text:
History of decorative arts

The Ancient World The Byzantine Empire The Antique and Medieval Asian World
 * Ancient Furniture
 * Pottery of Ancient Greece
 * Arts of Caucasian Albania
 * Macedonian art
 * Chinese ceramics
 * Japanese Pottery
 * Korean Pottery

The Arts of Islam Renaissance Europe
 * Islamic pottery
 * Persian rug
 * Azerbaijani rug
 * Cassone
 * Orientalism in early modern France

18th-century Europe
 * Adam Style
 * Carpet
 * Neoclassicism
 * Rococo

19th-century Europe
 * Arts and Crafts movement
 * Biedermeier
 * Egyptian Revival
 * Empire Style
 * Greek Revival & Neo-Grec
 * Renaissance Revival
 * Rococo Revival
 * Victorian decorative arts

20th-century Europe
 * Art Nouveau
 * Art Deco
 * Bauhaus

United States
 * American Fancy
 * American craft & American Craftsman

title: History of decorative arts


text:
Walter III, Count of Brienne

Walter III of Brienne (Gautier, Gualtiero; died June 1205) was a nobleman from northern France. Becoming Count of Brienne in 1191, Walter married the Sicilian princess Elvira and took an army to southern Italy to claim her inheritance. He became Prince of Taranto in her right in 1201 but died fighting before he could establish himself as King of Sicily.

Early life
Walter III was the eldest son of Erard II of Brienne and Agnès of Montfaucon. He was likely born after 1166, and succeeded his father as Count of Brienne in 1191. In the late 1190s, Walter and his brothers became involved in the conflict between Peter II of Courtenay (first cousin of King Philip II of France) and Peter's vassal Hervé IV of Donzy. Possibly provoked by Philip's support of his cousin, Walter briefly "abandoned the King of France" during the latter's conflict with King Richard I of England. Philip then became weary of the growing influence of the Brienne brothers.

Marriage and campaign
At the end of the 12th century, Sibylla of Acerra, widow of King Tancred of Sicily, arrived with her daughters in France. Sibylla sought a capable nobleman who would marry her eldest daughter, Elvira (known by a handful of other names, including Albinia and Maria), and press her claim to the Kingdom of Sicily. Sicily was then controlled by the regents of the orphaned infant king Frederick, whose parents, Henry and Constance, had deposed Sibylla's family. King Philip II of France, having been approached by the former Sicilian queen, convened a meeting in Melun. It was agreed there that Elvira should be married to Walter. Philip thereby emphasized his authority over Walter while at the same time encouraging him to leave France. Walter reportedly received an impressive sum of 20,000 livre parisis from the King, though this is doubtful. For the House of Brienne, however, Walter's marriage to Elvira signified a sudden rise and the beginning of the dynasty's golden age.

The Fourth Crusade was launched by Walter's immediate suzerain, Count Theobald III of Champagne, in November 1199. Walter promptly took the cross and started persuading prospective crusaders, such as his cousin Walter of Montbéliard, to assist him in his upcoming campaign in southern Italy on their way to the Holy Land. Besides recruiting men, Walter energetically collected money and supplies from 1200, selling or mortgaging all of his land by April 1201. He also secured the blessing and significant aid from Pope Innocent III. Innocent was the guardian of King Frederick but determinedly opposed to his regents. He refused Walter's petition to recognize Elvira's claim to Frederick's throne; instead, he recognized the couple's right to the Principality of Taranto and the County of Lecce. In return, Tancred's family was compelled to recognize Frederick as their king. Walter knew that securing possession of Taranto and Lecce would give him a sufficient power base and agreed.

Leaving his younger brother John in charge of Brienne, Walter arrived to the Italian Peninsula with a small army, including sixty knights and forty mounted sergeants. By the late spring of 1201, he had arrived to Frederick's realm and appeared victorious, having won battles at Capua and Cannae. Innocent urged Walter to cross to the island of Sicily. Walter was reluctant to combat Innocent's enemies on the island before consolidating his position on the peninsula.

Death and aftermath
By 1204, Walter was besieged in the fortress of Terracina by Diepold of Vohburg and lost an eye to an arrow, but he broke the siege and put Diepold to fight. One night in June 1205, a contingent of enemy soldiers infiltrated Walter's camp, cut the ropes of his tent, felled it on Walter and stabbed him. Walter died of his wounds soon afterwards.

Elvira, pregnant at the time of Walter's death, quickly remarried. She gave birth to a posthumous son, Walter IV. Their family's claims posed problems for the rest of Frederick's reign. Walter III was succeeded in Brienne by his brother John, who held the county until Walter IV reached the age of majority.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Walter III, Count of Brienne


text: Category:Parishes of Antigua and Barbuda


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Fuckz0r the whales

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE. JeremyA 04:03, 18 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Fuckz0r the whales
Non-notable Flash cartoon, Flashcruft. Delete. — J I P | Talk 16:40, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Hedley 17:24, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. The Newgrounds crowd might be at it again... see Lock Legion and other vfds from a few days ago... ESkog 17:52, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Unnotable blamcruft. Nestea 19:02, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete non notable. JamesBurns 03:57, 5 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete non notable -CunningLinguist 00:00, 6 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete Non-notable vanity. -- Herrhav0k 14:29, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages.  Please do not edit this page .


text:
Talk:History of decorative arts

I'm just getting started on this. Was a little uncertain of form. Using the History of Painting page as a model. Astragal 16:42, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * There's been some talk on the Decorative Art and study of Decorative Art discussion pages about this article, and its lack of article-ness. I personally thinks it's most valuable as a referal list that can point one towards content that appears elsewhere -- why be repetitive? also, I based the format/content of this page on the history of painting page (as mentioned above), so it's not without precedent. I think more links should be added, but I still think the format to be a sound idea. -Astragal 17:02, 7 August 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:History of decorative arts


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/QueZTone

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was USERFY

QueZTone
Looks like vanity. I can't estabilish notability; only claim to fame seems to be that he created this nickname 10 years ago. ~1200 Google hits, but most seem to be his forum postings. --Xcali 16:42, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Userfy. I'll do it right now. --khaosworks 17:32, Jun 4, 2005 (UTC)
 * Usefied and Speedy deleted. --khaosworks 17:37, Jun 4, 2005 (UTC)
 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Toaster Oven (GameFAQs)

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE. JeremyA 04:12, 18 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Toaster Oven (GameFAQs)
Never before has the phrase "Wikipedia is not GameFAQs" been more appropriate. If this is notable within the GameFAQs community, then it can be mentioned in the main article. — Xezbeth 16:43, Jun 4, 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge and then Delete - I'm not a "everyday" GameFAQs visitor (just when I'm stuck on a certain video game) but there is already a section for "Message boards" on the GameFAQs article and it briefly mentioned "Toaster Oven." As the article stands, just not justifiable to be stand a lone. The reason for the deletion is that it is an orphan article --Chill Pill Bill 17:06, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * From Guide to Votes for deletion:
 * Some newcomers to the VFD process tend to combine shorthands in ways that are self-contradictory or contrary to fundamental Wikipedia policy. The following votes incorporate mutually incompatible things or are contrary to fundamental Wikipedia policy, and should be avoided:
 * "Merge to Example and Delete". Article merger requires that editing history of the source article be kept, for attribution purposes as required by the GFDL. It is not allowed to delete the editing history whilst retaining this content. -- Mgm|(talk) 17:58, Jun 4, 2005 (UTC)

 * Comment: I don't think it's necessary to delete or merge the article, certain boards on GameFAQs should have an article mostly because they have a history... (unsigned Wikilord)
 * Delete. Not notable. Wikipedia is not a web directory. A и D я 01D  TALK  EMAIL  20:34, Jun 4, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete GameFAQs is notable, it's specific subforums are not. Andrew Lenahan - St ar bli nd 21:29, Jun 4, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. And this vote comes from a regular GameFAQs visitor. TheCoffee 03:04, 5 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Wikipedia is not a web directory. Martg76 09:20, 5 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * Redirect wouldn't be a bad idea.

 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages.  Please do not edit this page .


text:
Louisiana (New France)

Louisiana (Louisiane) or French Louisiana (Louisiane française) was an administrative district of New France. In 1682 the French explorer René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle erected a cross near the mouth of the Mississippi River and claimed the whole of the drainage basin of the Mississippi River in the name of King Louis XIV, naming it "Louisiana". This land area stretched from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico and from the Appalachian Mountains to the Rocky Mountains. The area was under French control from 1682 to 1762 and in part from 1801 (nominally) to 1803.

Louisiana included two regions, now known as Upper Louisiana (la Haute-Louisiane), which began north of the Arkansas River, and Lower Louisiana (la Basse-Louisiane). The U.S. state of Louisiana is named for the historical region, although it is only a small part of the vast lands claimed by France.

French exploration of the area began during the reign of Louis XIV, but French Louisiana was not greatly developed, due to a lack of human and financial resources. As a result of its defeat in the Seven Years' War, France was forced to cede the east part of the territory in 1763 to the victorious British, and the west part to Spain as compensation for Spain losing Florida. France regained sovereignty of the western territory in the secret Third Treaty of San Ildefonso of 1800. Strained by obligations in Europe and the Caribbean, Napoleon Bonaparte sold the territory to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, ending France's presence in Louisiana.

The United States ceded the part north of the 49th parallel to the United Kingdom in the Treaty of 1818. It is part of present-day Alberta and Saskatchewan.

Boundaries, settlement and geography
In the 18th century, Louisiana included most of the Mississippi River basin (see drawing alongside) from what is now the Midwestern United States south to the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Within this vast territory, only two areas saw substantial French settlement: Upper Louisiana (Haute-Louisiane), also known as the Illinois Country (Pays des Illinois), which consisted of settlements in what are now the states of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana; and Lower Louisiana, which comprised parts of the modern states of Louisiana, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Alabama. Both areas were dominated numerically by Native American tribes. At times, fewer than two hundred French soldiers were assigned to all of the colony, on both sides of the Mississippi. In the mid-1720s, Louisiana Indians numbered well over 35,000, forming a clear majority of the colony's population."

Generally speaking, the French colony of Louisiana bordered the Great Lakes, particularly Lake Michigan and Lake Erie towards the north; this region was the "Upper Country" of the French province of Canada. To the east was territory disputed with the thirteen British colonies on the Atlantic seaboard; the French claim extended to the Appalachian Mountains. The Rocky Mountains marked the western extent of the French claim, while Louisiana's southern border was the Gulf of Mexico.

