text:
Ernst Ahl

Christoph Gustav Ernst Ahl (1 September 1898 – 14 February 1945) was a German zoologist, born in Berlin.

He was the director of the department of ichthyology and herpetology in the Museum für Naturkunde.

He was also the editor in chief of the review Das Aquarium from 1927 to 1934.

During World War II, Ahl fought in the ranks of the Wehrmacht - in Poland, North Africa, and later, Yugoslavia. He was executed while in refuge in Yugoslavia, after the partisans found out he was a German.

He performed one of the first studies on bearded dragons determining what genus they belong to.

Ahl is commemorated in the scientific names of two species of lizards: Anolis ahli and Emoia ahli. The latter is a synonym of Emoia battersbyi.

title: Ernst Ahl


text:
Martyrdom of Polycarp

Martyrdom of Polycarp is a manuscript written in the form of a letter that relates the religious martyrdom of Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna (the site of the modern city of İzmir, Turkey) and disciple of John the Apostle in the 2nd centuryAD. It forms the earliest account of Christian martyrdom outside of the New Testament. The author of Martyrdom of Polycarp is unknown, but it has been attributed to members of the group of early Christian theologians known as the Church Fathers. The letter, sent from the church in Smyrna to another church in Asia Minor at Philomelium, is partly written from the point of view of an eye-witness, recounting the arrest of the elderly Polycarp, the Romans' attempt to execute him by fire, and subsequent miraculous events.

The letter takes influence from both Jewish martyrdom texts in the Old Testament and the Gospels. Furthermore, the Martyrdom of Polycarp promotes an ideology of martyrdom, by delineating the proper conduct of a martyr.

Content
The author writes in praise of martyrdom and deplores a would-be martyr who instead made sacrifice to the Roman gods to save his life. Polycarp, retiring in the countryside at 86 years of age, has a prophetic vision, and awakens realizing he must be burnt alive. Similar to Jesus, there is a betrayal to the authorities, and Polycarp comes forward so that two associates might be freed. Polycarp is brought to a stadium in Smyrna and encouraged to swear by Caesar and thus affirm that the emperor was a god. Polycarp declines, and the officials attempt to burn him alive. However, the fire miraculously avoids him in a circle, merely giving him a heavenly glow. Instead, Polycarp is stabbed; his blood goes everywhere, extinguishing the fire. The Jews influence the governor to burn the body so as to remove all evidence and avoid his body becoming a shrine. The author concludes by praising Polycarp and martyrs in general.

Manuscript tradition
Modern critical editions of the Martyrdom of Polycarp (MartPol) are compiled from three different categories of manuscript: seven Greek manuscripts, the fourth century Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius of Caesarea, and a single Latin manuscript. The Greek manuscripts are all from the tenth to the thirteenth centuries. Of the seven manuscripts, six provide a similar account of the martyrdom of Polycarp and are thus believed to represent a single family of texts. The seventh manuscript, however, known as the Moscow Codex and dating to the thirteenth century, contains a more elaborate final chapter (22.2–3).

In addition to the Greek manuscripts there are also the writings of Eusebius related in his Ecclesiastical History, written around AD 324–325. Eusebius heavily summarizes the martyrdom and ends his account at 19.1, omitting the concluding sections that relate the transmission of the text, as well as the passion narrative parallels.

The Latin version of the Martyrdom dating from the tenth century exists as another account of the martyrdom but does not offer any variance upon the text. There is also an Old Church Slavonic translation.

Date
Little corroborating evidence exists to assist in the dating of the Martyrdom of Polycarp, although Moss has suggested a date around 200AD or later. Alternatively, historians have attempted to assign a date to the actual death of Polycarp. Various dates have been proposed for Polycarp's death:
 * Estimated as 155AD or 156AD (and no later than 160AD) due to the known proconsuls of Asia, such as Quadratus and the chronological statements in MartPol 21. (Waddington, Turner, Schwartz, Barnes, Dehandschutter, et al.)
 * 167AD due to Eusebius dating of MartPol to the seventh year of the reign of Marcus Aurelius. (Telfer, Marrou, Campenhausen, Brind’Amour, et al.)
 * 177AD as argued by Grégoire and Orgels that the phrase "seventh year" in Eusebius's account is miswritten and means the "seventeenth year" of Marcus Aurelius.

Historicity
The Martyrdom of Polycarp, along with other documents of the Apostolic Fathers, plays a central role in bridging the New Testament and emerging Christian writers in the latter half of the second century, such as Justin Martyr and Irenaeus. In his youth he is said to have known the apostles and in his later years also Irenaeus.

A challenge to the dates could well call into question the authenticity of the document itself. Part of the skepticism regarding the MartPol text has centered on the number of parallels with the passion narratives of the Gospels, including Polycarp's prediction of his capture and death (5.2), the eirenarch named Herod (6.2), the arrest of Polycarp "with weapons as if he were a criminal" (7.1), and Polycarp being carried on a donkey back to Smyrna (8.1), miraculous occurrences such as the 'voice from heaven' urging Polycarp to 'Be strong and be a man!' (9.1). On the other hand, the fact of an overlay of interpretation does not necessarily in itself invalidate the historicity. Moreover, none of the non-miraculous elements are completely implausible; the name Herod, for example, is a common name for an aristocratic Jew and the association of Christians with donkeys is well documented.

The most difficult aspect of the narrative to accept as authentic is its treatment of Roman legal proceedings. Polycarp's trial is represented as taking place before one of the leading magistrates of the Empire on a public holiday, in the middle of a sport stadium, with no use of the tribunal, no formal legal accusation, and no official sentence. Though the trials of Christians, and of all subjects for that matter, were subject to the governor's procedural method of cognitio extra ordinem, this still does not explain the lack of a formal legal accusation and sentence. This lack of information muddles the case that the account is historically reliable; Roman capital trial procedure would presumably have been well known to the population of the time. The Martyrdom of Polycarp is also a theological composition designed to support a particular understanding of martyrdom in relation to the Christian Gospel; the question is how much, if any, of the narrative is from a historical base, and how much was modified or outright invented for theological purposes.

Literary form
The Martyrdom of Polycarp is recognized as taking on two literary forms. It is simultaneously considered to be a letter as well as a martyr act.

Letter
The construction of the text follows an epistolary format. Specifically, it is a letter sent by the church in Smyrna to the church in Philomelium but was meant to be circulated to all the congregations in the region. The letter abides by the following structure: an initial greeting and blessing (1.1-2), followed by the body of material about the story of Polycarp's death (5.1-18.3), and a closing afterwards (19.1-20.2). By the second century, the authority of Paul the apostle and his epistles to the congregations had already been established. Thus the epistolary form was well recognized and used in early Christian literature.

Martyr acts
The Martyrdom of Polycarp is also the earliest of the martyr acts as a genre in the ancient Christian tradition. This martyrdom theme enters Christian literature through the early Jewish martyrs' literature found in 2 Maccabees 6–7, in the Old Testament, and through the account of the death of Stephen in Acts 7 in the New Testament. The motifs of complete surrendering of will, and a steadfast behavior in the face of suffering are common in these acts would become popular events in the mindset of Christians who were persecuted.

Martyrdom ideology
In addition to attempting to edify its audience, the MartPol advances an argument for a particular understanding of martyrdom, with Polycarp's death as its prized example. The letter begins with an opposition of two martyr examples in which one is marked as good, and the other as bad. These examples are in sections 2-4 of the letter, where the noble Germanicus of Smyrna is praised for his steadfast example, as well the example of Quintus who expressed an urge for martyrdom and sought it out. Polycarp thus serves as a testimony of proper discipleship and imitation of the Lord in his martyrdom.

“Blessed and noble, therefore, are all the martyrdoms that have occurred according to the will of God. For we must be reverent and attribute the ultimate authority to God.” (2.1)

Parallels with the passion narrative of Jesus Christ provide validation and value to the death of Polycarp. This imitatio Christi comes to be central to this ideology of martyrdom. It is thus the completion of this imitation through death, as did Christ, that makes the witness a martyr.

Relation to Scripture
The author of the Martyrdom displays significant knowledge of the scriptures. Beginning with the case of the Old Testament which is rooted in Jewish martyrology. In regards to the New Testament we find more references. The most prominent among them being the blessing at the end of the introduction (parallel to Jude 2), the charge to think always of others in 1.2 (parallel to Philippians 2:4), the recollection of the mystical visions of the martyrs in 2.3 (parallel to 1 Corinthians 2:9), the warning that Christians should not seek martyrdom in 4.1 (parallel to Matthew 10:23), the account of Polycarp's submission to the authorities in 7.1 (parallel to Acts 21:14) and finally the observation that governing authorities receive their power from God in 10.2 (parallel to Romans 13:1 and 1 Peter 2:13-14).

The letter draws significant and deep parallels to the gospels. These examples include: Such correspondence between these events and those of the canonical passion narratives might cast doubt on the former's historical veracity. Other scholars have argued that it is difficult to establish dependence on particular New Testament texts and have pointed to the influence of Greek philosophy and early Christian Biblical interpretation on the account.
 * (7.2-3) Polycarp serving as a host for a final meal and agonizing in prayer before his arrest (Matthew 26:36-46)
 * (8.1) Escort back to Smyrna on a donkey (Matthew 21:1-11)
 * (9.2-10.1) Interrogation by a high Roman authority (John 18:28)
 * (6.1-2) Betrayal by a friend, a Judas figure (Matthew 26:47-49)
 * (8.2-3) Interrogation by Herod (Luke 23:6-12)
 * (7.2) Host at a final meal (Matthew 26:17-29)
 * (12.2-13.1) Jews inciting death of Polycarp (John 19:12-16)
 * (5.1) Prayer for churches (John 17:1-26)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Martyrdom of Polycarp


text:
Battle of Posada

The Battle of Posada (9–12 November 1330) was fought between Basarab I of Wallachia and Charles I of Hungary (also known as Charles Robert).

