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British Rail Class 350

The British Rail Class 350 Desiro is a class of electric multiple unit passenger train built by Siemens Transportation Systems to its Desiro design between 2004 and 2014. All 87 are now operated by West Midlands Trains, having previously been operated by Central Trains, Silverlink, Southern, London Midland, First TransPennine Express and TransPennine Express (FirstGroup).

Description
The Class 350/1 units were originally part of an order for 32 five-car units for South West Trains. However, they were never built as such. Of the 160 carriages ordered, 40 were diverted as an additional 10 four-car Class 450 units, and the remaining 120 were modified as 30 four-car Class 350/1 units. These entered service in 2005 and were used jointly by Central Trains and Silverlink, both owned by National Express. The top speed of the fleet was originally 100 mph, but all 350/1s were modified to allow 110 mph running from December 2012, in order to make better use of paths on the busy West Coast Main Line.

In late 2007, a second batch of 37 was ordered by London Midland to replace its s. Designated as Class 350/2 units, they entered service between 2008 and 2009. Class 350/2s differ from the Class 350/1 units in two key aspects: having 3+2 seating in standard class (because they work short-hop commuter services; the Class 350/1 used for longer distance services are 2+2 throughout and lack the dual-voltage capability of the 350/1. Initially, Class 350/2 units had a maximum speed of 100 mph, but the fleet was upgraded to allow 110 mph running during 2018. This was to allow the operators to run mixed 350/1 and 350/2 services without causing delays, especially important given the capacity changes which HS2 works at London Euston were expected to cause.

Between 2013 and 2014, a further 20 were manufactured for London Midland and First TransPennine Express. Each took on ten units, the former designated the Class 350/3 and the latter the Class 350/4.

Class 350 trains are nearly identical to those of Class 450. The latter class is only fitted with traction equipment for Southern Region 750 V DC third rail, whilst the Class 350/1 units can operate from either OLE, as is done in regular service, or alternatively third rail. This dual-voltage capability was utilised when several units were leased to Southern in 2009, in order to cover for similarly equipped Class 377/2 units temporarily sub-leased to First Capital Connect. All Class 350 units built since are not equipped for third-rail use but, like most modern British EMUs, can be retrofitted if necessary.

Every set of doors has its own set of guard-operated door controls behind a lockable panel. The cabs have three radio systems - Cab Secure Radio (CSR), National Radio Network (NRN), and the newest system, GSM-R. CCTV and dot-matrix destination screens are fitted throughout the train.

West Midlands Trains
All of London Midland's 77 Class 350s were inherited by West Midlands Trains on 9 December 2017. WMT operate all of the units primarily under its London Northwestern Railway brand, however some units also run routes under the West Midlands Railway brand at times. A further 10 were transferred from TransPennine Express in 2019–20.

The fleet is based at the purpose-built Kings Heath depot at Kingsthorpe, which opened in June 2006. In May 2021, they took over services on the Abbey line from Class 319s.

Central Trains / Silverlink
Central Trains and Silverlink shared the 30 Class 350/1 units from 2005 to 2007. They were operated as a common user fleet in a neutral grey and blue livery.

They first entered service in June 2005 with Central Trains. These operated on services between Birmingham and Northampton via Coventry, and all Birmingham - Liverpool services, replacing s. Later on, the units also took over some peak services between Birmingham and Walsall.

Silverlink began operating the fleet in June 2005 between London Euston, Milton Keynes Central and Northampton.

The Central Trains and Silverlink franchises expired in November 2007.

London Midland
Once the Central Trains and Silverlink franchises expired, the entire Class 350 fleet transferred to London Midland with the West Midlands franchise.

As part of the franchise agreement, London Midland ordered 37 additional Class 350s. On 8 October 2008, the first of these was handed over to Porterbrook and carried invited guests around the Wildenrath Test Track. The first ten 350/2 units entered service in December 2008 and the final unit was officially delivered to London Midland on 30 July 2009. In addition to the existing operations, these units took over the new Crewe - London Euston service running via Stoke-on-Trent and stopping at most of the Trent Valley line stations.

Several Class 350/1 units were subleased to Southern in 2009, to provide cover for Class 377/2 units subleased to First Capital Connect, themselves to cover for delays in the construction of the Class 377/5 fleet. All were returned within the year.

A further 10 four-car units were built later on in the franchise to provide additional capacity, entering service from October 2014 as Class 350/3s.

First TransPennine Express / TransPennine Express (FirstGroup)
In 2013, ten Class 350/4 units were introduced for First TransPennine Express services between Manchester and Edinburgh / Glasgow, coinciding with the completion of the electrification of the eastern section of the Manchester to Liverpool via Newton-le-Willows line. The first First TransPennine Express Class 350/4 services ran on 30 December 2013 between Manchester Piccadilly and Glasgow Central. The introduction of these units allowed most services on the Manchester to Scotland route to be operated using EMUs, displacing the Class 185s which were cascaded to other routes to enhance capacity. The units were based at Siemens' existing Ardwick depot in Manchester, with the government providing funding for the required electrification.

Following the transfer of the franchise to TransPennine Express (FirstGroup) in 2016, 12 Class 397 Civity units were ordered to replace the Class 350s on TransPennine North West services. All ten moved to West Midlands Trains, in 2019 and 2020.

Future
London Northwestern Railway has said it will be replacing the Class 350/2 units with Class 730 Aventras. In October 2018, Porterbrook, which owns the Class 350/2 units, announced that it was considering to convert them into battery electric multiple units for potential future cascades to non-electrified routes.

Fleet details
The Class 350/1s, 350/3s and 350/4s are owned by Angel Trains, and the Class 350/2s are owned by Porterbrook.

Named units & Special liveries

 * 350110 - Project 110
 * 350111 - Apollo
 * 350115 - Archimedes
 * 350232 - Chad Varah
 * 350370 - Lichfield Festival
 * 350375 - Vic Hall
 * 350377 - Graham Taylor OBE

In May 2023, unit 350104 was decorated with special Eurovision Song Contest 2023 livery.

Accidents and incidents
In 2005, units 350105 and 350108 were damaged after colliding with a falling tree. Both were returned to Germany for repairs.

On 11 April 2011, a fire broke out in a toilet cubicle on unit 350232, following an explosion, while working the 16:25 from Northampton to London Euston, as it approached Leighton Buzzard, resulting in the death of the female occupant of the toilet. Her death turned out to be suicide, as she carried a can of petrol into the toilet and locked the door. All other passengers and the train crew escaped unharmed.

On 16 September 2016, unit 350264 struck a landslide at the entrance to Watford Tunnel and derailed. It was then hit by unit 350233 travelling in the opposite direction. Two people were injured and unit 350264 was severely damaged. The leading carriage of unit 350233 was severely damaged, and all four carriages were damaged along one side. The consequences were not as serious as they could potentially have been because the derailed train was fortuitously kept from diverging too far from its line by equipment on the bottom of the train catching on the rail, meaning unit 350233 struck only a glancing blow. On 10 November 2016, unit 350264 was moved to Germany by low-loader, followed later by 350233. Both re-entered service in early 2018.

title: British Rail Class 350


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National Postgraduate Committee

The National Postgraduate Committee of the United Kingdom (NPC) was a charitable organisation which represented postgraduates at UK universities. In 2009 it voted to dissolve itself and merge with the National Union of Students.

NPC was formed by affiliation from student representative bodies across the United Kingdom and seeks, in the words of its constitution, "to advance, in the public interest, the education of postgraduate students within the United Kingdom" through representation, lobbying, contribution to public policy debate, initiating communication between relevant parties and bringing key issues and potential solutions to wider audiences.

The organisation's motion to dissolve and engage in merger talks with NUS cited several reasons for the organisation's winding up, including "the increased capacity of the NUS with regards to that organisation's ability to meet the needs of postgraduates, and that likelihood that this capacity will increase." Other organisations cited additional reasons which led to NPC's dissolution, including financial and management difficulties.

History
The NPC was formed in the 1980s as a network of officers. In 1990, recognising that at that time the National Union of Students (NUS) was not well set up to represent the particular issues postgraduate faced nationally it held its first conference at the University of Cambridge; Chris Whitty of Wolfson College, Oxford (later Chief Medical Officer for England) was elected chair. Following this a growth in activity ensued, leading to the adoption of formal structures. It adopted its first constitution in 1992, the same year that it created the full-time post of General Secretary and began its affiliation scheme. The NPC sought charitable status for a number of years and obtained this in 2002, following the passing of a new constitution.

Past General Secretaries:
 * James Irvine from 1 October 1992 until 30 September 1993
 * Crispin Allard from 1 October 1993 until 30 September 1994
 * Jamie Darwen from 1 October 1994 until 30 September 1995
 * Ewan Gillon from 1 October 1995 until 30 September 1996
 * John Gray from 1 October 1996 until 30 September 1997
 * Martin Gough from 1 October 1997 until 30 September 1998
 * Jeremy Hoad from 1 October 1998 until 30 September 2000
 * James Groves from 1 October 2000 until 30 September 2002
 * Tim Brown from 1 October 2002 until 30 September 2004
 * Jim Ewing from 1 October 2004 until 30 September 2005
 * Simon Felton from 1 October 2005 until 30 September 2007
 * Duncan Connors from 1 October 2007 until 30 September 2008
 * Matt Gayle from 1 October 2008 until 11 September 2009

Output
The majority of NPC's work was conducted by the General Secretary who worked full-time; there were 14 other voluntary officers on the executive to assist in the general running of the organisation. Income was derived from affiliation fees by several student representative bodies in the United Kingdom along with a small number of donations.