The general flatness of the land aided movement through the territory; its average elevation is less than 1000 m. The topography becomes more mountainous towards the west, with the notable exception of the Ozark Mountains, which are located in the mid-south.

Lower Louisiana (Basse-Louisiane)
Lower Louisiana consisted of lands in the Lower Mississippi River watershed, including settlements in what are now the U.S. states of Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama. The French first explored it in the 1660s, and a few trading posts were established in the following years; serious attempt at settlement began with the establishment of Fort Maurepas, near modern Biloxi, Mississippi, in 1699. A colonial government soon emerged, with its capital originally at Mobile, later at Biloxi and finally at New Orleans (in 1722, four years after the city's founding). The government was led by a governor-general, and Louisiana became an increasingly important colony in the early 18th century.

The earliest settlers of Upper Louisiana mostly came from French Canada, while Lower Louisiana was colonized by people from all over the French colonial empire, with various waves coming from Canada, France, and the French West Indies.

Upper Louisiana (Haute-Louisiane)
Upper Louisiana, also known as the Illinois Country, was the French territory in the upper Mississippi River Valley, including settlements and fortifications in what are now the states of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana. French exploration of the area began with the 1673 expedition of Louis Joliet and Jacques Marquette, which charted the upper Mississippi. As noted above, Upper Louisiana was primarily settled by colonists from French Canada. There was further substantial intermarriage and integration with the local Illinois peoples. French settlers were attracted by the availability of arable farmland as well as by the forests, abundant with animals suitable for hunting and trapping. Between 1699 and 1760, six major settlements were established in Upper Louisiana: Cahokia, Kaskaskia, Fort de Chartres, Saint Philippe, and Prairie du Rocher, all on the east side of the Mississippi River in present-day Illinois; and Ste. Genevieve across the river in today's Missouri. The region was initially governed as part of Canada, but was declared to be part of Louisiana in 1712, with the grant of the Louisiana country to Antoine Crozat. By the 1720s a formal government infrastructure had formed; leaders of the towns reported to the commandant of Fort de Chartres, who in turn reported to the governor-general of Louisiana in New Orleans.

The geographical limits of Upper Louisiana were never precisely defined, but the term gradually came to describe the country southwest of the Great Lakes. A royal ordinance of 1722 may have featured the broadest definition of the region: all land claimed by France south of the Great Lakes and north of the mouth of the Ohio River, including both banks of the Mississippi as well as the lower Missouri Valley.

A generation later, trade conflicts between Canada and Louisiana led to a defined boundary between the French colonies; in 1745, Louisiana governor general Vaudreuil set the northeastern bounds of his domain as the Wabash valley up to the mouth of the Vermilion River (near present-day Danville, Illinois); from there, northwest to le Rocher on the Illinois River, and from there west to the mouth of the Rock River (at present-day Rock Island, Illinois). Thus, Vincennes and Peoria were the limit of Louisiana's reach. The outposts at Ouiatenon (on the upper Wabash near present-day Lafayette, Indiana), Fort Miamis (near present-day Fort Wayne, Indiana), and Prairie du Chien operated as dependencies of Canada.

This boundary remained in effect through the capitulation of French forces in Canada in 1760 until the Treaty of Paris in 1763, after which France surrendered its remaining territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. (Although British forces had occupied the "Canadian" posts in the Illinois and Wabash countries in 1761, they did not occupy Vincennes or the Mississippi River settlements at Cahokia and Kaskaskia until 1764, after the peace treaty was ratified. ) As part of a general report on conditions in the newly conquered Province of Canada, Gen. Thomas Gage (then commandant at Montreal) explained in 1762 that, although the boundary between Louisiana and Canada was not exact, it was understood that the upper Mississippi (above the mouth of the Illinois) was in Canadian trading territory.

Following the transfer of power (at which time many of the French settlers on the east bank of the Mississippi crossed the river to what had become Spanish Louisiana) the eastern Illinois Country became part of the British Province of Quebec, and later the United States' Northwest Territory. French colonists who migrated after they lost control over New France founded outposts such as the important settlement of St. Louis (1764). This became a French fur-trading center, connected to trading posts on the Missouri and Upper Mississippi rivers, leading to later French settlement in that area.

In the 1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau, France ceded Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to Spain, its ally in the war, as compensation for the loss of Spanish Florida to Britain. Even after France had lost its claim to Louisiana, francophone settlement of Upper Louisiana continued for the next four decades. French explorers and frontiersmen, such as Pedro Vial, were often employed as guides and interpreters by the Spanish and later by the Americans. The Spanish lieutenant governors at St. Louis maintained the traditional "Illinois Country" nomenclature, using titles such as "commander in chief of the western part and districts of Illinois" and administrators commonly referred to their capital St. Louis "of the Ylinuses".

In 1800 Spain returned its part of Louisiana to France in the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso, but France sold it to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Through this time, but especially following the Louisiana Purchase, French Creoles, as they called themselves, began to move further into the Missouri Ozarks, where they formed mining communities such as Mine à Breton and La Vieille Mine (Old Mines).

A unique dialect, known as Missouri French, developed in Upper Louisiana. It is distinguished from both Louisiana French and the various forms of Canadian French, such as Acadian. The dialect continued to be spoken around the Midwest, particularly in Missouri, through the 20th century. It is nearly extinct today, with only a few elderly speakers still able to use it.

17th-century explorers
In 1660, France started a policy of expansion into the interior of North America from what is now eastern Canada. The objectives were to locate a Northwest Passage to China; to exploit the territory's natural resources, such as fur and mineral ores; and to convert the native population to Catholicism. Fur traders began exploring the pays d'en haut (upper country around the Great Lakes) at the time. In 1659, Pierre-Esprit Radisson and Médard Chouart des Groseilliers reached the western end of Lake Superior. Priests founded missions, such as the Mission of Sault Sainte Marie in 1668. On May 17, 1673, Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette began the exploration of the Mississippi River, which they called the Sioux Tongo (the large river) or Michissipi. They reached the mouth of the Arkansas River, and then returned upstream, having learned that the great river ran toward the Gulf of Mexico, not toward the Pacific Ocean as they had presumed. In 1675, Marquette founded a mission in the Native American village of Kaskaskias on the Illinois River. A permanent settlement was made by 1690. In 1682, René-Robert Cavelier and the Italian Henri de Tonti descended to the Mississippi River Delta. They left Fort Crèvecoeur on the Illinois River, accompanied by 23 Frenchmen and 18 Indians. They built Fort Prud'homme (later the city of Memphis) and claimed French sovereignty on the whole of the valley, which they called Louisiane in honor of the French king, Louis XIV. They sealed alliances with the Quapaw Indians. In April 1682, they arrived at the mouth of the Mississippi. Cavelier eventually returned to Versailles, where he convinced the Minister of the Marine to grant the command of Louisiana to him. He claimed that Louisiana was close to New Spain by drawing a map showing the Mississippi as much farther west than it really was.

With four ships and 320 emigrants, Cavelier set sail for Louisiana. Cavelier did not find the river's mouth in the Mississippi River Delta and tried to establish a colony on the Texas coast. Cavelier was assassinated in 1687 by members of his exploration party, reportedly near what is now Navasota, Texas.

Summary chronology

 * 1673: The Frenchmen Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette begin to explore the Mississippi River from the north and determine that it must run into the Gulf of Mexico on the south.
 * 1675: Marquette founds a mission at the Grand Village of the Illinois.
 * 1680: Fort Crevecoeur founded in the Illinois Country
 * 1682: René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle, descends the Mississippi to its mouth on the Gulf of Mexico.
 * 1682: Fort St. Louis du Rocher on the Illinois River is founded
 * 1685–88: La Salle attempts to establish a colony on the Gulf of Mexico to secure the entire river valley for France. He establishes a camp at Fort Saint Louis; but his mission fails, in part because he fails to rediscover the Mississippi's mouth.
 * 1686: Henri de Tonti establishes Arkansas Post, a trading post at the site of a Quapaw Indian village, near where the Arkansas River meets the Mississippi.
 * 1696: Cahokia village in Illinois Country is settled.
 * 1699: Pierre Le Moyne, Sieur d'Iberville explores the Louisiana coast and founds Fort Maurepas at Old Biloxi (now in Mississippi) on the Gulf of Mexico.
 * 1701: Antoine Laumet de La Mothe founds Detroit.
 * 1702: In January, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville founds Mobile (now in Alabama) as the capital of Louisiana for his brother Iberville.
 * 1703: Kaskaskia village in Illinois Country is settled
 * 1713: Étienne de Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont publishes the first report on explorations of the Missouri River.
 * 1714: Louis Juchereau de St. Denis founds Natchitoches, the oldest permanent settlement in what is now the State of Louisiana.
 * 1716: Fort Rosalie is established on a bluff overlooking the Mississippi River; the settlement became the town of Natchez.
 * 1717: Illinois Country is detached from Canada to be governed by Louisiana (Haute-Louisiane).
 * 1718: New Orleans is founded, at a crescent in the river, for protection against flooding.
 * 1719: The first ships bringing black slaves from Africa arrive at Mobile, Alabama.
 * 1720: Biloxi (in the future state of Mississippi) becomes capital of French Louisiana.
 * 1720: Fort de Chartres is established as the administrative center of the Illinois Country.
 * 1720: Pawnees destroy the Spanish Villasur expedition near Columbus, Nebraska, effectively ending Spanish incursions into the territory until 1763.
 * 1723: New Orleans becomes the official capital of French Louisiana.
 * 1723: Fort Orleans is established near Brunswick, Missouri.
 * 1732: Vincennes is established on the Wabash River in the Illinois Country (Upper Louisiana).
 * 1735: Sainte-Geneviève in the Illinois Country (Upper Louisiana) is founded.
 * 1755: British authorities begin expelling French settlers from the former colony of Acadia (now Nova Scotia); many migrate to the southernmost parts of Louisiana, where they become the Cajuns.
 * 1762: France secretly cedes Louisiana to Spain in the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762).
 * 1763: France cedes Canada and Louisiana east of the Mississippi to Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris. The rest of Louisiana, including New Orleans, is formally ceded to Spain and incorporated as Luisiana or Spanish Louisiana into the Spanish Empire.
 * 1764: Pierre Laclède founds St. Louis, Missouri.
 * 1764: The terms of the Treaty of Fontainebleau are revealed.
 * 1768: In the Rebellion of 1768, Creole and German settlers force the new Spanish governor to flee.
 * 1769: Spain quells the rebellion, executes the leaders and officially takes possession, imposing Spanish law.
 * 1778: France declares war on Great Britain, in support of the American revolution.
 * 1779: Spain declares war on Great Britain.
 * 1783: The Treaty of Paris officially ends hostilities between the U.S., with its French and Spanish allies, and Great Britain.
 * 1788: The Great New Orleans Fire (1788) destroys most of New Orleans, which is subsequently rebuilt in Spanish style.
 * 1793: Spain declares war on the French Republic in the French Revolutionary Wars.
 * 1795: France defeats Spain in the War of the Pyrenees, ended by the Second Treaty of San Ildefonso.
 * 1800: France regains Louisiana in 1803 in the secret Third Treaty of San Ildefonso.
 * 1801: The Treaty of Aranjuez stipulated the cession of Louisiana from Spain to France to be a "restoration", not a retrocession. As France had never given any part of Florida to Spain, Spain could not give it back.
 * 1803: Napoleon Bonaparte sells Louisiana to the United States, a few weeks after sending a prefect to New Orleans to assume control.
 * 1803: In New Orleans, Spain officially transfers (Lower) Louisiana to France in November. Three weeks later, in December, France officially cedes it to the United States.
 * 1804: In St. Louis in March, Three Flags Day, Spain officially transfers Upper Louisiana to France, which then officially cedes it to the United States.