The small Wallachian army led by Basarab, formed of cavalry and foot archers, as well as local peasants, managed to ambush and defeat the 30,000-strong Hungarian army, in a mountainous region.

The battle resulted in a major Wallachian victory. Sălăgean writes that the victory "sanctioned the independence of Wallachia from the Hungarian crown" and altered its international status. Georgescu describes Wallachia as the "first independent Romanian principality." Although the kings of Hungary continued to demand loyalty from the voivodes of Wallachia, Basarab and his successors yielded to them only temporarily in the 14th century.

Background
Some historians claim that the Cumans aided the Wallachians in the battle. Still in the Hungarian army there was a substantial Cuman-Hungarian contingent so this variant is very improbable. In 1324, Wallachia was a vassal of Hungary, and Charles referred to Basarab as "our Transalpine Voivode".

The war started with encouragement from the Voivode of Transylvania and a certain Dionisie, who later bore the title Ban of Severin. In 1330, Charles captured the long disputed Wallachian citadel of Severin and handed it to the Transylvanian Voivode.

Basarab sent envoys who asked for the hostilities to cease, and in return offered to pay 7,000 marks in silver, submit the fortress of Severin to Charles, and send his own son as hostage. According to the Viennese Illuminated Chronicle, a contemporary account, Charles said about Basarab: "He is the shepherd of my sheep, and I will take him out of his mountains, dragging him by his beard." Another account writes that Charles said that: "...he will drag the Voivode from his cottage, as would any driver his oxen or shepherd his sheep".

The King's councillors begged him to accept the offer or give a milder reply, but he refused and led his 30,000-strong army deeper into Wallachia "without proper supplies or adequate reconnaissance".

Charles entered Curtea de Argeș, the main city of the Wallachian state. Basarab having fled into the mountains, Charles decided to give chase. After many days of difficult marching in the Carpathian Mountains, the king and Basarab agreed to an armistice, with the condition that the latter would provide guides who knew the way out of the mountains and would lead the army back to the Hungarian plain by the shortest route.

When the army entered a ravine, the Wallachians started to attack them from all sides, shooting arrows and pelting them with trees and stones. The army of Charles Robert was however decisively defeated following heavy hand to hand combat during the last two days of the battle.

Battle

The location of the battle is still debated among historians. One theory gives the location of the battle at Loviștea, in some mountain gorges, in the Olt Defile, Transylvania. However, Romanian historian Neagu Djuvara denies this and states that the location of the battle was somewhere at the border between Oltenia and Severin.

The Hungarian royal army was made up of ecclesiastics and laymen with military duties. They were joined by Székelys and the Transylvanian Saxons (except the Saxons of Sibiu, who supported Basarab and refused to join Charles' army), as well as numerous units of mercenaries and "countless numbers of Cumans". Stephen Lackfi was named the commander of the army.

The Wallachian army, led by Basarab himself, probably numbered less than 10,000 men and consisted of cavalry, infantry, archers, and some locally recruited peasants. When Charles saw his best knights being killed, without being able to fight back, while the escape routes were blocked by the Wallachian cavalry, he gave his royal robes and insignia to one Desev, son of Dionysius – "who dies under a hail of arrows and stones" – and, with a few loyal subjects, made a difficult escape to Visegrád "clad in dirty civilian clothes".

Charles later recounted in detail, in a charter of 13 December 1335, how one "Nicholas, son of Radoslav", saved his life by defending him from the swords of five Wallachian warriors, giving him enough time to escape.

Aftermath
"The Vlachs carried many away captive, both wounded and uninjured, and from the bodies of the fallen they took many weapons and much precious raiment, money in silver and gold, costly vessels and baldrics, many purses heavy with coins, and many horses with saddles and bridles, all which they carried away and gave to the Voivode Basarab."

- The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle

The victory represented the survival of the Wallachian state, as well as the beginning of a period of tense relations between Basarab and the Kingdom of Hungary, which lasted until 1344, when Basarab sent his son Alexandru in order to re-establish a relationship between the two states.

Because of its large financial power, the Kingdom of Hungary quickly rebuilt its army and found itself in conflict with the Holy Roman Empire in 1337. However, the Hungarian king maintained a de jure suzerainty over Wallachia until the diplomatic disputes had been resolved.

title: Battle of Posada


text:
Talk:Ghost Reveries

Credits
All vocals on the album are credited to Mikael Åkerfeldt, so I'll delete 'backing vocals' from Per Wiberg's credits, he plays the keyboards only. If anyone objects, explain.

Death vocals
Is it really necessary to say that the grunting 'returns' here? The articles for Deliverance and Damnation clearly say that they were meant to contrast each other, with Damnation being the mellow album and Deliverance the heavy album, and there wasn't really any doubt that the grunting wouldn't continue to be part of Opeth. It's a bit of an ambiguous sentence. --84.25.225.228 20:34, 9 January 2007 (UTC)
 * agree--Sheish 6 Sheish 01:38, 21 September 2008 (UTC) —Preceding unsigned comment added by Sheish (talk • contribs)

Harlequin Forest - Time
The song Harlequin Forest is said to be "11:39 (actually 12:43)" long. Could we decide which one to use? I mean, if the time really is 12:43, then why not use that one instead of the 11:39er? --Coldfox 11:43, 19 August 2007 (UTC)

 * This is because of the prelude in the beginning of the track, as opposed to the actual start of the song. —Ƿōdenhelm (talk) 10:38, 14 September 2008 (UTC)

I know it doesn't follow the actual track listing on the reverse of the CD, but as this is encyclopedic knowledge, shouldn't it read:

 * 4. Atonement 5:19
 * Reverie 1:04
 * 5. Harlequin Forest 11:39

One of the notes already explains the pre-gap situation. Kerαunoςcopia 00:21, 2 November 2009 (UTC)
 * I think the cleaned up note on Reverie does its job suitably. – Kerαunoςcopia  09:00, 27 November 2009 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Opeth-Ghost Reveries (Special Edition Cover).jpg
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Reference for Stormbringer claim
"Stormbringer ... Note: This is the first Opeth recording to feature Martin Axenrot on drums, which was also a live in-studio recording." Is there a reference? AndrewAntle (talk) 18:33, 24 October 2009 (UTC)

Addition of Gothic Metal Genre
The album's primary genre is still Progressive Death Metal, but along with Progressive Rock, Gothic Metal should be included as the albums secondary genre. The album contains a moderately strong Gothic Metal elements in several sections of the album. Example: The middle of "The Baying of The Hounds". —Preceding unsigned comment added by Anathema 1001 (talk • contribs) 07:52, 15 May 2010 (UTC)

Introduction
"This album is similar in style to Deliverance." Says who? 166.181.2.47 (talk) 19:40, 13 November 2011 (UTC)

Genres
I have removed progressive rock as I think this album should be categorised the same way as the bands previous albums and progressive death metal should be enough and Watershed was the bands first proper progressive rock album. Lukejordan02 (talk) 19:12, 1 June 2014 (UTC)
 * Can you provide a source saying that Watershed was the band's first proper progressive rock album? The Popmatters review says: "Unlike Ghost Reveries, which comfortably, and impeccably, amalgamated the various sounds and textures Opeth had been toying with for a decade into a spellbinding realization of the band’s signature sound, Watershed is a major turning point for the band, as they’ve now made a significant shift towards the progressive rock sounds of 35 years ago, their extreme metal, which they used to be so firmly rooted in, now cleverly used more as a starting-off point than merely the groundwork of the music." This doesn't say that Ghost Reveries was not prog rock, just that Watershed very much was prog rock. I'm not necessarily saying that "progressive rock" should be kept, although there is some support for it in the Reception section ("was one of Classic Rock's 10 essential progressive rock albums of the decade"). But the reason given for removing it isn't so clear-cut and obvious. What we really need is sources for any genres added or already existing, and if none can be found in, say, a week, then remove the unsourced genres. MrMoustacheMM (talk) 19:31, 1 June 2014 (UTC)

I am going by what the Wikipedia page for Watershed says, look at the Watershed page and read the paragraph at the top and then tell me what you think. Lukejordan02 (talk) 19:34, 1 June 2014 (UTC)
 * I have. It's sourced to the above Popmatters review (see the review here). That's what I think. MrMoustacheMM (talk) 19:35, 1 June 2014 (UTC)

Ok, sorry my mistake. I think that if Ghost Reveries is labelled progressive rock than so should the bands previous albums (excluding the first 3) what do you think?
 * If sources can be found calling each of those albums "progressive rock", then yes. If not, no. MrMoustacheMM (talk) 19:46, 1 June 2014 (UTC)

Ok, sorry my mistake. I think that if Ghost Reveries is labelled progressive rock than so should the bands previous albums (excluding the first 3) what do you think?
 * If sources can be found calling each of those albums "progressive rock", then yes. If not, no. MrMoustacheMM (talk) 19:46, 1 June 2014 (UTC)

http://www.allmusic.com/album/still-life-mw0000000177 that is enough to cover "Still Life" for a start and can you reply to me on the "Heritage" board cheers. Lukejordan02 (talk) 19:55, 1 June 2014 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Ghost Reveries


text:
World Hello Day

World Hello Day is a secular holiday observed annually on November 21, to express that conflicts should be resolved through communication rather than the use of force. Participants verbally greet ten people or more on that day as an expression of the importance of personal communication in preserving peace. The annual global event began to be celebrated in 1973 as a response to the Yom Kippur War.

Background
Every year, November 21 is World Hello Day. The objective is to greet to at least ten people on the day. The message is for world leaders to use communication rather than force to settle conflicts.

World Hello Day was founded in 1973 by Brian McCormack, a Ph.D. graduate of Arizona State University, and Michael McCormack, a graduate of Harvard University, in response to the Yom Kippur War. The McCormack brothers mailed 1,360 letters in seven languages to government leaders worldwide to encourage participation in the first World Hello Day. Since that time, World Hello Day has been observed by people in 180 countries.

