles and collect gems. He also encounters Madame Web and Lizard.

Development and release
In 1983, Marvel Comics and Adventure International entered an agreement in which Marvel would grant Adventure a ten-year license to create a series of adventure games based on Marvel's characters. The first installment of the series, Questprobe featuring The Hulk, was released on May 1, 1984, and was accompanied by a comic of the same title. In January 1985, developer Scott Adams revealed that he was developing a second Questprobe game with Al Milgrom based on Spider-Man, and disclosed plans to release a new game every three to five months, with a projected total of twelve or thirteen games.

This was the second graphically illustrated adventure in the Questprobe series by Scott Adams. The versions for Spectrum and Commodore 64 had graphics, but the other versions did not. The game comes with a mini-comic to set the scene for the plot.

Reception
Sinclair Programs said that "the adventure itself is excellent, with enough puzzles appearing immediately to keep any adventurer involved and intrigued".

Personal Computer Games said that "the game is initially somewhat easier than The Hulk, but rapidly becomes very challenging. The White Wizard is currently deeply involved and urges other adventurers to join him".

Home Computing Weekly wrote: "Classy, but rather over-priced: recommended for masochists and adventure freaks!"

Paul Bond for Your Computer wrote: "Spider-man is the second adventure in the Questprobe series, a combination of comics and computer adventure games that allow you to become your favourite Marvel superhero".

Reviews

 * ASM (Aktueller Software Markt) - Feb, 1986
 * Commodore User - Aug, 1985
 * Crash! - Mar, 1985
 * Commodore Computing International - Mar, 1985
 * Commodore User - Feb, 1985

title: Questprobe featuring Spider-Man


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Cavalcanti

Cavalcanti is an Italian surname. Notable people and characters with the surname include:
 * Alberto Cavalcanti (1897–1982), Brazilian film director
 * Andrea Cavalcanti, fictional character in The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexandre Dumas
 * Cavalcante de' Cavalcanti (died c. 1280), Florentine philosopher, father of Guido Cavalicanti
 * Emiliano Di Cavalcanti (1897–1976), Brazilian painter
 * Giovanni Cavalcanti (chronicler) (1381–c. 1451), Florentine chronicler
 * Giovanni Cavalcanti (poet) (1444–1509), Florentine poet
 * Guido Cavalcanti (c. 1255–1300), Italian poet
 * Humberto Cavalcanti de Albuquerque Teixeira (1915–1979), Brazilian lawyer, politician, musician, and composer
 * João Pessoa Cavalcanti de Albuquerque (1878–1930), Brazilian politician
 * Joaquim Arcoverde de Albuquerque Cavalcanti (1850–1930), Brazilian prelate, first Latin American Cardinal
 * Severino Cavalcanti (1930–2020), Brazilian politician

title: Cavalcanti


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New Haven Line

The New Haven Line is a 72.7 mi commuter rail line operated by the Metro-North Railroad in the U.S. states of New York and Connecticut. Running from New Haven, Connecticut, to New York City, the New Haven Line joins the Harlem Line in Mount Vernon, New York, and continues south to Grand Central Terminal in Manhattan. The New Haven Line carries 125,000 passengers every weekday and 39 million passengers a year. The busiest intermediate station is Stamford, with 8.4 million passengers, or 21% of the line's ridership.

The line was originally part of the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad, forming the southern leg of the New Haven's main line. It is colored red on Metro-North timetables and system maps, and stations on the line have red trim. The red color-coding is a nod to the red paint used in the New Haven's paint scheme for much of the last decade of its history. The section from Grand Central to the New York-Connecticut border is owned by Metro-North and the section from the state line to New Haven is owned by the Connecticut Department of Transportation (CTDOT). From west to east in Connecticut, three branches split off: the New Canaan Branch, Danbury Branch, and Waterbury Branch, all owned by CTDOT.

The New Haven Line is part of the Northeast Corridor; its share of the Northeast Corridor is the busiest rail line in the United States. Amtrak's Northeast Regional and Acela use the line between New Rochelle, New York, and New Haven, and five New Haven Line stations are shared with Amtrak. Local freight service is provided on the line in Connecticut by CSX Transportation, and the Providence and Worcester Railroad operates unit trains of stone along the line.

Before Metro-North

The rail line from New York to New Haven was completed by 1849, and commuters started using the trains soon afterward. The line was part of the New York and New Haven Railroad — after 1872, the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad — which had trackage rights over the New York Central Railroad's New York and Harlem Railroad into Grand Central.

The Great Blizzard of 1888 blocked the rail line in Westport, between the Saugatuck and Green's Farms stations. It took eight days to restore service, as snow was dug out by hand.

The line was grade separated into a cut in Mount Vernon in 1893 as a result of multiple collisions between trains and horsecars.

As part of the construction of Grand Central Terminal in the early 1900s, all of New York Central's lines that ran into the terminal were electrified. Third rail was installed on the Hudson and Harlem Divisions, while the New Haven Division received overhead wires on the segments that were not shared with the Harlem and Hudson Division. Steam locomotives on the New Haven Division were replaced with electric locomotives, and later electric multiple units. New Haven Division electric trains started running to Grand Central in October 1907. The replacement of the Housatonic River Railroad Bridge that year completed quadruple-tracking of the line from Woodlawn Junction to New Haven.

The New Haven was merged into Penn Central in 1969. On November 25, 1969, Penn Central, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority, and the states of New York and Connecticut agreed that New York would buy its section of the line and Connecticut would lease its section as far as New Haven. The acquisition took place on January 1, 1971, and included the three branches. After Penn Central went bankrupt, the Consolidated Rail Corporation (Conrail) took over operations in 1976. The MTA took over operations in 1983, and merged Conrail's former commuter rail lines in the New York area into Metro-North. The MTA undertook to rebuild the railroad, upgrading signals, tracks, ties, roadbeds, and rolling stock.

New and closed infrastructure
Over the years, some stations have been abandoned or closed, and some characteristics of the line have changed. The Columbus Avenue station in Mount Vernon was closed in the Penn Central era, due to its proximity to Mt. Vernon station and the expense of converting it to high-level platforms. It had previously been a transfer station to the overhead viaduct station of the New York, Westchester and Boston Railway; an impressive ruin remains and is easily visible from passing trains. Other stations abandoned along the mainline include Devon, at the junction of the Waterbury Branch, and Norwalk, replaced by South Norwalk. The changeover from catenary to third rail was moved from Woodlawn to just west of Pelham in the early 1990s. The catenary poles are still intact as they carry several communications lines. There is an abandoned rail yard just east of Port Chester station.

The New Haven's Harlem River and Port Chester Railroad, diverging from the main line below New Rochelle, ran local passenger service to the Harlem River Terminal in the South Bronx until 1931, and has several abandoned stations. It was a major freight route for the New Haven to Queens, where it interchanged with the Long Island Rail Road and the Pennsylvania Railroad. Four new stations are planned along this route as part of Metro-North's Penn Station Access.

As a largely four-track electrified mainline, the New Haven Line is capable of supporting a mix of local and express service, allowing for a higher density of stations than many other commuter rail lines. By the beginning of the 20th century, there were stations in every population center along the line. Although some of these were dropped over the years due to low ridership, no new stations were added to the New Haven Line mainline for over 100 years (Merritt 7 station on the Danbury Branch opened in 1985). Fairfield Metro (now Fairfield-Black Rock) opened in December 2011 to support a new commercial development. After a decade-long process choosing between locations in West Haven and Orange, West Haven station opened in August 2013, filling the longest gap on the line. Currently, a study is being undertaken to detail the costs and benefits of implementing more frequent service on the line. The line would have to be upgraded to accommodate additional service.

On July 11, 2022, six new express trains were added to the New Haven Line, only stopping at New Haven, Bridgeport, and Stamford, and Grand Central. These trains, of which three would run in the morning, and three would run in the evening, would operate to Grand Central in as little as 99 minutes.

Fatal accidents
The Norwalk rail accident occurred at the Norwalk River bridge in Norwalk, Connecticut, on May 6, 1853, killing 48 people. Another occurred in Westport, Connecticut, in 1895, and another in that town on October 3, 1912. Another fatality occurred in August 1969 on the New Canaan Branch, which prompted the line's then-operator, Penn Central, to stop operating northbound and southbound trains simultaneously on the branch. There was also a collision between two trains in Mount Vernon in 1988, which killed an engineer. In 2012 two people were killed by a train-car collision at an ungated grade crossing on the Danbury Branch in Redding, Connecticut, and in 2013 a track worker was struck and killed in West Haven.

Non-fatal incidents
The May 2013 Fairfield train crash resulted in 72 injuries after two trains collided following a derailment near Fairfield.

On September 25, 2013, a Con Edison failure required the use of diesel locomotives and bus service between Mount Vernon and Harrison for 12 days.

Main Line
New Haven Line trains primarily use electric multiple unit (EMU) consists of Kawasaki M8 railcars. Stamford Transportation Center divides the line into two zones. Most trains either operate in an "inner" zone from Grand Central Terminal to Stamford; and an "outer" zone from Grand Central Terminal to New Haven. The “outer” zone trains usually run express between Grand Central and Stamford; the only stop between those two stations is usually Harlem-125th Street.