The Journal of Graduate Education was an academic journal established by the NPC in 1994. It was incorporated with the now-defunct International Journal of Graduate Education in 2008.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: National Postgraduate Committee


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Jim Gilchrist

James Walter Gilchrist Jr. is an American political activist and the co-founder and president of The Minuteman Project, an activist group whose aim is to prevent illegal immigration across the southern border of the United States.

Early life
Gilchrist served in the U.S. Marine Corps and received a Purple Heart medal while in the infantry during the Vietnam War, 1968 - 1969.

Minuteman Project
Gilchrist and Chris Simcox are widely recognized as the founders of the Minuteman Project. They founded the organization on October 1, 2004. The two staged a month-long border watch project in April 2005, and that event catapulted the Minuteman movement into the national spotlight. Gilchrist chose to locate the project in Arizona because there was a disproportionately large number of undocumented immigrants crossing the border in that state.

Political views
Gilchrist holds conservative views on education, health care, and taxes. He was registered with the American Independent Party, the California affiliate of the Constitution Party, but has since re-registered as a Republican, and is an adamant supporter of immigration enforcement, law enforcement, and the military. He announced his endorsement of Mike Huckabee for President in December 2007. The personal endorsement of Huckabee by Gilchrist met with strong criticism from other Minutemen and anti-illegal immigration activists.

During the 2016 presidential election, Gilchrist felt that the building of a wall and mass deportation directly aligned with the Minuteman Project's missions. Gilchrist stated that he felt that his goals were reaffirmed and accomplished upon his observation of such widespread awareness of immigration issues. He initially supported Ted Cruz for president, who openly criticized Barack Obama's policy of amnesty, and he was a consistent opponent against Obama's push for immigration reform.

2005 congressional candidacy
Gilchrist unsuccessfully ran as an American Independent Party candidate for the United States House of Representatives representing California's 48th congressional district to replace Republican Christopher Cox, who resigned to become Chairman of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission.

In the low-turnout open primary for Cox's seat held on October 4, 2005, Gilchrist finished behind two Republicans but ahead of all other candidates, including Democrats. He received 14.8% of the vote (a total of 13,423 votes). He was the only one running for his party, and therefore automatically advanced into the run-off.

Gilchrist lost to Republican state Senator John Campbell in the December 6 general election, receiving 25.5% (26,507) of the vote. Campbell received 44.4% (46,184), Steve Young (Democrat) 27.8% (28,853), Bea Tiritilli (Green) 1.4% (1,430), and Bruce Cohen (Libertarian) 0.9% (974).

Controversy
In a March 2006 interview with the Orange County Register, Gilchrist stopped just short of calling for his followers to pick up their guns: "I'm not going to promote insurrection, but if it happens, it will be on the conscience of the members of Congress who are doing this," he said. "I will not promote violence in resolving this, but I will not stop others who might pursue that."

In October 2006, Gilchrist appeared on Democracy Now and abruptly ended the interview after Karina Garcia started accusing him of being a murderer and said that he has ties to the white supremacist group National Alliance.

In May 2010, Politico reported that Howie Morgan, the Minuteman Project's political director, may have solicited donations from political campaigns in exchange for Gilchrist's endorsement. Rick Perry, Parker Griffith, and Tim Bridgewater were all recipients of Gilchrist's endorsements in 2010. Mo Brooks, an Alabama politician running against Griffith, said that Morgan indicated Gilchrist would endorse Brooks if Morgan was hired.

In September 2014, the Daily Show made a segment about the Honduran children's immigration featuring an interview with Jim Gilchrist, who compared the recent events at the border with a Trojan Horse situation, the vanguard of a Latino invasion of the United States. The correspondent Michael Che poked fun at Gilchrist's "Operation Normandy" initiative against immigrants: "If this is Operation Normandy, and the children are invading us, wouldn't that make us the Nazis?" Gilchrist warned against the dangers of the "latinization of America" that the young refugees posed and added, to a baffled interviewer, "We're all going to die some day. (...) I'm not giving a death wish on these children coming here (...) I'm saying that there's some things realistically you cannot stop."

Books

 * Minutemen: The Battle to Secure America's Borders, by Jim Gilchrist, Jerome R. Corsi, and Tom Tancredo. Los Angeles: World Ahead Publishing (2006). ISBN 0-9778984-1-5.

title: Jim Gilchrist


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Simple precedence grammar

A simple precedence grammar is a context-free formal grammar that can be parsed with a simple precedence parser. The concept was first created in 1964 by Claude Pair, and was later rediscovered,  from ideas due to Robert Floyd, by Niklaus Wirth and Helmut Weber who published a paper, entitled EULER: a generalization of ALGOL, and its formal definition, published in 1966 in the Communications of the ACM.

Formal definition
G = (N, Σ, P, S) is a simple precedence grammar if all the production rules in P comply with the following constraints:

 * There are no erasing rules (ε-productions)
 * There are no useless rules (unreachable symbols or unproductive rules)
 * For each pair of symbols X, Y (X, Y $$\in$$ (N ∪ Σ)) there is only one Wirth–Weber precedence relation.
 * G is uniquely inversible

Examples

 * $$S \to aSSb | c$$

& S& a& b& c & \$ \\ \hline S& \dot =& \lessdot &  \dot = &  \lessdot& \\ a& \dot =& \lessdot&  & \lessdot& \\ b&  & \gtrdot&   & \gtrdot& \gtrdot \\ c&  & \gtrdot& \gtrdot& \gtrdot& \gtrdot \\ \$& & \lessdot&   & \lessdot& \end{array}$$
 * precedence table: $$\begin{array}{c|ccccc}

title: Simple precedence grammar


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Philippine Trench

The Philippine Trench (also called the Philippine Deep, Mindanao Trench, and the Mindanao Deep) is a submarine trench to the east of the Philippines. The trench is located in the Philippine sea of the western North Pacific Ocean and continues NNW-SSE. It has a length of approximately 1320 km and a width of about 30 km from the center of the Philippine island of Luzon trending southeast to the northern Maluku island of Halmahera in Indonesia. At its deepest point, the trench reaches 10,540 meters (34,580 ft or 5,760 fathoms).

Immediately to the north of the Philippine Trench is the East Luzon Trench. They are separated, with their continuity interrupted and displaced, by Benham Plateau on the Philippine Sea Plate.

Geology
The Philippine trench is hypothesized to be younger than 8–9 million years old. The central part of the Philippine fault formed during the Plio-Pleistocene times is considered to be an active depression of the Earth's crust. The trench formed from a collision between the Palawan and Zamboanga plates. This caused a change in geological processes creating a subduction zone, that is dropping the ocean floor deeper. The rate of subduction on these plates is estimated to be about 15 cm per year. A convergent zone borders an estimate of 45% of the Philippine Trench today.

Although there are vast areas of subduction zones, some authors have considered this region to have low seismic activity, though the USGS has recorded many earthquakes with magnitude ≥ 7.2 in the region as shown by the map to the side. Most recently, in 2012 the Philippine Trench experienced an earthquake of Mw 7.6 (the 2012 Samar earthquake). It hit the trench with a hypocenter depth of 34.9 km. Areas adjacent to the subduction zones have experienced large seismic activity. In 1897, northern Samar experienced a Ms 7.3 earthquake while in 1924 southern Mindanao experienced one with a Ms 8.2.

Depth
The trench reaches one of the greatest depths in the ocean. Its deepest point is known as Emden Deep and reaches 10,540 meters (34,580 ft or 5,760 fathoms).

Sedimentation
Sedimentation of the Philippine trench contains slightly metamorphosed, calc-alkalic, basic, ultrabasic rock and sand grains. The southern area of the trench contains homogeneous blue clay silt and is poor in lime. Sand grains that were also found contained fresh basaltic andesite. The sediments found in the trenches are hypothesized to have been deposited by turbidity currents. A turbidity current is an underwater current that moves rapidly and carries sediment.

Significant quakes
This is a list of significant quakes related to the Philippine Trench, which are 7.0+

Other trenches
Other known trenches in the Philippines are:
 * Manila Trench
 * East Luzon Trench
 * Negros Trench
 * Sulu Trench
 * Cotabato Trench

title: Philippine Trench


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Talk:Stanisław Dziwisz

Clean-up needed
The Prefecture of the Papal Household section needs to be cleaned up for content and flow. If someone has the time, please help. Thanks. --Gerald Farinas 16:29, 6 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Note #10 states that Jaroslaw Kaczynski pressured Dziwisz, but the linked article says only that he listened "to the family." —Preceding unsigned comment added by 207.38.140.151 (talk) 07:35, 14 February 2011 (UTC)

Papabile
When Dziwisz is named a Cardinal, how papabile would he be in any future papal conclaves? Assuming Dziwisz lives at least to the age of 80, he'll be eligble to participate in future conclaves for just under 14 years - or until April 27, 2019. JesseG 17:30, Jun 10, 2005 (UTC)

Has he actually been names a cardinal yet, or is it just likely that he will be named one? Pmadrid 10:38, 17 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Of course, he is a cardinal. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 138.251.236.54 (talk) 12:21, 4 December 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Stanisław Dziwisz


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Dead Man's Statute

A dead man's statute, also known as a dead man act or dead man's rule, is a statute designed to prevent perjury in a civil case by prohibiting a witness who is an interested party from testifying about communications or transactions with a deceased person (a "decedent") against the decedent unless there is a waiver.

This prohibition applies only against a witness who has an interest in the outcome of the case and applies only where that witness is testifying for his own interests and against the interests of the decedent. Furthermore, the restriction only exists in civil cases, never in criminal cases.

The restriction can be waived. A waiver can occur in a number of ways:
 * 1) The decedent's representative fails to object to the testimony;
 * 2) The decedent's own representative testifies to the communication;
 * 3) The decedent's testimony is brought before the jury in the form of a deposition or in another form.

With respect to U.S. federal courts, Rule 601 of the Federal Rules of Evidence defers to state law the determination of whether a witness is competent to testify.