Any person can participate in World Hello Day simply by greeting ten people or more. This demonstrates the importance of personal communication for preserving peace. World Hello Day was begun in response to the conflict between Egypt and Israel in the fall of 1973. People around the world use the occasion of World Hello Day as an opportunity to express their concern for world peace. Beginning with a simple greeting on World Hello Day, their activities send a message to leaders, encouraging them to use communication rather than force to settle conflicts. In its first year, World Hello Day gained the support of 15 countries.

Winners of the Nobel Peace Prize are among the people who have noted World Hello Day's value as an instrument for preserving peace and as an occasion that makes it possible for anyone in the world to contribute to the process of creating peace. Other supporters include almost 100 authors, entertainers, and world leaders.

title: World Hello Day


text:
Wikipedia:Peer review/The Ashes/archive1

The Ashes
The Ashes is a famous cricket series between England and Australia. Would like feedback if this article is fully mature for an FA, or could do with some further edits. Would also like a view from those not familiar with cricket. = Nichalp ( Talk )= 11:49, Jun 2, 2005 (UTC)

 * A comment on images, they need to be verified and replaced if necessary, also the summary of results and statistics could use a graph or something visual. I'd consider moving the section on the trophy up to before the matches section. The article doesn't mention where the matches take place. --nixie 02:08, 3 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * Thanks for your suggestions. 1) I've removed the unverified images. 2) I've added two bar graphs of the series. 3) I tried to move the =trophy= up but found that it interrupted the flow of the text; so left it as it is. = Nichalp  ( Talk )= 09:25, Jun 3, 2005 (UTC)

 * Is there any chance you could upload it with "until" instead of "till"? Sorry to be a pedant, I just think it looks neater.  Cheers, smoddy 09:46, 3 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * "Till" is a perfectly good English word. Why shouldn't we use it, Sam? jguk

 * Because it is ugly! Sorry, I have a problem with keeping the English language pure...  smoddy 12:39, 3 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Oops I didn't save the file; I'd have to redo it from scratch. Is it absolutely necessary? = Nichalp ( Talk )= 13:19, Jun 3, 2005 (UTC)
 * I found a way out and modified the same. = Nichalp  ( Talk )= 13:35, Jun 3, 2005 (UTC)
 * PS: I've credited Smods in the upload summary :D

Teh graphs look good. You might want to get some fair use images to replace the ones that got the chop. :) --nixie 13:04, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Had a quick read - it's a nice article - and I have one or two polite suggestions. First, I'd put the section about the trophy near the top (I think that "The Ashes" refers mainly to the trophy rather than the series - as in "England have won the Ashes" [I can dream, can't I?] - and that the matches are referred to as "Ashes tests" or "Ashes series"). I'd remove the section on The Ashes today. Then the 2005 Ashes series would justify a subsection of its own (rather than being a sentence incorrectly placed under the heading of Steve Waugh's last, as now) in which the prestige of the contest and prospects for the series could be discussed (and progress updated). Could mention be made that one of the reasons The Ashes retains relevance is surely the Aussie love for pommie bashing?! --RobertG ♬ talk 14:36, 6 Jun 2005 (UTC)


text:
Tithonian

In the geological timescale, the Tithonian is the latest age of the Late Jurassic Epoch and the uppermost stage of the Upper Jurassic Series. It spans the time between 149.2 ±0.7 Ma and 145.0 ± 4 Ma (million years ago). It is preceded by the Kimmeridgian and followed by the Berriasian (part of the Cretaceous).

Stratigraphic definitions
The Tithonian was introduced in scientific literature by German stratigrapher Albert Oppel in 1865. The name Tithonian is unusual in geological stage names because it is derived from Greek mythology. Tithonus was the son of Laomedon of Troy and fell in love with Eos, the Greek goddess of dawn. His name was chosen by Albert Oppel for this stratigraphical stage because the Tithonian finds itself hand in hand with the dawn of the Cretaceous.

The base of the Tithonian stage is at the base of the ammonite biozone of Hybonoticeras hybonotum. A global reference profile (a GSSP or golden spike) for the base of the Tithonian had in 2009 not yet been established.

The top of the Tithonian stage (the base of the Berriasian Stage and the Cretaceous System) is marked by the first appearance of small globular calpionellids of the species Calpionella alpina, at the base of the Alpina Subzone.

Subdivision
The Tithonian is often subdivided into Lower/Early, Middle and Upper/Late substages or subages. The Late Tithonian is coeval with the Portlandian Age of British stratigraphy.

The Tithonian stage contains seven ammonite biozones in the Tethys domain, from top to base:
 * zone of Durangites
 * zone of Micracanthoceras micranthum
 * zone of Micracanthoceras ponti or Burckardticeras peroni
 * zone of Semiformiceras fallauxi
 * zone of Semiformiceras semiforme
 * zone of Semiformiceras darwini
 * zone of Hybonoticeras hybonotum

Sedimentary environments
Sedimentary rocks that formed in the Tethys Ocean during the Tithonian include limestones, which preserve fossilized remains of, for example, cephalopods. The Solnhofen limestone of southern Germany, which is known for its fossils (especially Archaeopteryx), is of Tithonian age.

Tithonian extinction
The later part of the Tithonian stage experienced an extinction event. It has been referred to as the Tithonian extinction,  Jurassic-Cretaceous (J–K) extinction,  or end-Jurassic extinction. This event was fairly minor and selective, by most metrics outside the top 10 largest extinctions since the Cambrian. Nevertheless, it was still one of the largest extinctions of the Jurassic Period, alongside the Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event (TOAE) in the Early Jurassic.

Cooling and sea level fall
The Tithonian extinction has not been studied in great detail, but it is usually attributed to habitat loss via a major marine regression (sea level fall). There is good evidence for a marine regression in Europe across the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary, which may explain the localized nature of the extinction. On the other hand, there is no clear consensus on a correlation between sea level and terrestrial diversity during the Jurassic and Cretaceous. Some authors support a fundamental correlation (the so-called "common cause hypothesis"), while others strongly voice doubts. Sea level fall was likely related to the Tithonian climate, which was substantially colder and drier than the preceding Kimmeridgian stage. Northern coral reef ecosystems, such as those of the European Tethys, would have been particularly vulnerable to global cooling during this time.

Volcanism or asteroid impacts
Few Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary sections are precisely associated with carbon isotope anomalies. Several Arctic outcrops show a moderate (up to 5‰) negative organic δ13C excursion in the middle part of the Tithonian. This excursion, sometimes called the Volgian Isotopic Carbon Excursion (VOICE), may be a consequence of volcanic activity. The Tithonian stage saw the emplacement of the Shatsky Rise, a massive volcanic plateau in the North Pacific. During the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous, numerous volcanic deposits can be found along the margin of Gondwana, which was beginning to fragment into smaller continents.

Three large impact craters have been tentatively dated to the Tithonian: the Morokweng Impact Structure (South Africa, 80+ km diameter), Mjølnir crater (Barents Sea, 40 km diameter), and Gosses Bluff crater (Australia, 22 km diameter). These impacts would have caused local devastation, but likely had minimal impact on global ecosystems. Most volcanic events or extraterrestrial impacts in the Late Jurassic were concentrated around Gondwana, in contrast to the extinction event, which was centered on Laurasian ecosystems.

Sampling bias
It has been suggested that the putative extinction is a consequence of sampling biases. The Late Jurassic is packed with marine lagerstätten, exceptionally diverse and well-preserved fossil beds. A lack of earliest Cretaceous marine lagerstätten may appear as a loss of diversity, simply looking at the raw data alone. Sampling bias may also explain apparent extinctions in terrestrial environments, which have a similar disconnect in fossil abundance. This is most obvious in sauropod-bearing deposits, which are abundant in the Late Jurassic and rare in the earliest Cretaceous. Most studies relevant to the Tithonian extinction attempt to counteract sampling biases when estimating diversity loss or extinction rates. Depending on the sampling method or the taxonomic group, the Tithonian extinction may still be apparent even once sampling biases are accounted for.

Impact on life
In 1986, Jack Sepkoski argued that the Late Tithonian extinction was the largest extinction event between the end of the Triassic and the end of the Cretaceous. He estimated that a staggering 37% of genera died out during the Tithonian stage. Benton (1995) found a lower estimate, with the extinction of 5.6 to 13.3% of genera in the Tithonian. Proportional extinction was higher for continental genera (5.8–17.6%) than marine genera (5.1–6.1%). Sepkoski (1996) estimated that about 18% of multiple-interval marine genera (those originating prior to the Tithonian) died out in the Tithonian. Based on an updated version of Sepkoski's genera compendium, Bambach (2006) found a similar estimate of 20% of genera going extinct in the Late Tithonian.

Invertebrates
European bivalve diversity is severely depleted across the J–K boundary. However, bivalve fossils from the Andes and Siberia show little ecological turnover, so bivalve extinctions may have localized to the Tethys Sea. Only a fraction of Jurassic ammonite species survive to the Cretaceous, though extinction rates were actually lower in the late Tithonian relative to adjacent time intervals. Moderate diversity declines have been estimated or observed in gastropods, brachiopods, radiolarians, crustaceans, and scleractinian corals. This may have been related to the replacement of Jurassic-style coral reefs by Cretaceous-style rudist reefs. Reef decline was likely a gradual process, stretched out between the Oxfordian stage and the Valanginian stage.

Marine vertebrates
Marine actinopterygians (ray-finned fishes) show elevated extinction rates across the Tithonian-Berriasian boundary. Most losses were quickly offset by substantial diversification in the Early Cretaceous. Sharks, rays, and freshwater fishes were nearly unaffected by the extinction.