Political and administrative organization
It was not easy for an absolute monarchy to administer Louisiana, a territory several times larger than European France. Louis XIV and his successors tried to impose their absolutist ambitions on the colony, often without giving the colonial administration enough financial means to do its work.

Absolutism

If the leaders of Ancien Régime took control of, and sometimes encouraged, the colonization of New France, it was for many reasons. The reign of Henry IV gave an important impetus to the colonisation of New France. Henry IV, the first Bourbon king, was personally interested in foreign affairs. In the 17th century, the ministers Richelieu and later Colbert advanced colonial politics. Louis XIV and his ministers were worried about the size of the kingdom, over which they constantly competed with other European nations. European rivalry and a game of political alliances greatly marked the history of Louisiana, in direct and indirect ways. Within those shifting conditions, the French desire to limit British influence in North America was a constant issue in royal politics.

Louis XIV took care to limit the appearance of intermediary bodies and countervailing powers in North America. He did not want an assembly of notables or parliament. In the 1660s, the colony was royal property. In 1685, Louis XIV banned all publishing in New France. Between 1712 and 1731, the French possession came under the control of Antoine Crozat, a rich businessman, then under that of the Mississippi Company (created by John Law), which recruited immigrants to settle the colony. In 1731, Louisiana reverted to royal rule.

In contrast to Metropolitan France, the government applied a single unified law of the land: the Custom of Paris for civil law (rather egalitarian for the time); the "Code Louis", consisting of the 1667 ordinance on civil procedure and 1670 ordinance on criminal procedure; the 1673 "Code Savary" for trade; and the 1685 Code noir for slavery. This served as an equaliser for a while; riots and revolts against authority were rare. But, the centralised government had difficulty maintaining communications over the long distance and sailing time that separated France from Louisiana. Toward the end of the 17th century and the beginning of the 18th, the colonists on the Gulf of Mexico were left almost completely to fend for themselves; they counted far more on the assistance of the Native Americans than on France. The distance had its advantages: the colonists smuggled goods into the colony with impunity.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Louis XIV's Minister of the Navy and Trade, was eager to stuff the coffers of the Crown. He dissolved the trading companies and took care to increase the production of the country and the colonies. Being a mercantilist, he believed it was necessary to sell as much as possible and to reduce reliance on imports. He imposed a French monopoly on trade. Colbert wanted to reduce the expenditure of the monarchy. It was, however, necessary to invest much money and to mobilize important human resources retain the American colony. Much work was done on the economic infrastructure (factories, ports) in metropolitan France, but the investment was not enough in Louisiana. No plan to facilitate the movement of goods or men was ever carried out. The French budget was exhausted because of the wars in Europe, but the colonists in Louisiana did not have to pay royal taxes and were free of the hated gabelle.

Colonial administration

Under the Ancien Régime, Louisiana formed part of a larger colonial unit, French American territory—New France (Nouvelle France), which included a large part of modern-day Canada. New France was initially ruled by a viceroy in 1625, the Duke of Ventadour. The colony was then given a government like the Bourbons' other possessions. Its capital was Quebec City until 1759. A governor-general, assisted by a single intendant, was charged with ruling this vast region. In theory, Louisiana was subordinate to Canada, and so it was explored and settled chiefly by French-Canadians rather than colonists from France. Given the enormous distance between New Orleans and Quebec, communications outside cities and forts were limited.

French settlements were widely dispersed, which afforded them de facto autonomy. The government decided to break up governance of the vast varied colony of New France into five smaller provinces, including Louisiana. The Illinois Country, south of the Great Lakes, was added to Louisiana in 1717 and became known as Upper Louisiana. Mobile served as French Louisiana's first "capital". The seat of government moved to Biloxi in 1720, and then to New Orleans in 1722, where the governor lived. While the office of governor general was the most eminent, it was not the most powerful. His was a military position that required him to lead the troops and maintain diplomatic relations. The second provincial authority was the commissaire-ordonnateur. His was a civil post with similar functions as that of the intendants in France: the king's administrator and representative, he oversaw justice, the police force, and finances. He managed the budget, set prices, presided the Superior Council (Conseil supérieur—the court of justice), and organized the census. Appointed by the king, Louisiana's commissaire-ordonnateur had broad powers that sometimes conflicted with those of the governor general. The military outposts of the hinterland were directed by commanders.

Religious establishment

The French possessions of North America were under the authority of a single Catholic diocese, whose seat was in Quebec. The archbishop, named and paid by the king, was spiritual head of all New France. With loose religious supervision, the fervor of the population was very weak; Louisianans tended to practice their faith much less than did their counterparts in France and Canada. The tithe, a tax by the clergy on the congregations, produced less revenue than in France. The Church nevertheless played an important part in the exploration of French Louisiana; it sent missions, primarily carried out by Jesuits, to convert Native Americans. It also founded schools and hospitals: By 1720, the Ursulines were operating a hospital in New Orleans. The church and its missionaries established contact with the numerous Amerindian tribes. Certain priests, such as Father Marquette in the 17th century, took part in exploratory missions. The Jesuits translated collections of prayers into numerous Amerindian languages to convert the Native Americans. They also looked for ways to relate Indian practices to Christian worship, and helped show the Natives how these were related. A syncretic religion developed among new Christians. Sincere and permanent conversions were limited in number; many who received missionary instruction tended to assimilate the Holy Trinity into their belief of "spirits", or rejected the concept outright.

Colonial society
It is difficult to estimate the total population of France's colonies in North America. While historians have relatively precise sources regarding the colonists and enslaved Africans, estimates of Native American peoples is difficult. During the 18th century, the society of Louisiana became quite creolized.

Language
Colonial French (commonly known as Colonial Louisiana French) is a variety of Louisiana French. It is associated with the misnomer the Cajun French dialect and with Louisiana Creole French, a related creole language. Spoken widely in what is now the U.S. state of Louisiana, it is now considered to have been relabeled as "Cajun French".

Colonial French is conventionally described as the form of French spoken in Lower French Louisiana prior to the mass arrival of Acadians after the Great Upheaval of the mid-18th century, which resulted in the birth of the Cajun dialect. The prestige dialect still used by Creoles and Cajuns is often identified as deriving from Colonial French, but some linguists differentiate between the two, referring to the latter as Plantation Society French.

Historically spoken by Louisiana Creole population in lower French Louisiana, Colonial French is generally considered to have been adopted by whites, blacks and Cajuns. It is known among the educated that it has been incorrectly relabelled "Cajun French" by Cajuns and CODOFIL.

Following the Great Upheaval in 1764, when many Acadians were exiled to French Louisiana, Louisiana French was adopted by the Acadians. Some scholars suggested that it survived as the prestige dialect spoken by Creoles, both white and of color, into the 21st century. There are populations of Creoles and Cajuns among other ethnic groups in the parishes of St. Martin, Avoyelles, Iberia, Pointe-Coupée, St. Charles, St. Landry, St. Mary, St. Tammany, Plaquemines, and other parishes south of Orleans, that still speak this prestige dialect.

However, linguists have pointed out this prestige dialect is distinct from the pre-Upheaval Colonial French, and is largely derived from the standard French of the mid-19th century, Spanish, African languages, and Native Americans languages. As such, in 1998 linguist Michael Picone of the University of Alabama introduced the term "Plantation Society French" for the prestige dialect. There is a history of diglossia between Plantation Society French and Louisiana Creole French. Plantation Society French, at any rate, is quite close to the Standard French of the time of its origin, with some possible differences in pronunciation and vocabulary use.

It is still spoken by the Louisiana Indians, such as the Houmas, Avoyelles, Choctaw, and other tribal remnants, all present in pre-Acadian Louisiana and still present in contemporary Louisiana.

Native Americans
According to the demographer Russel Thornton, North America contained approximately seven million native inhabitants in 1500. The population plummeted from the 16th century onward, primarily because of the new infectious diseases carried by Europeans, to which the Native Americans had no acquired immunity. At the end of the 17th century, there were likely no more than 100,000 to 200,000 Native Americans in Lower Louisiana. French colonists forced a small number of Native Americans into slavery, in spite of official prohibition. These slaves were persons who had been captured by rival tribes during raids and in battle, and sold to French colonists. At the time, many were sent to Saint Domingue in the West Indies for sale as slaves, or to Canada. In Louisiana, planters generally preferred using African slaves, though some had Native American servants.

Enslaved Africans

In 1717, John Law, the French Comptroller General of Finances, decided to import African slaves into Louisiana. His objective was to develop the plantation economy of Lower Louisiana. The Royal Indies Company held a monopoly over the slave trade in the area. It imported approximately 6,000 slaves from Africa between 1719 and 1743. A small portion of these were sent to the Illinois Country to cultivate the fields or to work the lead mines. The economy of Lower Louisiana consequently became slave-dependent. As in other French colonies, the treatment of the slaves was regulated by the Code Noir. The slaves often had a degree of autonomy beyond that suggested by the code. Initially, during public holidays, slaves were permitted to sell a portion of the crops they had cultivated. Some would hunt, cut wood or keep livestock far from the plantation. Lastly, although interracial marriages and regroupings of slaves were prohibited, planters often kept slave mistresses. The life and work of the slaves was difficult, with the intense harvest season and processing of sugar undoubtedly the hardest. The maintenance of canals for rice irrigation and travel also involved much labor.

