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Edward Edwards (Royal Navy officer)

Admiral Edward Edwards (c. 1742 – 13 April 1815) was a British naval officer best known as the captain of HMS Pandora, the frigate which the Admiralty sent to the South Pacific in pursuit of the Bounty mutineers.

Early years
The fifth of six children, Edward Edwards was born in Water Newton, a village near Peterborough, to Richard Edwards of Water Newton and Mary Fuller of Caldicot. He was born in about 1742 and christened in St Remegius' Church, Water Newton. He never married.

On 7 September 1759, age 17, he was commissioned as a lieutenant. To qualify for this commission he would have been required, in addition to passing a lieutenant's exam, to produce evidence of at least six years of sea time. No documents have been located to date which would establish exactly when, and under whose patronage, he started his naval career. It is likely he first went to sea as a captain's servant when about 10 years old and subsequently completed at least part of the required sea time as a midshipman. A signature, 'Edwd Edwards', inscribed on a document witnessing the Will of one Isaac Bishopbridge serving "on Board His Majestys Ship of Warr the Devonshire," suggests that Edwards may have sailed under Captain John Moore on HMS Devonshire in April 1756.

His naval career after he was commissioned included service in the following ships, before being appointed to Pandora:

 * HMS Nassau (1706), a 64-gun third rate, as fourth lieutenant
 * HMS Lowestoffe (1761), a 32-gun fifth rate, as second lieutenant
 * HMS Zephyr, a 14-gun sloop, as first lieutenant, under Captain J. Inglis
 * HMS Ferret, a 14-gun sloop, as first lieutenant
 * HMS Active (1758), a 28-gun sixth rate, as second lieutenant
 * HMS Pembroke (1757), a 60-gun fourth rate, as third lieutenant, later promoted to first lieutenant
 * HMS Augusta (1763), a 64-gun third rate, as first lieutenant, under Captain Francis Reynolds (later the Earl of Ducie)
 * HMS Carcass (1759), an 8-gun bomb vessel, 22 April 1778 – 5 December 1780, commanding officer
 * HMS Hornet, a 14-gun sloop, commanding officer; service in the Caribbean. Promoted to post captain on 25 April 1781, and transferred to command HMS Narcissus
 * HMS Narcissus (1781), a 20-gun sixth rate, (25 May 1781), paid off on 27 March 1784

Pandora and the Bounty
He spent the following six years on half-pay after the end of the American Revolutionary war; until 6 August 1790, when he was appointed to take command of the frigate Pandora. He received new orders on 11 August to prepare his new command for a journey to "remote parts", on a mission in pursuit of the Bounty mutineers.

With the help of former Bounty midshipman Thomas Hayward - a Bligh loyalist recently returned to England from the South Pacific - Edwards succeeded in finding fourteen men (Bligh had stated that four of these were loyal but could not be accommodated on the over-full launch with the other loyal men; so Edwards found ten mutineers). The ship finally sailed on 8 May, to search for Christian and Bounty among the thousands of southern Pacific islands. At Tubai a Bounty anchor was recovered by HMS Pandora (1779). Apart from a few spars discovered at Palmerston Island, no traces of the fugitive vessel were found. Edwards continued the search until August, when he turned west and headed for the Dutch East Indies. Ironically, a set of islands the Pandora sailed to but did not land at were the Pitcairn Islands; had he checked his charts and found that this uncharted island was at the correct latitude but wrong longitude for Pitcairn Island, he could very well have fulfilled his mission of taking into custody the last nine Bounty mutineers.

The Pandora foundered on the Great Barrier Reef on 29 August 1791 during the journey home from the South Pacific. Four of the ten mutineers and 31 of Pandora's crew died in the destruction of the ship. After an arduous open boat voyage from the wreck to Timor and on to Batavia (Jakarta), only 78 men of Pandora's original 134-strong crew eventually reached England, accompanied by six mutineers and four loyalists. For Hayward this was the second time in as many years that had he found himself in an open boat making for a safe haven in the Dutch East Indies.

Edwards was court-martialed on 17 September 1792 for the loss of the Pandora. Immediately prior to the proceedings, he submitted to the Admiralty his account of the events leading up to the sinking. All of his officers supported Edwards' contention that the frigate had been lost due to circumstances beyond anyone's control. The court-martial was attended by William Dillon, then a midshipman, who later became a vice-admiral in the Royal Navy and described Edwards in his memoirs as a "fine, venerable-looking officer. His appearance completely absorbed all my attention during the trial, and I felt an inward satisfaction at the result, after all the hardships and dangers he had overcome".

Captain Edwards and his officers were exonerated. Edwards subsequently served for a few years as a 'regulating' captain (recruiting officer) in Argyll and Hull and then resigned himself to inactivity on the half pay list. However, he was promoted to vice-admiral in 1809 and eventually ended his career as Admiral of the White, titularly the third most senior officer in the Royal Navy. He died in his native place - Stamford, Lincolnshire - aged 73, in 1815. Edwards was buried in St Remigius Church in Water Newton, a village in Huntingdonshire.

His reputation and character were effectively blackened by members of the Heywood family, who were unable to forgive him for what they perceived as excessively harsh treatment of their son, Bounty midshipman Peter Heywood, who was tried and convicted as a mutineer and pardoned. Yet Edwards had staunch supporters among other officers who had served under his command and he was also remembered by his niece as a "sweet old man", often out on a walk in the country lanes around his native Water Newton and Uppingham where he owned several farms. According to an obituary in the Lincoln, Stamford & Rutland Mercury (21 April 1815), he suffered for the rest of his life from the effects of the hardships he endured during the open boat voyage to Timor after the loss of the Pandora. This could be the reason the Admiralty never appointed him to a seagoing command after his court-martial in 1792.

Legacy
Notwithstanding his niece's fond memories, Edwards' conduct on the Pandora has been regarded in some circles as every bit as cruel as popular opinion claims that William Bligh was on the Bounty. Edwards, as ordered, kept his captives in close confinement, as if they had already been convicted, in spite of the fact that four of them had been identified by Bligh as being innocent and were subsequently acquitted at the court martial in Portsmouth.

Edwards was accused of being excessively callous when it came to the captives' well-being - for instance by refusing to let them use an old sail to prevent them from being sunburned on a sand cay, and also by collectively referring to, and treating them all as mutineers and pirates. Indeed, one of his officers, Lieutenant John Larkan (1746–1830), is alleged to have been "brutal" to the prisoners, which Edwards allegedly condoned.

One of Edwards' main detractors was Commodore Sir Thomas Pasley, uncle of convicted mutineer Peter Heywood, whose measured tone in one of his letters to Heywood leaves no doubt about his disapproval of 'that fellow' Edwards; he was especially critical of the prisoners' confinement in 'Pandora's Box'. Pasley omits to mention how he would have handled the situation had command been his. Presumably he might have occasionally let the prisoners out of their captivity location; thus, midshipmen Stewart and Heywood might have been allowed to spend some time walking the quarterdeck, as Peter Heywood was permitted to do after his transhipment to HMS Gorgon in Cape Town during the last stage of his voyage home. Much was made of this by Heywood's friends and defenders during his court martial, as if to underscore their plea that Edwards' conduct towards the prisoners had been excessively harsh and that Heywood had already suffered disproportionately and therefore had, in fact, already been punished.

Most damningly, Edwards is often accused of excessive callousness towards the prisoners by keeping all of them locked up in the prison cell after the frigate had run aground. Moreover, besides the fact that three prisoners were immediately ordered out of the cell to help the crew man the pumps; while several hours later, after the decision had been made to abandon ship because she could not be saved, it is not certain that Edwards gave orders to release the remaining eleven prisoners. Some saved themselves only because Joseph Hodges, the armourer's mate, knocked off the prisoners irons, but he was not able to complete the job because the ship sank very quickly. Although the shuttle closing the cell had been taken off by one of the crewmen at the last minute as the ship was foundering, four prisoners were nevertheless drowned.

Even though six of the captives were found guilty of mutiny, only three of them – Millward, Burkitt and Ellison – were eventually executed; William Muspratt was acquitted on a legal technicality and the remaining two, Peter Heywood and James Morrison were subsequently pardoned by the King.

Edwards' search for the mutiny ringleaders ultimately proved fruitless, but his voyages might have provided clues to the fate of one of the 18th century's greatest mysteries, the fate of the Lapérouse expedition. When passing Vanikoro, Santa Cruz Islands in the Pacific Ocean on 13 August 1791, smoke signals were observed rising from the island. However Edwards, who was only interested in prisoners, reasoned that mutineers fearful of discovery would not be advertising their whereabouts, so he ignored the smoke and sailed on. Sven Wahlroos, in his 1989 book, Mutiny and Romance in the South Seas, suggests that the smoke signals were almost certainly a distress message sent by survivors of the Lapérouse expedition, which later evidence indicated were still alive on Vanikoro at that time; three years after the Boussole and Astrolabe had foundered in 1788.

An islet on Ducie Atoll, in the Pitcairn Islands, is named after him.

The Bryant Escapees
On 5 June 1791 a small boat carrying Mary and William Bryant, their two children Charlotte (aged three) and Emanuel (aged 19 months) and seven fellow escaped convicts arrived in Koepang Timor after a gruelling 69 day voyage from Sydney. When they arrived, they told the Dutch Governor Mynheer Wanjon, that they were the survivors from a whaler, the Neptune, that had been wrecked in Torres Strait. For a while they were believed but at some point the Dutch realised they were escaped convicts and they were imprisoned, but treated humanely.

On 16 September Edwards arrived at Koepang with survivors of his crew and his captured mutineers in four small boats. He questioned the fugitives who admitted their escape from Port Jackson, but he did not take them in charge until 5 October when he was ready to sail to Batavia on the Rembang. Once on board the prisoners were put in chains and given only enough food to prevent starvation. The captain had offered to provide a cabin for Mary and the children but Edwards refused the offer. When the Rembang arrived in Batavia in November some of the convicts, including William Bryant and Emanuel, were already suffering from fever and were moved ashore to the Dutch East India Company Hospital where Emanuel died on 1 December followed by William three weeks later. In Batavia the crew were divided into four groups under lieutenants Larkan, Corner and Hayward, each travelling back to England via Holland on one of three VOC ships-Horssen, Zwaan and Hoornweg. Captain Edwards, several warrant officers, the escaped convicts and the 10 Bounty prisoners embarked with the fourth group on the Vredenburg for Cape Town.