All New Haven Line electric trains change over between third rail and overhead catenary between Mount Vernon East and Pelham at normal track speed. Inbound trains to Grand Central lower their pantographs in this area, while outbound trains raise them; the third rail shoes stay in the same position both in and out of third rail territory. Both catenary and third rail overlap for a quarter-mile between Mount Vernon East and Pelham to facilitate this changeover. When the line was first electrified in 1907, trains transitioned between third rail and overhead catenary at Woodlawn Heights, approximately 2 mi southwest of Pelham.

The entire mainline is grade-separated with no grade crossings, although there are several privately marked-pedestrian crossings in many of the storage yards such as the East Side Yard in Bridgeport.

Branches

Within the Metro-North system, the New Haven Line is the only line with operating branches. The New Haven Railroad, Metro-North's predecessor, had an extensive branch network in Connecticut, including: a branch off the Danbury Branch at the appropriately named Branchville, CT to Ridgefield, CT; another branch off the main line for freight at Bridgeport known as the Berkshire (a never-used bridge spans the Merritt Parkway in Trumbull that would have accommodated this branch under potential reactivation scenarios); and the Maybrook line, which connected the Waterbury Branch with the Danbury Branch, with several branches of its own.

Branch lines generally operate as their own zones, terminating at the first main line station rather than at Grand Central; passengers then transfer to other main line stations or Grand Central. During peak hours, some branch trains run express on the main line through to Grand Central, although they still make local stops on the branches.

The New Canaan Branch is electrified, while the Danbury and Waterbury Branches use train consists powered by diesel locomotives. Some main line trains will occasionally use diesel equipment in revenue runs for positioning or due to equipment shortages.

In contrast with the main line, the branches operate almost entirely at grade, with frequent crossings.

Yankee Stadium
Yankees–East 153rd Street station opened on May 23, 2009. Although it is a Hudson Line commuter station, it offers New Haven and Harlem Line commuters direct game-day service on weekends and after weeknight games, and shuttle service from Harlem–125th Street station during peak periods. The Yankee Stadium station, 125th Street and Fordham are the three Metro-North stations that serve New Haven Line customers without being located on the Line itself.

Meadowlands game day service
The Train to the Game service on the New Haven Line to the Meadowlands Sports Complex operated only for Sunday 1 pm New York Giants and New York Jets NFL games. The first game scheduled was on September 20, 2009, when the New York Jets hosted the New England Patriots, following a successful test of trains in non-revenue service on August 23.

The service was operated using NJ Transit equipment under an operating agreement among NJT, Metro-North, and Amtrak. NJT equipment was required as its electric locomotive power was capable of running under the various catenary systems over three separate railroads using different power supplies. The program was only offered for the early afternoon games so that the NJT equipment could be moved back in place for the Monday morning rush hour.

The service made limited stops on New Haven Line, and used the Hell Gate Line to access New York Penn Station and Secaucus Junction. At Secaucus, riders transferred to a shuttle on the Meadowlands Rail Line. Stops included New Haven, West Haven, Bridgeport, Fairfield, Westport, South Norwalk, Stamford, Greenwich, Rye, Larchmont, Penn Station, and Secaucus.

Shared trackage and operating agreements
Although the New Haven Line shares track with the Harlem Line in the Bronx, along this line it stops only at Fordham, due to an 1848 agreement with the Harlem Line's predecessor railroad, the New York Central. This agreement granted the New Haven predecessor New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad trackage rights over the Harlem Line to Grand Central Terminal, but restricted its service in the Bronx to discharge service only (i.e. no boarding revenue passengers). This agreement continued until 2019, due to the operating agreement between Metro-North and the Connecticut Department of Transportation (CTDOT), which means passengers traveling between Fordham and Manhattan could not ride on a New Haven Line train. Beginning April 14, 2019, passengers heading to and from Grand Central can also travel on New Haven Line trains. This was a result of an agreement reached with CDOT, under which revenue from tickets between Fordham and Manhattan would be split between Metro-North and CDOT. While the New Haven Line's one stop in the Bronx is currently at Fordham, from 1848 until the 1920s that stop was instead at Woodlawn.

The New Haven Line is also operated in Connecticut under an agreement between Metro-North and the CTDOT, in which costs for main line operation are shared (currently 65% CTDOT and 35% Metro-North) and costs for branch service are borne 100% by CTDOT.

Freight service
The Providence and Worcester Railroad has overhead rights on the New Haven Line, allowing it to operate stone trains from Cedar Hill Yard in New Haven to a connection with the New York and Atlantic Railway in New York City. CSX Transportation also provides freight service for several customers on the line from Cedar Hill.

Control points/signals
Since 1996, the New Haven main line and New Canaan branch have used Automatic Train Control (ATC) in conjunction with cab signals, a safety feature used in routing trains, keeping safe distances, and moderating train speeds. Signals are controlled from a centralized location, the Operations Control Center in New York City. Until the 1980s, the New Haven Line had a decentralized signaling system, and each section of track was controlled by a separate switch tower. The switch towers themselves did not get radio communication with each other until the late 1960s, when Penn Central took over the New Haven Line. Track interlockings are governed within Control Point boundaries, or CPs. The New Haven Line is unique in that the CPs are known (informally) by nicknames for their region. In December 2020, Positive Train Control was fully implemented on the mainline and several branch lines.

Signals on the New Haven Line had once been mounted on the catenary bridges; these were all replaced throughout the 1990s and into the early 2000s with wayside "dwarf" signals at track level along the right-of-way. The form of signalization known as Centralized Traffic Control, or CTC, is used on the main line and the New Canaan Branch, as well as on the Danbury and Waterbury Branches starting in 2013 and 2021 respectively.

Traction power substations
The New Haven's traction power system was originally constructed to operate at 11 kV, 25 Hz, using power supplied by the Cos Cob Power Station. The power station was shut down around 1986 and Metro-North converted the traction power system to 60 Hz operation. Traction power is converted from utility-supplied 115 kV (single phase) to 27 kV (single phase with center tap), which is distributed using an auto-transformer system. Power is supplied to the catenary at 12.5 kV, 60 Hz.

Stations
The following connecting rail services are available from Amtrak, Metro-North Railroad and Shore Line East.

Milepost Zero on the New Haven Line is at the north property line of 42nd Street (i.e. 200–300 ft south of the ends of the tracks).

M2, M4, M6 cars
Since the main line and the New Canaan Branch are equipped with 12.5 kV 60 Hz overhead catenary, as opposed to just the 750 V DC third rail of the Hudson and Harlem Lines, different rolling stock that can operate with either power system runs on the New Haven Line. This rolling stock, originally produced by General Electric in two batches (144 in 1972–73 and 100 in 1975–77), was initially branded as the M2 Cosmopolitan, with later versions being made on license by Tokyu Car (model M4, 1988) and Morrison-Knudsen (model M6, 1994). Cosmopolitans can be easily spotted by their red stripe along the side, the presence of pantographs on the lead cars in each set, and a dynamic braking grid on the roof.

M2s operated in married pairs, differentiating them from their predecessor equipment of Pullman Standard and 4400-series washboard MU's (retired since the late 1970s and early 1980s). M4s and M6s operated in triplets, with the middle "D" car not having a cab. Many M2s were reconditioned to extend their useful life beyond the expected 25 years, undergoing a Critical Systems Repair (CSR) program.

The CSR program was modified in 2008 as the delivery of M8s neared. Cars that underwent CSR earlier in the program were undergoing additional renovation. Funding was identified in the MTA's 2010 capital program to continue the CSR program if the M4 and M6 cars were not retired; they were ultimately withdrawn in 2015. The M2s were retired in 2018 as sufficient numbers of the Kawasaki-made M8s entered service and alleviated current equipment shortages.

M8 cars
To replace its aging M2 fleet and increase its total fleet size, Metro-North and CTDOT have undertaken to purchase from Kawasaki Rail Car an initial order of 300 M8 EMUs. The initial order consists of a "base order" of 210 and a "first option" of 90 cars. This order is estimated to cost $760 million. The base order cost is to be split as per the CTDOT/MTA operating agreement (65%/35%, respectively). The M8s each have two single-leaf doors on each side and a full-width operator's cab. The cars are capable of using two types of overhead electrical wires, as well as under-running third rail. The M8s are equipped with Advanced Civil Speed Enforcement System and positive train control. In order to run from New Rochelle to Penn Station as part of the Penn Station Access project, the cars will be equipped with third rail shoes that can operate on both over- and under-running third rail systems.

Originally, delivery of the first six M8 cars for testing was to be in July 2009, but was delayed until December 2009 for varied reasons such as design revisions and production delays. The contract allows for additional options for CTDOT of an additional 80 cars, an option that has since been exercised. On July 20, 2011, the Connecticut Department of Transportation announced the order of 25 unpowered M8 railcars, with options for up to 25 more, at a cost of US$93 million to replace the 48-car M6 fleet. The original order of 405 cars was completed on July 13, 2015, except for the 25 unpowered cars on option. Sixty additional M8 cars were ordered in 2016.

A new rail car facility to accommodate the new M8 cars was built in New Haven. Originally estimated at $300 million, the facility was expected to cost $1 billion by 2014.