About half of the U.S. States have enacted a dead man statute, more commonly referred to as the "dead man's rule." Some states have enacted compromise variations to the rule. For example, in Virginia, an interested witness may testify only as to the statements of the deceased if this testimony is corroborated by a disinterested witness. In other states, such as Illinois, the rule has been expanded to prevent an interested party from testifying about communications with a minor or a legally incompetent person.

The Texas dead man's rule, found at Texas Rules of Evidence, 601(b) reads: (b) "Dead Man Rule" in Civil Actions. In civil actions by or against executors, administrators, or guardians, in which judgment may be rendered for or against them as such, neither party shall be allowed to testify against the others as to any oral statement by the testator, intestate or ward, unless that testimony to the oral statement is corroborated or unless the witness is called at the trial to testify thereto by the opposite party; and, the provisions of this article shall extend to and include all actions by or against the heirs or legal representatives of a decedent based in whole or in part on such oral statement. Except for the foregoing, a witness is not precluded from giving evidence of or concerning any transaction with, any conversations with, any admissions of, or statement by, a deceased or insane party or person merely because the witness is a party to the action or a person interested in the event thereof. The trial court shall, in a proper case, where this rule prohibits an interested party or witness from testifying, instruct the jury that such person is not permitted by the law to give evidence relating to any oral statement by the deceased or ward unless the oral statement is corroborated or unless the party or witness is called at the trial by the opposite party.

title: Dead Man's Statute


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Enterprise Logix LLC

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. — Xezbeth 06:43, Jun 18, 2005 (UTC)

Enterprise Logix LLC
More or less unwikified advertisment. No notability established. A Google search finds it more or less only in directories. Delete. --S.K. 16:29, 6 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete drini ☎ 16:32, 6 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Speedy ad --Xcali 16:35, 6 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete advertising. Gblaz 21:16, 6 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, --//-- Pavel Vozenilek 20:24, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages.  Please do not edit this page .


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Operation Charnwood

Operation Charnwood was an Anglo-Canadian offensive that took place from 8 to 9 July 1944, during the Battle for Caen, part of the larger Operation Overlord (code-name for the Battle of Normandy) in the Second World War. The operation was intended to capture the German-occupied city of Caen, which was an important objective for the Allies during the opening stages of Overlord. It was also hoped that the attack would forestall the transfer of German armoured units from the Anglo-Canadian sector to the American sector to the west, where an offensive was being prepared. The British and Canadians advanced on a broad front and by the evening of the second day had taken Caen up to the Orne and Odon rivers.

Preceded by a controversial bombing raid that destroyed much of the historic Old City of Caen, Operation Charnwood began at dawn on 8 July, with three infantry divisions attacking German positions north of Caen, behind a creeping barrage. Supported by three armoured brigades, the British I Corps made gradual progress against the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend and the 16th Luftwaffe Field Division. By the end of the day the 3rd Canadian Division and the British 3rd Infantry Division and 59th (Staffordshire) Infantry Division had cleared the villages in their path and reached the outskirts of the city. Moving into Caen at dawn the following morning, the Allies encountered resistance from remnants of German units who were beginning a withdrawal across the Orne. Carpiquet airfield fell to the Canadians during the early morning and by 18:00, the British and Canadians had linked up along the north bank of the Orne. The remaining bridges were defended or impassable and with German reserves positioned to oppose their crossing, I Corps ended the operation.

Operation Charnwood was mutually costly and a tactical success for the Allies. The Germans retired from north of the Orne River but did not stop sending formations to the American front. The Germans established another defensive line along two ridges to the south of the city. The Allies maintained the initiative and began Operation Jupiter the next day and Operation Goodwood and Operation Atlantic a week later, in which the rest of Caen was secured.

Background
The Norman city of Caen was one of the D-Day objectives for the British 3rd Infantry Division which landed on Sword Beach on 6 June 1944. The capture of Caen, while "ambitious", was the most important D-Day objective assigned to the British I Corps (Lieutenant-General Sir John Crocker).

"The quick capture of that key city [Caen] and the neighbourhood of Carpiquet was the most ambitious, the most difficult and the most important task of Lieutenant-General J. T. Crocker's I Corps."

The initial Overlord plan called for the British Second Army to secure the city and then form a front line from Caumont-l'Éventé to the south-east of Caen, to acquire space for airfields and to protect the left flank of the United States First Army while it moved on Cherbourg. Possession of Caen and its environs would give the Second Army a suitable staging area for a push south to capture Falaise, which could then be used as the pivot for a swing left to advance on Argentan and then towards the Touques River. The terrain between Caen and Vimont was especially attractive to Allied planners, being open, dry and conducive to swift offensive operations. Since the Allies greatly outnumbered the Germans in tanks and mobile units, creating the conditions for a fluid, fast moving battle was to their advantage.

The 3rd Infantry Division came ashore as planned but was hampered by congestion in its beachhead, diversions en route and the late arrival of much of its armoured support. The division was unable to assault Caen in force and its lead elements were brought to a halt short of the outskirts. Later attacks failed as the German defenders were reinforced by the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend. On 7 June the British began Operation Perch, a pincer attack by I Corps and XXX Corps, to encircle Caen from the east and west flanks. The I Corps attack south of the Orne River was halted by the 21st Panzer Division and the XXX Corps attack to the west of Caen was contained near Tilly-sur-Seulles by the Panzer-Lehr Division. To force the Panzer-Lehr Division to withdraw the British 7th Armoured Division attacked the western flank of the division on 13 June, through a gap created by the 1st US Infantry Division, to reach high ground near Villers-Bocage. In the Battle of Villers-Bocage, the 7th Armoured Division vanguard was ordered to retire and the Panzer-Lehr Division held its positions until XXX Corps captured Tilly-sur-Seulles on 19 June.

The next British offensive, codenamed Operation Epsom, was launched by VIII Corps on 26 June, after Operation Martlet (also known as Operation Dauntless) a preliminary attack on 25 June, to secure the right flank of VIII Corps. VIII Corps advanced to the west of Caen on a 4 mi front from Rauray to Carpiquet. Once across the Odon and Orne rivers, VIII Corps was to make for high ground near Bretteville-sur-Laize and encircle Caen. The Germans managed to contain the offensive by committing all their strength, including the 9th SS-Panzer Division Hohenstaufen and 10th SS-Panzer Division Frundsberg of the II SS Panzer Corps, which had been sent from the Eastern Front soon after the D-Day and had been intended for a counter-offensive against Bayeux.

On 27 June, the 8th Infantry Brigade (1st Suffolk Regiment, 2nd East Yorkshire Regiment, 1st South Lancashire Regiment) of the 3rd Infantry Division, supported by the Staffordshire Yeomanry, of the 27th Armoured Brigade, and specialist armour from the 79th Armoured Division, began Operation Mitten. The objective was to seize the German-occupied Château la Londe and Château le Landel. The initial evening assault, led by the 1st Battalion, South Lancashire Regiment was repulsed but the following morning further attacks gained the objectives and destroyed several German tanks. Operation Mitten cost at least three British tanks and 268 men. Had it succeeded quicker, the 9th Brigade, supported by the 9th Canadian Infantry Brigade, would have launched Operation Aberlour, to capture the villages of la Bijude, Épron, Galmache, St. Contest, Authie and Cussy but this follow-up operation was cancelled by Crocker. The area of the Châteaux was later called the "bloodiest square mile in Normandy".

Generalfeldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt, supreme commander of the German forces in the west (OB West), directed on 1 July that Caen should be gradually abandoned and the bulk of the German armoured divisions be shifted to the west end of the beachhead against the US First Army but the city and its surroundings were considered by Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW, Armed Forces High Command) to be fundamental to the defence of Normandy. OKW wanted an arc of defensible terrain from the English Channel to the western banks of the Orne to be held and Adolf Hitler sacked Rundstedt and replaced him with Generalfeldmarschall Günther von Kluge. Learning of this through Ultra, the Allied ground forces commander, General Bernard Montgomery, planned an offensive to capture Caen and to prevent a large redeployment of German forces from the Anglo-Canadian sector to the American front.

On 4 July, the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division conducted Operation Windsor, to seize Carpiquet and the adjacent airfield from the 12th SS-Panzer Division. Carpiquet fell on 5 July, the airfield remained in German hands.

Allies
Having failed to take Caen through successive flanking manoeuvres, Montgomery decided the next attack would be a frontal assault. Although Caen's strategic importance had vastly diminished since D-Day, he sought control of Bourguébus and the commanding high ground to the south. On 5 July the orders for Operation Charnwood were issued; it was to be launched at 04:20, an hour and a half before dawn on 8 July.

The objective of Charnwood was to clear Caen of its defenders up to the Orne river and if possible to secure bridgeheads in southern Caen. To achieve the latter it was planned to send an armoured column through the city to rush the bridges; it was hoped that I Corps could exploit the situation to sweep on through southern Caen towards the Verrières and Bourguébus ridges, paving the way for the British Second Army to advance towards Falaise. Historian Roger Cirillo argued the operation was designed to only clear the city of German forces; due to it being cut by both a river and a canal any attempts to make rapid progress through and beyond, were "in all probability, impossible."

Crocker's 115,000-strong I Corps was assigned the task of penetrating to the Orne and Odon rivers. The 3rd Infantry Division would attack on a one brigade front from the north-east, supported by the 33rd Armoured Brigade; the 59th (Staffordshire) Infantry Division would attack on a two brigade front from the north, supported by the 27th Armoured Brigade; and the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division would attack on a one brigade front from the northwest, supported by the 2nd Canadian Armoured Brigade. To maintain the maximum possible pressure on German forces in the sector, VIII Corps was placed on 24 hours notice to launch further attacks to the west of Caen.