On this voyage one escaped convict went overboard in Sunda Strait and two died at sea. At the Cape, Mary, her daughter Charlotte and the four surviving convicts were handed over to Commander John Parker of HMS Gorgon. Mary’s daughter Charlotte died at sea during the voyage from Cape Town to England on 5 May 1792.

Later life
Edwards is said to have retired to Cornwall; according to a story linking him to the 'Pandora Inn' along Restronguet Creek near Mylor, which he is alleged to have owned and renamed after retiring from the Navy. However, there is no documentary evidence to support this claim. Rather, together with a story about a figurehead adorning the Inn's stairwell, said to be based on an 18th-century original from the Pandora; this claim can be confidently refuted and relegated to the realm of creative copy-writing to advertise the inn, which according to cadastral records was called 'The Passage House' until 1851, following the death of Alexander Luben, tenant and Restronguet Passage boatman from 1823 until his death in 1848.

Edwards died on 13 April 1815 and was buried in a vault in the chancel of St Remigius church, Water Newton, near Peterborough, Cambridgeshire. The inscription reads:- Also the Remains of

EDWARD EDWARDS ESQ

Admiral of the White Squadron

in his Majesty's Navy

third son of the said

Richard and Mary Edwards

He died 13th April 1815 Aged 73 Years

title: Edward Edwards (Royal Navy officer)


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Organisation of the Government of Singapore

The Government of Singapore consists of several departments, known as ministries and statutory boards in Singapore. Ministries are led by a member of the Cabinet and deal with state matters that require direct political oversight. The member of the Cabinet heading the ministry is known as the minister, who is supported by a junior minister known as minister of state in Singapore. The administrative management of the ministry is led by a senior civil servant known as permanent secretary.

Committees/Councils

 * Hindu Advisory Board
 * Hindu Endowments Board
 * National Integration Council
 * Sikh Advisory Board

Departments/Divisions

 * Arts and Heritage Division
 * Charities Unit
 * Community Relations and Engagement Division
 * Corporate Communications Division
 * Development and Corporate Administration Division
 * Human Resource and Organisation Development
 * Information Technology Division
 * Internal Audit Division
 * Legal Unit
 * National Youth Council
 * Registry of Co-operative Societies and Mutual Benefit Organisations
 * Resilience and Engagement Division
 * Partnerships Project Office
 * Sports Division
 * Strategic Planning and Finance Division
 * Youth Division

Statutory boards

 * Majlis Ugama Islam Singapura
 * National Arts Council
 * National Heritage Board
 * People's Association
 * Sport Singapore

Departments/Divisions

 * Audit Unit
 * Corporate Communications Division
 * Corporate Development Division
 * Cyber Security Agency (under PMO)
 * Digital Readiness & Learning Division
 * Economic Regulation Division
 * Group Information Technology Division
 * Industry Division
 * Information Operations Centre
 * Information Planning Office
 * Information Policy Division
 * Legal Services
 * Media Division
 * Public Communications Division
 * REACH
 * Research & Data Division
 * Security & Resilience Division
 * Senior Consultants
 * Strategic Planning Division
 * Transformation

Statutory boards

 * Infocomm Media Development Authority
 * National Library Board
 * National Archives of Singapore
 * Personal Data Protection Commission

Departments/Divisions

 * Centre for Strategic Infocomm Technologies
 * Defence Management Group
 * Defence Policy Group
 * Defence Technology Collaboration Office
 * Defence Cyber Organisation
 * Future Systems and Technology Directorate
 * Industry & Resources Policy Office
 * Internal Audit Department
 * MINDEF Tele-Services
 * MINDEF/SAF Manpower Centres
 * SAF Formations
 * Singapore Army
 * Republic of Singapore Navy (RSN)
 * Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF)
 * SAF Military Police Command
 * Army Senior Specialist Staff Officers
 * Centre of Excellence for Soldier Performance
 * SAF Sports Association (SAFSA)
 * Singapore Armed Forces
 * The Joint Staff
 * Foreign Military Liaison Branch
 * Headquarters Medical Corps
 * Army Headquarters
 * Navy Headquarters
 * Air Force Headquarters
 * SAFTI Military Institute Headquarters
 * Singapore Maritime Crisis Centre
 * Safety and Systems Review Directorate
 * Security and Intelligence Division (SID)
 * Technology Strategy and Policy Office
 * Military Security Department
 * Training Schools
 * Basic Military Training Centre (BMTC)
 * Officer Cadet School (OCS)
 * Specialist Cadet School (SCS)
 * Specialist and Warrant Officer Advanced School

Statutory board

 * Defence Science and Technology Agency (DSTA)

Departments/Divisions

 * Communications and Engagement Group
 * HR Group
 * Academy of Singapore Teachers
 * Curriculum Planning & Development Division 1
 * Curriculum Planning & Development Division 2
 * Educational Technology Division
 * Finance and Procurement Division
 * Higher Education Group
 * Infrastructure and Facility Services
 * Information Technology Division
 * Planning Division
 * Research and Management Information Division
 * Schools Division
 * Special Education Needs Division
 * Student Placement and Services Division
 * Student Development Curriculum Division
 * Curriculum Policy Office
 * English Language Institute of Singapore
 * Internal Audit
 * Legal Services
 * Physical Education and Sports Teacher Academy
 * Singapore Teachers Academy for the Arts

Universities

 * National University of Singapore
 * Nanyang Technological University
 * Singapore Institute of Technology
 * Singapore Management University
 * Singapore University of Social Sciences
 * Singapore University of Technology and Design

Statutory boards

 * Institute of Technical Education
 * ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute
 * Nanyang Polytechnic
 * Ngee Ann Polytechnic
 * Republic Polytechnic
 * Science Centre Singapore
 * Singapore Examinations and Assessment Board
 * Singapore Polytechnic
 * SkillsFuture Singapore
 * Temasek Polytechnic

Departments/Divisions

 * Accountant-General's Department
 * Corporate Development
 * Corporate Services Directorate
 * Economic Programmes Directorate
 * Fiscal Policy Directorate
 * Free Trade Agreement
 * Goods and Services Tax Board of Review
 * Governance and Investment Directorate
 * Income Tax Board of Review
 * Internal Audit Unit
 * Managing for Excellence Directorate
 * Singapore Customs
 * Social and Security Programmes
 * Street and Building Names Board
 * Valuation Review Board
 * Vital.org

Statutory boards

 * Accounting and Corporate Regulatory Authority
 * Inland Revenue Authority of Singapore (IRAS)
 * Singapore Accountancy Commission (SAC)
 * Tote Board

Directorates in Headquarters

 * Americas Directorate
 * ASEAN Directorate
 * Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Directorate
 * Consular Directorate
 * Corporate Affairs Directorate
 * Europe Directorate
 * Human Resource Directorate
 * MFA Diplomatic Academy
 * Information Management Directorate
 * Internal Audit Unit
 * International Economics Directorate
 * International Organisations Directorate
 * Middle East, North Africa and Central Asia Directorate
 * Northeast Asia Directorate
 * Protocol Directorate
 * South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa Directorate
 * Southeast Asia I Directorate
 * Southeast Asia II Directorate
 * Strategic Communications Directorate
 * Technical Cooperation Directorate

Committees/Councils

 * Dental Specialist Accreditation Board
 * Family Physicians Accreditation Board
 * Optometrists and Opticians Board
 * Pharmacy Specialist Accreditation Board
 * Specialist Accreditation Board
 * Allied Health Professions Council

Departments/Divisions

 * Agency for Integrated Care
 * Alexandra Hospital
 * Changi General Hospital
 * Institute of Mental Health
 * KK Women's and Children's Hospital
 * Khoo Teck Puat Hospital
 * MOH Office for Healthcare Transformation
 * National Cancer Centre Singapore
 * National Centre for Infectious Diseases
 * National Dental Centre Singapore
 * National Healthcare Group
 * National Healthcare Group Polyclinics
 * National Heart Centre Singapore
 * National Neuroscience Institute
 * National Skin Centre
 * National University Health System
 * National University Hospital
 * National University Polyclinics
 * Ng Teng Fong General Hospital
 * Sengkang General Hospital
 * Singapore Gamma Knife Centre
 * Singapore General Hospital
 * Singapore Health Services
 * Singapore National Eye Centre
 * SingHealth Polyclinics
 * Tan Tock Seng Hospital
 * Woodlands Health Campus

Statutory boards

 * Health Promotion Board
 * Health Sciences Authority
 * Singapore Dental Council
 * Singapore Medical Council
 * Singapore Nursing Board
 * Singapore Pharmacy Council
 * TCM Practitioners Board

Councils

 * National Council Against Drug Abuse
 * National Crime Prevention Council
 * National Fire Prevention and Civil Emergency Preparedness Council
 * Presidential Council for Religious Harmony

Departments

 * Central Narcotics Bureau
 * Home Team Academy
 * Immigration and Checkpoints Authority
 * Internal Security Department
 * Singapore Civil Defence Force
 * Singapore Police Force
 * Singapore Prison Service

Divisions

 * Community Partnership & Communications Group
 * Finance & Admin Division
 * Gambling Regulatory Unit
 * Human Resource Division
 * Home Team Medical Services Division
 * International Cooperation and Partnerships Division
 * Legal Division
 * Joint Operations Group
 * Science & Technology Group
 * Planning & Organisation Division
 * Policy Development Division
 * Technology and Logistics Division
 * Registry of Societies
 * Research & Statistics Division
 * Risk Management and Audit Group
 * Training and Competency Development Division
 * Office of Chief Psychologist

Statutory boards

 * Casino Regulatory Authority of Singapore (CRA)
 * Home Team Science and Technology Agency (HTX)
 * Singapore Corporation of Rehabilitative Enterprises (SCORE)

Committees/Councils

 * Singapore Academy of Law (SAL)