Diesel
As with the Harlem and Hudson Lines, diesel-powered trains are driven by Brookville BL20GH and dual-mode GE Genesis P32AC-DM locomotives, paired with Shoreliner coaches. While some peak-period trains operate directly to and from Grand Central Terminal with Genesis P32AC-DM dual-mode locomotives only, most New Haven Line diesel-only territory is operated as shuttle service between Danbury and South Norwalk, or between Waterbury and Bridgeport.

Pool service
The P32AC-DMs used on the New Haven Line are in pool service, meaning that locomotives from either Metro-North or CTDOT can be used on the New Haven Line. Coaches with either paint scheme can also be used. Shore Line East uses a dedicated subfleet of M8 cars with third-rail shoes removed, which cannot be operated into Grand Central, but can be operated into NY Penn Station and Boston, if needed.

Devon
A 2010 study of the New Canaan and Waterbury Branches considered the construction of a station at Devon Wye in Milford, Connecticut, where the Waterbury Branch joins the New Haven mainline. The station would allow service to be increased on the branch by running some trains to the new station with connections to New Haven trains, rather than taking up slots on the busy mainline. The two station alternatives would have cost $73 to $114 million.

For six months in 2015, a temporary Devon Transfer station served as the transfer point between mainline service and Waterbury Branch trains. The first phase of repairs to the adjacent Housatonic River Railroad Bridge over the Housatonic River prevented Waterbury Branch trains from accessing the normal transfer point at Bridgeport, necessitating the temporary transfer station. The Devon Transfer station was re-activated in 2016 from April until October to accommodate additional repairs and catenary wire work.

Barnum
On July 16, 2014, Connecticut Governor Dannel Malloy approved $2.75 million for the planning of a station in the East End of Bridgeport, Connecticut. The new station, was to be called Barnum after showman and former Bridgeport mayor P. T. Barnum, and was planned to open in 2021. The station would have had two island platforms, allowing for improved express service on the New Haven Line, increasing capacity. As of 2019, the project has been cancelled by the Connecticut DOT after determining they were not in the financial position to undertake the project.

Orange
After several years of contention, West Haven was chosen over Orange in December 2001 as the site for a new station, which opened in 2013. However, local advocates continued to push for an additional station in Orange. In July 2011, Governor Malloy signed a bill that sought a funding source, but that committed no funds to the project. On February 1, 2017, the Connecticut State Bond Commission authorized $21 million for design work for the station, in addition to funding for the upgrade of a station on the Danbury Branch. Design on the station began in January 2017, and construction of the station was to begin in spring 2019, before being completed in fall 2021. In November 2017, the Connecticut DOT announced that it would halt funding for the construction of Orange station and the accompanying transit-oriented development as the state was running out of funds for transportation projects.

Georgetown
In connection with the planned redevelopment of the Gilbert & Bennett Wire Mill as a residential neighborhood, reopening a Georgetown station on the Danbury Branch has been approved, though not yet scheduled or funded. The previous station was abandoned in the 1970s due to low ridership.

Wilbur Cross Parkway
The Waterbury and New Canaan Branch study also considered a new station on the Waterbury Branch as a park-and-ride station off the Wilbur Cross Parkway near where it meets the Merritt Parkway in Milford. The station was estimated to cost $41 million to construct.

Danbury Branch study
Although not yet past the Draft Environment Impact Statement stage, a study of enhancing service on and extending the Danbury Branch would include additional stations in North Danbury (Federal Road), Brookfield, and New Milford. The draft EIS was due by 2010, and the final EIS by 2011. The Spring 2009 Update for the first time held out the possibility of extension all the way to Pittsfield, MA, the original route of the New Haven Berkshire Division. Trackage rights would have to be negotiated with the Housatonic Railroad, which owns the line beyond Danbury to New Milford.

Enhancements to the Danbury Branch being studied also include re-electrification of the branch (the branch was electrified from 1925 to 1961), addition of passing sidings, realignment and/or super-elevation of track to eliminate or alleviate curvature and enhance speeds, and installation of automated train control signalling. The new signal system finally began operation in 2013, but extensive work was still ongoing in 2014 because of unresolved problems with the drop gates at grade crossings.

Earlier versions of the study examined service to Newtown and Brewster along the Beacon/Maybrook line, as additional branches off the Danbury Branch. These options were not recommended due to limited ridership potential versus additional cost.

Penn Station Access
As part of the 2015–2019 MTA Capital Program, additional service from the New Haven Line will be provided to New York Penn Station over the Hell Gate Line of the Northeast Corridor, owned by Amtrak. Trackage rights and union agreements would have to be negotiated for this service. Commuter service over this line, formerly the Harlem River Branch of the predecessor New Haven, ended in 1931. New stations will be built at Hunts Point, Parkchester, Morris Park, and Co-op City.

This project was dormant from approximately 2002 to 2009, but an environmental assessment was announced by Metro-North and was to be completed by 2011. The study was in conjunction with ongoing studies for the best uses of Penn Station. The study advanced a single option of full (both peak and off-peak) service to Penn on the New Haven and Hudson Lines. However, the project was delayed. On January 8, 2014, New York Governor Andrew Cuomo voiced support for the project in his 2014 State of the State address.

In its 2015–2019 Capital Program, the MTA budgeted $695 million for New Haven Line Penn Station Access work, including track, structures, signal, power and communications work along the Hell Gate Line, specifications for rolling stock for the line, and construction of the four new stations. New track will be installed between the Parkchester/Van Nest station and north of the Co-op City station. Three bridges along the route will be rehabilitated or replaced. A groundbreaking ceremony for Penn Station Access took place in the Bronx on December 9, 2022.

Service is planned to begin in 2027 at the earliest. The opening of East Side Access in 2023 diverted some Long Island Rail Road trains to Grand Central Terminal, therefore opening up slots at Penn Station for Metro-North service. During peak hours there will be between six and ten trains to Penn Station. There will be four trains per hour to Connecticut in the reverse peak direction, and there will be two trains per hour to and from Penn Station during off-peak and weekends. In a limited form, it already takes place with the Jets/Giants game-day service to the Meadowlands, although it is not intended as service to Penn.

Waterbury–Bristol–New Britain–Hartford
As of February 2009, Connecticut legislators were discussing service on an old New Haven passenger line that ceased passenger service decades prior known as the Highland Line, part of the original New England Railroad, also known as the Central New England Railway, both eventual subsidiaries of The New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad.

Currently, this is a freight-only line operated by Berkshire & Eastern. Station stops would include two in Bristol, as well as in New Britain, between Waterbury and Hartford. The next step is a preliminary scoping study, which would be followed by environmental studies. It is unknown if this will be a Metro-North extension of the Waterbury Branch.

Tappan Zee Bridge / I-287 Corridor
The New York State Department of Transportation, the New York State Thruway Authority, and Metro-North conducted extensive studies concerning the replacement of the deteriorated Tappan Zee Bridge. Proposals for rail connections to the New Haven Line were ultimately rejected as too expensive.

title: New Haven Line


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Portal:Palestine/Did you know

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title: Portal:Palestine/Did you know


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Talk:Grace Fortescue

Thyroid
The bitch is a racist murderer. It sucks she lived a decent life and didnt get what was coming to her. Exopthalmia? I couldn't help but notice Fortescue's wide-eyed stare (a la Marty Feldman) in her January 8, 1932, mug in Stannard's book. The narrative of her behavior coupled with the wide-eyed stare would suggest to me that she may have had an overactive thyroid gland. Aloysius Patacsil 21:35, Jun 14, 2005 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one article was rated and this bot brought all the other ratings up to at least that level. BetacommandBot 16:29, 27 August 2007 (UTC)

Inconsistent?
The lead says she lived in New York, but then why was she tried for murder in Hawaii? Need to clarify this and generally work on sourcing. W Nowicki (talk) 22:46, 14 October 2010 (UTC)

Tone
I personally think that the tone of this article is rather misleading. The fact that she is called a hero is not an accurate statement. I think that this article should also be written to portray more the fact that the rape was by all accounts not possible from a time perspective as the alleged suspects were at the time across the city. EWLung (talk) 04:31, 25 April 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Grace Fortescue


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Marika Papagika

Marika Papagika (Μαρίκα Παπαγκίκα, née Katsoris; September 1, 1890 – August 2, 1943) was a popular Greek singer in the early 20th century and one of the first Greek women singers to be heard on sound recordings.

Biography
Marika Papagika was born on the island of Kos on September 1, 1890. In late 1913 or early 1914, she recorded for the Gramophone Company in Alexandria, Egypt. Only one of those recordings has so far been found.

She emigrated to America through Ellis Island in 1915 with her husband, Kostas (Gus) Papagika, a cymbalom player who was also her accompanist. By this time Kos had come under Italian rule.

In July 1918, she made her first trial recording in the States for Victor Records, though her first published Victor recordings were made in December of that year. In July 1919 she also began recording for Columbia Records. Marika Papagika was thus among the first to record Greek music in the USA. She also recorded a number of songs in Turkish. By 1925, Marika and Kostas had opened a nightclub in New York on W. 34th St near 8th Ave, called Marika's, likely the first café-aman—a gathering place characterized by Greek cuisine and Greek music—to appear in the States. Marika's wasn't just a café-aman, but a speakeasy for Greek people as well as for other Mediterranean immigrants. Marika's attracted not only Greeks as regular patrons, but also Albanians, Arabs, Armenians, Bulgarians and Turks.