Slave residences and furnishings as supplied by planters were modest. The slaves were given simple straw pallets as beds. They typically had some trunks and kitchen utensils. The condition of the slaves depended on the treatment they received from their masters. When it was excessively cruel, the slaves often fled and hid in the marshes or in New Orleans. The Maroon societies that runaway slaves founded were often short-lived; Louisiana did not have the larger and semi-permanent Maroon villages that developed in the West Indies. Meanwhile, slave revolts were not as frequent in this area as they were in the Caribbean. The possibility of being set free was rather low; the slaves could not purchase their freedom. One of the first slaves to be freed was Louis Congo, who, in 1725, received freedom, land, and compensation in exchange for becoming the public executioner of New Orleans. Some freed slaves (notably women and former soldiers) formed small communities, which suffered from segregation; justice was more severe against them, and they did not have right to possess weapons. Slaves contributed to the creolization of Louisianan society. They brought okra from Africa, a plant common in the preparation of gumbo. While the Code Noir required that the slaves receive a Christian education, many secretly practiced animism and often combined elements of the two faiths.

Creoles

The commonly accepted definition of Louisiana Creole today is the community whose members are a descendant of the "native-born" individuals of la Louisiane. Some individuals may not have each ethnic heritage, and some may have additional ancestries. It is estimated that 7,000 European immigrants settled in Louisiana during the 18th century—a hundredth the number of inhabitants of the Thirteen Colonies on the Atlantic coast. Initially, creole was the term used for Europeans (and sometimes, separately for Africans) born in Louisiana, in contrast to those who immigrated there.

Louisiana attracted considerably fewer French colonists than did its West Indian colonies. After the crossing of the Atlantic Ocean, which lasted several months, the colonists had several challenges ahead of them. Their living conditions were difficult: uprooted, they had to face a new, often hostile, environment. Many of these immigrants died during the maritime crossing or soon after their arrival. Physical conditions were harsh, and the tropical climate was difficult for colonists. Hurricanes, unknown in France, periodically struck the coast, destroying whole villages. The Mississippi River Delta was plagued with periodic floods and yellow fever epidemics, to which malaria and cholera were added as part of the Eurasian diseases that arrived with the Europeans. These conditions slowed colonization.

Moreover, French villages and forts were not necessarily safe from enemy offensives. Attacks by Native Americans represented a real threat to the groups of isolated colonists; in 1729, their attacks killed 250 in Lower Louisiana. Forces of the Native American Natchez people took Fort Rosalie (now Natchez, Mississippi) by surprise, killing, among others, pregnant women. The French responded with warfare during the next two years: some Natchez were captured and deported as slaves to Saint Domingue; others left the area if they escaped.

Colonists were often young men, volunteers recruited in French ports or in Paris. Many served as indentured servants; they were required to remain in Louisiana for a length of time fixed by the contract of service to pay off their passage. During this time, they were "temporary semi-slaves". To increase the colonial population, the crown sent filles à la cassette ("casket girls," referring to the small trunks they arrived with), young Frenchwomen, to marry the soldiers. They were given a dowry financed by the King. This practice built upon the 17th-century precedent when Louis XIV paid for transport and dowries for about 800 filles du roi (King's Daughters) to emigrate to New France to encourage marriage and formation of families in the colony.

By contrast, other arrivals were described as women "of easy virtue", vagrants or outlaws, and those without family, who arrived in Louisiana with a lettre de cachet; they were sent by force to the colony, especially during the Régence period early in the reign of Louis XV. Their stories inspired the novel Story of the Knight of Grieux and Manon Lescaut, written by Abbé Prévost in 1731. In 1721, the ship La Baleine carried nearly 90 women of childbearing age to Louisiana; they were recruited from the Paris prison of La Salpetrière. Most quickly found husbands among the residents of the colony. These women, many of whom were most likely prostitutes or felons, were known as The Baleine Brides.

Communities of Swiss and German peoples also settled in French Louisiana, but royal authorities always referred to the population as "French". After the Seven Years' War, in which Britain defeated France, the settlement attracted a variety of groups: Spanish settlers, refugees from Saint Domingue (particularly after 1791 when the slave uprisings began), opponents of the French Revolution, and Acadians. In 1785, 1633 people of Acadian origin were brought from France to New Orleans, 30 years after having been expelled from Acadia by the British. Other Acadians were transported there by the British after they were expelled from Acadia. About 4,000 are thought to have settled in Louisiana, gradually forming the Cajun community.

Peasants, artisans, and merchants
Social mobility was easier in America than in France at the time. The seigneurial system was not imposed on the banks of the Mississippi, although the long lot land division scheme of the seigneurial system was adapted to some of the meandering rivers and bayous there. There were few corporations treated hierarchically and strictly regulated. Certain tradesmen managed to build fortunes rather quickly. The large planters of Louisiana were attached to the French way of life: they imported wigs and clothing fashionable in Paris. In the Country of Illinois, the wealthiest constructed stone-built houses and had several slaves. The largest traders mostly wound up settling in New Orleans.

French soldiers
The King sent the army in the event of conflict with the other colonial powers; in 1717, the colony of Mississippi counted 300 soldiers out of 550 people (Havard G, Vidal C, History of French America, p. 225.). However, the colonial army, like that of France, suffered from desertions. Certain soldiers fled to become coureurs de bois. There were few mutinies because repression was severe. The army held a fundamental place in the control of the territory. Soldiers built forts and frequently negotiated with the Native Americans.

Coureurs des bois

The coureurs des bois (literally "runners of the woods") played an important part, though not well documented, in the expansion of French influence in North America. By the end of the 17th century, these adventurers had journeyed the length of the Mississippi River. They were motivated by the hope of finding gold or of carrying out a profitable fur trade with the Indians. The fur trade, often practiced without authorization, was a difficult activity, carried on most of the time by young unmarried men. Many ultimately wished to go on to more sedentary agricultural activities. Meanwhile, a good number of them were integrated into native communities, learned the languages, and took native wives. A well-known example is the French Canadian Toussaint Charbonneau, husband to Sacagawea, who gave birth to Jean-Baptiste. They took part in the Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1804–1806.

French and the Native Americans
Ancien Régime France wished to make Native Americans subjects of the king and good Christians, but the distance from Metropolitan France and the sparseness of French settlement prevented this. In official rhetoric, the Native Americans were regarded as subjects of the king of France, but in reality, they were largely autonomous due to their numerical superiority. The local authorities (governors, officers) did not have the means of imposing their decisions, and often compromised. The tribes offered essential support for the French in Louisiana: they ensured the survival of the colonists, participated with them in the fur trade, and were used as guides in expeditions. Their alliance was also essential in wars against other tribes and European colonies.

The two peoples influenced each other in many fields: the French learned the languages of the natives, who bought European goods (fabric, alcohol, firearms, etc.), and sometimes adopted their religion. The coureurs des bois and the soldiers borrowed canoes and moccasins. Many of them ate native food such as wild rice and various meats, like bear and dog. The colonists were often dependent on the Native Americans for food. Creole cuisine is the heir of these mutual influences: thus, sagamité, for example, is a mix of corn pulp, bear fat and bacon. Today jambalaya, a word of Seminole origin, refers to a multitude of recipes calling for meat and rice, all very spicy. Sometimes shamans succeeded in curing the colonists thanks to traditional remedies, such as the application of fir tree gum on wounds and Royal Fern on rattlesnake bites.

Many colonists both admired and feared the military power of the Native Americans, but others scorned their culture and regarded them as racially less pure than the Whites. In 1735, interracial marriages without the approval of the authorities were prohibited in Louisiana. The Jesuit priests were often scandalized by the supposedly libertine ways of the Native Americans. In spite of some disagreements (the Indians killed pigs, which devastated corn fields), and sometimes violent confrontations (Fox Wars, Natchez uprisings, and expeditions against the Chicachas), the relationship with the Native Americans was relatively good in Louisiana. French imperialism was expressed through some wars and the slavery of some Native Americans. But most of the time, the relationship was based on dialogue and negotiation.

Illinois Country
This comparatively sparsely-settled northern area of French Louisiana was formerly the southern part of French Canada, and was transferred in 1717 by order of the King. It lies along the Mississippi and its tributaries, and was primarily devoted to grain and cereals agriculture. The French farmers lived in villages (such as near Fort de Chartres (the colonial administrative center), Kaskaskia, Prairie du Rocher, and Sainte-Geneviève). They cultivated the land with paid and slave laborers, producing mostly corn and wheat. The fields were cleared with ploughs. They raised horses, cows and pigs, and also grew a little tobacco, hemp, flax and grapes (though most wine was still imported from France). Agriculture was seasonal and periodic flooding of the Mississippi took its toll on these communities.

The trading posts in the Illinois Country concentrated mostly on the fur trade. Placed at strategic points, they were modestly fortified. Only a few were made out of stone (e.g., Fort de Chartres). Like their American "mountain man" counterparts, the coureurs des bois exchanged beaverskin or deer pelts for weapons, cloth or shoddy goods, because the local economy was based on barter. The skins and fur are later sold in the forts and cities of New France. The Illinois Country also produced salt and lead, and provided New Orleans with game.

Lower Louisiana
Lower Louisiana's plantation economy was based on slave labor. The owners generally had their main residence in New Orleans and entrusted the supervision of the fields to a treasurer.

Crops were varied and adapted to the climate and terrain. Part of the production was intended for use by Louisianans (corn, vegetables, rice, livestock), the rest being exported to France (especially tobacco and indigo).

Economic role of New Orleans
New Orleans was the economic capital of Louisiana, though it remained a village for several decades. The colonists built infrastructure to encourage trade; a canal was dug in 1723. The shops on the banks of the Mississippi also served as warehouses. The city exported pelts from the interior as well as agricultural products from the plantations. It was also, of course, a local hub of commerce.

The rare shipments from France brought food (lard, wheat...), alcohol, and various indispensable finished products (weapons, tools, cloth, and clothing). Exports remained relatively weak on the whole. New Orleans continued to sell wood, rice, and corn to the French West Indies.