Departments/Divisions

 * Appeals Board (Land Acquisition)
 * Community Legal Services Group
 * Copyright Tribunals
 * Corporate Services Divisions
 * International & Advisory
 * Legal Policy
 * Legal Services Regulatory Authority
 * Policy Divisions

Statutory boards

 * Intellectual Property Office of Singapore (IPOS)
 * Singapore Land Authority (SLA)
 * Land Surveyors Board (LSB)

Departments/Divisions

 * Assurance, Care and Engagement Group
 * Corporate Services Group
 * Economics Department
 * Foreign Manpower Management Division
 * Income Security Policy Department
 * Joint Operations Division
 * Labour Relations and Workplaces Division
 * Legal Services Division
 * Manpower Planning and Policy Division
 * Manpower Research and Statistics Department
 * Occupational Safety and Health Division
 * Work Pass Division
 * Workplace Policy and Strategy Division

Statutory boards

 * Central Provident Fund Board
 * Singapore Labour Foundation
 * Workforce Singapore

Committees

 * Community Improvement Projects Committee
 * Community Improvement Projects Executive Committee

Councils

 * Aljunied–Hougang Town Council
 * Ang Mo Kio Town Council
 * Bishan–Toa Payoh Town Council
 * Chua Chu Kang Town Council
 * East Coast Town Council
 * Holland–Bukit Panjang Town Council
 * Jalan Besar Town Council
 * Jurong–Clementi Town Council
 * Marine Parade Town Council
 * Marsiling–Yew Tee Town Council
 * Nee Soon Town Council
 * Pasir Ris–Punggol Town Council
 * Sembawang Town Council
 * Sengkang Town Council
 * Tampines Town Council
 * Tanjong Pagar Town Council
 * West Coast Town Council

Departments/Divisions

 * Corporate Development Division
 * Housing Division
 * Infrastructure Division
 * Planning and Research Unit
 * Strategic Planning Division

Statutory boards

 * Board of Architects
 * Building and Construction Authority (BCA)
 * Council for Estate Agencies (CEA)
 * Housing and Development Board (HDB)
 * National Parks Board (NPB)
 * Professional Engineers Board, Singapore
 * Strata Titles Boards
 * Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA)

Departments

 * Early Childhood Development Agency
 * Emergency Preparedness Unit
 * Feedback Unit
 * Organisational Development Unit

Divisions

 * Communications and International Relations Division
 * Community and Social Sector Development Division
 * Elderly Development Division
 * Family Development Division
 * Finance And Facilities Division
 * Human Resource Division
 * Information Technology Division
 * Rehabilitation & Protection Division
 * Social Support Division
 * Sports Division
 * Strategic Policy And Research Division
 * Youth Division

Statutory boards

 * National Council of Social Service

Departments/Divisions

 * Energy & Climate Policy
 * Environmental Policy
 * Water & Food Policy
 * International Policy
 * Communications & 3P Partnerships Division
 * Futures & Planning
 * Corporate Development
 * Climate Change Negotiation Office

Statutory boards

 * National Environment Agency (NEA)
 * Public Utilities Board (PUB)
 * Singapore Food Agency (SFA)

Departments/Divisions

 * Capability Development Group
 * Corporate Development Division
 * Department of Statistics
 * Directorate A, Trade Division
 * Directorate B, Trade Division
 * Economics Division
 * Enterprise Division
 * Industry Division
 * International Business Development Division
 * Resource Centre
 * Resource Division
 * Service Improvement Unit
 * Special Project Unit

Statutory boards

 * Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR)
 * Competition and Consumer Commission of Singapore (CCCS)
 * Economic Development Board (EDB)
 * DesignSingapore Council
 * Energy Market Authority (EMA)
 * Enterprise Singapore (ESG)
 * Hotels Licensing Board (HLB)
 * JTC Corporation (JTC)
 * Sentosa Development Corporation (SDC)
 * Singapore Tourism Board (STB)

Departments/Divisions

 * Air Transport Division
 * Corporate Communications Division
 * Corporate Development Division
 * Futures and Transformation Division
 * International Relations and Security Division
 * Land Transport Division
 * Sea Transport Division
 * Transport Safety Investigation Bureau
 * Technology Office

Statutory boards

 * Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore (CAAS)
 * Land Transport Authority (LTA)
 * Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore (MPA)
 * Public Transport Council (PTC)

Committees/Councils

 * Singapore Bicentennial Office

Departments/Divisions

 * Communications Group
 * Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau
 * Cyber Security Agency (Managed by MCI)
 * Elections Department
 * Horticultural Section
 * Istana Maintenance Unit
 * Istana Security Unit
 * Justices of the Peace, Singapore
 * National Research Foundation
 * National Security Coordination Secretariat
 * Public Service Division
 * Smart Nation and Digital Government Office
 * Strategy Group
 * National Climate Change Secretariat (NCCS)
 * National Population and Talent Division (NPTD)
 * Public Sector Science and Technology Policy and Plans Office

Statutory Boards

 * Civil Service College Singapore
 * Government Technology Agency
 * Monetary Authority of Singapore

Organs of State

 * Attorney-General's Chambers (AGC)
 * Auditor-General's Office (AGO)
 * Cabinet of Singapore
 * The Istana
 * Judiciary, Industrial Arbitration Court (IAC)
 * Judiciary, Family Justice Courts
 * Judiciary, State Courts
 * Judiciary, Supreme Court
 * Parliament of Singapore
 * Public Service Commission (PSC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Ryūjin

Ryūjin (龍神, lit. "Dragon God"), which in some traditions is equivalent to Ōwatatsumi, was the tutelary deity of the sea in Japanese mythology. In many versions Ryūjin had the ability to transform into a human shape. Many believed the god had knowledge on medicine and many considered him as the bringer of rain and thunder, Ryūjin is also the patron god (ujigami) of several family groups.

This Japanese dragon, symbolizing the power of the ocean, had a large mouth. He is considered a good god and patron of Japan, since the Japanese population has for millennia lived off the bounty of the sea. Ryūjin is also credited with the challenge of a hurricane which sank the Mongolian flotilla sent by Kublai Khan. Ryūjin lived in Ryūgū-jō, his palace under the sea built out of red and white coral, from where he controlled the tides with magical tide jewels. Sea turtles, fish, jellyfish, snakes, and other sea creatures are often seen as Ryūjin's servants.

How the jellyfish lost its bones
One legend involving Ryūjin is the story about how the jellyfish lost its bones. According to this story, Ryūjin wanted to eat monkey's liver (in some versions of the story, to heal an incurable rash), and sent the jellyfish to get him a monkey. The monkey managed to sneak away from the jellyfish by telling him that he had put his liver in a jar in the forest and offered to go and get it. As the jellyfish came back and told Ryūjin what had happened, Ryūjin became so angry that he beat the jellyfish until its bones were crushed.

The Tale of Tawara Tōda
One myth involves Ryūjin asking a man by the name of Tawara Tōda to help him get rid of a giant centipede attacking his kingdom. Tawara Tōda agrees to help Ryūjin and Tawara Tōda accompanies Ryūjin back to his home. When Tawara Tōda killed the centipede, Ryūjin awarded him with a bag of rice.

Empress Jingū
According to legend, the Empress Jingū was able to carry out her attack into Korea with the help of Ryūjin's tide jewels. Some versions of the legend say that Empress Jingū asked Isora to go down to Ryūjin's palace and retrieve the tide jewels.

Upon confronting the Korean navy, Jingū threw the kanju (干珠) into the sea, and the tide receded. The Korean fleet was stranded, and the men got out of their ships. Jingū then threw down the manju (満珠) and the water rose, drowning the Korean soldiers. An annual festival, called Gion Matsuri, at Yasaka Shrine celebrates this legend.

Family
Ryūjin was the father of the beautiful Toyotama-Hime goddess who married the hunter prince Hoori. The first Emperor of Japan, Emperor Jimmu, is said to have been a grandson of Otohime and Hoori's. Thus, Ryūjin is said to be one of the ancestors of the Japanese imperial dynasty.

Worship
Ryūjin shinkō (竜神信仰) is a form of Shinto religious belief that worships dragons as water kami. It is connected with agricultural rituals, rain prayers, and the success of fishermen.

The god has shrines across Japan and especially in rural areas where fishing and rains for agriculture are important for local communities.

title: Ryūjin


text:
Marianne (Terry Gilkyson song)

"Marianne" is a traditional calypso song made popular by Trinidadian calypsonian Roaring Lion. Writing credits on the Easy Riders recording are Terry Gilkyson, Richard Dehr, and Frank Miller.

History
"Mary Ann" is a traditional calypso that was recorded by Trinidadian calypsonian Roaring Lion (born Rafael de Leon). It was popular with steel bands and revelers during a spontaneous carnival celebration on V-J Day in Trinidad in 1945, at the end of World War II. The song's lyrics allude to Mary Ann's occupation:

 * All day, all night, Miss Mary Ann
 * Down by the seaside, she sifting sand.

Recordings

 * Spanish bandleader Xavier Cugat recorded a version of "Mary Ann" in the late 1940s. During the 1956–57 American calypso craze, the Easy Riders, Burl Ives, and other interpreters of folk music further popularized the song, generally under the title "Marianne". Harry Belafonte recorded the track on at least three albums. "Mary Ann" continued to be a favorite with steel bands and calypso entertainers at Caribbean tourist hotels for many years.
 * The most popular version was recorded by Terry Gilkyson and the Easy Riders (No. 4 on the Billboard Top 100 in 1957); another version was recorded by the Hilltoppers in 1957 (No. 3 on the Billboard Top 100).
 * Les Compagnons de la chanson recorded a French version, which reached No. 3 on the Belgian chart in 1957.
 * Trini Lopez included "Marianne" on his album Trini Lopez at PJ's on Reprise Records RS-6093 as part of a medley with "Gotta Travel On", "Down by the Riverside", "When the Saints Go Marching In", and "Volare".