Between 1918 and 1929, she recorded at least 232 performances of café-aman styled songs, including kleftiko demotikο (Greek traditional songs about Klephts, heroic brigands), rebetiko, and light classical pieces, many of them overlapping with her chief rival in Greek music sales in the United States, Koula Antonopoulos (known on her recordings as Kyria Koula or "Madame Coula").

Marika's café-aman was a successful business until the stock market crashed. The club closed in 1930, and Marika Papagika's recording career ended, except for four sides recorded for Victor in 1937.

In her later years Marika lived with her husband on Staten Island, New York, where she died on August 2, 1943.

Musical style
Marika Papagika distinguished herself from most of her contemporaries by virtue of her sweet soprano voice with its relatively high tessitura, her vocal timbre, somewhat reminiscent of Western classical singers, and her diction. The style and sound of her recordings is further distinguished by the particular accompaniment which graced most of them, namely the unusual combination of cymbalom and violoncello, plus a violin or a clarinet, and, very occasionally, a xylophone. Her occasional forays into more purely Western songs also set her apart from her female contemporaries on both sides of the Atlantic. It is perhaps reasonable to understand the performance styles of Mr. & Mrs Papagika & Co. as a true echo of the "santouro-violi" (santouri and violin) music of late 19th century urban Ottoman and mainland Greece.

Musical collaborators
The major source of information as to Papagika's accompanists is Richard Spottswood's Ethnic Music On Records Vol 3 pp 1197–1204. Papagika was accompanied on all but about 50 of her recordings by her husband Gus and by cellist Markos Sifnios, one of very few cellists in Greek folk music recordings. The upper instrumental part was usually played by one of various violinists, including Athanasios Makedonas, Vangelis Naftis (to whom she calls out on the song "Aïdinikos Horos"), George Theologou, and the Epirot master Alexis Zoumbas (1883-1946), or by a clarinettist, most frequently Nicholas Relias (1922–1925), and on one session Pete Mamakos. Some orchestral accompaniments were directed by Nathaniel Shilkret, some by hitherto anonymous directors.

Revival of interest
After her death, Papagika's music faded into obscurity, and was only available to those with access to her 78 rpm records, often collectors and enthusiasts in the US and in Greece. From 1976 onwards, with the first crop of LP reissues of Greek music from the earlier decades of the 20th century, her songs were again to be heard. In Greece a total of at least twenty-nine of her songs were reissued on eight LPs between 1976 and 1984 (see discography). In 1984(?) a USA-produced LP featured two Papagika songs. During the analogue reissue era Papagika was thus represented as generously on LP as her colleague Roza Eskenazi, and considerably more than Rita Abadzi and Madame Coula. Since the early 1990s, Papagika's songs have featured regularly in American, French, and Greek-produced CD reissues focusing on the musical genre often called "rebetiko", including the first reissue solely dedicated to her, a 19-track compilation released in 1994 by Alma Criolla Records, USA. In 1995, Marika Papagika was the subject of an episode of NPR’s All Things Considered where Dick Spottswood introduced her music to the North American audience. The first Greek reissue entirely dedicated to Papagika appeared in 1999, and this was expanded to a 3-CD set in 2008, presenting a grand total of 52 songs. A recent USA LP reissue has included seven songs previously not reissued.

Songs
This is an alphabetical selection comprising about one sixth of Papagika's recorded output. Some songs were recorded twice at a few years' interval.

 * Ah, Giatre Mou (Oh, My Doctor!)
 * Aidinikos horos (Aidinikos Dance)
 * Apano Se Trikorfo Vouno (On a Triple-Peaked Mountain)
 * Arahova (Arachova)
 * Baghlamadhes (Baglamas)
 * Bournovalio Manes (Varitera Ap' Ta Sidera) (Bournovalio Manes – Heavier That Iron)
 * Daskala (Teacher)
 * Dourou Dourou (Dourou Dourou)
 * Elenaki (Elenaki)
 * Fonias Tha Gino (I'll Become a Murderer)
 * Galata Manes (Galata Manes)
 * Gel Gel (Come Come)
 * Hrissaido (Chrissaido)
 * I Mavromata (Black-Eyed Girl)
 * Katinaki mou (My Little Katina)
 * Katsantonis (Katsantonis)
 * Kenouria Logia Mou Pane (New Words They Said to Me)
 * Kinisa o mavros (I Departed the Poor One)
 * Kira Doudou (Mrs. Doudou)
 * Kremete I kapota (The Shepherd's Coat is Hanging)
 * Lemonaki (Little Lemon)
 * Manaki mou (My Baby)
 * Mantalena (Mantalena)
 * Mavrideroula (Black-Skinned Girl)
 * Mes Tin Agia Paraskevi (In Saint Paraskevi)
 * Mes Tou Sigrou Ti filaki (In Sygros' Prison)
 * Mytilinia (Girl of Mytilini)
 * Ntavelis (Davelis)
 * O Horos Tou Zalongou (Dance of Zalogo)
 * O Marcos Botsaris (Markos Botsaris)
 * Olympos Ke Kisavos (Olympos and Kissavos)
 * Pismatariko (Little Obstinate Girl)
 * Prosfigopoula (Little Refugee Girl)
 * Psaradhes (Fishermen)
 * Smyrneïko Minore (2 versions, 1918 & 1919)
 * Smyrneikos Ballos (Ballos Dance of Smyrna)
 * Sta Salona (In Salona)
 * Sta Vervena Sta Giannena (In Vervena and Giannina)
 * Sti Filaki Me Valane (The Put Me in Prison)
 * Stis Arkadias Ton Platano (Under the Arcadian Plane)
 * Stis Mantzouras Ton Antho (The Flower of Mandzoura)
 * Tha Spaso Koupes (I'll Smash Cups)
 * Ti Se Meli Esenane (What Do You Care About)
 * To Koutsavaki (Bully)
 * To Len I Kouki Sta Vouna (The Cuckoos Sing it on the Mountains)
 * To Vlepis Kino To Vouno (Do You See That Mountain)
 * Tourka Derni Ti Sklava Tis (Turkish Lady Beats Her Slave)
 * A Ballad for Chanakkale
 * Iskender bogazi dardir gecilmez
 * Küçük Hanım (Sendeki Kaşlar Bende Olaydı)

Discography (reissues)
For the sake of historical accuracy this chronological reissue discography includes reissues from 1976 onwards. The first 8 entries refer to 33rpm LPs. All subsequent issues but the Mississippi LPs are CDs.

 * Ta Prota Rembetika (The First Rebetika Songs) CBS LP 53753 (1976) – 7 songs
 * To Rembetiko Tragoudi vol 1 – CBS LP 82290 (1977) – 4 songs
 * To Rembetiko Tragoudi vol 2 – CBS LP 82303 (1977) – 3 songs
 * To Rembetiko Tragoudi vol 3 – CBS LP 26116 (1984) – 4 songs
 * To Rembetiko Tragoudi vol 4 – CBS LP 26117 (1984) – 2 songs
 * To Rembetiko Tragoudi vol 5 – CBS LP 26118 (1984) – 3 songs
 * To Elliniko Laiko Tragoudi Stin Ameriki – Falirea 22/23 (1984) – 6 songs
 * Greek-Oriental Rebetica: Songs And Dances In The Asia Minor Style. The Golden Years: 1911–1937 – Arhoolie Folklyric Records (LP 9033, 1984?, CD 7005 1991) – 2 songs
 * Rembetica – Historic Urban Folk Songs From Greece – Rounder CD 1079 (1992) – 1 song
 * Marika Papagika – Greek Popular and Rebetic Music in New York 1918–1929 – Alma Criolla ACCD802 (1994) – 19 songs
 * Smirneiko et Rebetiko – Les grandes chanteuses, 1915–1936 Silex Memoire, Auvidis Y225114 (1995) – 6 songs
 * To Elliniko Tragoudi Stin Ameriki – Ixografiseis 1918–1929 – Difono-Hellenic Record C 1011 (1999) – 18 songs
 * Women Of Rembetica – Rounder CD 1121 (2000) – 1 song
 * Mortika – Rare Vintage Recordings From A Greek Underworld – ARKOCD008 (2005) (2LP Mississippi MR-043 2009) – 1 song
 * Rembetika – Greek Music From The Underground – JSP 77105 (2006) – 2 songs
 * Black Mirror – Reflections in Global Musics (1918–1954) – Dust-To-Digital DTD-10 (2007) – 1 song
 * Rembetika 2: More of the Secret History of Greece's Underground Music – JSP 77105 (2008) – 1 song
 * The Greek Song In USA Marika Papagika Vol. 1: Recordings 1918 – 1929 – Hellenic Record (2008) – 19 songs
 * The Greek Song In USA Marika Papagika Vol. 2: Recordings 1923 – 1929 – Hellenic Record (2008) – 16 songs
 * The Greek Song In USA Marika Papagika Vol. 3: Recordings 1919 – 1929 – Hellenic Record (2008) – 17 songs
 * The Further The Flame The Worse It Burns Me – Greek Folk Music in New York City 1919–1928 – Mississippi MR-071(2010) – 11 songs
 * To What Strange Place – The Music Of The Ottoman-American Diaspora (1916–1929) – Tompkins Square TSQ 2618 (2011) – 4 songs
 * Rembetika 7: Women of Rembetika – JSP77152 (2012) – 8 songs

title: Marika Papagika


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Steam whistle

A steam whistle is a device used to produce sound in the form of a  whistle using live steam, which creates, projects, and amplifies its sound by acting as a vibrating system.