Seven Years' War and its consequences
The hostility between the French and British flared up again two years before the beginning of the Seven Years' War in Europe. In North America, the war became known as the French and Indian War. After some early victories from 1754 to 1757, thanks to help from their Native American allies, the French suffered several disastrous defeats in Canada from 1758 to 1760, culminating in the surrender of the capital city Quebec. With the loss of Canada, defense of Louisiana became impossible.

The Treaty of Paris, signed on 10 February 1763, formalized the eviction of the French from North America. Canada and the east bank of the Mississippi were handed over to Great Britain (Province of Quebec (1763–91)). New Orleans and the west bank of the river had been secretly given to Spain the previous year. This decision provoked the departure of a small number of settlers; however, the Spaniards effectively took control of their new territories, which they named Luisiana, rather late (in 1769), and there was not much Spanish immigration. To the East, the United States foresaw the conquest of the West; commercial navigation on the Mississippi was opened to Americans in 1795.

Ephemeral renewal of French Louisiana
During the French Revolution, Louisiana was agitated under Spanish control: certain French-speaking colonists sent petitions to the metropolis and the slaves attempted revolts in 1791 and 1795.

The Third Treaty of San Ildefonso, signed in secrecy on October 1, 1800, envisaged the transfer of Western Louisiana as well as New Orleans to France in exchange for the Duchy of Parma. The transfer was confirmed by the Treaty of Aranjuez signed on March 21, 1801. However, Napoleon Bonaparte soon decided not to keep the immense territory. The army he sent to take possession of the colony was first required to put down a revolution in Saint-Domingue (now Haiti); its failure to do so, and the rupture of the Treaty of Amiens with the United Kingdom, prompted him to decide to sell Louisiana to the newly founded United States. This was done on April 30, 1803, for the sum of 80 million francs (15 million dollars). American sovereignty was established on December 20, 1803.

French heritage today

French colonization in Louisiana left a cultural inheritance that has been celebrated significantly in recent decades. The heritage of the French language, Louisiana Creole French, and Cajun French has been most threatened; for this reason, the CODOFIL (Council for the Development of French in Louisiana) was created in 1968. A subject of debate is the variety of French that should be taught: that of France, Canadian French, standard Louisiana French, or Cajun French. Today, many Cajun-dominated areas of Louisiana have formed associations with Acadian communities in Canada, which send French professors to re-teach the language in the schools. In 2003, 7% of Louisianans were French-speaking, though most also spoke English. An estimated 25% of the state's population has some French ancestry, carrying a number of last names of French origin (e.g., LeBlanc, Cordier, Dauthier, Dion, Menard, Pineaux, Hébert, Ardoin, Roubideaux).

Many cities and villages have names of French origin. They include St. Louis, Detroit, Baton Rouge, New Orleans, Lafayette, Mobile, Des Moines, St. Cloud, and Duluth. (However, present day Duluth is located in what used to be the old Northwest Territory, not the former Louisiana Territory). The flag and the seal of the state of Minnesota carry a French legend. The Iowa state flag uses a variation of the French national flag as its base. The Missouri state flag and flag of New Orleans colors are based on the French flag. The flag of St. Louis has a fleur-de-lis prominently displayed. Historical festivals and commemorations point out the French presence: in 1999, Louisiana celebrated the 300th anniversary of its foundation; in 2001, Detroit did the same. In 2003, the 200th anniversary of the Louisiana Purchase was commemorated on numerous occasions as well as by a formal conference to recall its history. Certain places testify to a cultural inheritance left by the French; a prime example is the French Quarter of New Orleans. In 2015, St. Louis celebrated the 250th anniversary of its founding by the French in 1764. Many French forts have been rebuilt and opened to visitors.

A key part of Louisianan culture finds its roots in the French period: Creole songs influenced the blues and jazz. Cajun music, often sung in French, remains very much alive today. New Orleans' Carnival season, with its height on Mardi Gras Day, testifies to a long-lived Roman Catholic heritage.

French

 * Arnaud Balvay, L'Epée et la Plume. Amérindiens et Soldats des Troupes de la Marine en Louisiane et au Pays d'en Haut, Québec, Presses de l'Université Laval, 2006. ISBN 978-2-7637-8390-1
 * Arnaud Balvay, La Révolte des Natchez, Paris, Editions du Félin, 2008. ISBN 978-2-86645-684-9
 * Michaël Garnier, Bonaparte et la Louisiane, Kronos/SPM, Paris, 1992, 247 p. ISBN 2-901952-04-6.
 * Marcel Giraud, Histoire de la Louisiane française (1698–1723), Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 1953–1974, 4 tomes.
 * Réginald Hamel, La Louisiane créole politique, littéraire et sociale (1762–1900), Leméac, coll. « Francophonie vivante », Ottawa, 1984, 2 tomes ISBN 2-7609-3914-6.
 * Gilles Havard, Cécile Vidal, Histoire de l'Amérique française, Flammarion, coll. « Champs », Paris, 2nd ed. (1st ed. 2003), 2006, 863 p. ISBN 2-08-080121-X.
 * Philippe Jacquin, Les Indiens blancs: Français et Indiens en Amérique du Nord (XVIe – XVIIIe siècles), Payot, coll. « Bibliothèque historique », Paris, 1987, 310 p. ISBN 2-228-14230-1.
 * Gilles-Antoine Langlois, Des villes pour la Louisiane française: Théorie et pratique de l'urbanistique coloniale au XVIIIe siècle, L'Harmattan, coll. « Villes et entreprises », Paris, 2003, 448 p. ISBN 2-7475-4726-4.
 * Thierry Lefrançois (dir.), La Traite de la Fourrure: Les Français et la découverte de l'Amérique du Nord, Musée du Nouveau Monde, La Rochelle et L'Albaron, Thonon-les-Bains, 1992, 172 p. ISBN 2-908528-36-3; Catalogue de l'exposition, La Rochelle, Musée du Nouveau-Monde, 1992
 * Bernard Lugan, Histoire de la Louisiane française (1682–1804), Perrin, Paris, 1994, 273 p. ISBN 2-7028-2462-5, ISBN 2-262-00094-8.
 * Jean Meyer, Jean Tarrade, Annie Rey-Goldzeiguer, Histoire de la France coloniale, t. 1, A. Colin, coll. « Histoires Colin », Paris, 1991, 846 p. ISBN 2-200-37218-3.

English

 * Charles J. Balesi, The Time of the French in the Heart of North America (1673–1818), Alliance française de Chicago, Chicago, 2nd ed. (1st ed. 1992), 1996, 348 p. ISBN 1-88137-000-3.
 * Glenn R. Conrad (dir.), The French Experience in Louisiana, University of Southwestern Louisiana Press, La Fayette, 1995, VIII–666 p. ISBN 0-940984-97-0.
 * Marcel Giraud, A History of French Louisiana (1723–1731), tome 5, Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge, 1991.
 * Charles R. Goins, J. M. Calwell, Historical Atlas of Louisiana, Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995.
 * V. Hubert, A Pictorial History, Louisiana, Ch. Scribner, New York City, 1975.
 * Robert W. Neuman, An Introduction of Louisiana Archeology, Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge/ Londres, 1984, XVI–366 p. ISBN 0-8071-1147-3.
 * Russel Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival..., Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1987.
 * Sophie White, Wild Frenchmen and Frenchified Indians: Material Culture and Race in Colonial Louisiana. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012.

title: Louisiana (New France)


text:
Alain Souchon

Alain Souchon (born Alain Édouard Kienast ; 27 May 1944) is a French singer-songwriter and actor. He has released 15 albums and has played roles in seven films.

Profile
Alain Souchon was born in Casablanca, Morocco. His family on his mother's side is Swiss, and he has dual French-Swiss nationality. Six months after he was born, his family moved to France. When he was 15 his father died in an accident. His mother sent him to a French high school in England, but due to problems registering he decided to stay in London and work. Upon returning to France he took up guitar, influenced by English and American music. In 1970, he married and had his first son continuing to play in the cabarets and bars in the Rive Gauche of Paris. Souchon signed his first contract in 1971 with the Pathe-Marconi label but had no success. Bob Socquet, the artistic director of RCA encouraged him to perform his song "L'amour 1830" at the Rose D'Or of Antibes contest. Souchon then began to collaborate with composer/arranger Laurent Voulzy (b. 1948); they would write together, but each released albums under his own name. Souchon's first hit was "J'ai 10 ans" (1974), from the album of the same name.

He continued releasing albums and in 1978 wrote the theme for François Truffaut's 1979 film Love on the Run (L'amour en fuite). At this time his second son was born. In 1980, he was invited to perform at l'Olympia. He also began his acting career, most notably starring in the 1983 film L'été Meurtrier. Following the album 'On avance', he left RCA and signed with Virgin Records at 40 years old. In 1989 "La beauté de Ava Gardner" was voted best title of the year by the Victoires de la Musique.

Then came Souchon's biggest hit "Foule sentimentale" from 1993's million-selling C'est déjà ça. At the 20th anniversary of the Victoires de la Musique in 1995, Alain Souchon received the award for best "Chanson Originale" for his song "Foule Sentimentale." In 1996, he received the "le Prix Vincent Scotto" award given by the SACEM (Societe des Auteurs Compositeurs) for his song "Sous les Jupes des Filles". Souchon returned in 2005 with the hugely successful album La vie Théodore which contained the hit single "...Et si en plus y'a personne".

Live albums

 * A Re-release

Singles
*Did not appear in the official Belgian Ultratop 50 charts, but rather in the bubbling under Ultratip charts

Awards
Victoires de la musique
 * 1986: Music Video of the Year (La Ballade de Jim), directed by Philippe Bensoussan
 * 1986: Song of the Year (Belle-Île-en-Mer)
 * 1990: Song of the Year (Quand j'serai KO)
 * 1991: Album of the Year (Nickel)
 * 1994: Male Artist of the Year
 * 1994: Song of the Year (Foule sentimentale)
 * 1996: Album of the Year (Défoule sentimentale)

Globes de Cristal Award
 * 2006 : Best Male Singer

title: Alain Souchon


title: User:Balletgirl313


text: Category:Parishes of Grenada

title: Category:Parishes of Grenada


text: User talk:65.160.122.217

title: User talk:65.160.122.217


text:
Boitard

Boitard is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * François Boitard (1670–c. 1715), French artist
 * Louis Peter Boitard, French engraver and designer
 * Louise Boitard (1907–2001), French resistance member
 * Pierre Boitard (1787–1857), French botanist and geologist

title: Boitard


text:
Euclidean plane isometry

In geometry, a Euclidean plane isometry is an isometry of the Euclidean plane, or more informally, a way of transforming the plane that preserves geometrical properties such as length. There are four types: translations, rotations, reflections, and glide reflections (see below ).