References in popular culture
All day, all night, Marion, Sittin' by the seaside siftin' sand … The water from her eyes could sail a boat, The hair on her head could tie a goat …
 * In Ian Fleming's 1958 James Bond novel Dr. No, Honeychile Rider whistles Marion [sic] on a beach in Jamaica and Bond joins in singing a couple of lines. Fleming implies that the original calypso was racier and had been 'cleaned up' in the contemporaneous popular recording. The lines he quotes are:

The last two lines are not in the Terry Gilkyson version. All day, all night, Cary Grant That's all I hear from my wife, is Cary Grant What can he do that I can't Big deal, big star, Cary Grant All day, all night, Marianne; Who the hell you think I am, Superman?
 * Allan Sherman sang about Cary Grant based on this song, which went as follows (from Shticks of one Kind and Half Dozen of Another):
 * In the nudie-cartoon anthology Sex to Sexty, which included "Balled-Up Ballads"—popular tunes with racy lyrics—the following lines were written for "Marianne":

title: Marianne (Terry Gilkyson song)


text:
List of universities and colleges in Portugal

This list of universities and colleges in Portugal gives the Portuguese institutions providing higher education. Higher education in Portugal is organized into two systems: university and polytechnic. There are public and private higher education institutions.

Public universities

 * ISCTE - University Institute of Lisbon
 * University of the Azores
 * University of Algarve (includes polytechnic schools)
 * University of Aveiro (includes polytechnic schools)
 * University of Beira Interior
 * University of Coimbra
 * University of Évora (includes polytechnic schools)
 * University of Lisbon
 * University of Madeira (includes polytechnic schools)
 * University of Minho (includes polytechnic schools)
 * NOVA University of Lisbon
 * University of Porto
 * University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (includes polytechnic schools)

Public distance learning universities

 * Universidade Aberta

Private universities

 * Autonomous University of Lisbon
 * Catholic University of Portugal (includes polytechnic schools)
 * European University of Lisbon
 * Fernando Pessoa University (Porto and Ponte de Lima) (includes polytechnic schools)
 * Lusíada University (Lisbon, Porto and Vila Nova de Famalicão)
 * Lusófona University (Lisbon and Porto) (includes polytechnic schools)
 * Portucalense Infante D. Henrique University (Porto)

Private institutes and schools

 * CESPU - Cooperativa de Ensino Superior Politécnico e Universitário (Gandra, Penafiel and Vila Nova de Famalicão) (includes polytechnic schools)
 * Escola Superior Artística do Porto
 * Escola Superior de Actividades Imobiliárias (Lisbon)
 * Escola Superior Gallaecia (Vila Nova de Cerveira)
 * Escola Universitária Vasco da Gama (Coimbra)
 * Instituto Superior de Ciências da Saúde Egas Moniz (Almada) (includes polytechnic schools)
 * Instituto Piaget (Almada, Silves, Vila Nova de Gaia and Viseu) (includes polytechnic schools)
 * Instituto Superior de Gestão
 * Instituto Superior Manuel Teixeira Gomes (Portimão)
 * Instituto Superior Miguel Torga (Coimbra)
 * Instituto Superior de Serviço Social do Porto
 * Instituto Superior da Maia
 * Instituto Superior de Gestão e Administração de Leiria
 * Instituto Universitário de Ciências Psicológicas, Sociais e da Vida (Lisbon)

Public polytechnic institutes and schools

 * Polytechnic Institute of Beja
 * Polytechnic Institute of Bragança
 * Polytechnic Institute of Castelo Branco
 * Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave
 * Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra
 * Polytechnic Institute of Guarda
 * Polytechnic Institute of Leiria
 * Polytechnic Institute of Lisboa
 * Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre
 * Polytechnic Institute of Porto
 * Polytechnic Institute of Santarém
 * Polytechnic Institute of Setúbal
 * Polytechnic Institute of Tomar
 * Polytechnic Institute of Viana do Castelo
 * Polytechnic Institute of Viseu
 * Escola Superior de Hotelaria e Turismo do Estoril
 * Escola Náutica Infante D. Henrique
 * Escola Superior de Enfermagem de Coimbra
 * Escola Superior de Enfermagem de Lisboa
 * Escola Superior de Enfermagem do Porto

Private polytechnic institutes and schools

 * Academia Nacional Superior de Orquestra (Lisbon)
 * Atlântica - Escola Universitária de Ciências Empresariais (School of Management Sciences, Health, IT & Engineering) (Oeiras)
 * Escola Superior de Negócios Atlântico (Atlântico Business School) (Vila Nova de Gaia)
 * Conservatório Superior de Música de Gaia
 * Escola Superior de Artes e Design (Matosinhos)
 * Escola Superior Artística de Guimarães
 * Escola Superior de Educação de Almeida Garrett (Lisbon)
 * Escola Superior de Educação de João de Deus (Lisbon)
 * Escola Superior de Educação de Paula Frassinetti (Porto)
 * Escola Superior de Educadores de Infância Maria Ulrich (Lisbon)
 * Escola Superior de Saúde do Alcoitão (Alcoitão, Alcabideche)
 * Escola Superior de Saúde Atlântica (Oeiras)
 * Escola Superior de Saúde da Cruz Vermelha Portuguesa (Lisbon)
 * Escola Superior de Saúde de Santa Maria (Porto)
 * Escola Superior de Tecnologias e Artes de Lisboa
 * Instituto de Estudos Superiores de Fafe
 * Polytechnic Institute of Maia
 * Instituto Português de Administração de Marketing (Lisbon and Porto)
 * Instituto Superior de Administração e Gestão (Porto)
 * Instituto Superior de Administração e Línguas (Funchal)
 * Instituto Superior de Ciências da Administração (Lisbon)
 * Instituto Superior de Ciências Educativas (Lisbon and Penafiel)
 * Instituto Superior de Ciências Empresariais e do Turismo (Porto)
 * Instituto Superior de Ciências da Informação e da Administração (Aveiro)
 * Instituto Superior de Comunicação Empresarial (Lisbon School of Business Communication)
 * Instituto Superior D. Dinis (Marinha Grande)
 * Instituto Superior de Entre Douro e Vouga (Santa Maria da Feira)
 * Instituto Superior de Novas Profissões (Lisbon)
 * Instituto Superior de Paços de Brandão
 * Instituto Superior Politécnico Gaya (Vila Nova de Gaia)
 * Instituto Superior Politécnico do Oeste (Torres Vedras)
 * Instituto Superior de Tecnologias Avançadas de Lisboa (Lisbon and Porto)
 * ISAVE - Instituto Superior de Saúde (Amares)
 * Instituto Superior de Educação e Ciências (Lisbon)
 * ISLA - Instituto Politécnico de Gestão e Tecnologia (Vila Nova de Gaia)
 * ISLA - Instituto Superior de Gestão e Administração de Santarém
 * Escola Superior de Enfermagem Dr. José Timóteo Montalvão Machado (Chaves)
 * Escola Superior de Enfermagem São Francisco das Misericórdias (Lisbon)
 * Escola Superior de Enfermagem de São José de Cluny (Funchal)
 * Escola Superior de Saúde Norte da Cruz Vermelha Portuguesa (Oliveira de Azeméis)

Military and police higher education

 * Air Force Academy
 * Military Academy
 * Naval School
 * Instituto Superior de Ciências Policiais e Segurança Interna


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Chefchaouen

Chefchaouen (شفشاون, ) is a city in northwest Morocco. It is the chief town of the province of the same name and is noted for its buildings in shades of blue, for which it is nicknamed the "Blue City". It is situated in a mountainous region in northern Morocco, between Tétouan and Ouazzane.

It was founded in 1471 by the Arab Moulay Ali Ben Moussa Ben Rached El Alami, a distant descendant of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad. The original settlement consisted of just a small fortress, now referred to as Chefchaouen’s kasbah. The fortress was erected to help defend the area from potential attacks by Portuguese invaders; at the time, Portugal was launching attacks against northern cities and towns in Morocco.

Etymology
The name "Chefchaouen" is of Arabic origin, Chef”, a derivation of the Arabic word “to look” and “Chaouen,” meaning “antlers” or “horns.” Between the two protective horns of the looming Rif Mountains. Chefchaouen thus means 'look at the horns', reflecting the two mountain peaks overlooking the area. Nowadays, Chefchaouen is known as "the Blue Pearl" of Morocco, known for its traditional houses painted in blue and white.

History
The city was founded in 1471 (876 AH) as a small kasbah by Ali ibn Rashid al-Alami, a descendant of Abd al-Salam ibn Mashish al-Alami and Idris I. Al-Alami built the kasbah to defend against Portuguese invasions of northern Morocco. Along with the Ghomaras of the region, many Andalusi Muslims, Moriscos and Spanish and Portuguese Jews settled here during and after the Reconquista, when Spanish Christians conquered what remained of al-Andalus, the Muslim-controlled parts of the Iberian Peninsula.

Ali Ben Rashid was born in Gherzoim, a nearby village, c. 1440 (844 AH). He went to Emirate of Granada in 1460 and distinguished himself in battle against Christian forces. He settled in Chefchaouen c. 1465 and, due to his experience as a warrior, was chosen as successor to his cousin ibn Abi Jum'ah and leader of the mujahideen in the northwest of Morocco. He fought alongside the emir of Tétouan, Ali al-Mandri, who married his daughter, the Mujahida Aisha al-Hurra. The latter, known by her title, Sayyida al-Hurra, ruled Chefchaouen through a rapid period of growth and development.

Pressures of the Reconquista and the fall of Granada in 1492 led many of its people to immigrate to Morocco over several centuries. The last Moriscos (descendants of Muslims) were expelled from Spain by Philip III in 1609. Some of these refugees chose to settle in the large cities of Fes, Marrakesh, Tlemcen, Tunis, and Kairouan, while others settled in the jihadist fortress of Chefchaouen, which was in a fierce war against Portuguese armies. They established their quarters on the rugged slopes of the mountains and built their own residential quarters in the Andalusi architectural style, very similar to the traditional quarters of Granada. In a few decades, the fortress of Chefchaouen turned into a prosperous new city, in which the Andalusi-Granadan culture merged with the culture of the Ghomaras. The urban expansion included military fortifications such as walls with about ten gates and the construction of several mosques including the Great Mosque. The Andalusi community that settled in the city also included several well-known poets and philosophers.