Operation
The whistle consists of the following main parts, as seen on the drawing: the whistle bell (1), the steam orifice or aperture (2), and the valve (9).

When the lever (10) is actuated (usually via a pull cord), the valve opens and lets the steam escape through the orifice. The steam will alternately compress and rarefy in the bell, creating the sound. The pitch, or tone, is dependent on the length of the bell; and also how far the operator has opened the valve. Some locomotive engineers invented their own distinctive style of whistling.

Uses of steam whistles
Steam whistles were often used in factories and similar places to signal the start or end of a work shift, etc. Steam railway locomotives, traction engines, and steam ships have traditionally been fitted with a steam whistle for warning and communication purposes. Large diameter, low-pitched steam whistles were used on light houses, likely beginning in the 1850s.

The earliest use of steam whistles was as boiler low-water alarms in the 18th century and early 19th century. During the 1830s, whistles were adopted by railroads and steamship companies.

Railway whistles
Steam warning devices have been used on trains since 1833, when George Stephenson invented and patented a steam trumpet for use on the Leicester and Swannington Railway. Period literature makes a distinction between a steam trumpet and a steam whistle. A copy of the trumpet drawing signed May 1833 shows a device about eighteen inches high with an ever-widening trumpet shape with a six-inch diameter at its top or mouth. It is said that George Stephenson invented his trumpet after an accident on the Leicester and Swannington Railway where a train hit either a cart, or a herd of cows, on a level crossing and there were calls for a better way of giving a warning. Although no-one was injured, the accident was deemed serious enough to warrant Stephenson's personal intervention. One account states that [driver] Weatherburn had 'mouthblown his horn' at the crossing in an attempt to prevent the accident, but that no attention had been paid to this audible warning, perhaps because it had not been heard.

Stephenson subsequently called a meeting of directors and accepted the suggestion of the company manager, Ashlin Bagster, that a horn or whistle which could be activated by steam should be constructed and fixed to the locomotives. Stephenson later visited a musical instrument maker on Duke Street in Leicester, who on Stephenson's instructions constructed a 'Steam Trumpet' which was tried out in the presence of the board of Directors ten days later.

Stephenson mounted the trumpet on the top of the boiler's steam dome, which delivers dry steam to the cylinders. The company went on to mount the device on its other locomotives

Locomotive steam trumpets were soon replaced by steam whistles. Air whistles were used on some diesel and electric locomotives, but these mostly employ air horns.

Music
An array of steam whistles arranged to play music is referred to as a calliope.

In York, Pennsylvania, a variable pitch steam whistle at the New York Wire Company has been played annually on Christmas Eve since 1925 (except in 1986 and 2005) in what has come to be known as "York's Annual Steam Whistle Christmas Concert". On windy nights, area residents report hearing the concert as far as 12 to 15 miles away. The whistle, which is in the Guinness Book of World Records, was powered by an air compressor during the 2010 concert due to the costs of maintaining and running the boiler.

Lighthouse fog signals
Beginning in 1869, steam whistles began being installed at lighthouse stations as a way of warning mariners in periods of fog, when the lighthouse is not visible. 10" diameter whistles were used as fog signals throughout the United States for many years, until they were later replaced by other compressed air diaphragm or diaphone horns.

Types of whistles

 * Plain whistle – an inverted cup mounted on a stem, as in the illustration above. In Europe, railway steam whistles were typically loud, shrill, single-note plain whistles. In the UK, locomotives were usually fitted with only one or two of these whistles, the latter having different tones and being controlled individually to allow more complex signalling. On railroads in Finland, two single-note whistles were used on every engine; one shrill, one of a lower tone. They were used for different signaling purposes. The Deutsche Reichsbahn of Germany introduced another whistle design in the 1920s called "Einheitspfeife", conceived as a single-note plain whistle which already had a very deep-pitched and loud sound, but if the whistle trigger is just pulled down half of its way an even lower tone like from a chime-whistle could also be caused. This whistle is the reason for the typical "long high - short low - short high" signal sound of steam locomotives in Germany.
 * Chime whistle – two or more resonant bells or chambers that sound simultaneously. In America, railway steam whistles were typically compact chime whistles with more than one whistle contained within, creating a chord. In Australia the New South Wales Government Railways after the 1924 re-classification many steam locomotives either had 5 chimes whistles that sound similar to the Star Brass 5-chime fitted (this include many locomotives from the pre 1924 re-classification, or were built new with 5 chime whistles. 3-chimes (3 compact whistles within one) were very popular, as well as 5-chimes, and 6-chimes. In some cases chime whistles were used in Europe. Ships such as the Titanic were equipped with chimes consisting of three separate whistles (in the case of the Titanic the whistles measured 9, 12, and 15 inches diameter). The Japanese National Railways used a chime whistle that sounds like a very deep single-note plain whistle, because the chords where just accessed in a simple parallel circuit if the whistle trigger is pulled down.
 * Organ whistle – a whistle with mouths cut in the side, usually a long whistle in relation to diameter, hence the name. These whistle were very common on steamships, especially those manufactured in the UK.
 * Gong – two whistles facing in opposite directions on a common axis. These were popular as factory whistles. Some were composed of three whistle chimes.
 * Variable pitch whistle – a whistle containing an internal piston available for changing pitch. This whistle type could be made to sound like a siren or to play a melody. Often called a fire alarm whistle, wildcat whistle, or mocking bird whistle.
 * Toroidal or Levavasseur whistle – a whistle with a torus-shaped (doughnut-shaped) resonant cavity paralleling the annular gas orifice, named after Robert Levavasseur, its inventor. Unlike a conventional whistle, the diameter (and sound level) of a ring-shaped whistle can be increased without altering resonance chamber cross-sectional area (preserving frequency), allowing construction of a very large diameter high frequency whistle. The frequency of a conventional whistle declines as diameter is increased. Other ring-shaped whistles include the Hall-Teichmann whistle, Graber whistle, Ultrawhistle, and Dynawhistle.
 * Helmholtz whistle – a whistle with a cross-sectional area exceeding that of the whistle bell opening, often shaped like a bottle or incandescent light bulb. The frequency of this whistle relative to its size is lower than that of a conventional whistle and therefore these whistles have found application in small gauge steam locomotives. Also termed a Bangham whistle.
 * Hooter whistle - a single note whistle of greater diameter with a longer bell, resulting in a deeper “hoot” sound when blown. These found use in rail, marine, and industrial applications. In the United States, the Norfolk and Western Railway made extensive use of these kinds of whistles and were noted for the squeaks and chirps produced when blown in addition to their low pitch.

Resonant frequency
A whistle has a characteristic natural resonant frequency that can be detected by gently blowing human breath across the whistle rim, much as one might blow over the mouth of a bottle. The active sounding frequency (when the whistle is blown on steam) may differ from the natural frequency as discussed below. These comments apply to whistles with a mouth area at least equal to the cross-sectional area of the whistle.

 * Whistle length – The natural resonant frequency decreases as the length of the whistle is increased. Doubling the effective length of a whistle reduces the frequency by one half, assuming that the whistle cross-sectional area is uniform. A whistle is a quarter-wave generator, which means that a sound wave generated by a whistle is about four times the whistle length. If the speed of sound in the steam supplied to a whistle were 15936 inches per second, a pipe with a 15-inch effective length blowing its natural frequency would sound near middle C: 15936/(4 x 15) = 266 Hz. When a whistle is sounding its natural frequency, the effective length referred to here is somewhat longer than the physical length above the mouth if the whistle is of uniform cross-sectional area. That is, the vibrating length of the whistle includes some portion of the mouth. This effect (the “end correction”) is caused by the vibrating steam inside the whistle engaging vibration of some steam outside the enclosed pipe, where  there is a transition from plane waves to spherical waves. Formulas are available to estimate the effective length of a whistle, but an  accurate formula to predict sounding frequency would have to incorporate whistle length, scale, gas flow rate, mouth height, and mouth wall area (see below).
 * Blowing pressure – Frequency increases with blowing pressure, which determines gas volume flow through the whistle, allowing a locomotive engineer to play a whistle like a musical instrument, using the valve to vary the flow of steam. The term for this was “quilling.” An experiment with a short plain whistle reported in 1883 showed that incrementally increasing steam pressure drove the whistle from E to D-flat, a 68 percent increase in frequency. Pitch deviations from the whistle natural frequency likely follow velocity differences in the steam jet downstream from the aperture, creating phase differences between driving frequency and natural frequency of the whistle. Although at normal blowing pressures the aperture constrains the jet to the speed of sound, once it exits the aperture and expands, velocity decay is a function of absolute pressure. Also, frequency may vary at a fixed blowing pressure with differences in temperature of steam or compressed air. Industrial steam whistles typically were operated in the range of 100 to 300 pounds per square inch gauge pressure (psig) (0.7 - 2.1 megapascals, MPa), although some were constructed for use on pressures as high as 600 psig (4.1 MPa). All of these pressures are within the choked flow regime, where mass flow scales with upstream absolute pressure and inversely with the square root of absolute temperature. This means that for dry saturated steam, a halving of absolute pressure results in almost a halving of flow. This has been confirmed by tests of whistle steam consumption at various pressures. Excessive pressure for a given whistle design will drive the whistle into an overblown mode, where the fundamental frequency will be replaced by an odd harmonic, that is a frequency that is an odd number multiple of the fundamental. Usually this is the third harmonic (second overtone frequency), but an example has been noted where a large whistle jumped to the fifteenth harmonic. A long narrow whistle such as that of the Liberty ship John W. Brown sounds a rich spectrum of overtones, but is not overblown. (In overblowing the "amplitude of the pipe fundamental frequency falls to zero.") Increasing whistle length increases the number and amplitude of harmonics, as has been demonstrated in experiments with a variable-pitch whistle. Whistles tested on steam  produce both even-numbered and odd-numbered harmonics. The harmonic profile of a whistle might also be influenced by aperture width, mouth cut-up, and lip-aperture offset, as is the case for organ pipes.