In the light of lessons learned from the partial Canadian success during Operation Windsor, Charnwood was to be launched on a broad front to increase the pressure on the German defences and disperse their defensive fire. SHAEF planners had advised, on 10 June, that the best way to break a stalemate was to use air power to support an attack; this method was to be used for Charnwood as Montgomery enlisted the aid of RAF Bomber Command. Heavy bombers would attack Caen on the night preceding the assault, with 15% of the total bomb load being delayed action bombs set to explode when the ground attack was launched. A second wave of light bombers would follow the heavies and a third wave of American bombers would attack on the morning of the operation.

Additional support would be provided by rocket firing Typhoon fighter-bombers, the monitor HMS Roberts (F40), the light cruisers HMS Belfast (C35) and HMS Emerald (D66) and the 16-inch guns of the battleship HMS Rodney (29). Five divisions would contribute 656 guns for bombarding German positions to the south. In all, it was planned that 2,000 tons of bombs would be dropped on Caen before the infantry assault began. Due to the proximity of the target area to the Allied lines and the resulting risk of friendly casualties, the aiming point for the bombers was shifted 6000 yd to the south—beyond most of the main German defences screening the city. Following a long saturation bombardment, the three infantry divisions were to push through the fortified villages in their path and advance directly into Caen's northern suburbs.

Germans
Caen's defence fell to two divisions; the 12th SS Panzer Division of I SS Panzer Corps, and the 16th Luftwaffe Field Division of LXXXVI Corps. An assault on the city was expected, and it was assumed that further attacks in the Odon valley towards the Orne river would quickly follow suit. The 12th SS Panzer Division, commanded by Kurt Meyer, consisted of three panzergrenadier regiments including one—the 1st SS Panzergrenadier Regiment—borrowed from the 1st SS Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler (1st SS Panzer Division). With its 61 surviving tanks 12th SS Panzer was holding the northwest approaches to Caen, defending the city and Carpiquet airfield from the 3rd Canadian and 59th British Infantry Divisions.

The main German defensive line, a 9 km arc of villages from the northeast to the west, was held by the 25th SS Panzergrenadier Regiment and elements of the 12th SS Panzer Regiment. Troops from the 26th SS Panzergrenadier Regiment were holding the western flank, concentrating their strength, which included mortar batteries and a few tanks, in the area around Carpiquet airfield. The 1st SS Panzergrenadier Regiment was occupying a line from Franqueville to the western end of Éterville; the villages formed mutually-supporting strongpoints with dug-in tanks and assault guns, and the defensive line was 2–3 miles (3.2–4.8 km) in depth, supplemented by anti-tank ditches, weapons pits, minefields and other obstacles. The rest of the division, with 35 tanks of the 12th SS Panzer Regiment, were held in reserve, with elements located north, west and south of the city. Most of the division's artillery had been moved back across the Orne, and the divisional command centre had been relocated from the Ardenne Abbey to Abbaye-aux-Dames in the centre of Caen.

The 16th Luftwaffe Field Division was an inexperienced infantry division that had only recently arrived in Normandy to relieve the 21st Panzer Division of its defence of Caen and its positions east of the Caen canal. The division was under-trained and lacked sufficient anti-tank weapons; to remedy the latter it was reinforced with a tank battalion from 21st Panzer. The Luftwaffe division was deployed on both sides of the Orne, with three battalions holding the villages to the immediate north of the city. The 1st SS Panzer Division was roughly 5 mi south of Caen with a regiment of dual purpose 88 mm guns from the III Flak Corps. The II SS Panzer Corps was to the west, with the 10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg around 2 mi south-west of the city.

Air attack, 7 July
On the night of 7 July 467 Lancaster and Halifax aircraft of RAF Bomber Command attacked Caen, dropping over 2000 LT of bombs on the city. Although intended mainly to facilitate the Anglo-Canadian advance and to prevent German reinforcements from reaching the battle or retreating through Caen, a secondary consideration was the suppression of the German defences. In this the bombing largely failed, the main German armour and infantry positions to the north of Caen remained intact. Several tanks were hit and temporarily disabled but only two Panzer IV of the 12th SS Panzer Division were destroyed. General Miles Dempsey, in command of the British Second Army, was more concerned with the morale-boosting effect of the bombing on his troops, than any material losses it might inflict on the Germans.

The pathfinders of 625 Squadron, dropping the target markers for the bombers, were instructed not to allow the target zone to "drift back" towards the Allied lines as had been the tendency in earlier operations. Together with the cautious shifting of the target zone during the planning stage, many of the markers were dropped too far forward, pushing the bombed zone well into Caen, further away from the German defences. By 22:00 on 7 July, the bombers had departed, leaving 80 percent of the north of Caen destroyed. Caen University was particularly hard hit, starting chemical fires that soon spread. At 22:50, six squadrons of de Havilland Mosquito bombers attacked individual targets and ten minutes later the 636 guns of the assaulting divisions opened fire, with the battleship HMS Rodney (29) and other ships adding their support. The bombardment was intensified by the artillery of VIII Corps against the villages north of Caen, to eliminate German strong points before the infantry assault began.

8 July
At 04:30 on 8 July, the artillery of I and VIII Corps shifted their fire deeper into the German defensive belt, along the axes of advance of the 3rd Canadian Division and the 59th (Staffordshire) Infantry Division. As the infantry and armour moved off their start-lines, the barrage slowly crept forward, concentrating its fire on positions in front of the Anglo-Canadian troops; four battalions and two armoured regiments advancing on a two brigade front. At 07:00, 192 B-26 Marauder medium bombers arrived over the battlefield but finding it obscured by cloud only 87 aircraft were able to drop their bombs, totalling 133 LT. Some bombs landed on the 12th SS Headquarters at Abbaye-aux-Dames.

Crocker launched the second phase of Operation Charnwood at 07:30, although neither division had yet reached its objectives. The 26th SS Panzergrenadier Regiment was still in control of high ground around the Carpiquet airfield on the right flank of the advance. On the left, facing the relatively weak defences of the 16th Luftwaffe Field Division, the 3rd Infantry Division made good progress. They attacked Lébisey and rapidly pushed through the village, although fighting intensified as the division reached Hérouville. Concerned about the state of the Luftwaffe division, General Heinrich Eberbach, in command of Panzer Group West ordered the 21st Panzer Division to redeploy north-east of Caen in support. The manoeuvre was spotted and when 21st Panzer attempted to cross the Caen Canal, a naval bombardment was directed against them. Facing the possibility of heavy losses, the move was abandoned. In the centre, the 176th Brigade of the 59th Division was encountering much stiffer resistance from the 12th SS Panzer Regiment in Galmanche and la Bijude. The 197th Brigade bypassed Galmanche and by noon had reached St-Contest.

Further to the west, the 9th Infantry Brigade of the 3rd Canadian Division had been involved in heavy fighting in Buron, which was defended by 200 men from the 12th SS. With support from the 10th Armoured Regiment (The Fort Garry Horse), by noon Buron had been taken, although the Canadian assault companies suffered 60% casualties. South of Buron, a counter-attack by Panzer IV and Panther tanks of the 12th SS Panzer Regiment was defeated by 17pdr SP Achilles self-propelled anti-tank guns and 17-pounder anti tank guns of the 245th Battery, 62nd Antitank Regiment. Thirteen German tanks were destroyed in one of the most successful antitank engagements of the campaign, for the loss of four tank destroyers and a further four damaged. Gruchy was captured with relatively less difficulty, with the 7th Canadian Infantry Brigade encountering only mortar and artillery fire in their drive to Authie. The capture of Authie facilitated the 59th Infantry Division assault on St-Contest and that village fell too, clearing the way for an advance on Caen. In Phase 3 of the operation, the 7th Brigade pushed towards the former headquarters of the 12th SS Panzer Division at Ardenne Abbey, securing the position before midnight.

The British 3rd Division brushed aside 16th Luftwaffe and approached the outskirts of Caen from the north-east. At 19:15, Meyer and Eberbach authorised the withdrawal of the 12th SS Panzer Division heavy weapons and the remnants of the Luftwaffe division across the Orne to the southern side of Caen. In the early evening, the 12th SS fought a rearguard action against elements of the 59th and 3rd Canadian divisions, as it pulled back from positions no longer considered tenable. Reports of this withdrawal came into the Anglo-Canadian command but patrols probing German positions, created a false perception that no withdrawal was taking place.

9 July
British and Canadian patrols began to infiltrate the city at dawn on 9 July. The airfield at Carpiquet finally fell into Allied hands during the early morning, when the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division discovered that the 26th SS Panzergrenadier Regiment had withdrawn during the night. With the German situation north of the river becoming increasingly precarious, 21st Panzer Division battle groups and the remaining regiments of the 12th SS Panzer Division conducted a slow withdrawal across the Orne, making for the Verrières and Bourguébus Ridges.

By noon the 3rd British Infantry Division had reached the Orne's north bank, virtually destroying the elements of the 16th Luftwaffe Field Division, positioned west of the Orne, in the process. A few hours later the British and Canadians met in the centre of the city and by 18:00 the northern half of Caen was firmly under Allied control; all I Corps's objectives had been achieved. A few of Caen's bridges were intact but these were either blocked by rubble or defended by German troops on the south bank and the 1st SS Panzer Division had by now positioned itself to oppose any further advance.

The 12th SS Panzer Division (by the end of the battle the division's infantry strength had been reduced to that of a battalion) —claimed over the course of two days to have destroyed 103 British and Canadian tanks for the loss of 20. On entering Caen the Anglo-Canadian troops found it in ruins, with four-fifths of the Old City reduced to rubble by the 7 July bombings. The debris that choked the streets made it almost impossible for British armour to manoeuvre through the northern half of the city, preventing Second Army from exploiting I Corps's success. Without possession of the terrain flanking the south of the city, no further gains could be made within Caen so by mid-afternoon on 9 July, Operation Charnwood was over.