In October 1920, General Dámaso Berenguer occupied the city for the Spanish protectorate in Morocco. Following the Spanish Retreat from Chaouen, Chefchaouen was part of the Republic of the Rif led by Abd el-Krim from 1924 to 1926. In September 1925, in the middle of the Rif War, a rogue squadron of American volunteer pilots, the Lafayette Escadrille, bombarded civilians in the city. Colonel Charles Sweeny had proposed the idea to French Prime Minister Paul Painlevé, who "warmly welcomed the Colonel's request." After el-Krim was defeated with the help of the French, he was deported to Réunion. The Spanish Army retook the city in 1926.

Morocco gained its independence from colonial rule in 1956. Chefchaouen and most of the northern parts of the country were ceded by Spain that year.

Geography
The city of Chefchaouen is located at about 600 m above sea level in the foothills of the Kaʻala mountain in the western part of the Rif mountain range, in northwestern Morocco. The city consists of a medina, the historical walled town, and a new town that has grown outside the former city walls.

Demographics
According to the last census of the Moroccan population (2014), the municipality of Chefchaouen has a population of 42,786.

Culture
Chefchaouen is located in a territory traditionally inhabited by Jebala, subsequently joined by Muslim and Jewish refugees from al-Andalus and Spain. The city has maintained strong relations with the inhabitants of the Jbala Region such as Akhmas, Ghomara, Ghazaoua, and Sanhaja tribes, particularly in terms of trade. The federations of these tribes were sometimes a source of strength, and sometimes a weakness due to their frequent struggles to take possession of assets such as water sources, grazing areas, and fertile land.

The traditional houses of Chefchaouen were made of stone, brick, tile, wood, soil, and lime. Each house had an open yard in the center surrounded by corridors and bedrooms. The yards are often decorated with fruit trees such as oranges, lemons, berries, and grapes, as well as some perfumed shrubs including night-blooming jessamine (Cestrum nocturnum) and jasmine (Jasminum officinale). From a physiognomy perspective, the city is influenced by Andalusian architecture, such as the curved brick archways that strengthen the houses and decorate the narrow blue alleyways, the traditional water network, and the landscaping and care of plants inside houses and mosques. From a cultural perspective, many Chefchaouen families have conserved the art of Andalusian music, which has become the main ritual of Chefchaouen religious festivals and social ceremonies.

The rural landscape was characterized by a distribution of space according to intra- and intertribal relations. At the level of each dshar (low-density rural settlements), the houses are built around a mosque or a marabou and occupy the center of the concentric spatial structure of traditional agro-sylvo-pastoral systems. This spatial distribution of dshars is tightly associated with arable land and availability of water resources, with shifting cultivation limited to a diffuse strip of matorral shrubland and pasture that mark the transition to forests. However, this traditional agro-salvo-pastoral system has been deeply affected by multiple processes of modern socio-cultural and economic transformation.

Traditions
Chefchaouen's residents commit to religious and social rituals. The devout perform prayer together in the mosque or the zawiya (a Sufi shrine or religious complex). They also like to visit their families and friends on religious and social occasions. Some of the major religious and social occasions include:
 * Sha’banah takes place on the 15th of Shaa’ban (i.e. the 8th month of Hijri calendar). It is commonly known as the Day of Nusskhah, in which the tomb of Moulay Abd Salam Ben Mshish is visited, of particular observance by the students of msids (Quranic schools).
 * The night of Al-Qad is observed on the 26th of Ramadan, when the people encourage 7–10-year-old girls to fast. Families usually celebrate at home, but often parade following the afternoon prayer with the girls wearing wedding clothes.
 * Ashura is celebrated on the 10th of Muharram (observed by Jewish residents as Yom Kippur). Preparations begin after Eid Al-Adha when part of the Eid meat is dried as qaddid, and on Ashura is eaten with couscous by families, along with dried fruit (almonds, walnuts, raisins, and pistachios), dates and various traditional sweets. Children receive great attention and are often gifted traditional and modern items, including toys.
 * Mawlid Nabawi (Muhammad's birthday) is celebrated on the 12th of Rabii’ Al-Awwal. It is designated as Eid and involves the reading of the Quran and Muhammad's biography in mosques or at people’s homes. This night is also celebrated in the mausoleum of Ali Ben Rashid and the 13 zawiyas throughout the city. Couscous is served to the poor and prisoners. During this celebration, mass circumcision of children is carried out following the afternoon prayer, and gifts are distributed to their families.
 * Hakouzah Day is celebrated on 1 January of the agricultural solar calendar. It is observed by preparing and eating various traditional foods, in appreciation of the past harvest's bounty and the hope that the New Year will be better.

Despite the diversity of these ceremonies, observances of similar characters are present in almost all of Morocco.

Economy
In 2020, Chefchaouen was included as a learning city in the UNESCO Global Network of Learning Cities (GNLC). This network encourages policy discussion and mutual learning between its members, to forge collaborations and develop abilities and designs tools to support and identify progress.

Agricultural sector
Agriculture is an important sector of the economy in the Chefchaouen area, which is known for its large agro-pastoral component. A traditional subsistence agriculture is practiced there on the hillsides and in the valleys – olives being the main crop. Other traditional crops such as grape vines, almonds and figs are still cultivated, although cannabis monoculture has become more profitable than these with an increased influx of tourists in recent decades.

Industry and commerce
The industrial sector of Chefchaouen province remains very weak despite the province's potential with its availability of human and natural resources. The commercial sector is one of the main economic supports of Chefchaouen, bolstered by tourism activity and remittances from workers abroad. It is mainly focused on urban centers and the main rural communes and is based on the sale of traditional food products, construction materials, clothing, and household items. Commercial transactions become dynamic during summer, with the influx of tourists and the return of foreign workers to the province. The Rif region around Chefchaouen is also a center of cannabis production in Morocco.

Tourism
During the holidays, the city sees a considerable influx of Moroccan and foreign tourists, attracted by its natural landscapes and historical monuments. Tourism is largely seasonal, with 200 hotels in the province catering to an influx of European tourists in the summer. In 2018, the annual number of tourists visiting the city was estimated at 120,000. In the past, some of the city's tourism was also linked to the availability of good-quality, low-cost cannabis produced in the region. Tourism has since increased primarily due the medina's appeal. Authorities have also promoted the region's natural environment. A nearby attraction is the Kef Toghobeit Cave, one of the deepest caves in Africa.

Handicraft sector
The handicraft sector or traditional industry (e.g., sewing, cupping, blacksmithing, carpentry, needlework, and tanning) is the most common economic activity practiced by Chefchaouen's population and thus plays key a socio-economic role in this province. It is closely related to the tourism sector and includes a multitude of artisans (38 cooperatives and 688 artisan adherents in 2016) largely occupied in leather, textile, ironwork, and traditional carpentry. Wood products represent the best-selling artisanal product in Chefchaouen province, with 57.6% of products sold.

Landmarks
Chefchaouen's blue walls are a popular subject of interest. There are several theories as to why the walls were painted blue. One popular theory is that the blue keeps mosquitos away. The blue is said to symbolize the sky and heaven and serve as a reminder to lead a spiritual life. However, according to some locals, the walls were mandated to be painted blue in the 1970s to attract tourists.

Medina
The medina is the historical district of Chefchaouen, where blue and white paint dominates the walls and houses. The medina was enclosed by defensive walls and some of its historic gates are still preserved. The heart of the medina is Uta Hammam Square (or Place Outa Hammam), a market square surrounded by the most important buildings of the old town – the kasbah, the Great Mosque, and a caravanserai – as well as various shops and cafés. The square was probably created by Moulay Muhammad (one of Ali ibn Rashid's sons) in the 16th century. It takes its name from a hammam (public bathhouse) in the northwest corner.

The (caravanserai), near the northwest corner of the square, is the largest of the four caravanserais in the city, built to house merchants and travelers. The building consists of a courtyard surrounded by a multi-story gallery and rooms. Its architecture is simple, distinguished only by its tall entrance portal with a large pointed horseshoe arch.

To the southwest of the kasbah is the Souika neighbourhood, one of the oldest in the city, established since the 15th century. Its name, meaning "Little Souk", derives from the presence of a market created here in its earliest days. This market area was originally marked off from the surrounding district and enclosed by its own gates, of which one archway remains. A number of traditional fountains are located throughout the old city and provided water for its inhabitants. One example is the four-sided fountain at the center of the Uta Hammam Square. Its four façades are each decorated with a blind arch niche and the structure was originally topped by a dome. It has since been redecorated and repainted, with the dome replaced by a green-tiled roof. Another example is the Aïn Souika Fountain in the Souika neighborhood, an old wall fountain set behind an archway. The façade of the fountain is decorated with a blind arch framed by concentric multifoil decoration, topped by small blind windows above. A recent restoration most likely added the current tile decoration that imitates zellij.

Kasbah
The oldest part of the medina is the kasbah, the original citadel founded in the late 15th century by Ali ibn Rashid. The fortress consists of a roughly rectangular enclosure protected by walls built in rammed earth (pisé). The kasbah originally had two entrances: one facing the main square and markets, another near the Great Mosque. These entrances have since been closed or repurposed and modern access is through an opening created in the 1930s.

The kasbah's walls are reinforced by ten towers, also built in rammed earth, and an additional tower on the west side, built in rubble masonry reinforced with cut stone at the corners. The latter tower, which is taller and stands out from the rest, was probably built in the early 16th century by Moulay Muhammad. It has multiple rooms inside, some covered by brick domes. Its structure and function appears similar to some of the tower-residences of Nasrid architecture in Granada. Some old cisterns have been discovered on site, likely dating to the kasbah's original construction and its early use as a residence.

Today, the kasbah has been converted into a museum and its interior courtyard is occupied by a garden. The museum's exhibitions are focused on archeological objects and ethnography and they are located on the ground floor of a historic house in the northeast corner of the enclosure. The house was likely built in the late 17th century during the reign of Moulay Ismail, probably by Ali Errifi, the local governor.

Religious sites
The Great Mosque of Chefchaouen is the city's oldest and historically most important mosque, located at Place Outae Hammam at the heart of the medina, close to the kasbah. The Spanish Mosque is a disused mosque overlooking the town from a hill to the east. It was built by the Spanish in the 1920s and is now a popular lookout point.