 * Steam quality – The dryness of steam provided to a whistles is variable and will affect whistle tone frequency. Steam quality determines the velocity of sound, which declines with decreasing dryness due to the inertia of the liquid phase. The speed of sound in steam is predictable if steam dryness is known. Also, the specific volume of steam for a given temperature decreases with decreasing dryness. Two examples of estimates of speed of sound in steam calculated from whistles blown under field conditions are 1,326 and 1,352 feet per second.
 * Aspect ratio – The more squat the whistle, the greater is the change in pitch with blowing pressure. This may be caused by differences in the Q factor. The pitch of a very squat whistle may rise several semitones as pressure is raised. Whistle frequency prediction thus requires establishment of a set of frequency/pressure curves unique to whistle scale, and a set of whistles may fail to track a musical chord as blowing pressure changes if each whistle is of a different scale. This is true of many antique whistles divided into a series of compartments of the same diameter but of different lengths. Some whistle designers minimized this problem by building resonant chambers of a similar scale.

 * Mouth vertical length (“cut-up”) – Frequency of a plain whistle declines as the whistle bell is raised away from the steam source. If the cut-up of an organ whistle or single bell chime is raised (without raising the whistle ceiling), the effective chamber length is shortened. Shortening the chamber drives frequency up, but raising the cut-up drives frequency down. The resulting frequency (higher, lower, or unchanged) will be determined by whistle scale and by competition between the two drivers. The cut-up prescribed by whistle-maker Robert Swanson for 150 psig steam pressure was 0.35 x bell diameter for a plain whistle, which is about 1.45 x net bell cross-sectional area (subtracting stud area). The Nathan Manufacturing Company used a cut-up of 1.56 x chamber cross-sectional area for their 6-note railway chime whistle.

 * Cut-up in relation to mouth arc  – A large change in cut-up (e.g., 4x difference) may have little impact on whistle natural frequency if mouth area and total resonator length are held constant. For example, a plain whistle, which has a 360-degree mouth (that extends completely around the whistle circumference), can emit a similar frequency to a partial mouth organ whistle of the same mouth area and same overall resonator length (aperture to ceiling), despite an immensely different cut-up. (Cut-up is the distance between the steam aperture and the upper lip of the mouth.) This suggests that effective cut-up is determined by proximity of the oscillating gas column to the steam jet rather than by the distance between the upper mouth lip and the steam aperture.
 * Steam aperture width – Frequency may rise as steam aperture width declines and the slope of the frequency/pressure curve may vary with aperture width.

 * Gas composition – The frequency of a whistle driven by steam is typically higher than that of a whistle driven by compressed air at the same pressure. This frequency difference is caused by the greater speed of sound in steam, which is less dense than air. The magnitude of the frequency difference can vary because the speed of sound is influenced by air temperature and by steam quality. Also, the more squat the whistle, the more sensitive it is to the difference in gas flow rate between steam and air that occurs at a fixed blowing pressure. Data from 14 whistles (34 resonant chambers) sounded under a variety of field conditions showed a wide range of frequency differences between steam and air (5 - 43 percent higher frequency on steam). Very elongate whistles, which are fairly resistant to gas flow differences, sounded a frequency 18 - 22 percent higher on steam (about three semitones).

Sound pressure level
Whistle sound level varies with several factors:
 * Blowing pressure – Sound level increases as blowing pressure is raised, although there may be an optimum pressure at which sound level peaks.

 * Aspect ratio – Sound level increases as whistle length is reduced, increasing frequency. For example, depressing the piston of a variable-pitch steam whistle changed the frequency from 333 Hz to 753 Hz and raised the sound pressure level from 116 dBC to 123 dBC. That five-fold difference in the square of the frequency resulted in a five-fold difference in sound intensity. Sound level also increases as whistle cross-sectional area is increased. A sample of 12 single-note whistles ranging in size from one-inch diameter to 12-inches diameter showed a relationship between sound intensity and the square of the cross-sectional area (when differences in frequency were taken into account). In other words, relative whistle sound intensity can be estimated using the square of the cross-sectional area divided by the square of the wavelength. For example, the sound intensity from a whistle bell of 6-inch diameter x 7.5-inch length (113 dBC) was 10x that of a 2 x 4-inch whistle (103 dBC) and twice that of a (lower frequency) 10 x 40-inch whistle (110 dBC). These whistles were sounded on compressed air at 125 pounds per square inch gauge pressure (862 Kilopascals) and sound levels were recorded at 100 feet distance. Elongate organ whistles may exhibit disproportionately high sound levels due to their strong higher frequency overtones.  At a separate venue a 20-inch  diameter Ultrawhistle (ring-shaped whistle) operating at 15 pounds per square inch gauge pressure (103.4 kilopascals) produced 124 dBC at 100 feet. It is unknown how the sound level of this whistle would compare to that of a conventional whistle of the same frequency and resonant chamber area. By comparison, a Bell-Chrysler air raid siren generates 138 dBC at 100 feet. The sound level of a Levavasseur toroidal whistle is enhanced by about 10 decibels by a secondary cavity parallel to the resonant cavity, the former creating a vortex that augments the oscillations of the jet driving the whistle.

 * Steam aperture width – If gas flow is restricted by the area of the steam aperture, widening the aperture will increase the sound level for a fixed blowing pressure. Enlarging the steam aperture can compensate for the loss of sound output if pressure is reduced. It has been known since at least the 1830s that whistles can be modified for low pressure operation and still achieve a high sound level. Data on the compensatory relationship between pressure and aperture size are scant, but tests on compressed air indicate that a halving of absolute pressure requires that the aperture size be at least doubled in width to maintain the original sound level, and aperture width in some antique whistle arrays increases with diameter (aperture area thus increasing with whistle cross-sectional area) for whistles of the same scale. Applying the physics of high pressure jets exiting circular apertures, a doubling of velocity and gas concentration at a fixed point in the whistle mouth would require a quadrupling of either aperture area or absolute pressure. (A quartering of absolute pressure would be compensated by a quadrupling of aperture area—the velocity decay constant increases approximately with the square root of absolute pressure in the normal whistle-blowing pressure range.) In reality, trading pressure loss for greater aperture area may be less efficient as pressure-dependent adjustments occur to virtual origin displacement. Quadrupling the width of an organ pipe aperture at a fixed blowing pressure resulted in somewhat less than a doubling of velocity at the flue exit.
 * Steam aperture profile – Gas flow rate (and thus sound level) is set not only by aperture area and blowing pressure, but also by aperture geometry. Friction and turbulence influence the flow rate, and are accounted for by a discharge coefficient. A mean estimate of the discharge coefficient from whistle field tests is 0.72 (range 0.69 - 0.74).
 * Mouth vertical length (“cut-up”) – The mouth length (cut-up) that provides the highest sound level at a fixed blowing pressure varies with whistle scale, and some makers of multi-tone whistles therefore cut a mouth height unique to the scale of each resonant chamber, maximizing sound output of the whistle. Ideal cut-up for whistles of a fixed diameter and aperture width (including single-bell chime compartments) at a fixed blowing pressure appears to vary approximately with the square root of effective length. Antique whistle makers commonly used a compromise mouth area of about 1.4x whistle cross-sectional area. If a whistle is driven to its maximum sound level with the mouth area set equal to the whistle cross-sectional area, it may be possible to increase the sound level by further increasing the mouth area..

 * Frequency and distance  – Sound pressure level decreases by half (six decibels) with each doubling of distance due to divergence from the source, an inversely proportional relationship. (Distinct from the inverse square law, applicable to sound intensity, rather than pressure.) Sound pressure level also decreases due to atmospheric absorption, which is strongly dependent upon frequency, lower frequencies traveling farthest. For example, a 1000 Hz whistle has an atmospheric attenuation coefficient one half that of a 2000 Hz whistle (calculated for 50 percent relative humidity at 20 degrees Celsius). This means that in addition to divergent sound dampening, there would be a loss of 0.5 decibel per 100 meters from the 1000 Hz whistle and 1.0 decibel per 100 meters for the 2000 Hz whistle. Additional factors affecting sound propagation include barriers, atmospheric temperature gradients, and "ground effects.”