Marine reptiles were strongly affected by the Tithonian extinction. Thalassochelydians, the most prominent Jurassic clade of marine turtles, were pushed to the brink of extinction. Only a single thalassochelydian fossil (an indeterminate skull from the Purbeck Group of England) is known from the Cretaceous. Among plesiosaurs, only a few species of Pliosauridae and Cryptoclididae persisted, and they too would die out in the Early Cretaceous. Conversely, the Tithonian extinction acted as a trigger for a Cretaceous diversification event for plesiosaurs in the clade Xenopsaria, namely elasmosaurids and leptocleidians. This turnover of marine reptile faunas may be a consequence of the turnover of reefs and marine fishes, which would have benefited generalized predators more than specialists.

It has long been suggested that ichthyosaurs and marine teleosauroid crocodyliforms declined across the J–K boundary, with the latter group even going extinct. More recent finds suggest that ichthyosaurs diversity remained stable or even increased in the Early Cretaceous. Early Cretaceous ichthyosaur fossils are rare enough that this hypothesis is still a matter of debate. European teleosauroids did indeed suffer total extinction, but teleosauroids as a whole survived into the Early Cretaceous in other parts of the world. Metriorhynchoids, the other major group of marine crocodyliforms, were not strongly affected by the Tithonian extinction.

Terrestrial vertebrates
On land, sauropod dinosaur diversity was significantly reduced according to many  (but not all) estimates. Diplodocids, basal macronarians, and mamenchisaurids took the brunt of the extinction, though a few species of each group survived to the Early Cretaceous. Conversely, rebbachisaurids and somphospondyls saw the opportunity to diversify in the Cretaceous. Turiasaurs also survived the extinction and even expanded into North America during the Early Cretaceous. Theropod diversity declined through the entire Late Jurassic, with medium-sized predators such as megalosaurids being the hardest hit. Ornithischian (particularly stegosaur) diversity saw a small drop across the J–K boundary. Theropod and ornithischian extinctions were notably less pronounced than in sauropods.

Most non-pterodactyloid pterosaurs perished by the end of the Jurassic. Practically no earliest Cretaceous sites are known to preserve pterosaur fossils, so the precise timing of non-pterodactyloid extinctions is very uncertain. Coastal and freshwater crocodyliforms experienced high extinction rates across the J–K boundary, preceding a significant diversification of more terrestrially-adapted metasuchians in the Cretaceous. Coastal and freshwater turtle diversity also declined, at least in Europe. Many tetrapod groups saw strong (albeit gradual) ecological turnover through the J-K boundary. These groups include lissamphibians, lepidosaurs, choristoderes, and mammaliaforms.

Literature

 * 🇦🇹; (2004): A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.
 * 🇦🇹; 1865: Die Tithonische Etage, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft, 1865: pp 535–558.

title: Tithonian


text:
User:Adeadcat

A Dead Cat
"I answered that it seemed to me that the war might go on forever, and that I was only certain that if peace ever came again I would like to be a dead cat." -Seymore in "Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters," by J.D. Salinger

"...in Zen Buddhism a master was once asked what was the most valuable thing in the world, and the master answer that a dead cat was, because no one could put a price on it." -Seymore in "Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters," by J.D. Salinger

Who? The reactionist.

What? Seek knowledge through debate, intelligence through diligence, and commonality with no one.

How? I am exactly like everyone else because my non-conformity has come full circle. I have ceased to think because my level of free thought has reached the point of inaction. I am God because nobody else wants the job. I am therefore I think I am.

...and if you don't like it, you can stick it in your eye.

Rock the face.

title: User:Adeadcat


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Steve Ullinger

 This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion of the article below. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was - deleted - SimonP 00:29, Jun 16, 2005 (UTC)

Steve Ullinger
The main claim to notability appears to be being arrested for disorderly conduct. I don't think that's enough to merit inclusion here, although I could be wrong. I think this should be deleted... Sjakkalle 11:53, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, agree with Sjakkalle's assessment. Kappa 12:43, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Happens every day, - see COPS. -- BD2412 talk 13:17, 2005 Jun 2 (UTC)
 * Delete If anybody ever brings up that line about notability not being a requirement for Wikipedia, this might be a good article to remind them of. Andrew Lenahan - St ar bli nd 14:15, Jun 2, 2005 (UTC)
 * But if we want to remind people of, and refer people to, this article, we cannot delete it can we? :-) Sjakkalle (Check!) 14:40, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * The text could be moved off of the main namespace (user page, this page, relevant WP:whatever pages) so as to preserve it as such an example. However, only the first sentence ("Steve Ullinger is a guy from Kent, OH who was arrested by the police for disorderly conduct") is verifiable. -- Jonel 16:05, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. No assertion of notability.  Wikibofh 14:55, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete - do I get a Wikipedia article if I get arrested for disorderly conduct? :) Thue | talk 20:49, 2 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete nn. --Etacar11 00:39, 3 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Speedy delete - nn, and page was recently blanked. --Idont Havaname 23:20, 3 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion, or the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages.  Please do not edit this page .


text:
Third department

The Third Department or third department may refer to:

 * Third Section of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery, a secret investigatory department in Imperial Russia
 * Third Department of the New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division
 * Third Department of the People's Liberation Army of China

title: Third department


text:
Stade Pierre de Coubertin (Paris)

The Stade Pierre de Coubertin (French for Pierre de Coubertin Stadium) is an indoor arena that is located in Paris, France. It is the home venue of the Paris Saint-Germain Handball team. Currently, the arena has a seating capacity of 4,200 people for basketball games.

History
Stade Pierre de Coubertin was opened in 1937, for the Universal Exposition, and it was rebuilt after the bombing that occurred during the Second World War. The stadium was used as a detention centre during the Paris massacre of 1961. In 1990, the arena underwent a renovation, which included a new façade, expansion of its seating capacity, and the addition of various service areas.

In addition to previously being the home arena of the basketball teams Paris BR, Levallois Sporting Club, and Paris-Levallois, each year the Stade Pierre de Coubertin also hosts various sporting events, such as the fencing Grand Prix: Challenge International de Paris (in January) and the Challenge Monal (in February), the Open Gaz de France women's tennis tournament, and the Internationaux de France de Badminton.

title: Stade Pierre de Coubertin (Paris)


text:
Khuang Aphaiwong

Khuang Aphaiwong (also spelled Kuang, Abhaiwong, or Abhaiwongse; ควง อภัยวงศ์, ; 17 May 1902 – 15 March 1968), also known by his noble title Luang Kowit-aphaiwong (หลวงโกวิทอภัยวงศ์, ), was the founder of the Democrat Party and three times the prime minister of Thailand: from August 1944 to 1945, from January to May 1946, and from November 1947 to April 1948.

Life and career
Khuang was born in Battambang (a city in Cambodia), a son of the Siamese governor Chao Phraya Abhayabhubet. The Aphaiwongs were of royal Khmer lineage. Khuang attended Debsirin School and Assumption College, Bangkok, later studying engineering at the Ecole Centrale de Lyon in France. On his return to Thailand, he worked in the telegraph department, finally becoming director of the department. This earned him the feudal title Luang Kowit-aphaiwong. He married Lekha Kunadilok (Goone-Tilleke), daughter of Ceylon-born lawyer William Alfred Goone-Tilleke, founder of the law firm Tilleke & Gibbins.

Promoter of regime change and minister
Khuang was a member of the civil faction of Khana Ratsadon ("People's Party"), the group that promoted the Siamese revolution of 1932, that brought a regime change from absolute to constitutional monarchy. Afterwards, he served as minister without portfolio in the cabinets of Phraya Phahon Phonphayuhasena and Plaek Phibunsongkhram (Phibun). During World War II he was commissioned a major and joined the King's Guard. As such he was at the head of the mission to Battambang which in July 1941 took control of the Cambodian territories occupied during the Franco-Thai War, to be renamed Phra Tabong Province. His father had been governor of part of this region before it was ceded to France 1907. Later he became minister of commerce and communications.

First term as prime minister

On 1 August 1944, parliament elected him prime minister, after Phibun's plans to move the capital to Phetchabun and to create the Phutthamonthon Park failed to gain approval. He was a compromise candidate, standing between the Phibun supporters and the opposition Free Thai Movement. Ostensibly he co-operated with the Japanese who had occupied Thailand during the war. At the same time, he shielded the Free Thai who collaborated with the Allies. After the Japanese retreat he resigned on 31 August 1945, to make way for a new administration by the Free Thai forces.

Second term as prime minister
In 1946 he was one of the founders of the conservative Democrat Party, and became its first leader. The fourth national elections on 6 January 1946 were won by the Democrat Party, which gained him a second term as prime minister starting on 31 January. Only 45 days later, on 24 March, his government lost a vote of no-confidence in parliament and he resigned.

Third term as prime minister and later life
He became prime minister a third time on 10 November 1947 following a coup d'état led by Field Marshal Phin Chunhawan. However, the coup leaders were not pleased with the performance of Khuang's government and forced him to resign on 8 April 1948. This enabled Phibun to become prime minister again. Khuang continued in politics as the opposition leader and leader of the Democrat Party until all political parties were banned in 1958. His wife, Khunying Lekha Aphaiwong, was appointed senator in 1949, becoming one of the first female politicians of Thailand.

Khuang died on 15 March 1968, at age 66.

Thai Decorations

 * Order of Chula Chom Klao - 1st Class (Thailand) ribbon.svg Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Chula Chom Klao
 * Order of the White Elephant - Special Class (Thailand) ribbon.svg Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of the White Elephant
 * Order of the Crown of Thailand - 1st Class (Thailand) ribbon.svg Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Thailand
 * Victory Medal - Indochina (Thailand) ribbon.svg Victory Medal - Franco-Thai War
 * Victory Medal - World War II (Thailand) ribbon.svg Victory Medal - Pacific War
 * Safeguarding the Constitution Medal (Thailand) ribbon.svg Safeguarding the Constitution Medal
 * Medal for Service in the Interior - Indochina (Thailand) ribbon.svg Medal for Service in the Interior - Franco-Thai War
 * King Rama VIII Royal Cypher Medal (Thailand) ribbon.svg Rama VIII's Royal Cypher Medal, 1st Class
 * King Rama IX Royal Cypher Medal (Thailand) ribbon.svg Rama IX's Royal Cypher Medal, 1st Class

Foreign Decorations

 * 🇹🇼 Taiwan :
 * TWN Order of Propitious Clouds 1Class BAR.svg Special Grand Cordon of the Order of Propitious Clouds

title: Khuang Aphaiwong


text:
Codd's cellular automaton

Codd's cellular automaton is a cellular automaton (CA) devised by the British computer scientist Edgar F. Codd in 1968. It was designed to recreate the computation- and construction-universality of von Neumann's CA but with fewer states: 8 instead of 29. Codd showed that it was possible to make a self-reproducing machine in his CA, in a similar way to von Neumann's universal constructor, but never gave a complete implementation.