Outside the city, the Mausoleum of Abdessalam Ben Mshish al-Alami is dedicated to the patron saint of northern Morocco's Jebalah region, Moulay Abdessalam Ben Mshish al-Alami. His tomb and the village surrounding it are roughly 50 km northwest of Chefchaouen on the old road to Larache.

Ras al-Ma'
This water source is located just east of the medina, outside its former walls. It was the original source of water for the city. The spot where the water emerges at the surface was once open but is now enclosed by a stone structure. Nearby and downstream are located an old mill, and a bridge, possibly from the 19th century, which links the two shores of the stream.

International relations
A list of twin towns and sister cities includes:
 * 🇺🇸 Issaquah, Washington, United States (since April 11, 2007)
 * 🇪🇸 Vejer de la Frontera, Spain
 * 🇪🇸 Ronda, Spain
 * 🇨🇳 Kunming, China
 * 🇹🇳 Testour, Tunisia
 * 🇵🇹 Mértola, Portugal
 * 🇲🇦 Beni Mellal, Morocco (domestic)

Notable people

 * Ahmed Hammoudan, professional footballer
 * Abdelkarim Tabbal, poet
 * Sayyida al Hurra, corsair, queen, and governor

title: Chefchaouen


text:
List of expansion operations and planning of the Axis powers

Planning for global territorial expansion of the Axis powers; Germany, Italy and Japan, progressed before and during the Second World War. This included some special strike plans against the Allied nations (with similar intentions to the James Doolittle raid special Allied Strike). The Kingdom of Romania, a de facto major member of the Axis with a contribution on par with Italy's, is also included.

1936-1939

 * Italian conquest of Absinia after the Second Italo-Ethiopian War
 * Italian occupation of Majorca (included the intention of annexing the Balearic Islands, Ceuta and Spanish morocco, and then creating a client state in Spain)
 * Operation Schulmeister (proposed cession of the Balearic Islands by the Spanish Republic to Italy in exchange of neutrality in the Spanish Civil War).
 * Proposed cession of the Balearic or Canary Islands by the Spanish Republic to Germany in exchange of neutrality in the Spanish Civil War.
 * Italian occupation of Albania after the Italian invasion of Albania

1939–1940

 * Fall Grün (planned invasion of Czechoslovakia, to be carried out in September 1938. Averted by the signing of the Munich Agreement. Not to be confused with the military plan to invade Ireland by the same name, see below)
 * Operation Weiß (invasion of Poland. Carried out 1 September 1939)
 * Operation Himmler (false flag operation to provide a casus belli for the invasion of Poland, including the Gleiwitz incident)
 * Operation Weserübung (invasion of Denmark and Norway. Carried out 9 April 1940)
 * Operation Gelb (invasion of the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. Carried out 10 May 1940)
 * Operation Rot (invasion of France and principal western attack. Carried out 5 June 1940)
 * Operation Sea Lion (invasion of Great Britain, not carried out)
 * Operation Herbstreise (a planned series of deception operations to support Sea Lion)
 * Operation Green (invasion of Ireland in support of Sea Lion, also known as Fall Grün. Not to be confused with the military plan to invade Czechoslovakia by the same name, see above)
 * Operation Marita (invasion of Greece, carried out later)
 * Operation Barbarossa (invasion of USSR, carried out later)
 * Italian Operations: invasion of Albania, first attempt to invade Greece (Greco-Italian War)
 * Operation Ikarus (invasion of Iceland, not carried out)
 * Operation Felix (Spanish/German joint plan for control of Gibraltar, Canary Islands, Cape Verde, and Azores, it included the potential invasion of Portugal, Morocco and Spanish Sahara).
 * Unnamed operation (subsequent occupation of Madeira)
 * Unnamed operation (first attempt at reinforcing Italian Libya with German forces)
 * Operation Tannenbaum (invasion plan for Switzerland)
 * Projected German administrative divisions of occupied western and northern territories:
 * Reichskommissariat Norwegen (implemented in 1940)
 * Reichskommissariat Niederlande (implemented in 1940)
 * Reichskommissariat Belgien-Nordfrankreich (implemented in 1944)
 * Greater Germanic Reich (theoretical planning mostly)

1941–1944

 * Operation Marita (invasion of Greece, Germany supporting the Italian efforts. Carried out 6 April 1941.)
 * Operation 25 (invasion of Yugoslavia. Carried out 6 April 1941)
 * Operation Merkur (invasion of Crete. Carried out 20 May 1941.)
 * Operation Sonnenblume (Erwin Rommel and the Afrika Korps reinforcing the Axis defenses of Cyrenaica in 1941)
 * Operation Isabella (invasion of Portugal and Spain to counter any possible landing of Anglo-American troops in the Iberian peninsula. Prepared in May 1941 and never carried out.)
 * Operation Ilona (a plan aiming to counter an Anglo-American invasion of Iberia by holding north Spanish ports to protect German positions in France. Prepared in 1942, never carried out.)
 * Operation Barbarossa (invasion of USSR, carried out 22 June 1941.)
 * Operation München (joint Romanian-German invasion of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. Carried out 2 July 1941.)
 * Operation Silver Fox (plan to capture the Soviet nickel mines of Pechengsky (Finnish: Petsamo) and the port city of Murmansk. Carried out 29 June 1941.)
 * Operation Reindeer (plan to occupy the mines of Pechengsky)
 * Operation Platinum Fox (plan to capture Murmansk)
 * Sea of Azov Offensive Operation (joint German-Romanian offensive to capture the Azov coast. Carried out 12 September 1941.)
 * Operation Typhoon (strategic pincer offensive against the Moscow region. Carried out 2 October 1941.)
 * Operation Wotan (tank operation with the goal of capturing Moscow)
 * Siege of Odessa (German-assisted Romanian offensive to capture the port city of Odessa and complete the Romanian conquest of Transnistria. Carried out 8 August 1941.)
 * Operation Bajadere (disputed German-Indian special forces operation for a planned strike through the Caucasus into Iran, Afghanistan and India in January 1942.)
 * German plans to invade Sweden with the 25th Panzer Division in Norway (and failed attempts to have finnish co-operation) during March 1942 after the Februarikrisen.
 * Operation Störfang (combined German-Romanian assault supported by Italian naval units to capture the Crimean port city of Sevastopol. Carried out 2 June 1942.)
 * Operation Pastorius (failed sabotage mission to destroy military, manufacturing and transportation targets throughout the United States. Carried out 12 June 1942, but foiled during the summer.)
 * Operation Gertrud (projected German-Bulgarian-Armenian invasion of Turkey in case it joined the Allies in the beginning of the summer of 1942)
 * Operation Blau (strategic summer offensive in southern USSR. Carried out 28 June 1942.)
 * Operation Fischreiher (plan to advance to the Volga river and capture the city of Stalingrad. Carried out 22 July 1942.)
 * Operation Edelweiss (plan to capture the oil fields of Baku. Carried out 23 July 1942.)
 * Operation Nordlicht (scheduled operation to capture Leningrad, planned to begin on 23 August 1942. Not carried out due to the Soviet Sinyavino Offensive on 19 August.)
 * Operation Polar Fox (attempted invasion of Sweden from German occupied Norway during June-July 1943)
 * Operation Citadel (pincer offensives with the goal of encircling of Red Army forces after the Battle of Stalingrad. Carried out 4 July 1943.)
 * Operation Theseus/Aida (invasion of Egypt and Suez Canal from Libya)
 * Plan Orient (projected German invasion of Middle East and linking with Japanese forces to conquest India. Mostly by Afrika Corps in Libya and Egypt, but also troops from Bulgaria and the Balkans, and troops from Caucasus and Southern Russia)
 * Operation Attila/Anton (occupation of un-occupied zone of France after allied landings in French North Africa to prevent an Allied invasion of Southern France)
 * Operation Herkules (revision of previous plans to invade Malta)
 * Operation François (attempt made by the German Army's Abwehr to use the dissident Qashqai people in Iran to rebelling against the British)
 * Operation Pelikan (German plan for crippling the Panama Canal)
 * Operation Achse (German invasion of Italy after its resignation from the Axis alliance to install a puppet government under Mussolini. Carried out 8 September 1943.)
 * Operation Rabat (alleged German plan of invasion to the Vatican City to kidnap or kill Pope Pius XII. Planned to begin on late 1943/January 1944. Not carried out because the worldwide disapprobation and possible reaction of catholic population against Italian Social Republic.)
 * Operation Margarethe I (German invasion of Hungary. Carried out 19 March 1944.)
 * Operation Margarethe II (scheduled German invasion of Romania)
 * Operation Tanne Ost (German invasion with the goal of capturing the Finnish island of Suursaari (Russian: Gogland) in the Gulf of Finland after that country signed the Moscow Armistice on Lapland War).
 * Operation Tanne West (scheduled German invasion of the Finnish-controlled Åland)
 * Operation Panzerfaust (second German invasion of Hungary to depose Miklós Horthy and install a puppet government. Carried out 15 October 1944.)
 * German military operations in the Slovak National Uprising to retain control of Slovakia
 * Operation Wacht am Rhein (also known as the Battle of the Bulge. German panzer attack through the Ardennes with the goal of recapturing Antwerp and encircling of British Allied forces in Belgium and the Netherlands)
 * Operation North Wind (plan to encircle and destroy the U.S. 7th Army and French 1st Army and recapture Strasbourg. Carried out 1 January 1945)
 * Operation Dentist (a planned follow-up encirclement of the U.S. 3rd Army. Never carried out due to the failure of North Wind.)
 * Operation Spring Awakening (offensive operation on the Hungarian part of the Eastern front with the goal of recapturing Budapest, while simultaneously defending the Nagykanizsa oil fields south of Lake Balaton)
 * Projected German administrative divisions in occupied eastern territories:
 * Lokot Republic (implemented in 1942)
 * Belarusian Central Rada (implemented in 1943)
 * Reichskommissariat Ostland (implemented in 1941)
 * Reichskommissariat Ukraine (implemented in 1941)
 * Reichskommissariat Moskowien (theorical planning only)
 * Reichskommissariat Kaukasien (theorical planning only)
 * Projected Romanian administrative divisions in occupied eastern territories:
 * Transnistria Governorate (implemented in 1941, never fully annexed)
 * Projected Italian administrative divisions in occupied eastern territories:
 * Italian Protectorate of Georgia.