Analysis
The Germans were forced to withdraw to the south of the Orne but Allied forces were unable to push beyond the river. German forces were dug-in on the opposite bank in position to block a move south. Montgomery called off an advance beyond the Orne as further attacks would be too costly for the gains made, which had inflicted much attrition on the defenders. For French public opinion the operation was a coup; civilians now believed the liberation of France had begun.

Antony Beevor called Operation Charnwood a partial success, because although much of Caen was taken, the British and Canadians failed to secure enough ground to expand the Allied build-up; the bulk of the First Canadian Army was still waiting in the United Kingdom for transfer to Normandy. Carlo D'Este wrote that Charnwood did improve the Second Army's position but without the high ground to the south, Caen was useless, the capture of the city was too little too late a hollow victory. Chester Wilmot wrote that for Montgomery to maintain a threat to German-occupied Paris, Caen's southern suburbs with their factories and communications network would have been a more significant prize. Buckley and Copp note that by the time the city was captured, the Germans—weakened by the battles of late June and early July—had already established defensive positions on the high ground to the south of the Orne, which blocked the route to the Falaise plain

Copp also wrote that the British Second Army won an important operational victory during Charnwood and the Society for Army Historical Research recorded that the attacks were a tactical and operational success. The Supreme Allied Commander, General Dwight D. Eisenhower expressed concern that a breakout was unlikely. Montgomery differed; the tenacity of the German defence was no barometer of its longevity. Field Marshal Erwin Rommel mentioned to Lieutenant-Colonel Caesar von Hofacker that the front-line in France could only be held for another three weeks. Hofacker was a member of the German resistance and linked with the Hitler assassination plot and according to Trew, Rommel's comment led to the plot timetable being decided.

The serious losses sustained in maintaining a static defence during June led to fractures in the German high command. On 1 July, Panzer Group West commander Leo Geyr von Schweppenburg had been replaced by Heinrich Eberbach, following disagreements with Hitler over how the campaign should be conducted. Gerd von Rundstedt soon followed; that evening, in a telephone conversation with Generalfeldmarschall Wilhelm Keitel, head of OKW, Rundstedt said "Make peace, you fools". Taken to task over his endorsement of Schweppenburg's recommendation for a withdrawal, he replied "If you doubt what we're doing, get up here and take over this shambles yourself". The following morning, informed that perhaps his health was "no longer up to the task", Rundstedt resigned and was succeeded as OB West by Günther von Kluge. The costly battles in and around Caen and Saint-Lô convinced both Eberbach and Kluge that their predecessors had been correct. The Germans had suffered heavily, leading Hitler to order Army Group B temporarily to abandon big counter-attacks and stay on the defensive until more reinforcements could arrive to bolster the front.

Trew contends that the capture of northern Caen had a psychological impact on the French population, convincing them the Allies were there to stay and that the liberation of France could not be far off. By the end of Charnwood, Allied losses since 6 June had amounted to over 30,000 men, excluding those who had been evacuated due to sickness and from battle exhaustion. Buckley believes Charnwood to have been a good idea but one that proved better in concept than in execution, influenced as it was by the mounting political pressure on 21st Army Group to produce results. Copp wrote that the broad front attack had worked, preventing the Germans bringing to bear superior firepower on any one formation.

Copp wrote that Charnwood should have produced a rapid breakthrough but concedes that the battle was one of the most difficult of the campaign. Buckley singles out poor cooperation between armoured and infantry units as one of the reasons for such high Allied losses; he is critical of the habit of tanks standing off from German positions and firing the infantry onto the objective like artillery, instead of moving forward to give close support. He further notes that from the German perspective, the Anglo-Canadian forces apparently lacked the desire or ability to press home their advantages, citing Kurt Meyer's opinion that during the battle the Allies allowed the opportunity to destroy his 12th SS Panzer Division to elude them. Buckley comments on the defensive power of the British and Canadian formations. The German practice of conducting immediate local counter-attacks to retake lost ground cost them many of their best troops, losses they could ill-afford. He illustrates this with a typical action during which the Germans lost 13 tanks to British self-propelled anti-tank guns.

With Caen north of the River Orne in Allied hands, mine-clearance operations were launched, bulldozers were set to work to clear the streets and a convoy of trucks carrying supplies for the civilian population was brought in. On 10 July, the French flag was raised over the city and three days later a parade was held in the Place Saint-Martin during which a second flag was raised to the strains of Scottish bagpipers playing La Marseillaise.

Rommel and Eberbach consolidated defensive positions in and around southern Caen, the 1st, 9th and 12th SS Panzer Divisions turning the Bourguébus and Verrières Ridges into formidable barriers. Having committed all of his armoured reserves, Rommel transferred the remainder of his infantry divisions—the 708th, 276th, 277th and 272nd—to the Anglo-Canadian front. On 8 July, he released the remnants of the Panzer Lehr Division and the 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich to the American sector. At the start of the campaign, Panzer-Lehr was one of the most powerful armoured formations in the German army, by this stage it had been reduced to a number of battlegroups and was no longer operational as a division. On 17 July, Rommel's staff car was strafed by British fighters, severely injuring the Field Marshal and confining him to hospital. Two days later he was replaced as Army Group B commander by Field Marshal Günther von Kluge. Rommel never returned to Normandy; implicated in the 20 July plot against Hitler, on 14 October he was forced to commit suicide.

Caen's partial capture allowed General Omar Bradley, commander of the First US Army, to accelerate his plans for a breakout. Shortly after Charnwood the VII US Corps attacked German positions in Saint-Lô, which the 2nd SS Panzer Division had been ordered to "hold at all costs". On 18 July, after eight days of fighting during which 95 percent of the town was destroyed and VII Corps had more than 5,000 casualties, Saint-Lô fell to the Americans.

The same day, the Second Army began Operation Goodwood with from 1,100 to 1,300 tanks in the largest armoured battle in British military history. VIII Corps (Lieutenant-General Richard O'Connor) spearheaded the drive towards the Bourguébus Ridge with three armoured divisions, supported by I Corps. After a preliminary attack by 1,056 heavy bombers, elements of the 11th Armoured Division, Guards Armoured Division and 7th Armoured Division assaulted the positions of LXXXVI Corps north of Bourguébus but despite early gains of around 12000 yd, strong resistance prevented VIII Corps taking the ridge. Simultaneously the new II Canadian Corps (Lieutenant General Guy Simonds) launched Operation Atlantic an offensive on Caen north of the Orne. the II Canadian Corps ran into fierce opposition; during the later Battle of Verrières Ridge the Canadians sustained 2,800 casualties. Verrières Ridge would remain in German hands until 8 August.

Battle honours
The British and Commonwealth system of battle honours recognises the battle by the award to 55 units of the honour Caen, for participation in the capture of Caen between 4–18 July 1944. Awarded from 1956 to 1959, the recognition was accompanied by honours for taking part in Operation Charnwood. For participating in the capture of Caen between 8–9 July three units were awarded the honour Orne, nine the honour The Orne, and two the honour The Orne (Buron).

Bombing
Hastings wrote that the bombing came to be seen by many as "one of the most futile air attacks of the war" and Beevor called the attack a "disaster". Reynolds judged the results of the bombing as "pathetic" and D'Este wrote that the bombing hindered the Allied push into the city. Air Commodore E. J. Kingston-McCloughry and Solly Zuckerman conducted a survey and concluded that no targets of military value had been attacked, nor were there any gun positions, tanks or German dead in the target zone. They interviewed men of the 3rd Infantry Division, who were reportedly bewildered as to why the bombers had been employed. The 3rd Division historian, wrote that in the wake of the air-raid the men

"... for the first time for weeks breathed freely. The full support of the Air Force gave them full hearts ... and the men were encouraged."

The Canadian Official Historian, C. P. Stacey wrote that several Canadian formations reported an increase in morale. Wilmot wrote that the bombing was essential because it raised the morale of the Second Army and depressed that of the German defenders. A 21st Army Group intelligence report, based on the interrogation of German prisoners recorded that the raid was "decisive" and had apparently destroyed the headquarters of the Luftwaffe infantry regiment based north of Caen and deprived the German troops north of the city of ammunition and rations the following morning. Gray wrote that the bombing had an effect on the morale of both sides but that this was temporary. L. F. Ellis, the British Official Historian, Trew and Badsey all wrote that the raid was intended to cut off German reinforcements from the battlefield and hinder an attempt to withdraw south of the Orne river. Stacey wrote that it was "obvious and desirable" that for maximum advantage, the Allied ground forces should have advanced on the heels of the attack. Gray concluded that no-one "can[not] satisfactorily answer the question 'why'" the city was bombed.

Analysis by Operational Research Section Number 2 (ORS2) concluded that the bombing of the first aiming point north-west of Caen was accurate, finding that the centre of the 90 percent zone (the area where 90 percent of the bombs fell) was 200 - 300 yd east of the aiming point, with some spillage to the south and west. Examination of the area after its capture, indicated some destruction of German equipment, including the wreckage of ten of the forty trucks believed to be in the area at the time of the raid. The 48 hours that elapsed between the bombing and the Allied occupation of the area, allowed the Germans time to recover from any shock and disorientation and to salvage some damaged equipment. Examination of the second aiming point, "Northern Caen", failed to reveal a 90 percent zone but it was noted that the obstructive effect of bombing a suburb was significant and had caused substantial delays to vehicles of both sides, by cratering and blocking roads. ORS2 concluded that the success of Charnwood owed little to the bombing and made recommendations including changing to instantly fused bombs, dropping larger numbers of smaller anti-personnel bombs and rapidly following-up a bombardment with ground forces to take advantage of its main effect, which was the temporary suppression of German will to resist. In Operation Goodwood, Operation Bluecoat, Operation Cobra, Operation Totalize and Operation Tractable the 21st Army Group exploited better the effect of preparatory attacks by strategic bombers by following-up the attacks immediately.