The set of Euclidean plane isometries forms a group under composition: the Euclidean group in two dimensions. It is generated by reflections in lines, and every element of the Euclidean group is the composite of at most three distinct reflections.

Informal discussion
Informally, a Euclidean plane isometry is any way of transforming the plane without "deforming" it. For example, suppose that the Euclidean plane is represented by a sheet of transparent plastic sitting on a desk. Examples of isometries include:
 * Shifting the sheet one inch to the right.
 * Rotating the sheet by ten degrees around some marked point (which remains motionless).
 * Turning the sheet over to look at it from behind. Notice that if a picture is drawn on one side of the sheet, then after turning the sheet over, we see the mirror image of the picture.

These are examples of translations, rotations, and reflections respectively. There is one further type of isometry, called a glide reflection (see below under classification of Euclidean plane isometries).

However, folding, cutting, or melting the sheet are not considered isometries. Neither are less drastic alterations like bending, stretching, or twisting.

Formal definition
An isometry of the Euclidean plane is a distance-preserving transformation of the plane. That is, it is a map

$$ M : \textbf{R}^2 \to \textbf{R}^2 $$

such that for any points p and q in the plane,

$$d(p, q) = d(M(p), M(q)),$$

where d(p, q) is the usual Euclidean distance between p and q.

Classification
It can be shown that there are four types of Euclidean plane isometries. (Note: the notations for the types of isometries listed below are not completely standardised.)

Reflections
Reflections, or mirror isometries, denoted by Fc,v, where c is a point in the plane and v is a unit vector in R2. (F is for "flip".) have the effect of reflecting the point p in the line L that is perpendicular to v and that passes through c. The line L is called the reflection axis or the associated mirror. To find a formula for Fc,v, we first use the dot product to find the component t of p − c in the v direction,

$$t = (p-c) \cdot v = (p_x - c_x)v_x + (p_y - c_y)v_y,$$

and then we obtain the reflection of p by subtraction,

$$ F_{c,v}(p) = p - 2tv.$$

The combination of rotations about the origin and reflections about a line through the origin is obtained with all orthogonal matrices (i.e. with determinant 1 and −1) forming orthogonal group O(2). In the case of a determinant of −1 we have:

$$R_{0,\theta}(p) = \begin{bmatrix} \cos\theta & \sin\theta \\ \sin\theta & \mathbf{-} \cos\theta \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} p_x \\ p_y \end{bmatrix}.$$ which is a reflection in the x-axis followed by a rotation by an angle θ, or equivalently, a reflection in a line making an angle of θ/2 with the x-axis. Reflection in a parallel line corresponds to adding a vector perpendicular to it.

Translations
Translations, denoted by Tv, where v is a vector in R2 have the effect of shifting the plane in the direction of v. That is, for any point p in the plane,

$$T_v(p) = p + v,$$

 * or in terms of (x, y) coordinates,

$$ T_v(p) = \begin{bmatrix} p_x + v_x \\ p_y + v_y \end{bmatrix}. $$

A translation can be seen as a composite of two parallel reflections.

Rotations
Rotations, denoted by Rc,θ, where c is a point in the plane (the centre of rotation), and θ is the angle of rotation. In terms of coordinates, rotations are most easily expressed by breaking them up into two operations. First, a rotation around the origin is given by

$$R_{0,\theta}(p) = \begin{bmatrix} \cos\theta & -\sin\theta \\ \sin\theta & \cos\theta \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} p_x \\ p_y \end{bmatrix}.$$

These matrices are the orthogonal matrices (i.e. each is a square matrix G whose transpose is its inverse, i.e. $$GG^T=G^T G = I_2.$$), with determinant 1 (the other possibility for orthogonal matrices is −1, which gives a mirror image, see below). They form the special orthogonal group SO(2).

A rotation around c can be accomplished by first translating c to the origin, then performing the rotation around the origin, and finally translating the origin back to c. That is,

$$R_{c,\theta} = T_c \circ R_{0,\theta} \circ T_{-c},$$

or in other words,

$$ R_{c,\theta}(p) = c + R_{0,\theta}(p - c).$$

Alternatively, a rotation around the origin is performed, followed by a translation:

$$R_{c,\theta}(p) = c - R_{0,\theta} c + R_{0,\theta}(p).$$

A rotation can be seen as a composite of two non-parallel reflections.

Rigid transformations
The set of translations and rotations together form the rigid motions or rigid displacements. This set forms a group under composition, the group of rigid motions, a subgroup of the full group of Euclidean isometries.

Glide reflections
Glide reflections, denoted by Gc,v,w, where c is a point in the plane, v is a unit vector in R2, and w is non-null a vector perpendicular to v are a combination of a reflection in the line described by c and v, followed by a translation along w. That is,

$$G_{c,v,w} = T_w \circ F_{c,v},$$

or in other words,

$$G_{c,v,w}(p) = w + F_{c,v}(p).$$

(It is also true that

$$ G_{c,v,w}(p) = F_{c,v}(p + w);$$

that is, we obtain the same result if we do the translation and the reflection in the opposite order.)

Alternatively we multiply by an orthogonal matrix with determinant −1 (corresponding to a reflection in a line through the origin), followed by a translation. This is a glide reflection, except in the special case that the translation is perpendicular to the line of reflection, in which case the combination is itself just a reflection in a parallel line.

The identity isometry, defined by I(p) = p for all points p is a special case of a translation, and also a special case of a rotation. It is the only isometry which belongs to more than one of the types described above.

In all cases we multiply the position vector by an orthogonal matrix and add a vector; if the determinant is 1 we have a rotation, a translation, or the identity, and if it is −1 we have a glide reflection or a reflection.

A "random" isometry, like taking a sheet of paper from a table and randomly laying it back, "almost surely" is a rotation or a glide reflection (they have three degrees of freedom). This applies regardless of the details of the probability distribution, as long as θ and the direction of the added vector are independent and uniformly distributed and the length of the added vector has a continuous distribution. A pure translation and a pure reflection are special cases with only two degrees of freedom, while the identity is even more special, with no degrees of freedom.

Isometries as reflection group
Reflections, or mirror isometries, can be combined to produce any isometry. Thus isometries are an example of a reflection group.

Mirror combinations
In the Euclidean plane, we have the following possibilities.

 * [ d ] Identity
 * Two reflections in the same mirror restore each point to its original position. All points are left fixed. Any pair of identical mirrors has the same effect.

 * [ d b ] Reflection
 * As Alice found through the looking-glass, a single mirror causes left and right hands to switch. (In formal terms, topological orientation is reversed.) Points on the mirror are left fixed. Each mirror has a unique effect.

 * [ d p ] Rotation
 * Two distinct intersecting mirrors have a single point in common, which remains fixed. All other points rotate around it by twice the angle between the mirrors. Any two mirrors with the same fixed point and same angle give the same rotation, so long as they are used in the correct order.

 * [ d d ] Translation
 * Two distinct mirrors that do not intersect must be parallel. Every point moves the same amount, twice the distance between the mirrors, and in the same direction. No points are left fixed. Any two mirrors with the same parallel direction and the same distance apart give the same translation, so long as they are used in the correct order.

 * [ d q ] Glide reflection
 * Three mirrors. If they are all parallel, the effect is the same as a single mirror (slide a pair to cancel the third). Otherwise we can find an equivalent arrangement where two are parallel and the third is perpendicular to them. The effect is a reflection combined with a translation parallel to the mirror. No points are left fixed.

Three mirrors suffice
Adding more mirrors does not add more possibilities (in the plane), because they can always be rearranged to cause cancellation.

$$

Recognition
We can recognize which of these isometries we have according to whether it preserves hands or swaps them, and whether it has at least one fixed point or not, as shown in the following table (omitting the identity).

Group structure
Isometries requiring an odd number of mirrors — reflection and glide reflection — always reverse left and right. The even isometries — identity, rotation, and translation — never do; they correspond to rigid motions, and form a normal subgroup of the full Euclidean group of isometries. Neither the full group nor the even subgroup are abelian; for example, reversing the order of composition of two parallel mirrors reverses the direction of the translation they produce.

$$

Since the even subgroup is normal, it is the kernel of a homomorphism to a quotient group, where the quotient is isomorphic to a group consisting of a reflection and the identity. However the full group is not a direct product, but only a semidirect product, of the even subgroup and the quotient group.

Composition
Composition of isometries mixes kinds in assorted ways. We can think of the identity as either two mirrors or none; either way, it has no effect in composition. And two reflections give either a translation or a rotation, or the identity (which is both, in a trivial way). Reflection composed with either of these could cancel down to a single reflection; otherwise it gives the only available three-mirror isometry, a glide reflection. A pair of translations always reduces to a single translation; so the challenging cases involve rotations. We know a rotation composed with either a rotation or a translation must produce an even isometry. Composition with translation produces another rotation (by the same amount, with shifted fixed point), but composition with rotation can yield either translation or rotation. It is often said that composition of two rotations produces a rotation, and Euler proved a theorem to that effect in 3D; however, this is only true for rotations sharing a fixed point.

Translation, rotation, and orthogonal subgroups
We thus have two new kinds of isometry subgroups: all translations, and rotations sharing a fixed point. Both are subgroups of the even subgroup, within which translations are normal. Because translations are a normal subgroup, we can factor them out leaving the subgroup of isometries with a fixed point, the orthogonal group.

$$

Nested group construction
The subgroup structure suggests another way to compose an arbitrary isometry:
 * Pick a fixed point, and a mirror through it.

 * 1) If the isometry is odd, use the mirror; otherwise do not.
 * 2) If necessary, rotate around the fixed point.
 * 3) If necessary, translate.

This works because translations are a normal subgroup of the full group of isometries, with quotient the orthogonal group; and rotations about a fixed point are a normal subgroup of the orthogonal group, with quotient a single reflection.