Operational plans of Japan
Listed below are operations and invasion plans of the Japanese Empire from 1929-1942:

1929–1940

 * Hokushin-ron (plans for a potential attack on the Soviet Union and the occupation of territorios from Manchuria to Central Siberia, making a territorial expansion to the north).
 * Nanshin-ron (plans for a potential attack in the Pacific Islands and then in Southeast Asia).
 * Attempts to take the China Far East Railway
 * Manchurian Invasion, Mukden Incident
 * Attempts to attack in Shanghai, January 28 Incident
 * Attempts to invade the Chinese in Hebei province, Operation Nekka
 * Attempts to invade the Chinese in Chahar province, Suiyuan Campaign (1936)
 * Invasion into China (the "China Incident"), Second Sino-Japanese War
 * Occupation of some Chinese East coastal provinces, Amoy Operation, Canton Operation, Hainan Island Operation, Swatow Operation, South Guangxi Operation
 * Battles with Soviets in the Changkufeng/Khasan area, Battle of Lake Khasan
 * Battles with Soviets and Mongols in Nomonhan Soviet-Japanese Border War (1939)
 * Occupation of North Indochina, Indochina Expedition

1941–1943

 * Control of all of Indochina
 * Advances in the China Mainland, Second Sino-Japanese War
 * Pearl Harbor strike
 * Invasion of the Philippines
 * Invasion of Thailand
 * Invasion of the Dutch Indies (now Indonesia)
 * Japanese Invasion of Burma
 * Invasion of Guam and Wake Island
 * Invasion of New Guinea/Solomons
 * Christmas Island invasion
 * Projected Invasion to Cocos (Keeling) Islands
 * Japanese Invasion of the Gilbert Islands
 * Japanese Invasion of Nauru and Ocean island
 * Imphal and Kohima strikes ("Operation U") (attempts to India Invasion,"21 Operation")
 * Planned occupation of Ceylon ("Invasion of Ceylon")
 * Occupation of Andaman and Nicobar Islands
 * Capture of the Attu/Kiska islands (alternative operation together with the Midway operation)
 * Intent for Hawaii Invasion (Battle of Midway)
 * Kantokuen (Renewed plans for an expansion to Siberia and Central Asia. Attempts to invade the Russian Far East, Eastern Siberia and Outer Mongolia)
 * Western China invasion (Szechwan invasion or "Operation 5")
 * Indian Invasion
 * Planned invasion of the island of Madagascar
 * Planned total conquest of all New Guinea and Solomon Islands
 * extension of south square of defensive perimeter: (Melanesia/Polynesia Areas)
 * Santa Cruz Island
 * New Hebrides
 * New Caledonia/Loyalty archipelago
 * Fiji
 * Samoa
 * Tuvalu
 * Tokelau
 * Tonga
 * Rejected proposal to invade Australia
 * Planned invasion of New Zealand
 * Planned invasion of Panama.
 * Projected Japanese administrative divisions in occupied Asian and Pacific territories:
 * Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere


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1986 Spanish general election

The 1986 Spanish general election was held on Sunday, 22 June 1986, to elect the 3rd Cortes Generales of the Kingdom of Spain. All 350 seats in the Congress of Deputies were up for election, as well as 208 of 254 seats in the Senate.

The election was held after the referendum on Spanish membership in NATO in March 1986 had resulted in a surprising win for the 'In' camp headed by Prime Minister Felipe González. Reinforced from the referendum result, the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) sought to take advantage of the favorable political situation. The election resulted in the PSOE winning a second consecutive—albeit diminished—majority with 184 out of 350 seats. Its immediate competitor, Manuel Fraga's People's Coalition, an electoral alliance formed by People's Alliance (AP), the People's Democratic Party (PDP) and the Liberal Party (PL), remained stagnant with a similar result to the one obtained in 1982 by the AP–PDP coalition. The disappointing election result caused the Coalition to break apart shortly afterwards.

Former PM Adolfo Suárez's Democratic and Social Centre (CDS) came out in third place with nearly 1.9 million votes, 9.2% of the share and 19 seats. The Communist Party of Spain (PCE) contested the election within the newborn left-wing United Left (IU) coalition, slightly improving on the PCE's result in 1982 with 4.6% and 7 seats and holding its own against the Communists' Unity Board (MUC), Santiago Carrillo's split party founded after him being expelled from the PCE, which won no seats.

Two future prime ministers (José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero and Mariano Rajoy) were first elected as deputies at this election.

Electoral system
The Spanish Cortes Generales were envisaged as an imperfect bicameral system. The Congress of Deputies had greater legislative power than the Senate, having the ability to vote confidence in or withdraw it from a prime minister and to override Senate vetoes by an absolute majority of votes. Nonetheless, the Senate possessed a few exclusive (yet limited in number) functions—such as its role in constitutional amendment—which were not subject to the Congress' override. Voting for the Cortes Generales was on the basis of universal suffrage, which comprised all nationals over 18 years of age and in full enjoyment of their political rights.

For the Congress of Deputies, 348 seats were elected using the D'Hondt method and a closed list proportional representation, with an electoral threshold of three percent of valid votes—which included blank ballots—being applied in each constituency. Seats were allocated to constituencies, corresponding to the provinces of Spain, with each being allocated an initial minimum of two seats and the remaining 248 being distributed in proportion to their populations. Ceuta and Melilla were allocated the two remaining seats, which were elected using plurality voting. The use of the electoral method resulted in an effective threshold based on the district magnitude and the distribution of votes among candidacies.

As a result of the aforementioned allocation, each Congress multi-member constituency was entitled the following seats:

For the Senate, 208 seats were elected using an open list partial block voting system, with electors voting for individual candidates instead of parties. In constituencies electing four seats, electors could vote for up to three candidates; in those with two or three seats, for up to two candidates; and for one candidate in single-member districts. Each of the 47 peninsular provinces was allocated four seats, whereas for insular provinces, such as the Balearic and Canary Islands, districts were the islands themselves, with the larger—Majorca, Gran Canaria and Tenerife—being allocated three seats each, and the smaller—Menorca, Ibiza–Formentera, Fuerteventura, La Gomera, El Hierro, Lanzarote and La Palma—one each. Ceuta and Melilla elected two seats each. Additionally, autonomous communities could appoint at least one senator each and were entitled to one additional senator per each million inhabitants.

Election date
The term of each chamber of the Cortes Generales—the Congress and the Senate—expired four years from the date of their previous election, unless they were dissolved earlier. The election decree was required to be issued no later than the twenty-fifth day prior to the date of expiry of parliament and published on the following day in the Official State Gazette (BOE), with election day taking place between the fifty-fourth and the sixtieth day from publication. The previous election was held on 28 October 1982, which meant that the legislature's term would expire on 28 October 1986. The election decree was required to be published in the BOE no later than 4 October 1986, with the election taking place on the sixtieth day from publication, setting the latest possible election date for the Cortes Generales on Wednesday, 3 December 1986.

The prime minister had the prerogative to dissolve both chambers at any given time—either jointly or separately—and call a snap election, provided that no motion of no confidence was in process, no state of emergency was in force and that dissolution did not occur before one year had elapsed since the previous one. Additionally, both chambers were to be dissolved and a new election called if an investiture process failed to elect a prime minister within a two-month period from the first ballot. Barred this exception, there was no constitutional requirement for simultaneous elections for the Congress and the Senate. Still, as of 2024 there has been no precedent of separate elections taking place under the 1978 Constitution.

While the 1986 general election was initially expected for October,  there was widespread opinion that a snap election would be held in June alongside the scheduled 1986 Andalusian regional election, with part of the government remaining ambiguous on the issue. On 21 April, Felipe González announced his intention to trigger an early dissolution of the Cortes Generales, explaining that it was his wish to prevent "political uncertainties" resulting from an autumn election that could affect the country's economic prospects during the making of the 1987 General State Budget.

The Cortes Generales were officially dissolved on 23 April 1986 after the publication of the dissolution decree in the BOE, setting the election date for 22 June and scheduling for both chambers to reconvene on 15 July.

Background
Shortly after assuming office on 2 December 1982, Prime Minister Felipe González had to face a worsening economic situation, with high inflation, soaring unemployment and a public deficit at 6%. Among the new PSOE government's first economic measures were the nationalization of the Rumasa holding due to its financial situation and because of alleged fraudulent practices and continuous evasion from the inspection activity conducted by the Bank of Spain, the reduction of work time to 40-hour week and the establishment of a minimum legal annual leave of 30 days and a lunch break of 15 minutes.

This period saw major reforms being implemented in order to achieve economic recovery as well as equalization of Spain with the remainder of Europe, including an unpopular economic stabilization plan involving a process of industrial restructuring—which led to the closure of many obsolete industries —and a reform of the pension system which lengthened the period used to calculate full pension benefits from 10 to 15 years and adopted a new system for pension revaluation. This economic policy received widespread criticism from trade unions—including the historically PSOE-aligned UGT—leading to strikes and demonstrations opposing the government's economic policy. A new labor reform was approved, which included fiscal incentives to investment, added protection for unemployed and the easing of temporality through the implementation of fixed-term contracts. González's first term also saw the establishment of the Spanish National Health System and universal health care in Spain, and decriminalization of abortion in three cases: therapeutic in cases of serious risk to the physical or mental health of the pregnant woman, during the first 12 weeks; criminological in cases of woman rape, during the first 22 weeks; and eugenic in cases of fetus malformations, at any time during pregnancy. Free and compulsory education was established until the age of 16.