Terminology
Acoustic length or effective length is the quarter wavelength generated by the whistle. It is calculated as one quarter the ratio of speed of sound to the whistle's frequency. Acoustic length may differ from the whistle's physical length, also termed geometric length. depending upon mouth configuration, etc. The end correction is the difference between the acoustic length and the physical length above the mouth. The end correction is a function of diameter whereas the ratio of acoustic length to physical length is a function of scale. These calculations are useful in whistle design to obtain a desired sounding frequency. Working length in early usage meant whistle acoustic length, i.e., the effective length of the working whistle, but recently has been used for physical length including the mouth.

Loudest and largest whistles
Loudness is a subjective perception that is influenced by sound pressure level, sound duration, and sound frequency. High sound pressure level potential has been claimed for the whistles of Vladimir Gavreau, who tested whistles as large as 1.5 meter (59-inch) diameter (37 Hz).

A 20-inch diameter ring-shaped whistle (“Ultrawhistle”) patented and produced by Richard Weisenberger sounded 124 decibels at 100 feet. The variable pitch steam whistle at the New York Wire Company in York, Pennsylvania, was entered in the Guinness Book of World Records in 2002 as the loudest steam whistle on record at 124.1dBA from used by Guinness. The York whistle was also measured at 134.1 decibels from a distance of 23-feet.

A fire-warning whistle supplied to a Canadian saw mill by the Eaton, Cole, and Burnham Company in 1882 measured 20 inches in diameter, four feet nine inches from bowl to ornament, and weighed 400 pounds. The spindle supporting the whistle bell measured 3.5 inches diameter and the whistle was supplied by a four-inch feed pipe.

Other records of large whistles include an 1893 account of U.S. President Grover Cleveland activating the “largest steam whistle in the world,” said to be “five feet” at the Chicago World's Fair.

The sounding chamber of a whistle installed at the 1924 Long-Bell Lumber Company, Longview, Washington measured 16 inches diameter x 49 inches in length.

The whistle bells of multi-bell chimes used on ocean liners such as the RMS Titanic measured 9, 12, and 15 inches diameter.

The whistle bells of the Canadian Pacific steamships Assiniboia and Keewatin measured 12 inches in diameter and that of the Keewatin measured 60 inches in length.

A multi-bell chime whistle installed at the Standard Sanitary Manufacturing Company in 1926 was composed of five separate whistle bells measuring 5 x15, 7 x 21, 8x 24, 10 x 30, and 12 x36 inches, all plumbed to a five-inch steam pipe.

The Union Water Meter Company of Worcester Massachusetts produced a composed of three bells, 8 x 9-3/4, 12 x 15, and 12 x 25 inches. Twelve-inch diameter steam whistles were commonly used at light houses in the 19th century.

It has been claimed that the sound level of an Ultrawhistle would be significantly greater than that of a conventional whistle, but comparative tests of large whistles have not been undertaken. Tests of small Ultrawhistles have not shown higher sound levels compared to conventional whistles of the same diameter.

title: Steam whistle


text: User:ConeyCyclone

title: User:ConeyCyclone


text:
Vidyaranya

Vidyaranya (IAST: Vidyāraṇya), usually identified with Mādhavācārya, was the jagadguru of the Sringeri Sharada Peetham from ca. 1374–1380 until 1386 - according to tradition, after ordination at an old age, he took the name of Vidyaranya, and became the Jagadguru of this Matha at Sringeri.

Madhavacharya is known as the author of the Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha, a compendium of different philosophical schools of Hindu philosophy and Pañcadaśī, an important text for Advaita Vedanta.

According to tradition, Vidyaranya helped establish the Vijayanagara Empire sometime in 1336, and served as a mentor and guide to three generations of kings who ruled over it. The historical accuracy of this account is doubtful, and may have originated as late as 200 years after the events, as a "political foundation myth, an ideological attempt to represent the authority of the Vijayanagara state as deriving directly from that of the Sultanate."

The Vidyashankara temple in Sringeri is the samadhi of Vidya shankara, the guru of Vidyaranya which was built over the former's grave by his disciple Harihara. It is maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India.

Dating
The dating of Vidyaranya is unclear. According to Jackson, Vidyaranya was born between 1280 and 1285. According to the records of the Sringeri Sharada Peetham, Vidyaranya was born in c. 1296 CE in Ekasila Nagara (present-day Warangal).

According to Sringeri matha, Vidyaranya was ordained as a sannyasin in 1331. According to Goodding, Vidyaranya ordained at old age; Rosen Dalal mentions the year 1377.

He was the jagadguru (spiritual head) of the Sringeri Sharada Peetham (Sringeri matha) from ca. 1374–1380 until 1386 CE. According to Slaje, "[t]here is positive epigraphical evidence that he must have been in charge as the head of Sringeri from at least 1374/75 - as the successor to Bharatitirtha who died in 1374 - until 1386, the year of his own death."

According to Clark, "The first genuine epigraphic mention of Vidyaranya is dated October 25, 1375."

Identification with Madhava
Vidyaranya, who is thought to have been named Madhava before taking ordination as a sannyasin, is usually identified with Madhavacharya, the author of the Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha and the Shankara Digvijaya.

According to the Sringeri accounts, Vidyaranya was the elder brother of Bharati Tirtha, who preceded him as the acharya of Sringeri. Vidyaranya composed, or contributed to, a number of texts. The Panchadashi may have been finished by Bharati Tirtha, and some sources argue that Vidyaranya and Bharati Tirtha were the same person. Yet the Sringeri records clearly identify them as two different persons.

Some accounts identify Madhavacharya or Vidyaranya with Madhava, the brother of Sayana, a Mimamsa scholar. In his attempt to clarify the identification of Madhava with Vidyaranya, Narasimhachar (1916, 1917) named this Madhava [B], distinguishing him from Madhava [A], a device also followed by Rama Rao (1930; 1931; 1934), and Kulke (1985). Mid 14th century, Madhava [B] served as a minister in the Vijayanagara Empire, and wrote several works, including, according to Rama Rao, the Jivanmuktiviveka, a work usually attributed to Vidyaranya, due to his identification with Madhava [B].

According to the Sringeri account, the brothers Madhava and Sayana came to Vidyaranya to receive his blessings, and completed his unfinished Veda bhashyas.

Role in the Vijayanagara Empire
The role of Vidyaranya in the founding of the Vijayanagara Empire is not certain. According to tradition, Vidyaranya played an important role in the establishment of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646) of South India, which emerged as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century, as a successor to the Hindu kingdoms of the Hoysalas, the Kakatiyas, and the Yadavas. According to tradition, Vidyaranya supported and inspired the empire's founders Harihara Raya I and Bukka Raya I to fight the Muslim invasion of South India, and served as a prime minister to Harihara Raya I, the first king of the Vijayanagara Empire and named after Harihara, the fused sattvika characterisation of Vishnu (Hari) and Shiva (Hara), and then to Bukka Raya I and Harihara II.

There are several versions of Vidyaranya's role in the Vijayanagara Empire. The Andraha or Telugu version depends on Sanskrit sources written 200 years later, and is often repeated in historical works, such as Nilakanta Sastri's A History of South India. According to this narrative, the empire's founders Harihara Raya I and Bukka Raya I were two brothers belonging to the Kakatiya dynasty, serving the Kampili chief. After Kampili fell to the Muslim invasion, they were taken to Delhi and converted to Islam. They were sent back to Kampili as the Delhi Sultan's vassals. After gaining power in the region, they met Vidyaranya, who converted them back to the Hindu faith. After receiving his blessings, they founded their kingdom at ca. 1336.

An alternate Kannada narrative is that Harihara and Bukka were serving the Hoysalas. The date of 1336 for the founding of the Vijayanagara Empire is unreliable, based on copperplate inscriptions from the 16th century, forged by Sringeri math "when the Vijayanagara kings shifted their interest from the Saivite matha to the Vaisnavite sect, and the leaders of the matha wanted to reassert their prestige by connecting themselves directly with the founding of the empire." In this view, 1346 is more likely, based on an inscription mentioning the manotsava, or great festival, of Harihara and Bukka, held at Sringeri matha. No mention is made here of a role of Vidyaranya.

The historical authenticity of the Andraha or Telugu account has been questioned. The contemporary documents, including the inscriptions issued by the earliest rulers of Vijayanagara, do not mention this account. The contemporary Muslim records refer to Harihara (as "Harip" or "Haryab"), but do not mention anything about his conversion to Islam, although they contain details of other converts from Deccan. The first works to mention this narrative were written over 200 years after the establishment of Vijayanagara.

According to studies by Filliozat, Kulke and Wagoner, Vidyaranya was not involved in the founding of the Vijayanagara Empire. Texts describing such an involvement date from the 16th and 17th century, and the involvement of Vidyaranya is a "political foundation myth, an ideological attempt to represent the authority of the Vijayanagara state as deriving directly from that of the Sultanate." Vidyaranya's role as an advisor to Harihara Raya I and Bukka Raya I "was imagined probably at least 200 years afterward." His supposed political status may be based on a misidentification with Madhavamatrin, a minister to Sangama brother Mallapa I. Vidyaranya is not mentioned in inscriptions from before 1374.