History
In the 1940s and '50s, John von Neumann posed the following problem: He was able to construct a cellular automaton with 29 states, and with it a universal constructor. Codd, building on von Neumann's work, found a simpler machine with eight states. This modified von Neumann's question:
 * What kind of logical organization is sufficient for an automaton to be able to reproduce itself?
 * What kind of logical organization is necessary for an automaton to be able to reproduce itself?

Three years after Codd's work, Edwin Roger Banks showed a 4-state CA in his PhD thesis that was also capable of universal computation and construction, but again did not implement a self-reproducing machine. John Devore, in his 1973 masters thesis, tweaked Codd's rules to greatly reduce the size of Codd's design. A simulation of Devore's design was demonstrated at the third Artificial Life conference in 1992, showing the final steps of construction and activation of the offspring pattern, but full self-replication was not simulated until the 2000's using Golly. Christopher Langton made another tweak to Codd's cellular automaton in 1984 to create Langton's loops, exhibiting self-replication with far fewer cells than that needed for self-reproduction in previous rules, at the cost of removing the ability for universal computation and construction.

Specification

Codd's CA has eight states determined by a von Neumann neighborhood with rotational symmetry.

The table below shows the signal-trains needed to accomplish different tasks. Some of the signal trains need to be separated by two blanks (state 1) on the wire to avoid interference, so the 'extend' signal-train used in the image at the top appears here as '70116011'.

Universal computer-constructor
Codd designed a self-replicating computer in the cellular automaton, based on Wang's W-machine. However, the design was so colossal that it evaded implementation until 2009, when Tim Hutton constructed an explicit configuration. There were some minor errors in Codd's design, so Hutton's implementation differs slightly, in both the configuration and the ruleset.

title: Codd's cellular automaton


text:
Citharichthys

Citharichthys is a genus of flatfish in the large-tooth flounder family, Paralichthyidae. They have both eyes on the left sides of their heads. They are native to the oceans around the Americas, with a single species, C. stampflii off the West African coast. Most are found in relatively shallow depths, but the genus also includes species found in deep water (down to at least 2000 m) and species that enter fresh water.

Various species known as sanddab, whiff, and flounder are in this genus, and the most common species is the Pacific sanddab, Citharichthys sordidus. They are a dull light-brown, and are mottled with brown or black, sometimes with yellow or orange. The largest species reaches 41 cm in length.

Species
The currently recognized species in this genus are:
 * Citharichthys abbotti C. E. Dawson, 1969 (Veracruz whiff)
 * Citharichthys amblybregmatus Gutherz & Blackman, 1970
 * Citharichthys arctifrons Goode, 1880 (Gulf Stream flounder)
 * Citharichthys arenaceus Evermann & M. C. Marsh, 1900 (sand whiff)
 * Citharichthys cornutus (Günther, 1880) (horned whiff)
 * Citharichthys darwini Victor & Wellington, 2013 (Darwin's sanddab)
 * Citharichthys dinoceros Goode & T. H. Bean, 1886 (spined whiff)
 * Citharichthys fragilis C. H. Gilbert, 1890 (Gulf sanddab)
 * Citharichthys gilberti O. P. Jenkins & Evermann, 1889 (bigmouth sanddab)
 * Citharichthys gnathus Hoshino & Amaoka, 1999
 * Citharichthys gordae Beebe & Tee-Van, 1938 (mimic sanddab)
 * Citharichthys gymnorhinus Gutherz & Blackman, 1970 (anglefin whiff)
 * Citharichthys macrops Dresel, 1885 (spotted whiff)
 * Citharichthys mariajorisae van der Heiden & Mussot-Pérez, 1995 (five-rayed sanddab)
 * Citharichthys minutus Cervigón, 1982
 * Citharichthys platophrys C. H. Gilbert, 1891 (small sanddab)
 * Citharichthys sordidus (Girard, 1854) (Pacific sanddab)
 * Citharichthys spilopterus Günther, 1862 (bay whiff)
 * Citharichthys stampflii (Steindachner, 1894) (smooth flounder)
 * Citharichthys stigmaeus D. S. Jordan & C. H. Gilbert, 1882 (speckled sanddab)
 * Citharichthys surinamensis (Bloch & J. G. Schneider, 1801)
 * Citharichthys uhleri D. S. Jorda], 1889 (voodoo whiff)
 * Citharichthys valdezi Cervigón, 1986
 * Citharichthys xanthostigma C. H. Gilbert, 1890 (longfin sanddab)

title: Citharichthys


text:
HaNoar HaTzioni

Hanoar Hatzioni (הנוער הציוני, lit. The Zionist Youth), fully "Histadrut Halutzit Olamit Hanoar Hatzioni", or "HH" for short, is a youth movement established in 1926, with its head offices now in Israel. Its three main pillars are Chalutzism ("pioneering spirit", from the Hebrew word chalutz, "pioneer"), Pluralism, and Zionism. The movement sees Judaism as the source of national, social and moral values that preserve the integrity and continuity of the Jewish people.

The main objective of the HaNoar Hatzioni is Hagshama Atzmit (personal materialization), which among other things means to have a full Jewish life in Israel. For its purposes the movement uses the scout method.

History of Hanoar
During the years following the First World War, two ideological currents ran throughout European youth, Jews included: fascist nationalism and revolutionary Marxism. A small group of enlightened Jewish youths criticised the extremist positions and slogans and concluded that they would not endure reality. At the same time, they sensed the danger caused by the separation and division of people into two opposing camps, fighting each other. They then considered an obligation to create a youth movement.

The year was 1926 when the idea crystallized with the establishment of Hanoar Hatzioni. Already at its beginnings, the movement appeared on the scene as an educational movement extracting its principles at the foundations of Judaism, Zionism and pioneering.

History of Hanoar in Britain
In 1956, Hanoar Hatzioni was established in Britain. During this time, there was little on offer to Jewish youth. Hanoar Hatzioni offered an alternative to the highly political or religiously affiliated Zionist youth movements, and the non-political youth clubs.

During the 1960s, Hanoar Hatzioni in Britain focused its activities in those parts which had very little to offer Jewish youth. Hanoar Hatzioni successfully ran weekly meetings all around the country, residential events such as camps that are continued to this day, and trips to Israel.

The Hanoar Hatzioni Vision
Hanoar has two underlying beliefs: (a) educating the Chanich (participant); and (b) a Jewish-Zionist worldview. Through this it strives to grow the future of the Jewish people with a belief in the centrality of the State of Israel.

Judaism
Since the times of the Second Temple, Judaism was very heavily engaged in argument and debate – this is what led to the writing of the Talmud. This has continued and Hanoar Hatzioni both accepts and encourages the existence of different streams of thought, philosophical conceptions and ways of practice, within the framework of the modern Jewish spectrum.

Also Hanoar Hatzioni accepts anyone who defines themselves as Jewish, beyond Orthodox Halacha requirements. It strives to create Chanichim with a strong identity of who participants are and what it means to be Jewish.

Zionism
Their belief is that Zionism can and will bring together the dispersed nation in its historical homeland and that only in Israel can there be a full, normative and Jewish experience for an entire society.

The movement also recognises that there are many different conceptions of Zionism and values them all. However it also recognises the need to rank these different interpretations, with Israel being at the centre. Therefore, Aliyah is the highest expression of Judaism and Zionism and something all graduates (bogrim, singular boger/et) need to place before themselves as part of their self-realisation.

Hagshama
This is one of the central pillars of Hanoar Hatzioni and something that all participants must go through in their time in the movement. In the modern world this means finding the meeting point between personal interests and the needs of the nation. In Jewish history, before the creation of the State it was Kibbutzim that fulfilled these ideals – bringing justice and equality to the front as individuals would work together for the greater good of the collective. Hanoar Hatzioni hope that the renewed evaluation of the Kibbutz ideals will once again see these institutions at the front of society.

Dugma Ishit
The Madrich is the foundation of its educational programme and the personal example of our Madrichim and Bogrim awards the ethical basis for its work. As a result of this, HHUK directs the majority of its efforts towards content and ideals, with its heritage, Chanichim and Bogrim, representing a serious and responsible movement committed to Jewish-Zionist informal education.

Worldwide movement
Hanoar Hatzioni is currently located in 17 countries across four different continents, making for a truly global youth movement. Hanoar Hatzioni is active in England, Belgium, Greece, Hungary, Spain, Canada, Mexico, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Colombia, Peru, Chile, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina.

Participants and movement leaders (madrichim, singular madrich/a; literally guides) from all the different countries have opportunities to meet each other and interact on a variety of events, be it during Israel Tour, Gap Year, other trips to Israel as well as an annual international "Seminar for Madrichim and Bogrim" (SBM) which in 2010 was hosted in London, 2011 in Antwerp, 2012 in Budapest and 2013 in Athens.

Britain
Hanoar Hatzioni in Britain is a youth movement that works with leaders and participants wherever they may be. A range of activities are provided for at youth centres in Southend, King Solomon High School, Kulanu (Kenton), Rowley Lane and Shenley., the Zone in Leeds and the Hub in Manchester

In addition to regular activities, Hanoar Hatzioni UK offers an annual summer camp, Israel Tour and Gap Year Programmes. During the summer camps the participants are exposed to some of the most creative and spontaneous leaders around, they even have time to show off their vocal skills in their camp album.