Internally, these years were marked by a harsh hostile campaign from ETA, with around one hundred dead throughout the 1982–1986 period as a result of terrorist activity, which was countered with a similarly harsh government response. The PSOE government also had to deal with the issue of military insurrectionism, with a profound reorganization of the Spanish Armed Forces by promoting an increase of civil authority over the military, with the final aim of professionalizing the Armed Forces and end the threat of military coup attempts. Felipe González also came briefly involved in the 1984 German Flick affair, when SPD MP Peter Struck said in the German press that another MP from his party, Hans-Jürgen Wischnewski, had given one million Marks from the corruption plot to González himself. The Spanish prime minister countered this with a remarkable statement at the time: "I have not received a single mark, a single penny, a single peseta, neither from Flick nor from Flock", and was later acquitted from the scandal by the inquiry commission in Congress.

Internationally, the PSOE government was successful in culminating negotiations for the Spanish entry into the European Economic Community (EEC), effective from 1 January 1986. The issue of NATO membership was more controversial, as the PSOE had campaigned for the holding of a referendum on the issue after Leopoldo Calvo-Sotelo's move to enter the alliance in May 1982. However, once in power Felipe González evolved to support NATO. According to Santos Juliá, the main factors that influenced the PSOE government's change of attitude were "pressure from the United States and several European countries; the connection between staying in NATO and Spain–EEC negotiations and the growing favorable stance of the Spanish Defence Ministry to attain closer ties with the Alliance". By 1985, as Spain had signed the Act of Accession to the EEC, preparations for the referendum on NATO membership started, being eventually held on 12 March 1986. NATO permanence option won the vote by a surprising 53.1% to 40.3%, and the PSOE came out reinforced.

Within the opposition, the Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) was dissolved in February 1983. Under Manuel Fraga's leadership, the People's Alliance (AP) and the People's Democratic Party (PDP) joined with other parties to form the People's Coalition, seeking to build on his idea of the "natural majority" of the centre-right in order to win the next general election. At the same time, Catalan politician Miquel Roca tried to enter national politics by founding the Democratic Reformist Party (PRD), supported by the Catalan-based Convergence and Union (CiU), the Liberal Democratic Party (PDL) of Antonio Garrigues Walker and a number of regional parties, in what came to be known as "Operation Roca". All attempts at forming a common alliance between the three main centre to centre-right political forces—including the growing Democratic and Social Centre (CDS) of former prime minister Adolfo Suárez —failed throughout 1985. In the left, the Communist Party of Spain (PCE) experienced an internal crisis which saw the resignation of its leader Santiago Carrillo and his succession by Gerardo Iglesias. Internal disagreements resulted in splits that saw the birth of the Communist Party of the Peoples of Spain (PCPE) and the Workers' Party of Spain–Communist Unity (PTE-UC).

Parliamentary composition
The tables below show the composition of the parliamentary groups in both chambers at the time of dissolution.

Parties and candidates
The electoral law allowed for parties and federations registered in the interior ministry, coalitions and groupings of electors to present lists of candidates. Parties and federations intending to form a coalition ahead of an election were required to inform the relevant Electoral Commission within ten days of the election call, whereas groupings of electors needed to secure the signature of at least one percent of the electorate in the constituencies for which they sought election, disallowing electors from signing for more than one list of candidates.

Below is a list of the main parties and electoral alliances which contested the election:

Spanish Socialist Workers' Party
The Spanish Socialist Workers' Party under Felipe González campaigned on a continuity platform, emphasizing on the idea of progress and trying to highlight that the party's management of government during the previous four years had been positive for the country. The democratization process after the turbulent years of the early 1980s was deemed as having been fully completed, the military insurrectionism threat had been vanquished, Spain had been integrated within Europe and the economic crisis was easening, with the brunt of the industrial conversion having been dealt with in the first years of Socialist government. It also tried to deliver on the idea that the party's programme was not yet fulfilled, with many proposals still left to be carried out. Another message of the Socialist electoral campaign revolved around the idea that a non-Socialist government would revert the political and social advances accomplished in the previous years, with PM González himself warning of a possible alternative coalition between the various centre and centre-right parties in case the PSOE lost its absolute majority.

There were notable divergences from the campaigning style of 1982: González himself, being now the Prime Minister, had a busy public agenda and was only able to participate in large campaign events during weekends, having little time to maintain direct contact with party militants. He also wanted to distance himself from direct confrontation to the other parties' candidates, usually leaving that task to Deputy Prime Minister Alfonso Guerra and other PSOE leaders, in order to emphasize his image as Chief of the Executive. The PSOE's electoral manifesto for the 1986 election also avoided making any concrete pledges such as those done in 1982.

Opposition parties had accused the PSOE government of a rudely style of ruling, of arrogance, of little austerity and of informational opacity, a result, according to them, of the large absolute majority of seats it had obtained in the 1982 election. Thus, one of the PSOE's self-imposed objectives during the election campaign was to maintain that absolute majority. In the end, the PSOE would win the election but with a significantly reduced majority of 184 seats, compared to the 202-strong majority achieved in 1982.

People's Coalition
The People's Alliance, the People's Democratic Party and the Liberal Party contested the election in a common ticket under the People's Coalition label. Some regionalist parties in different autonomous communities, such as the Navarrese People's Union in Navarre, also joined the coalition, who was to be led into the election by AP leader Manuel Fraga.

Its campaign centered into criticising the González' government record in office, accusing the PSOE of breaking many of its 1982 election pledges and asking voters to support an alternative to the Socialists, with Fraga opening the possibility to invite other parties, specially the CDS and the PRD, into a coalition government aimed at ousting the PSOE from power. The Coalition released an election programme which was described as a mixture of economic neoliberalism and social conservatism. Among the Coalition's election pledges were the privatization of public companies (the most notable example being TVE 2) and of the healthcare assistance system in order to reduce tax burden and public spending; the implementation of a national plan against drugs; the illegalization of HB and tougher penalties for terrorists (going as far as to promise an end to ETA terrorism within 6 months); a repeal of the newly approved abortion law and a revision of the divorce law.

The Coalition was criticised for its perceived right-wing stance, with serious difficulties to define an alternative policy to the PSOE, a weak opposition stance to González' government (virtually trailing the Socialists on every issue) and a lack of initiative. The Coalition's call for abstention in the March referendum (despite the party's official stance favouring Spain permanence within NATO) had been a fatal blow to its expectations in the upcoming general election, being seen, on the one hand, as a gesture of political opportunism in an attempt to weaken Felipe González' position and, on the other hand, as showing a lack of political guidance. Instead, the 'Yes' landslide victory had reinforced the PSOE in the eyes of public opinion, but the Coalition's position on the referendum was met with skepticism and disapproval from other centre-right parties, both nationally and internationally.

United Left

The roots for the United Left (IU) coalition originated during the protests to demand the exit of Spain from NATO in 1986, with the "Platform of the United Left". While the 1986 referendum had resulted in the country's permanence within NATO, sectors to the left of the PSOE sought to form a unitary candidacy for the 1986 general election aimed at representing the nearly 7 million voters that had shown their position against such a permanence. Aside from the PCE, which was to become IU's main member party, also joining the coalition were the Unified Socialist Party of Catalonia (PSUC), the Socialist Action Party (PASOC), the Republican Left (IR), the Communist Party of the Peoples of Spain or the Collective for the Unity of Workers-Andalusian Left Bloc (CUT-BAI), among others.

Aside from its anti-NATO stance, the IU coalition also opposed the Socialist government's recent industrial conversion, which had been carried out almost unilaterally and with little to no talks with trade unions, thanks to the PSOE absolute majority in Congress. IU campaigned on a left-wing platform, accusing the PSOE of abandoning its socialist roots and of applying liberal policies. On the international stage, IU promised to bring Spain out of NATO, the dismantling of US bases and the withdrawal of US troops from Spanish soil, as well as to counter "the harmful consequences of integration within the EEC, a conception of Europe against the interests of multinationals and imperialism and to support initiatives for the elimination of nuclear weapons and against the militarization of space." On the domestic stage, IU's pledges included nationalizations in the banking and energy sectors. It also provided for large investments in the public sector, an agrarian reform and a federal model of state which provided for "the full development of the rights of nationalities and regions".

Outcome
The 1986 election results showed little changes to the balance of power with respect to 1982. Overall, the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) remained the dominant party in Spanish politics by securing a second consecutive overall majority in the Congress of Deputies. Prime Minister Felipe González was regarded to have come out reinforced from the election. With his popularity already soaring after winning the NATO referendum on March, politically turned into a plebiscite on his premiership, the election results further strengthened his political position by securing him a new mandate to continue the reforms already in place since in 1982. Nonetheless, the election unveiled the first signs of weariness of the PSOE government, as it suffered major losses in support in the major urban centers, the same that had set out the seed for González's landslide victory in 1982. In the Madrid Community the PSOE suffered the most, scoring a bare 40% from the 52% it had secured four years previously. Despite this, discontent towards the government did not translate into major inroads for other parties. Voters' apathy and the absence of strong alternatives to the Socialists translating into a substantial increase of the abstention rate, which rose to 29.5% from the 20.0% of 1982.

The centre-right People's Coalition failed to secure substantial gains from the 1982 result of the AP–PDP alliance, experiencing small gains in Castile and León, Extremadura and Melilla but falling elsewhere. Adolfo Suárez's Democratic and Social Centre (CDS) virtually took over the place of the defunct UCD with nearly 2 million votes and 19 seats. On the other hand, results for the Democratic Reformist Party (PRD) of Miquel Roca were an unmitigated disaster and a blow to Roca's national aspirations, disbanding shortly thereafter. Its Catalan counterpart Convergence and Union (CiU), however, made significant gains in the Socialist stronghold of Catalonia, dramatically closing the gap with the PSC to just 9 points from a 23-point lead in 1982. The newly formed United Left coalition was able to slightly improve over the PCE's result in 1982, despite the split of former party leader Santiago Carrillo's MUC, which was unable to gain parliamentary representation.

In the election aftermath, the People's Coalition found itself into a state of deep crisis after results showed it was unable to garner the support of the centre voters. The People's Democratic Party immediately broke away from the Coalition after the election; its 21 MPs forming their own parliamentary caucus in the Congress of Deputies, thus reducing the Coalition's parliamentary strength to 84. Manuel Fraga would resign as AP leader after the party's disastrous results in the November 1986 Basque regional election, deepening a party crisis that would last until its refoundation into the People's Party in 1989.

title: 1986 Spanish general election


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