Discrete subgroups

The subgroups discussed so far are not only infinite, they are also continuous (Lie groups). Any subgroup containing at least one non-zero translation must be infinite, but subgroups of the orthogonal group can be finite. For example, the symmetries of a regular pentagon consist of rotations by integer multiples of 72° (360° / 5), along with reflections in the five mirrors which perpendicularly bisect the edges. This is a group, D5, with 10 elements. It has a subgroup, C5, of half the size, omitting the reflections. These two groups are members of two families, Dn and Cn, for any n > 1. Together, these families constitute the rosette groups.

Translations do not fold back on themselves, but we can take integer multiples of any finite translation, or sums of multiples of two such independent translations, as a subgroup. These generate the lattice of a periodic tiling of the plane.

We can also combine these two kinds of discrete groups — the discrete rotations and reflections around a fixed point and the discrete translations — to generate the frieze groups and wallpaper groups. Curiously, only a few of the fixed-point groups are found to be compatible with discrete translations. In fact, lattice compatibility imposes such a severe restriction that, up to isomorphism, we have only 7 distinct frieze groups and 17 distinct wallpaper groups. For example, the pentagon symmetries, D5, are incompatible with a discrete lattice of translations. (Each higher dimension also has only a finite number of such crystallographic groups, but the number grows rapidly; for example, 3D has 230 groups and 4D has 4783.)

Isometries in the complex plane
In terms of complex numbers, the isometries of the plane are either of the form

$$\begin{array}{ccc} \mathbb{C}&\longrightarrow&\mathbb{C}\\ z&\mapsto&a+\omega z \end{array}$$

or of the form

$$\begin{array}{ccc} \mathbb{C}&\longrightarrow&\mathbb{C}\\ z&\mapsto&a+\omega\overline z\mbox{,} \end{array}$$

for some complex numbers $a$ and $ω$ with |ω| = 1. This is easy to prove: if $2(p c) + 2(c q) = 2(p q)$ and $a = f(0)$ and if one defines

$$\begin{array}{rccc} g\colon&\mathbb{C}&\longrightarrow&\mathbb{C}\\ &z&\mapsto&\frac{f(z)-a}{\omega}\mbox{,} \end{array}$$

then $ω = f(1) − f(0)$ is an isometry, $g$, and $g(0) = 0$. It is then easy to see that g is either the identity or the conjugation, and the statement being proved follows from this and from the fact that $g(1) = 1$.

This is obviously related to the previous classification of plane isometries, since:
 * functions of the type $f(z) = a + ωg(z)$ are translations;
 * functions of the type $z → a + z$ are rotations (when |ω| = 1);
 * the conjugation is a reflection.

Note that a rotation about complex point p is obtained by complex arithmetic with

$$ z \mapsto \omega (z - p) + p = \omega z + p(1 - \omega) $$

where the last expression shows the mapping equivalent to rotation at 0 and a translation. Therefore, given direct isometry $$z \mapsto \omega z + a,$$ one can solve $$p(1 - \omega) = a$$ to obtain $$p = a/(1 - \omega)$$ as the center for an equivalent rotation, provided that $$\omega \ne 1$$, that is, provided the direct isometry is not a pure translation. As stated by Cederberg, "A direct isometry is either a rotation or a translation."

title: Euclidean plane isometry


text:
Talk:Euclidean plane isometry

Support article for Wallpaper groups
I created this article as a support article for Wallpaper groups, which is about to get a major makeover. Dmharvey Talk 16:50, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Please the discussion page for Wallpaper groups for more of my thoughts about what needs to be done here. Dmharvey Talk 17:03, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)

More to do list: Dmharvey Talk 17:16, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Would be nice to have a discussion of fixed points, orientation reversing/preserving transformations here.
 * Also would be nice to discuss how to prove this classification. Off the top of my head, I suppose given any isometry, you first compose with a translation so that the isometry has a fixed point; then translate the fixed point to the origin; now you are faced with classifying orthogonal transformations of R^2, which falls into two cases depending on whether the determinant is +1 or -1.
 * Would be nice to have a discussion of the compositions of isometries, e.g. composition of two reflections gives you a rotation, etc.

Genie here
Your wish is my command! The construction from mirrors is powerful, and provides a geometric path to many algebraic results, including composition, groups, and subgroups. My taste would place it before the coordinate approach.

However, every subsection of the mirror section cries out for illustrations. Interactive graphics would be better still. KSmrq 17:51, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)

nice pic
nice one with the mirror composites picture. Do you think it would work better if it was split up into four separate images so we could label each one with "translation", "rotation" etc? Dmharvey Talk 9 July 2005 12:38 (UTC)

 * Thanks. I couldn't find a standard symbol that conveys the action of a glide reflection; a dotted line leaves everything to the imagination, which is unsatisfactory in this context. So I improvised. My favorite pic is the translation addition; it's pretty how the head-to-tail rule falls out. When I originally started playing with mirrors, inspired by some old geometers like Coxeter, my examples were all in 3D. It's fun to adapt the translation example, and quite an exercise to show that four mirrors in general position can be rearranged into canonical screw position. It leads to appreciation of the power of an algebraic approach, but also exercises a weak mental muscle, geometric imagination.

 * I ran into some Wikimedia limitations, both with arrangement and captions. When an image is not tagged with "frame", the associated text is treated as alternative text, not a caption. When an image is tagged with "frame", the text becomes a caption, but the sizing information is ignored. When made a readable size, the images stack too tall. To achieve the 2×2 arrangement, a single image is the easiest route. The four transforms are a logical whole, so that's not so bad. Maybe I'll find better ways, or maybe the support software will evolve. Did I mention time sink? ;-) KSmrq 2005 July 9 18:35 (UTC)

 * there have been a few discussions recently about bugs with image resizing on Village pump (technical). Not sure if that's your problem though. Dmharvey [[Image:User_dmharvey_sig.png]] Talk 00:47, 10 July 2005 (UTC)

 * No. This is a documented feature (?!). Using the "thumb" option does give a frame and resizing, but turns the transparent background opaque, so it looks terrible. (Unframed resizing does not do that; see example right.) Some other day I may tinker more. For now, notice that the list on the left gives a key: db=reflection, dp=rotation, dd=translation, dq=glide reflection. KSmrq 08:55, 2005 July 10 (UTC)

Ugly, confusing ambiguity
"Isometries as reflections" suggests that an isometry can be seen as a reflection. This is a really ugly, confusing ambiguity. I have changed it to "Isometries as combinations of reflections", which is saying what the section is about. I am puzzled by KSmrq's reversion on the grounds that he thinks it is pedantic, too long, and not needed because the section content itself says what was meant.--Patrick 08:14, 24 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Nice NPOV talk heading — not! :-)
 * In the grand spirit of Wikipedia, I suggest an article section title to meet both our concerns:
 * "Isometries as reflection group".
 * This is reasonably unambiguous, impeccably correct (see below), and links in an important connected article. It's a wee bit longer, a touch less poetic, and just a skosh pedantic. However, alternatives like "Isometries as combinations of reflections" are really ugly and only attack confusing ambiguity if we assume readers are darn dim-witted. What about the standard term "reflection group" itself? Unlike a rotation group (only rotations) and an orthogonal group (only orthogonal transformations), a reflection group is only generated by reflections, but actually contains inversions and rotations and other such odds and ends. Whoever promised mathematics would be consistent and unambiguous in its choice of names and notation?

 * One problem I see is that the reflection group article needs revision because it claims a reflection group acts on a vector space, which is too restrictive. What we want is an affine reflection group, a possibility only implicitly acknowledged in the last sentence of the article. A finite reflection group on a real affine space can contain no translations; but we obviously need the translations. I can't find my copy of Coxeter, but the MIT Press "Fundamentals of Mathematics" (ISBN 0-262-52094-X) has an extended description of geometry as reflections. (Perhaps you can find a copy of H. S. M. Coxeter's "Discrete groups generated by reflections", Ann. of Math., 35:588–621, 1934.)

 * I still prefer "Isometries as reflections"; but for the sake of not perpetuating a revert war I'll compromise. Will you? --KSmrqT 14:07, 2005 August 24 (UTC)

 * Yes, that title is better.--Patrick 20:28, 24 August 2005 (UTC)

glide reflect = reflect + translate. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Wecl0me12 (talk • contribs) 23:20, 8 January 2009 (UTC)

Reflection in a parallel line?

 * "Reflection in a parallel line corresponds to adding a vector perpendicular to it."

Maybe I've misunderstood something here, but wouldn't reflection in a parallel line result in no change? For example, taking theta to be 0 is said to give a reflection in the x-axis, and applying this transformation to (1,0) gives (cos(0),sin(0)) = (1,0). Dependent Variable (talk) 08:10, 30 November 2009 (UTC)

Missing information
There is no discussion of point reflections under reflections, which is remiss considering it's an isometry as well, being one of the two reflection isometries. Also, why do we count glide reflections separately when they're just a composition of reflection through a line and a translation? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 46.162.83.16 (talk) 08:11, 28 May 2020 (UTC)

 * Point reflection in the plane is simply a rotation by 180°, there does not seem to be a need for a separate discussion. It is convenient to have a separate name for glide reflections. After all, rotations and translations as well as glide reflections are just compositions of (at most three) reflections, so why bother to give them separate names? --Bill Cherowitzo (talk) 19:23, 28 May 2020 (UTC)

 * As Bill Cherowitzo says, reflections in a point are just a special case of rotations. The fact that we count glide reflections separately is due to the fundamental theorem on plane isometries, which states:

"Any plane isometry is the composition of at most three reflections in a line."
 * Denoting the reflection in the line $$l$$ by $$\sigma_l$$ and composition of transformations with juxtaposition from left to right, any isometry $$\phi$$ can be written as
 * $$\phi=\operatorname{id},\sigma_l,\sigma_l\sigma_k,\sigma_m\sigma_l\sigma_k$$
 * if $$l$$ is parallel to $$k$$, $$\sigma_l\sigma_k$$ is a translation, if $$l$$ intersects $$k$$, then $$\sigma_l\sigma_k$$ is a rotation (in particular, if the two lines are orthogonal, it's a reflection in a point); if the three lines are concurrent in a point or parallel to each other $$\sigma_m\sigma_l\sigma_k$$ is a reflection in a line, otherwise $$\sigma_m\sigma_l\sigma_k$$ is a glide reflection, which ends the classification. Reflections in a point might be mentioned, though, when (if?) the topic of fixed lines is addressed, in fact the fixed lines of reflections in a point are exactly all the lines passing through the fixed point of the isometry; also, they are a particular case of homothety.--Ale.rossi91 (talk) 02:48, 17 October 2020 (UTC)

About the composition of rotations
Was Euler wrong when he claimed that the composition of three rotations is a rotation? Not at all. It can easily be shown (explicit calculation!) that this is true. No need to have points in common, in contrast to the statement in this article. — Preceding unsigned comment added by MaDiehl (talk • contribs) 19:27, 6 July 2020 (UTC)

 * Could you please quote the sentence you're referring to? I could only find this one concerning the composition of rotations:

"Composition with translation produces another rotation (by the same amount, with shifted fixed point), but composition with rotation can yield either translation or rotation. It is often said that composition of two rotations produces a rotation, and Euler proved a theorem to that effect in 3D; however, this is only true for rotations sharing a fixed point."
 * The statement concerns two rotations, not three. Of course the composition of three rotations always results in a rotation because the composition of two rotations with distinct centres either yields a rotation or a translation and the composition of a rotation followed by a translation and viceversa always yields a rotation.--Ale.rossi91 (talk) 02:12, 17 October 2020 (UTC)

Very bad
written very bad — Preceding unsigned comment added by 89.139.63.123 (talk) 08:18, 12 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Ironic? Klbrain (talk) 07:19, 27 July 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Euclidean plane isometry


text:
Talk:Graham Marsh

Untitled
This is Marsh's regular career win list from the PGA Tour profile. I've already removed the US and European Tour events. The others needs to be fully sorted between tours. Some are obvious, but others are not, and some might be unofficial events. The modern Asian Tour didn't exist until 1995.