The British initially announced that around 6,000 civilians had been killed during the air-raid and a Soviet war correspondent attached to the 21st Army Group, Lieutenant-Colonel Kraminov, put the figure as high as 22,000, a claim that was used by French communists in post-war anti-British propaganda. It was later found that 300–400 civilians were killed in the raid. Caen citizens were relieved and provided their liberators with a welcome that the troops found very moving; French accounts of the time claim that "All [of] Caen was in the streets to greet them". Although Ellis called the French welcome "pathetic", no Allied unit recorded any complaints about the reception they were given. Stacey wrote that the populace were "particularly delighted to find their city freed in part by men from Canada". Beevor wrote that most of the population were numb from the shock and quoted a British soldier who recalled that "most ... women were crying, grief-stricken and anguished". As early as 12 June, the French Resistance had sent messengers to the British, informing them that refugees were gathering in the areas around the Abbaye-aux-Hommes and the Hôpital du Bon Sauveur and requested that these locations not to be bombed; British assurances were given and these locations were nearly untouched. Gray wrote that after the war, the city population regarded itself as being martyred, which could be seen on the war memorial.

Operation Jupiter
On 10 July, the 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division attacked the positions of the 10th SS Panzer Division to the southwest of Caen on Hill 112. Preceded by a two-day bombardment that included support from naval vessels and Hawker Typhoons, the assault was designed to threaten Caen from the west and push back the 10th SS Panzer Division, securing an avenue for future offensives. The 43rd Wessex began their assault at dawn on 10 July, supported by two armoured brigades. By 08:00, British tanks and infantry were engaged with the 10th SS Panzer and "well up" the slopes of Hill 112. Eterville was taken around mid-morning; as the 4th Armoured Brigade and 43rd Wessex pressed their attack, Panzer Group West commander General Eberbach insisted that "Hill 112 is the pivotal point of the whole position West of Caen, and must therefore be held".

The 102nd SS Heavy Panzer Battalion and the 1st SS Panzer Division were committed to its defence. The 4th Armoured Brigade reached the summit but in the evening were counter-attacked by remnants of the 1st and 12th SS Panzer Divisions. The British offensive resumed the following day with the support of anti-tank regiments from the Second Army; these had heavy losses in a counter-attack by the 102nd SS Heavy Panzer Battalion. Hill 112 was briefly taken by a battalion of the Duke of Cornwall's Light Infantry, only to be lost to further German counter-attacks in the late afternoon. By the evening of 11 July, with both sides exhausted and having suffered heavily the offensive had reached a stalemate. The 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division and its supporting armour had suffered two thousand casualties in the two days of fighting.

title: Operation Charnwood


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Glasgow Police Pipe Band

Glasgow Police Pipe Band was a grade one pipe band from Glasgow, Scotland. Founded in 1883 as the Burgh of Govan Police Pipe Band, the band enjoyed its greatest competitive success as the Strathclyde Police Pipe Band. It ceased competing as Glasgow Police Pipe Band in 2021.

History
The band was one of the first civilian bands in Britain when it formed in 1883 as the Burgh of Govan Police Pipe Band. The first pipe major was William Bremer, who was succeeded by Walter Drysdale in 1890, who was in turn succeeded by Alexander Hutcheon in 1898. The band enjoyed a good reputation, and was recognised nationally for its quality. It wore a tartan designed by the Chief Constable and played two concerts annually to raise funds.

Govan was annexed into Glasgow along with Partick in 1912, and the band became the City of Glasgow Police Pipe Band. In 1913 William Gray, a Gold Medal winner, replaced Hutcheon as pipe major, and the tartan was also replaced with the Royal Stewart. The band won its first World Championship in 1920, but due to Gray's focus on events other than competition the next time the band won the Worlds was 1936.

Gray was succeeded in 1932 by John MacDonald, a student of Gray for many years and also a Gold Medal winner, having won at both the Argyllshire Gathering and the Northern Meeting within a week. Under MacDonald, the band won the World Championships in 1936, 1937, 1938 and 1939, and after the Second World War in 1946, 1949 and 1951.

Angus MacDonald succeeded John MacDonald in 1958, and rebuilt the band after the loss of senior players through retirement had reduced the band's competitiveness. Under Angus MacDonald the band won every major championship except the Worlds.

Ronald Lawrie succeeded Angus MacDonald as pipe major in 1967, but due to ill health Lawrie was succeeded by Ian MacLellan in 1972. In 1975, Strathclyde Police was formed by the merger of several police forces to form the second-largest police force in Britain, and the respective bands were merged into the Strathclyde Police Pipe Band under the leadership of Ian MacLellan.

Under MacLellan and leading drummer Alex Connell the band won the World Championships in 1976 and 1979, being placed second to Dysart and Dundonald in 1977 and 1978. Strathclyde Police then won every year from 1981 to 1986, and then four consecutive times from 1988 to 1991. In 1987, the 78th Fraser Highlanders Pipe Band from Canada became the first band based outside Scotland to win the title, and Simon Fraser University, also from Canada, came second, pushing Strathclyde Police into third place. The run of six consecutive wins remains a record, as does the twenty total wins accumulated throughout the band's history.

MacLellan retired in 1992 and was succeeded by Harry McAleer, who led the band until 1996 when he was succeeded by Ian Plunkett. Plunkett was succeeded by James Wark in 2001. Wark retired and was succeeded by Donald Mackay in 2004. Under Mackay, the band enjoyed championship successes once again, winning the European Pipe Band Championships and Cowal Highland Gathering in 2006 and the Scottish Championships in 2007. Mackay stood down in 2008 and was succeeded by Don Bradford.

In 2009, funding cuts and a restriction on the number of events the band could play at threatened the future of the Strathclyde Police Pipe Band. Bradford and pipe-sergeant Duncan Nicholson resigned in protest, but returned in January 2010 after a new funding agreement was reached.

Duncan Nicholson succeeded Bradford as pipe major in 2010. In 2013, territorial police forces in Scotland were amalgamated to form Police Scotland. The structure of the band was unchanged however the band changed its name to Greater Glasgow Police Scotland Pipe Band. In 2015, Nicholson was replaced as Pipe Major by Iain MacPherson. In the following year, 2016, the band changed name again becoming the Glasgow Police Pipe Band and their leading drummer Eric Ward was replaced by David Henderson.

In December 2019, Iain McPherson stepped down as Pipe Major and Alisdair McLaren was appointed. McLaren later stepped down in January 2020 due to unforeseen family matters. Following McLaren's resignation, Duncan Nicholson, former pipe major, was appointed. Later, the band announced Ewan Henderson would be appointed Pipe Major with immediate effect, succeeding Duncan Nicholson, who stepped in as interim Pipe Major.

In 2021, the band announced it would cease competing as the Glasgow Police Pipe Band and begin to be known as Police Scotland & Federation Pipe Band and change from their famous Royal Stewart kilt which the band wore for 108 years.

Evolution of Band Name
The band faced many name changes throughout its 138 year history due to boundary changes within the Police force.

 * Burgh of Govan Police (1883 - 1912) - 29 Years
 * City of Glasgow Police (1912 - 1975) - 63 Years
 * Strathclyde Police (1975 - 2013) - 38 Years
 * Greater Glasgow Police Scotland (2013 - 2015) - 2 Years
 * Glasgow Police (2015 - 2021) - 6 Years

Pipe Majors

 * William Bremer (1883-1890)
 * Walter Drysdale (1890-1898)
 * Alexander Hutcheon (1898-1913)
 * William Gray (1913-1932)
 * John MacDonald (1932-1958)
 * Angus MacDonald (1958-1966)
 * Ronald Lawrie (1966-1972)
 * Ian MacLellan BEM (1972-1992)
 * Harry McAleer (1992-1997)
 * Ian Plunkett (1997-2001)
 * James Wark (2001-2004)
 * Donald Mackay (2004-2008)
 * Don Bradford (2008-2010)
 * Duncan Nicholson (2010-2015)
 * Iain MacPherson (2015-2019)
 * Alisdair MacLaren (2019-2020)
 * Duncan Nicholson (2020)
 * Ewan Henderson (2020–2021)

Leading Drummers

 * D/M Walker (1883 - approx. 1910)
 * John Seton (approx. 1910-1927)
 * Jack Seton (1927-1948)
 * Alex McCormick (1948-1952)
 * John Walley (1954-1961)
 * Alex Connell (1961-1985)
 * John Kirkwood Jr. (1985-1992)
 * Roddy Darroch (1992-1995)
 * Eric Ward (1995-2016)
 * David Henderson (2016–2021)

Discography
as City of Glasgow Police Pipe Band
 * Selection of Strathspeys and Reels/Eightsome Reels - P/M J. MacDonald (Parlophone F.3355)
 * 6/8 Marches - P/M J. MacDonald (Parlophone F.3369)
 * Marching With The Pipers - P/M A. MacDonald (1966)
 * Scottish Pipe Band Music - P/M R. Lawrie (Olympic 6145)
 * The Choice of Champions - P/M R. Lawrie (1968)
 * Scotland's Best, Vol. 1 - P/M R. Lawrie (1970)
 * Scotland's Best, Vol. 3 - P/M R. Lawrie (1971)
 * Glasgow Police March Past (1972)

as Strathclyde Police Pipe Band

 * World Champions - P/M I. MacLellan (1980)
 * Champion of Champions (Champions of the World) - P/M I. MacLellan (1983)
 * Six in a Row (1981-1986) - P/M I. MacLellan (1986)
 * Solo Pipers, Quartet and Mini Band (1991)
 * Pipes, Drums & A Glasgow Girl (2006) - with Joann Gilmartin

as Greater Glasgow Police Scotland Pipe Band
 * Ceolry - P/M D. Nicholson (2015)

title: Glasgow Police Pipe Band


text:
Minimum Age Convention, 1973

The ILO Convention Concerning Minimum Age for Admission to Employment C138, is a convention adopted in 1973 by the International Labour Organization. It requires ratifying states to pursue a national policy designed to ensure the effective abolition of child labour and to raise progressively the minimum age for admission to employment or work. It is one of eight ILO fundamental conventions. Convention C138 replaces several similar ILO conventions in specific fields of labour.