Importance of Sringeri math and influence on Advaita tradition

Sringeri matha became a powerful institution in the 14th century, when it started to receive patronage from the kings of the Vijayanagara Empire. The Vidyashankara temple in Sringeri is the samadhi of Vidyaranya, which was built over his grave by his disciple Harihara.

Paul Hacker notes that no mention of the mathas can be found before the 14th century CE. Until the 15th century, the timespan of the directors of Sringeri Math are unrealistically long, spanning 60+ and even 105 years. After 1386, the timespans become much shorter. According to Hacker, these mathas may have originated as late as the 14th century, to propagate Shankara's view of Advaita.

Goodding concurs with Hacker on the prominence of Sringeri matha in the Vijayanagara Empire, but argues that Sringeri matha already existed, but rapidly gained prominence in the second half of the 14th century. The key event according to the Kannada narrative is the manotsava of 1346, which marks the beginning of Vijayanagara patronage of Vidyatirtha, the Shankaracarya of Sringeri math, who legitimized their kingdom with his blessings, receiving a land grant in return. According to this narrative, the Sangamas were retainers to the Hoysala royal house, and the 1346 manotsava "marks the inheritance of the Hoysala domains by the new Sangama dynasty." Until 1374, the earliest possible date of Vidyaranya's installment as jagadguru, Sringeri math was granted substantially more land and money, and the prestige of the jagadguru had subsequently changed too. This may have aided the further dissemination of Advaita views, and the production of Advaita texts.

Vidyaranya had a central role in repositioning Shankara and his view on Advaita Vedanta. Vidyaranya enjoyed royal support, and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values, spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara's Vedānta philosophies, and establish monasteries (mathas) to expand the cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedānta.

Advaita Vedanta's position as most influential Hindu darsana took shape as Advaitins in the Vijayanagara Empire competed for patronage from the royal court, and tried to convert others to their sect. Vidyaranya's works have been explained as a response to the devastation caused by the Islamic Delhi Sultanate, but his efforts were also targeted at Srivaisnava groups, especially Visistadvaita, which was dominant in territories conquered by the Vijayanagara Empire. Sects competed for patronage from the royal court, and tried to convert others to their own sectarian system, and Vidyaranya efforts were aimed at promoting Advaita Vedanta among Srivaishnavins.

This promotion was aided by the production of new texts. Vidyaranya and his brothers wrote extensive Advaitic commentaries on the Vedas and Dharma to make "the authoritative literature of the Aryan religion" more accessible. In his doxography Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha ("Summary of all views") Madhava presented Shankara's teachings as the summit of all darsanas, presenting the other darsanas as partial truths which converged in Shankara's teachings, which was regarded to be the most inclusive system. The Vaishanava traditions of Dvaita and Visitadvaita were not classified as Vedanta, and placed just above Buddhism and Jainism, reflecting the threat they posed for Vidyaranya's Advaita allegiance. Bhedabheda wasn't mentioned at all, "literally written out of the history of Indian philosophy."

In the late 15th century, the patronage of the Vijayanagara kings shifted to Vaisnavism. Following this loss of patronage, Sringeri matha had to find other means to propagate its former status, and the story of Shankara establishing the four cardinal mathas may have originated in the 16th century. Most of Shankara's biographies were created and published from the 15th to the 17th century, such as the widely cited Śankara-digvijaya, in which legends were created turning Shankara into a "divine folk-hero who spread his teaching through his digvijaya ("universal conquest") all over India like a victorious conqueror."

Madhavacharya
The most famous works written by, or attributed to Madhavacharya, are Sarva-darsana-sangraha ("Compendium of Speculations - a compendium of all the known Indian schools of philosophy"), written in Old Kannada; Madhaviya Shankara Vijaya, a hagiography of Shankara; and the Parasara–Madhaviya, written in Sanskrit. While best known for his Advaitic works, Vidyaranya also wrote on dharmasastric legal texts, ritual performance and Purvamimamsa, and does not seem to have perceived Mimamsa and Vedanta as being opposite to each other.

Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha
While usually attributed to Madhava [B], and thereby to Vidyaranya, Madhava [B] was probably not the author of the Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha. According to Clark, the author may have been Cannibhatta (Cinna or Cennu): "...a most insightful analysis by Thakur (1961) indicates that the author of the SDS was Cannibhatta (Cinna or Cennu), son of Sahajasarvajña Visnu Bhattopadhyaya, who was also a preceptor to Sāyaṇa and Mādhava [B]. Cannibhatta was a younger contemporary of Sāyaṇa and Madhava, author of a sub-commentary on the Pañcapadikavivarana, and worked in the Vijayanagara court under the patronage of Harihara Maharaja. The SDS shares many passages and quotations from Cannibhatta's other works. Thakur suggests that the plan of the work may have originated with Madhava, and been written by Cannibhatta, with the help of Sāyaṇa and Madhava."

According to Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha "sketches sixteen systems of thought so as to exhibit a gradually ascending series, culminating in the Advaita Vedanta (or non-dualism)." The sixteen systems of philosophy expounded by him are:

 * 1) Cārvāka
 * 2) Buddhism
 * 3) Arhata or Jainism
 * 4) Ramanuja System or Sri Vaishnavism
 * 5) Purna-Prajña Darsana or Tatva-vaada or Dvaita Vedanta
 * 6) Nakulisa-Paśupata
 * 7) Shaivism
 * 8) Pratyabhijña (Kashmir Shaivism) or Recognitive System
 * 9) Raseśvara or Mercurial System
 * 10) Vaisheshika or Aulukya
 * 11) Akshapada or Nyaya
 * 12) Jaimini
 * 13) Pāṇiniya
 * 14) Samkhya
 * 15) Patanjala or Yoga
 * 16) Vedanta or Adi Shankara

The Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha itself omits the 16th chapter (Advaita Vedanta, or the system of Adi Shankara), the absence of which is explained by a paragraph at the end of the 15th chapter (the Patanjali-Darsana). It says: "The system of Shankara, which comes next in succession, and which is the crest-gem of all systems, has been explained by us elsewhere, it is, therefore, left untouched here."

Madhvacharya sets out to refute, chapter by chapter, the other systems of thought prominent in his day. Vidyaranya depicts and quotes directly from the works of their founders or leading exponents, picturing himself (with mental detachment) as an adherent of each of the sixteen distinct philosophical systems.

Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha is one of the few available sources of information about lokayata, the materialist system of philosophy in ancient India. In the very first chapter, "The Cārvāka System", he critiques the arguments of lokayatikas. While doing so he quotes extensively from Cārvāka works. It is possible that some of these arguments put forward as the lokayata point of view may be a mere caricature of lokayata philosophy. Yet in the absence of any original work of lokayatikas, it is one of the very few sources of information available today on materialist philosophy in ancient India.

Madhaviya Shankara (Dig)vijayam
The Madhaviya Shankara (Dig)vijayam, also known as Samkshepa-Shankara-Vijaya, a hagiography about the life and achievements of Shankara Bhagavat-Pada (Adi Shankara), is usually attributed to Madhava-Vidyaranya, and dated to the 14th century. The attribution and dating is disputed; the author was a Madhava, and the correct seems to be the 17th or even 18th century. The book is the best-known of the popular hagiographic accounts of Shankara's 'conquests of the four quarters', his tour of India starting from Sringeri, defeating rival teachers and traditions, and establishing four mathas in India to spread the superior teaching of Advaita Vedanta. According to Slaje, the text is a "forgery", according to a central role to Sringeri and the Vijayanagara Empire in spreading Shankara's Advaita Vedanta, and "provid[ing] a further legitimation to Vijayanagara's claim to be the centre of the new orthodoxy."

Other works

 * The Parasara–Madhaviya is a commentary on the Parasarasmriti.
 * The Jayminiyanyayamalavistara is atreatise on the fundamentals of Purvamimamsa.

Pañcadaśī
Vidyaranya's Pañcadaśī is a standard text on the philosophy of the Advaita Vedanta tradition. It consists of fifteen chapters which are divided into three sections of five chapters each, which are designated as Viveka (Discrimination), Deepa (Illumination), and Ananda (Bliss). The text elucidates many Vedantic concepts, such as the five sheaths of individuality; the relation between Isvara (God), Jagat (world), and Jiva (individual); the indistinguishability of cause and effect; etc.

Jivanmuktiviveka
The Jivanmuktiviveka was composed ca. 1380, after Madhava had become a sannyasin. While positioning himself as an Advaita Vedantin, Vidyaranya departs from Shankara's insistence on Brahma-jnana as the sole and sufficient means for attaining moksha. In contrast to Shankara, Vidyaranya's "yogic Advaita" work Jivanmuktiviveka added yogic disciplines derived from the Bhagavad Gita, Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, Gaudapada's Karika, and the Laghu-Yoga-Vasistha, which in turn was influenced by Kashmir Shaivism.

Mimamsa Sutras
Vidyaranya also wrote a commentary on the Mimamsa Sutras.

Durvasana Pratikara Dashakam
He wrote a set of 10 slokas on removal of evil propensities in human mind.

title: Vidyaranya


text: User talk:204.97.134.110

title: User talk:204.97.134.110