1970 Watties Tournament 1971 Spaulding Masters, Indian Open. 1972 Dunlop International. 1973 Thailand Open, Indian Open, Fuji Sankei Classic. 1974 Malaysian Open, Fuji Sankei Classic, Dunlop Wizard, Tokyo Open, Pepsi-Wilson. 1975 Dunlop Wizard, Tokyo Open, Malaysian Open. 1976 Dunlop Open, Suntory Open, Dunlop Phoenix, KBC Augusta, Dunhill Match-Play, Western Australia Open. 1977 Dunhill Match-Play, Suntory Open, Dunlop Wizard, Chunichi Crowns. 1978 Western Australia PGA. 1979 ANA Sapporo Open 1981 Chunichi Open, Pepsi-Wilson. 1982 Ford Dealers South Australian Open, Australian Masters, Mayn Nickless Australian PGA Championship, Dunhill Queensland Open, Mitsubishi Galant. 1983 Yomiuri Open, Resch's Pilsner Tweed Classic, New Zealand PGA Championship. 1985 Tokai Classic. 1986 Suntory Open. 1987 Visa Taiheiyo Pacific Masters. 1989 Sapporo Tokyo Open. 1990 Tokai Classic.

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on Graham Marsh. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20090817100812/http://www.grahammarshgolfdesign.com/ to http://www.grahammarshgolfdesign.com/

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 06:04, 22 October 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Graham Marsh


text:
Talk:Roorkee

Untitled
Hmm...there seems to be two different versions of this on the same page? I'm not really qualified to decide which to use, but I think the second may be better. Help! Balletgirl313 16:50, Jun 4, 2005 (UTC)

What's the other page? Also, this article seems pretty well wikified, should we remove the stub? (I'm still pretty new at this.) --AntiEntropy 19:05, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)

It seems like this article is actually about the India Institute of Technology, not about the town of Roorkee. Most of it should be moved to an article with that title. Everyguy 13:22, 30 July 2005 (UTC) . Personal references should be removed. This is an article about a town and maybe a place of study Why are people named ?

Some Changes
Made some changes to the student life section. Mainly added more information and corrected some old one.

New Info edited but still needs fixing of an orphan frangment in its end
Found new unedited info at the end of Education subsection. Did some copy editing and made it the last new subsection that still needs review for info-accuracy and some cleanup. A local User may help please. Wiki dr mahmad (talk) 20:25, 5 January 2008 (UTC)

WP:INDIA Banner/Uttarakhand workgroup Addition
Note: WP India Project Banner with Uttarakhand workgroup parameters was added to this article talk page because the article falls under Category:Uttarakhand or its subcategories. Should you feel this addition is inappropriate, please undo my changes and update/remove the relavent categories to the article --  TinuCherian  (Wanna Talk?) - 13:55, 23 June 2008 (UTC)

Educational institutions
The article contains endless lists of schools and colleges. Such kind of lists are unwanted on Wikipedia. The information should better be provided in the form of prose. I am unable to do this. As a first step, I want to propose to reduce the institutions mentioned to those for which a link can be provided. If the institution has neither an article on Wikipedia nor its own website, it should also not have a place in this list. No need to mention every little school at every corner. T om ea s y T C 22:17, 20 April 2011 (UTC)

 * I see no objections. So I will implement the steps proposed when I find the time. T om ea s y T C 12:35, 14 May 2011 (UTC)

 * Along with some other copy edits, I made culled down the name-dropping list of colleges and schools. Still, the section is not more than a list of names of institutions, which is discouraged by Wikipedia. If you want to improve the article, try to add information and transform the lists into prose with notable, verifyable content about these institutions. If you want to extend the list by an institution you consider notable, make sure that you provide a reference for this and wiki-link it if possible. T om ea s y T C 13:32, 30 May 2011 (UTC)

Once again, I cleaned up thoroughly the list of educational institutions. There seems to be desire here to list all of them, or perhaps at least those which people have personally. The bar for inclusion hangs very low: a functioning website or a Wikipedia article about it. It shows that these criteria limit the size of the list to an acceptable length. The optimum length would certainly be even shorter. T om ea s y T C 12:43, 5 February 2012 (UTC)

Climate date may be incorrect
The climate date may be incorrect because after seeing 3 different sources, they are fairly similar, but are different from what's in the article now. --Mahmudmasri (talk) 12:21, 14 June 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:Roorkee


text:
Onepu

Onepu is a rural community in the Whakatāne District and Bay of Plenty Region of the North Island of New Zealand. It is situated between Kawerau and Te Teko along State Highway 34, and lies immediately north-east of the Norske Skog Tasman pulp and paper mill.

The community lies on the Murupara Branch railway and is serviced by Rural Delivery route 2. A small airfield was located in Onepu, but it is no longer operational due to the geothermal projects running nearby.

The name "Onepu" comes from local Māori oral traditions. The New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage gives a translation of "loose sandy soil" for Onepū.

Historically, Onepu was also the name of the surrounding district, including the site of the present town of Kawerau.

Onepu is within the rohe (tribal area) of the Ngāti Tūwharetoa iwi. The Hahuru Marae and meeting house, located west of Onepu, is a tribal meeting place for the hapū of Ngāti Irawharo, Ngāi Tamarangi, Ngāti Peehi, Ngāti Poutomuri, Ngāti Umutahi and Te Aotahi. It is named after the mother of Tūwharetoa, the eponymous ancestor of the iwi.

Demographics
Onepu Spring statistical area, which includes Onepu, covers 98.95 km2 and had an estimated population of as of  with a population density of  people per km2.

Onepu Spring had a population of 1,221 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 135 people (12.4%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 96 people (8.5%) since the 2006 census. There were 405 households, comprising 618 males and 603 females, giving a sex ratio of 1.02 males per female. The median age was 44.4 years (compared with 37.4 years nationally), with 237 people (19.4%) aged under 15 years, 207 (17.0%) aged 15 to 29, 600 (49.1%) aged 30 to 64, and 177 (14.5%) aged 65 or older.

Ethnicities were 74.7% European/Pākehā, 41.5% Māori, 1.2% Pacific peoples, 2.5% Asian, and 1.0% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity.

The percentage of people born overseas was 11.5, compared with 27.1% nationally.

Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 52.6% had no religion, 30.5% were Christian, 5.2% had Māori religious beliefs, 0.2% were Hindu, 0.2% were Muslim, 0.2% were Buddhist and 1.5% had other religions.

Of those at least 15 years old, 108 (11.0%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 174 (17.7%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income was $32,400, compared with $31,800 nationally. 201 people (20.4%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 534 (54.3%) people were employed full-time, 147 (14.9%) were part-time, and 51 (5.2%) were unemployed.

title: Onepu


text: User talk:62.128.250.198

title: User talk:62.128.250.198


text:
Carnegie College

Carnegie College (formerly Lauder College) was a further education college based in Halbeath, Dunfermline, Fife, Scotland. It was established in 1899, with financial support from George Lauder and Andrew Carnegie and named after their father and uncle, respectively, George Lauder, Sr. In 2007, it was renamed Carnegie College in honour of Andrew Carnegie, Lauder's cousin, the steel magnate and philanthropist born in Dunfermline.

On 1 August 2013 Carnegie College and Adam Smith College came together to form Fife College, creating a new college for the region in line with Government legislation. The land-based elements of Scotland’s Rural College, SRUC Elmwood College, were also incorporated in the new Fife College providing a wide range of courses to choose from.

Before merging with Adam Smith, Carnegie College had around 11,000 students every year and offered over 350 programs at various levels, from introductory and national qualifications to higher national standards and degrees, delivered through a collegiate model of six schools.

Description
The college was previously one of West Fife's largest employers and contributors to the local economy, employing almost 600 people with an annual turnover of £22 million. It was amongst the most financially independent colleges in Scotland, with just 45% of its funding coming from the Scottish Funding Council. Carnegie College was a statutory corporation and registered charity under Scottish law and in 2007-08 had a gross income of £23,991,000.

Location
It was near the M90 motorway at the east end of Dunfermline and could be reached from most parts of Fife, Kinross-shire and Clackmannanshire. The college had smaller campuses throughout west Fife, including the former Royal Dockyard at Rosyth. It also worked in partnership with West Fife Enterprises, a local training initiative based in the West Fife Villages.

A report by Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Education gave the College a high standard of review. The College Review awarded seven grades of Very Good and one grade of Good, with special praise for access and inclusion, guidance, quality improvement and leadership. In the Subject Review there were grades of Very Good in every subject area, with outstanding success for Computing (7 Very Good), Art and Design (5 Very Good), Care (5 Very Good) and Science (4 Very Good).

Name change
The college changed its name from Lauder College to Carnegie College in November 2007. The change of name was given formal approval by the Scottish Government on Friday 30 November 2007. Despite a high level of support, criticisms were raised and debate was held in the letters page of the Dunfermline Press. It is now known as the Dunfermline Campus of Fife College.

title: Carnegie College