Hanoar Hatzioni offers its members a membership scheme which means that they are kept up to date with activities as well as a discount on events that they want to attend It is a scheme that gives both the children and leaders something.

Many members have gone on to do great things both for their communities back at home, as well as those in Israel. Spencer Gelding, formally the Mazkir (National Director) of Hanoar Hatzioni in Britain, has given his time to many charitable causes.

Settlements of Hanoar Hatzioni

 * Kibbutzim

 * Usha
 * HaSolelim
 * Kfar Glickson
 * Tel Yitzhak
 * Nitzanim
 * Ein HaShlosha

 * Moshavim

 * Sde David
 * Petahya
 * Yad Natan
 * Timorim
 * Nir Yisrael
 * Shoresh
 * Givat Yeshayahu
 * Talmei Yaffe
 * Mavki'im
 * Kfar Shmuel
 * Shilat
 * Beit Nehemia
 * Beit Yehoshua
 * Reihan
 * Mei Ami
 * Alonei Abba
 * Neot Golan
 * She'ar Yashuv
 * Dishon
 * Amnun
 * Sde Eliezer
 * Massua

title: HaNoar HaTzioni


text:
Talk:Hedda Gabler

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 14 January 2020 and 30 April 2020. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Haley.carter1.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 23:15, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

References in popular culture
Someone (anonymous/IP) added a link to Y: The Last Man under the section of references in popular culture. Does anyone know why? How (if at all) does that refer to Hedda Gabler? The reference was not formatted correctly so I've removed it for now, but please restore it, if appropriate, with a reference. Mooncow 19:04, 30 December 2006 (UTC)

Support
Support. I support the merging of the two articles. Cheers! Dreamy 02:40, 20 April 2007 (UTC)

Confused. I don't know if i've posted this right, so i apologize if i've done this wrong. My reason for posting is i want to know what's wrong with the article? I found it very helpful and useful? (AdamJKB (talk) 19:07, 28 January 2008 (UTC))

Analysis of Text
The analysis of the play needs to be revamped. I fixed a bunch of grammatical issues, but I didn't change the content. It isn't written very well and it's more subjective than anything else. I think it could also go more in depth.

OddEyes 00:25, 11 November 2007 (UTC)

I agree OddEyes. Also, who is haddon Gelai (seen in the characters list). I cannot find any reference to him in the text. Please correct me if I am wrong, but if not please remove. Daniel.thorpe (talk) 02:52, 23 July 2008 (UTC)

Divorced?
The character listing for Mrs. Elvstead states that she is divorced. Is this stated in the text of the play? I can't find it. And if she is divorced, why is she refered to as Mrs. Elvstead? Floggolozzo (talk) 21:18, 6 March 2009 (UTC)

Proposed merge with Hedda Gabler (2005 revival)
The information in the article about the revival should be included in the main article for this play. I don't really see the point in creating a stub article for a theatrical play revival. noisy  jinx  huh? 03:38, 23 February 2014 (UTC)

Was Eilert Lövborg (Ejlert Løvborg) based on Nietzsche?
The reference to writing a book about the future reminds me of Friedrich Nietzsche's extrapolations, does anyone else agree? I googled for "Hedda Gabler" & Nietzsche together but just found some comparisons between Nietzsche and Ibsen himself. It seems Løvborg was cast as a bit of a libertine, I'm not sure if that would accurately describe Nietzche's deconstrutions of social constraints. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 209.163.206.117 (talk) 19:44, 5 November 2014 (UTC)

About Draft:Hedda Gabler as a Feminist Work
Hello all, Draft:Hedda Gabler as a Feminist Work was created by on 26 April 2015. It now a WP:G13 candidate. The draft was the user's only contribution. It appears to me like term paper that was posted to Wikipedia, but it does contain some references from reliable sources that may merit inclusion (or WP:MERGE-ing, with citations, and attribution, of course) in the Critical interpretation section of the article. What do you think about this? Pete "people don't do such things!" AU aka --Shirt58 (talk) 11:45, 18 April 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Hedda Gabler


text:
Imperial Yeomanry

The Imperial Yeomanry was a volunteer mounted force of the British Army that mainly saw action during the Second Boer War. Created on 2 January 1900, the force was initially recruited from the middle classes and traditional yeomanry sources, but subsequent contingents were more significantly working class in their composition. The existing yeomanry regiments contributed only a small proportion of the total Imperial Yeomanry establishment. In Ireland 120 men were recruited in February 1900. It was officially disbanded in 1908, with individual Yeomanry regiments incorporated into the new Territorial Force.

Background
The Dutch Cape Colony was established in modern-day South Africa in the second half of the 17th century. The colony subsequently passed to the Dutch East India Company which, in 1815, sold it to the British, thus strengthening the rival British-ruled Cape Colony. Unhappy with the subsequent British governance, the Dutch settlers, known now as the Boers, established their own territories, the Orange Free State and the Transvaal. The two states were recognised by the British in 1881, following Boer victory in the First Boer War. The discovery of gold in the Transvaal in 1886 led to a gold rush, and the treatment of the prospectors by the Boers resulted in greater British government involvement, a revival of friction between the British and Boers and, in October 1899, the outbreak of the Second Boer War.

Although the Boers were predominantly farmers and were heavily outnumbered by the regular forces of the British Army, they organised themselves into highly mobile mounted columns called commandoes and fought at long range with accurate rifle fire. Their tactics proved to be highly effective against the lumbering British forces, and in one week in December 1899, known as Black Week, they inflicted three significant defeats on the British. It soon became apparent that the British mounted capability – comprising small contingents of regular infantry on horseback and insufficiently supplied, ill-suited cavalry – needed to be reinforced.

The basis for just such reinforcement had been in existence since 1794 in the form of the volunteer Yeomanry Cavalry. Already, in October and November 1899, Lieutenant-Colonel A. G. Lucas, the yeomanry representative in the War Office and a member of the Loyal Suffolk Hussars, had proposed this force as a source of reinforcement. His proposals were initially declined, but the request by General Redvers Buller, Commander-in-Chief of the British forces in South Africa, for mounted infantry after his defeat in the Battle of Colenso on 15 December 1899 prompted a rethink. The domestic yeomanry was, however, a small home defence force, only some 10,000 strong, steeped in a cavalry tradition and restricted by statute to service only in the United Kingdom, making it in itself unsuitable for service in South Africa.

Creation
On 18 December, Lords Lonsdale and Chesham, who both commanded yeomanry regiments, offered to recruit 2,300 volunteers from the domestic yeomanry for service in South Africa. Although Lord Wolseley, Commander-in-Chief of the Forces opposed it, George Wyndham, Under-Secretary of State for War and himself a yeoman, established an imperial yeoman committee with Chesham and two other yeomanry commanders. The result, announced on 24 December, was the Imperial Yeomanry, which was duly established on 2 January 1900. By the end of the war, just under 35,000 men were recruited in three separate contingents. Its structure, companies and battalions rather than the squadrons and regiments of the domestic yeomanry, reflected its role as mounted infantry. The existing yeomanry was invited to provide volunteers for the new force, thus forming a relatively trained nucleus on which it was built. It was, however, a distinct body in its own right, separate from the home force, and the domestic yeomanry provided only around 18 per cent of the first contingent of over 10,000 men. Volunteers also came from the yeomanry's infantry counterpart, the Volunteer Force, but the majority were newly recruited from the yeomanry's traditional demographics of the middle class and the farming community, although some 30 per cent were working class. The first contingent recruits were able to build on the experience many of them already had with horsemanship and firearms courtesy of two or three months drilling in domestic yeomanry regiments before they were shipped to South Africa.

Operations in the Second Boer War
The first contingent of Imperial Yeomanry departed for South Africa between January and April 1900. Its first action came in the Battle of Boshof on 5 April, when its 3rd and 10th Battalions surrounded and defeated a small force of European volunteers and Boers commanded by the Comte de Villebois-Mareuil. This success was overshadowed by a disaster the next month which tarnished the Imperial Yeomanry's reputation, when its 13th Battalion was ambushed and surrounded by 2,500 Boers at Lindley on 27 May. The yeomen were besieged for four days before they finally surrendered, losing 80 killed and 530 captured. Among the prisoners were the future Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, James Craig, and four members of the House of Lords.

Although the defeat at Lindley reflected poorly on the yeomanry, the yeomen had fought as competently as any regular soldier, and much of the blame lay with poor leadership by Lieutenant-Colonel Basil Spragge, the regular officer commanding the battalion, and the failure of Major-General Henry Colvile to come to the aid of the yeomanry with his Guards Brigade. Questionable leadership featured in another encounter between yeomanry and Boer at the Battle of Nooitgedacht on 13 December. Three companies of yeomanry formed part of a regular brigade commanded by Major-General R. A. P. Clements which was attacked as it camped, by a superior Boer force. Clements was heavily criticised for his poor choice of campsite, though his swift action enabled him to extricate his brigade, albeit with casualties, during which the yeomen demonstrated their ability to operate alongside the regular army in a complex combined operation.

The Yeomanry performed well at the beginning of 1901 with Lord Methuen's march to Klerskdorp The Yeomanry managed to inlfict a defeat on the Boers at Hartbeesfontein.

By the end of March 1901, almost 30 per cent of the original 10,000+ Imperial Yeomanry had been killed, injured or taken prisoner, though the majority of losses were caused by disease. The slow demobilisation of the survivors, who were allowed to return home after just one year, and the arrival of a second contingent of over 16,000 new recruits increased the size of the Imperial Yeomanry in-country to over 23,000 by May, though this figure had fallen back to 13,650 by January 1902.