Minimum ages
Countries are free to specify a minimum age for labour, with a minimum of 15 years. A declaration of 14 years is also possible when for a specified period of time. Laws may also permit light work for children aged 13–15 (not harming their health or school work). The minimum age of 18 years is specified for work which "is likely to jeopardise the health, safety or morals of young persons". Definitions of the type of work and derogations are only possible after tripartite consultations (if such a system exists in the ratifying country).

Effect on other conventions
The convention is a revision of several conventions for workers in specific areas. Upon entry into force, some of these conventions were closed for ratification and becoming a party to this convention automatically resulted in denunciation of the older ones. An overview of older minimum age conventions of ILO is shown below:

Ratifications
ILO Convention C138 entered into force one year after deposition of the first two ratifications (Cuba and Libya). As of July 2023 176 countries have ratified Convention C138. Initially, however, the pace of ratification of this convention was extremely slow. Therefore, an alternative Convention with a more limited scope was initiated in 1999. It concerns ILO Convention 182 concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour.

Convention C138 enters into force for a ratifying country one year after ratification. This can be denounced every 10 years in the year after 10 years have passed (e.g. 19 June 2027 – 19 June 2028).

title: Minimum Age Convention, 1973


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Pontus Kåmark

Sven Pontus Kåmark (born 5 April 1969) is a former Swedish professional footballer who played as a defender. He played for Västerås SK, IFK Göteborg, Leicester City and AIK, and won 57 caps for the Sweden national team. He was part of the Swedish team that finished third at the 1994 FIFA World Cup.

Club career
Kåmark started off his career with IK Franke before making his senior debut for Västerås SK.

IFK Göteborg
Kåmark signed with IFK Göteborg ahead of the 1989 season and made his debut on 11 May 1989 in a league game against GAIS that ended 2–2. In 1990, Kåmark won his first league title with Göteborg, appearing in 8 league games. The following season, he appeared in 16 league games and 6 cup games when Göteborg won both the Allsvenskan and the Svenska Cupen. Between 1993 and 1995, Kåmark played in more than 60 league games as IFK Göteborg won three straight Allsvenskan titles.

In the 1994–95 UEFA Champions League, Kåmark scored the last goal in a 3–1 win against Manchester United as IFK Göteborg won Group A ahead of FC Barcelona, Manchester United and Galatasaray. Kåmark played in all 180 minutes as the captain when IFK Göteborg was eliminated by FC Bayern Munich on away goals in the quarter-finals.

Leicester City
Kåmark was bought by Leicester City from Göteborg for £840,000 in September 1995, but did not join the team until IFK Göteborg had lifted the 1995 Allsvenskan trophy. Only three days after making his debut for the club, Kåmark tore his ACL in a League Cup game against Bolton Wanderers, which ruled him out of football for a year. Kåmark eventually recovered from his injury and made his comeback in January 1997, eventually helping his team win the 1996–97 Football League Cup, playing in all 120 minutes in the final.

AIK
Kåmark signed for the 1998 Allsvenskan champions AIK in the summer of 1999, ahead of their 1999–2000 UEFA Champions League campaign. AIK was able to keep a clean sheet in all 12 of Kåmark's first games for the club. He eventually helped the team qualify for the Champions League group stage by playing at left back when AIK eliminated AEK Athens in the qualifying stage. AIK finished last in Group B, competing with Barcelona, Arsenal and Fiorentina. He tore his ACL once again during the 2000 spring season and left AIK at the end of the season.

Return to IFK Göteborg and retirement
After recovering from his third ACL injury, Kåmark return to IFK Göteborg for the 2001 Allsvenskan season. He retired from professional football in 2002.

Youth
Kåmark won a total of 35 caps for the Sweden U17, U19, and U21 teams and represented his country at the 1990 UEFA European Under-21 Championship where Sweden reached the semifinals.

Senior
He made his senior debut for Sweden in a friendly against the United Arab Emirates on 14 February 1990.

Kåmark played in three games as Sweden qualified for the 1994 FIFA World Cup. At the final tournament, Kåmark appeared in four games as Sweden finished third behind Brazil and Italy. He appeared in five games as Sweden failed to qualify for Euro 1996, and in four games as Sweden missed out on qualifying for the 1998 FIFA World Cup. He helped Sweden qualify for both Euro 2000 and the 2002 FIFA World Cup, but missed both final tournaments because of injuries.

He made his last international appearance in a friendly against Greece on 13 February 2002. Kåmark ultimately won 57 caps for Sweden without scoring.

Honours
IFK Göteborg
 * Allsvenskan: 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1995
 * Svenska Cupen: 1991

Leicester City
 * Football League Cup: 1996–97; runner-up: 1998–99

Sweden
 * FIFA World Cup third place: 1994

title: Pontus Kåmark


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Sundance

A Sun Dance is a Native American ceremony.

Sun dance or Sundance may also refer to:

Places

 * Canada
 * Sundance, Calgary, Alberta, a neighbourhood
 * Sundance, Manitoba, a ghost town

 * United States
 * Sundance, New Mexico, a census-designated place
 * Sundance, Wyoming, the county seat and largest community in Crook County
 * Sundance Resort, a ski resort in Utah

People

 * Sundance (activist), American Indian civil rights activist and director of the Cleveland branch of the American Indian Movement
 * Sundance (rapper) (born 1972), American rapper and radio personality
 * Sundance, a Secret Service code name shared by Ethel Kennedy and Al Gore
 * Sundance Bilson-Thompson, Australian physicist
 * Sundance Head (born 1979), American country singer and season 6 American Idol contestant, and winner of season 11 of The Voice
 * Sundance Kid (1867–1908), nickname of Harry Longabaugh

Films

 * Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969), an American Western film
 * Sundance and the Kid (1969), a spaghetti Western film

Music

 * "Sun Dance" (song), by Tomahawk
 * Sun Dance (album), by Aimer
 * Sundance (album), by Chick Corea
 * The Sundance Kids, an Australian pop rock band

Sundance Group

 * Sundance Group, an umbrella corporation run by Robert Redford with subsidiaries:
 * Sundance Film Festival, held annually in Utah
 * Sundance Institute, a center located in Utah's Wasatch Mountains that allows emerging filmmakers to cultivate their craft
 * Sundance TV (formerly known as Sundance Channel), an American digital cable and satellite television and film network owned by AMC Networks
 * Sundance Resort, a ski resort located outside of Provo, UT

Other arts, entertainment, and media

 * Sundance (video game), released in 1979
 * Sundance, a pony character in My Little Pony
 * Butch Cassidy (TV series), a.k.a. Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kids, a Hanna-Barbera animated series 1979

Transport

 * Sundance (charter vessel), on the River Thames
 * Sundance, a call sign used by aircraft of the now-defunct WestAir Commuter Airlines
 * Plymouth Sundance, a car made by Chrysler Corporation from 1987 to 1994
 * Sun Dance 36, a French sailboat design

Other uses

 * Gaillardia pulchella, North American flowering plant
 * Sundance Formation: a formation of rocks from North America's Jurassic period
 * Sundance Resources, an Australian mining company

title: Sundance


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User talk:Cheerhermione101

'Bold text Hey yalls, I'm jessica. I am a big hermione fan and also love the show zoey 101. My fav. Sport is cheerleading..and I was co-capt and soon to be capt..very impresdsing huh?! 'Italic text

title: User talk:Cheerhermione101


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Doki-Doki (short film)

Doki-Doki is a Japanese short film that addresses the themes of isolation and disconnectness amidst the crowded subways cars of Japan. It was released in 2003 and directed by Chris Eska. Doki-Doki had its premiere U.S. broadcast on PBS's Independent Lens series on December 21, 2004 (introduction by Susan Sarandon).

Cast

 * Endo Yumi as Yumi
 * Hayato Sugano as Yosuke
 * Sae Takenaka as Makiko
 * Haruki Iwakiri as Narrator

Crew

 * Chris Eska, Director, Writer, Editor
 * Megumi Kano, Producer
 * Aya Mitsuhashi, Producer
 * Yasu Tanida, Director of Photography

title: Doki-Doki (short film)


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Adwait parker

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. — Xezbeth 06:46, Jun 18, 2005 (UTC)

Adwait parker
Looks like vanity to me. Google gives ~250 hits, but most seem to be forum postings or lists of debate results. --Xcali 16:33, 6 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * Delete, blatany vanity. Dunc|☺ 16:46, 6 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete high school vanity. --Etacar11 20:23, 6 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete vanity/hoax. The creator is a known vandal and this article hasn't been his only mischeif today.  See User_talk:204.108.80.10 for more on his latest "contributions".   Tobycat 04:17, 7 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages.  Please do not edit this page .


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Talk:Driving under the influence

Pdf
Pdf 2409:4043:81D:D539:C2C8:527A:A1A:F2D9 (talk) 17:03, 3 January 2022 (UTC)
 * Sorry - what issue with the article are you raising? Singularity42 (talk) 17:24, 3 January 2022 (UTC)

5 ng/ml
"Colorado law states that "drivers with five nanograms of active tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in their whole blood can be prosecuted for driving under the influence (DUI)."