Second contingent
A number of issues conspired against the second contingent. Recruitment, which had ceased after the first contingent had been raised, had to be restarted. The original intention was, as with the first contingent, to train new recruits for two or three months before sending them to South Africa, but the new Commander-in-Chief, Lord Kitchener, decided that they should be trained in-theatre and ordered that they be sent immediately. He failed to appreciate, however, that a pay rise had attracted a significantly greater number of working class recruits who had no prior experience of horses or firearms. Lord Chesham, who in 1901 became the Inspector General of the Imperial Yeomanry, would later state of the second draft that "the shooting and riding test, if it was really applied in all cases, must have been one of very perfunctory character". The difficulties of this sudden injection of raw, untrained recruits were compounded by the fact that only 655 of the original contingent elected to stay on, representing a significant loss of experience. Furthermore, the second tranche of domestic yeomanry officers who provided much of the leadership were not vetted by domestic yeomanry commanders as those few of the first contingent were, and proved to be of poor quality in the field.

The second contingent saw its first action at Vlakfontein on 29 May 1901, when four companies of Imperial Yeomanry were, along with a company of regular infantry and two guns of the Royal Artillery, part of a rear guard commanded by Brigadier-General H. G. Dixon. An attack by 1,500 Boers caused a significant portion of the yeomanry to break and fall back on the infantry, causing confusion and casualties, before a counter-attack by the infantry and one company of yeomanry forced the Boers to retire. Although only one 200-strong company of yeomanry was involved in the counter-attack, suffering nine casualties, the yeomanry suffered in total 30 per cent casualties, while the regular infantry suffered very heavily, losing 87 out of an estimated strength of 100.

The yeomanry's inexperience in defence and convoy protection was repeatedly exposed in Boer attacks. At Moedwil (also known as Rustenburg) on 30 September, the Boers inflicted nearly twice as many casualties as they sustained and killed or wounded all of the yeomanry's horses. In the Battle of Groenkop (also known as Tweefontein) on 25 December, 1,000 Boers surprised and practically annihilated the 400-strong 11th Battalion as the men slept, inflicting casualties of 289 killed, wounded and captured, for the loss of 14 killed and 30 wounded. At Yzerspruit on 25 February, a convoy escorted by 230 men of the yeomanry 5th Battalion and 225 regular infantry of the Royal Northumberland Fusiliers was attacked by a 1,500-strong Boer force. The British beat back four charges before surrendering with the loss of 187 men killed or wounded, 62 of them yeomen, 170 horses, several hundred rifles and half a million rounds of ammunition, for the loss to the Boers of 51 men killed or wounded. In the Battle of Tweebosch on 7 March, a British column of 1,300 men, 300 of them Imperial Yeomanry, led by Lieutenant-General Paul Methuen, suffered 189 killed or wounded and 600 taken prisoner, Methuen among them. It was considered to be one of the most embarrassing defeats of the war, the blame for which was placed on the yeomanry; the 86th (Rough Riders) Company, a raw draft only recently sent to South Africa, lacked leadership, according to Methuen, and were "very much out of hand, lacking both fire-discipline and knowledge of how to act", and the 5th Battalion broke in the face of the Boer aggression, leading to the capture of the artillery and surrender of the column.

Third contingent
At the end of 1901, a third contingent of over 7,000 Imperial Yeomanry was raised. Having learned from the failures of the previous draft, these men underwent three months of thorough training in the UK, during which time sub-standard officers and men were weeded out, before being sent to South Africa, and a number of regular army officers were allocated to lead them. Representing the best prepared Imperial Yeomanry contingent, it arrived just as the war was ending, and saw only limited involvement.

Performance
General Edmund Allenby, who would rely on yeomanry regiments when he commanded the Egyptian Expeditionary Force in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the First World War, regarded the Imperial Yeomanry as useless. By the time they had learned enough to be of use, according to him, they had "probably been captured two or three times, presenting the Boers on each occasion with a horse, rifle and 150 rounds of ammunition per man". The colonial forces in South Africa had labelled the second contingent "De Wet's Own", after the Boer general Christiaan de Wet, so invaluable was it as a source of rifles and horses to the Boers. Questions were asked about the second contingent in the House of Commons, it began to be derided in the press, and in July 1901 Kitchener considered sending it back.

A month later, Kitchener had relented a little, saying that although there were still some who could not be trusted, a good many of the sub-standard yeomanry had been removed and he was getting more value from the best of those remaining. Methuen blamed a lack of preparation and training for the yeomanry's poor performance, and later stated that, having gained experience during the campaign, he would "place implicit reliance in them after a short time". After seven months as commander of the Imperial Yeomanry, Major-General Reginald Brabazon also underlined the acquisition of experience when he wrote that it was "as valuable a corps of fighting men as ever wore the Queen's uniform". That the Imperial Yeomanry did on occasion perform well was exemplified by the action at Rustenburg where, although caught napping and losing the only column operating in the area at the time, the yeomen had fought as well as the regular infantry, and the 74th (Dublin) Company earned high praise for its conduct in beating off an attack on a convoy at Rooikopjes on 24 August.

The Imperial Yeomanry suffered 3771 casualties in the war, compared to the regular cavalry's 3623. Of all the auxiliary forces that saw action in South Africa, the yeomanry took the brunt of the fighting; more than 50 per cent of its casualties were a result of enemy action, compared to 24 per cent for the militia and 21 per cent for the Volunteer Force. Those imperial yeomen recruited from the domestic yeomanry returned to their home regiments, endowing them with their first battle honour, "South Africa 1900–01".

After the war
The gulf between domestic and imperial yeomanries is apparent from the fact that the former accepted only 390 new recruits from the latter after the war. By 1900, the domestic yeomanry establishment had stood at just over 12,000 while its actual strength was some 2,000 short of that figure. Although the force had been maintained for its utility as mounted police in aid of the authorities in times of civil unrest, this role had all but disappeared in the second half of the 19th century. The yeomanry failed to adapt, remaining wedded to its original military role of light or auxiliary cavalry and resolutely opposing moves in 1870 and 1882 to convert it to a mounted infantry role. By the end of the 19th century, the domestic yeomanry was militarily weak, largely unchanged since its formation over a century previously, of questionable benefit and no clear purpose. The experiences in South Africa suddenly made the force relevant again, not only for the wave of enthusiasm that saw its numbers double, nor the relatively small role the domestic yeomanry played in the Imperial Yeomanry, but in the clear indication of the necessity of mounted infantry over traditional cavalry. This was identified by the Harris Committee – chaired by the former Assistant Adjutant general of the Imperial Yeomanry, Lord Harris, and comprising six yeomanry officers and a regular cavalry officer, convened to advise on the future organisation, arms and equipment of the domestic yeomanry – and informed the Militia and Yeomanry Act of 1901.

The new legislation renamed the domestic yeomanry en bloc to "Imperial Yeomanry" and converted it from cavalry into mounted infantry, replacing its primary weapon, the sword, with rifle and bayonet. It introduced khaki uniforms, mandated a standard four-squadron organisation and added a machine-gun section to each regiment. The yeomanry's establishment was set at 35,000, though effective strength was only around 25,000, and to achieve these numbers, 18 new regiments were raised, 12 of them resurrected from disbanded 19th century corps of yeomanry. The Harris Committee was not unanimous, and it was in fact a minority report by just two officers that recommended the removal of "cavalry" from the yeomanry's title (it being generally referred to as "Yeomanry Cavalry" before the rename) and the retirement of the sword. The yeomanry resisted these changes. Three regiments petitioned the king to be allowed to retain the sword on parade, and all but one of the 35 commanding officers petitioned the army for its retention in 1902.

As well as issues with the domestic yeomanry, the Boer War also exposed the wider problem of reinforcing the army with sufficiently trained men in times of need. This occupied much of the debate concerning military reform in the first decade of the 20th century, and gave the yeomanry the opportunity to retain its treasured role as cavalry by positioning itself as a semi-trained reserve to the numerically weak regular cavalry. This was reflected in a change to the training instructions issued to the Imperial Yeomanry in 1902 and 1905. The former warned the yeomanry not to aspire to a cavalry role and made no distinction between yeomen and mounted infantry, but the latter merely proscribed the traditional cavalry tactic of shock action while otherwise aligning the yeomanry with the cavalry, giving it in effect the role of dismounted cavalry.

The changed focus in training was prompted by plans to allocate six yeomanry regiments as divisional cavalry in the regular army, supported by the establishment within the Imperial Yeomanry of a separate class of yeoman free of the restriction on service overseas. This, however, relied on men volunteering for such service, and offered the regular army no guarantee that enough men would do so. That enough would volunteer was made more doubtful by the requirement that they should abandon their civilian lives for the six months of training considered necessary for them to be effective in such a reserve role. As a result, the plans were dropped from the final legislation that combined the Volunteer Force and the yeomanry, now without the "Imperial" prefix, into a single, unified auxiliary organisation, the Territorial Force, in 1908.

title: Imperial Yeomanry


text: User talk:70.48.13.116

title: User talk:70.48.13.116


text:
Conopidae

The Conopidae, also known as the thick-headed flies, are a family of flies within the Brachycera suborder of Diptera, and the sole member of the superfamily Conopoidea. Flies of the family Conopidae are distributed worldwide in all the biogeographic realms except for the poles and many of the Pacific islands. About 800 species in 47 genera are described worldwide, about 70 of which are found in North America. The majority of conopids are black and yellow, or black and white, and often strikingly resemble wasps, bees, or flies of the family Syrphidae, themselves notable bee mimics. A conopid is most frequently found at flowers, feeding on nectar with its proboscis, which is often long.

Description
For terms see Morphology of Diptera.