"For example, in Illinois it is illegal to operate a motor vehicle with a THC level of 5 nanograms or more per milliliter of whole blood"

Should that be 5 ng/ml for Colorado, too, or is it really 5 ng in the whole blood of the body (roughly 5 litres (11 US pt) or 1.3 gallons)?

And which USAnian understands ng/ml? That should be something like 22/4294967296 oz/fl. oz ;).

Darsie42 (talk) 00:06, 12 March 2022 (UTC)

"Wet reckless" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect Wet reckless and has thus listed it for discussion. This discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2022 April 14 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Pabsoluterince (talk) 12:12, 14 April 2022 (UTC)

alt names
Hey, @Arllaw, ten bolded alt names seems excessive in the lead. Do we even have a citation for booze cruising, for example? I'm also thinking we don't need every redirect bolded?

Maybe we could move them to a 'Names' section, per MOS:ALTNAME when there are more than three? Valereee (talk) 01:17, 6 February 2023 (UTC)

 * I've BOLDly done that. LMK what you think. Valereee (talk) 01:52, 6 February 2023 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Legal Research
— Assignment last updated by User78632 (talk) 15:34, 10 November 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Driving under the influence


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David Marshall (British politician)

David Marshall (born 7 May 1941) is a British Labour politician who served as the Member of Parliament (MP) for Glasgow Shettleston from 1979 to 2005, then for Glasgow East from 2005 to 2008.

Marshall was educated variously at the Larbert High School, Denny High School, Woodside Senior Secondary School and Falkirk High School.

Marshall has been a member of the Transport and General Workers' Union since 1960 and a member of the Labour Party since 1962. He worked in Glasgow as a Labour Party organiser from 1969, before becoming a full-time councillor. He was for three years, from 1972 a member of Glasgow City Council, and a member of Strathclyde Regional Council from 1974 until his election to Parliament.

He was elected as a Labour MP at the 1979 general election for Glasgow Shettleston following the retirement of Myer Galpern. He represented that constituency from then until the 2005 election, at which point he was elected from Glasgow East. He did not reach the front bench in his long parliamentary career, but served on many select committees, including chairing both the Transport (1987–1992) and Scotland committees (1992–1997). He was latterly a member of the Chairman's Panel.

On 27 June 2008 it was reported that he would stand down due to ill health. These reports have also linked his ill health with stress brought on by predictions that his parliamentary expenses were to be investigated. On 30 June he was appointed Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of Northstead, confirming his resignation.

He is married with a son and a daughter.

title: David Marshall (British politician)


text: File:Jacques Labillardière.jpg

title: File:Jacques Labillardière.jpg


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D'Estienne d'Orves

D'Estienne d'Orves may refer to:

 * Several members of the Estienne Family, among whom:
 * Thomas d'Estienne d'Orves (1727–1782), Navy officer
 * Henri Honoré d'Estienne d'Orves (1901–1941), Navy officer and hero of the French Resistance
 * Nicolas d'Estienne d'Orves (born 1974), a French journalist

 * D'Estienne d'Orves-class aviso, a warship class named in honour of Henri Honoré d'Estienne d'Orves

title: D'Estienne d'Orves


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Social conflict

Social conflict is the struggle for agency or power in society. Social conflict occurs when two or more people oppose each other in social interaction, and each exerts social power with reciprocity in an effort to achieve incompatible goals but prevent the other from attaining their own. It is a social relationship in which action is intentionally oriented to carry out the actor's own will despite the resistance of others.

Conflict theory
Conflict theory emphasizes interests, rather than norms and values, in conflict. The pursuit of interests generates various types of conflict, which is thus seen as a normal aspect of social life, rather than an abnormal occurrence. Competition over resources is often the cause of conflict. The theory has three tenets:

 * Society is composed of different groups, which compete for resources.
 * Societies may portray a sense of co-operation, but there is a continual power struggle between social groups as they pursue their own interests. Within societies, certain groups control specific resources and means of production.
 * Social groups will use resources to their own advantage in the pursuit of their goals and often take advantage of those who lack control over resources. As a result, many dominated groups will struggle with other groups in an attempt to gain control. Most the time, the groups with the most resources will gain or maintain power since they have the resources to support their power. The idea that those who have control will maintain control is known as the Matthew effect.

One branch of conflict theory is critical criminology, a term based upon the view that the fundamental cause of crime is oppression, which results from social and economic forces operating within a given society. The perspective stems from the German philosopher Karl Marx, who viewed the justice system and the laws to favour the rich and the powerful in a society and for the poor to be punished far more severely for much smaller crimes.

Karl Marx
In his Critique of the Political Economy, Karl Marx noted:

"In the social production of their existence, men inevitably enter into definite relations, which are independent of their will, namely the economic structure of society, the real foundation, on which arises a legal and political superstructure and to which correspond definite forms of social consciousness. The mode of production of material life conditions the general process of social, political and intellectual life. It is not the consciousness of men that determines their existence, but their social existence that determines their consciousness. At some stage of development, the material productive forces of society come into conflict with the existing relations of production or – this merely expresses the same thing in legal terms – with the property relations within the framework of which they have operated hitherto. From forms of development of the productive forces these relations turn into their fetters (legcuffs). Then begins an era of social revolution. The changes in the economic foundation lead sooner or later to the transformation of the whole immense superstructure.

In studying such transformations it is always necessary to distinguish between the material transformation of the economic conditions of production, which can be determined with the precision of natural science, and the legal, political, religious, artistic or philosophic – in short, ideological forms in which men become conscious of this conflict and fight it out. Just as one does not judge an individual by what he thinks about himself, so one cannot judge such a period of transformation by its consciousness, but, on the contrary, this consciousness must be explained from the contradictions of material life, from the conflict existing between the social forces of production and the relations of production. No social order is ever destroyed before all the productive forces for which it is sufficient to have been developed, and new superior relations of production never replace older ones before the material conditions for their existence have matured within the framework of the old society.

Mankind thus inevitably sets itself only such tasks as it is able to solve since closer examination will always show that the problem itself arises only when the material conditions for its solution are already present or at least in the course of formation. In broad outline, the Asiatic, ancient, feudal and modern bourgeois modes of production may be designated as epochs marking progress in the economic development of society. The bourgeois mode of production is the last antagonistic form of the social process of production – antagonistic not in the sense of individual antagonism but of an antagonism that emanates from the individuals' social conditions of existence – but the productive forces developing within bourgeois society create also the material conditions for a solution of this antagonism. The prehistory of human society accordingly closes with this social formation."

Marx, a German revolutionary, emphasized his materialist views on ownership and means of production. He argued that what is most valued is a result of human labour, and he founded his ideas based on a capitalistic community, with most money being owned by only a few people. That causes a distinction between the class of the industrialists and that of the working class. The few industrialists own the means of production. The working class earns wages by selling its labour. Problems become noticeable because the upper class wants to get the most production for the least money. Surplus value is created, which the profit held onto by the industrialists from by workers producing more than the employers actually need to repay the cost of hiring labourers. Another occurrence is exploitation, which is workers receiving less money than the worth of their labour. Marx believed that the gap between industrialists and the labourers would continue to grow. The industrialists would continue to become more wealthy, and the labourers would continue to become poorer. Conflict theory is seen throughout relationships and interactions between two groups of people including races, opposite sexes, and religions.

Max Weber and Karl Marx have two different approaches to the conflict theory. Marx supported the ideas of deviance and claimed that individuals choose to engage in such rebellious and conflicting behaviour as a response to the inequalities of the capitalist system. Weber discussed the conflict of stratification and its effects on power in society and stressed property, prestige, and power to be the main influences to the conflicting behaviours of groups in society.

Marx argued: "The worker becomes all the poorer the more wealth he produces, the more his production increases in power and range. The worker becomes an ever cheaper commodity the more commodities he creates. With the increasing value of the world of things proceeds in direct proportion to the devaluation of the world of men. Labour produces not only commodities; it produces itself and the worker as a commodity -- and does so in the proportion in which it produces commodities generally."

A commodity is a social use value produced by its owner not for personal consumption but for exchange. Marx believed that an entrepreneur must keep up with more things as his company and power expand. That becomes more difficult each time his range of power increases. Eventually, he will become a commodity by no longer being able to keep up with the business and will have to put it up for sale on the market.

Other scholars
Lewis A. Coser disagrees with most other American sociologists and contends that they have badly neglected and misunderstood the concept and function of social conflict. He defines social conflict as "a struggle over the values and claims to scarce status, power and resources in which the aims of the opponents are to neutralize, injure, or eliminate their rivals".

Here are some types of social conflict:
 * conflict involving social positions
 * conflict of interest
 * role conflict, which involve social roles

title: Social conflict


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Route 10A (Vermont–New Hampshire)

Route 10A is a 1.070 mi east-west highway connecting the towns of Norwich, Vermont and Hanover, New Hampshire. The route exists as Vermont Route 10A and New Hampshire Route 10A, with each designation carrying about half of the route's length. The route begins in Norwich at an interchange with Interstate 91 and U.S. Route 5 and runs east, crossing the state line and continuing into downtown Hanover, where it ends at New Hampshire Route 10.

Route 10A is a spur route of New Hampshire Route 10 and its extension in Vermont is unrelated to Vermont Route 10.

Route description
VT 10A begins at the exit 13 interchange where I-91 and US 5 meet south of the town of Norwich. From this interchange, it heads east towards the Connecticut River for 0.52 mi. It crosses the Ledyard Bridge over the river and enters Hanover, New Hampshire where it becomes NH 10A (West Wheelock Street). NH 10A continues east for 0.54 mi before ending at NH 10 in downtown Hanover near Dartmouth College.

NH 10A is the shortest state highway in New Hampshire.

title: Route 10A (Vermont–New Hampshire)