Rather thinly pilose or nearly bare, elongate or stout flies of small to large size (3–20 mm, usually 5–15 mm). They are often lustrous with a black and yellow colour pattern or with reddish brown markings. The head is broad and the frons is broad in both sexes. Ocelli may be present or absent (Conopinae). Ocellar bristles are small or absent. Interfrontal bristles and vibrissae are absent. The antennae have three segments, the third bearing a dorsal bare arista or terminal style. Above the antennae is an inflatable ptilinum. The oral opening is large and the proboscis is long and slender and often geniculate. The base of the abdomen is often constricted and the genitalia of both sexes are conspicuous. In the females the genitalia are often large or greatly elongated. The wing is usually clear, in some cases with dark markings often along the costa. The costa is continuous and the subcostal vein is complete. The anal cell is closed and the first basal cell is always very long, the second moderately long. The apical cell is closed or much narrowed. Tibiae are with (Myopinae) or without dorsal preapical bristle.

Sample genera: Conops, Dalmannia, Physocephala, Stylogaster, Myopa, and Physoconops.

Biology
The larvae of all conopids are internal parasites, most of aculeate (stinging) Hymenoptera. Adult females aggressively intercept their hosts in flight to deposit eggs. Accordingly, in the species Bombus terrestris, it has been shown that vulnerable foraging bees are likely the most susceptible to parasitism by conopids. The female's abdomen is modified to form what amounts to a "can opener" to pry open the segments of the host's abdomen as the egg is inserted. The subfamily Stylogastrinae, including the genus Stylogaster, is somewhat different, in that the egg itself is shaped somewhat like a harpoon, with a rigid barbed tip, and the egg is forcibly jabbed into the host. Some species of Stylogaster are obligate associates of army ants, using the ants' raiding columns to flush out their prey. Certain members of the genus Physocephala have minor economic importance as parasites of honey bees. Some members of this genus, such as Physocephala tibialis have been shown to induce certain bumblebees to bury themselves before they die, allowing the adult fly to emerge from their hosts underground. More research is needed to determine the life histories of most conopids.

Species lists

 * Nearctic
 * West Palaearctic including Russia
 * Australasian/Oceanian
 * Japan
 * World list

Identification
Keys to Palaearctic species but now needs revision (in German).
 * Krober. 1925. Conopidae.In: Lindner, E. (Ed.). Die Fliegen der Paläarktischen Region, 4, 4: 1-41
 * Séguy, E. (1934) Diptères: Brachycères. II. Muscidae acalypterae, Scatophagidae. Paris: Éditions Faune de France 28. virtuelle numérique
 * Zirnjna. L.V. Family Conopidae in Bei-Bienko, G. Ya, 1988 Keys to the insects of the European Part of the USSR Volume 5 (Diptera) Part 2 English edition. Keys to Palaearctic species but now needs revision.

title: Conopidae


text:
Commodore 64 Games System

The Commodore 64 Games System (often abbreviated C64GS) is the cartridge-based home video game console version of the popular Commodore 64 home computer. It was released in December 1990 by Commodore into a booming console market dominated by Nintendo and Sega. It was only released in Europe and was a considerable commercial failure. The C64GS came bundled with a cartridge containing four games: Fiendish Freddy's Big Top O'Fun, International Soccer, Flimbo's Quest, and Klax.

The C64GS was not Commodore's first gaming system based on the Commodore 64 hardware. However, unlike the 1982 MAX Machine (a game-oriented computer based on a very cut-down version of the same hardware family), the C64GS is internally very similar to the complete Commodore 64, with which it is compatible. Out of the approximately 20,000 consoles produced, only 2000 consoles were sold.

The initiative to release a console based on the Commodore 64 was claimed by Commodore UK and, in particular, Steve Franklin, reportedly requesting the development of a games machine to be sold more cheaply than the Commodore 64. Such a machine was to be launched at a £99 price point, at a time when the Commodore 64 itself sold for £159. It was envisaged that children wanting only to play games on a Commodore 64 would accept a console version of the computer with more limited application at a lower price. Reminiscent of Commodore's strategy several years earlier, it was also envisaged that a low-cost console would "fracture the console sector" and "put a block on Sega and Nintendo's aspirations".

Available software
Support from games companies was limited, as many were unconvinced that the C64GS would be a success in the console market. Ocean Software was the most supportive, offering a wide range of titles, some C64GS cartridge-based only, offering features in games that would have been impossible on cassette-based games, others straight ports of games for the original C64. Domark and System 3 also released a number of titles for the system, and conversions of some Codemasters and MicroProse games also appeared. Denton Designs also released some games, among them Bounces, which was released in 1985.

The software bundled with the C64GS, a four-game cartridge containing Fiendish Freddy's Big Top O'Fun, International Soccer, Flimbo's Quest and Klax, were likely the most well known on the system. These games, with the exception of International Soccer, were previously ordinary tape-based games, but their structure and control systems (no keyboard needed) made them well-suited to the new console. International Soccer was previously released in 1983 on cartridge for the original C64 computer.

Ocean produced a number of games for the C64GS, among them a remake of Double Dragon (which was only sold at trade shows), Navy SEALS, RoboCop 2, RoboCop 3, Chase HQ 2: Special Criminal Investigation, Pang, Battle Command, Toki, Shadow of the Beast and Lemmings. They also produced Batman The Movie for the console, but this was a direct conversion of the cassette game, evidenced by the screens prompting the player to "press PLAY" that briefly appeared between levels. Some of the earliest Ocean cartridges had a manufacturing flaw, where the connector was placed too far back in the cartridge case. The result was that the cartridge could not be used with the standard C64 computer. Members of Ocean staff had to manually drill holes in the side of the cartridges to make them fit.

System 3 released Last Ninja Remix and Myth: History in the Making, although both were also available on cassette. Domark also offered two titles, Badlands and Cyberball, which were available on cartridge only.

Through publisher The Disc Company, a number of Codemasters and MicroProse titles were also reworked and released as compilations for the C64GS. Fun Play featured three Codemasters titles: Fast Food, Professional Skateboard Simulator and Professional Tennis Simulator. Power Play featured three MicroProse titles: Rick Dangerous, Stunt Car Racer and MicroProse Soccer, although Rick Dangerous was produced by Core Design, not MicroProse themselves. Stunt Car Racer and MicroProse Soccer needed to be heavily modified to enable them to run on the C64GS.

Commodore never produced or published a single title for the C64GS beyond the bundled four-game cartridge. International Soccer was the only widely available game for the C64GS but had actually been written for the C64.

Hardware-based problems
The C64GS was plagued with problems from the outset. Firstly, despite the wealth of software already available on cartridge for C64, the lack of a keyboard means that most cannot be used with the console. This means that much of the cartridge-based C64 software, while fundamentally compatible with the C64GS, was unplayable. The standard C64 version of Terminator 2: Judgment Day was designed for the console, but was included on a cartridge that required the user to press a key in the initial menu to access the game, rendering it unplayable, despite the game itself being entirely playable with joystick only on a conventional C64.

To partially compensate for the lack of a keyboard, the basic control system for the C64GS was a joystick supplied by Cheetah called the Annihilator. This joystick, while using the standard Atari 9-pin plug, offers two independent buttons, with the second button located on the base of the joystick. The joystick standard is fundamentally compatible with the ZX Spectrum's Kempston Interface and the Master System, but no other joystick on the market offered compatibility with the proprietary second-button function. Standard C64 joysticks and Master System controllers were fundamentally supported, but the lack of second-button support (the Master System's second button did not function in the same way) meant that the Cheetah Annihilator was essential for playing certain titles such as Last Ninja Remix and Chase HQ 2.

However, it was poorly built, had a short life, and was not widely available, making replacements difficult to come by.

Primary reasons for failure
Prior to the console's release, Commodore had generated a great deal of marketing hype to drum up interest in an already crowded market. Zzap!64 and Your Commodore, Commodore 64 magazines of the era, reported that Commodore had promised "up to 100 titles before December", even though December was two months from the time of its writing. In reality 28 games were produced for the console during its shelf life - most of which were compilations of older titles, and a majority of which were from Ocean. Of those 28 titles, only 9 were cartridge-exclusive titles, the remainder being ports of older cassette-based games.

While most of the titles that Ocean announced did appear for the GS (with the notable exception of Operation Thunderbolt), a number of promises from other publishers failed to materialize. Although Thalamus, The Sales Curve, Mirrorsoft and Hewson had expressed an interest, nothing ever materialized from these firms. Similar problems plagued rival company Amstrad when they released their GX4000 console the same year.

There were other reasons attributed to the failure of the C64GS, the major ones being the following:

 * Poor software support: Most of the existing software on cartridge did not function well with the C64GS, and enthusiasm from publishers was low. Ocean Software, Codemasters, System 3, MicroProse and Domark developed titles for the system, but probably only because the games were compatible with the original C64, providing the titles with a commercial safety net in case the C64GS failed. And failure to reprogram the games for use with the cut-back system was another blame for the fault.
 * The C64 computer: The C64GS was essentially a cut-back version of the original Commodore 64, and the games developed for it could also be run on the original computer. The C64 was already at an affordable price, and the C64GS was sold for the same. People preferred the original C64, particularly since the cassette versions of games could often be picked up for a fraction of the cost of the cartridge versions.
 * Obsolete technology: The C64 was introduced in 1982.
 * An already saturated console market: The 8-bit C64GS entered the market in 1990, parallel to 16-bit fourth generation consoles such as the Mega Drive and the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. The Nintendo Entertainment System and Master System were already dominating the market with more popular titles, and did so until around 1992.
 * TV hookup, joystick support and cartridge slots were already found on regular C64 machines. Hence normal C64s were already recognized as "game consoles" despite actually being home computers with integrated keyboards.

Commodore eventually shipped the four-game cartridge and Cheetah Annihilator joysticks in a "Playful Intelligence" bundle with the standard Commodore 64C computer. Several years later, Commodore's next attempt at a games console, the Amiga CD32, encountered many of the same problems.

Technical specifications
The specifications of the C64GS are a subset of those of the regular C64; the main differences being the omission of the user port, serial interface, and cassette port. Since the system board is a regular C64C board these ports are actually present, but simply not exposed at the rear.

title: Commodore 64 Games System


text: User talk:203.197.250.24

title: User talk:203.197.250.24