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 can use them." "They keep them on hand, and when they need one they bleed him to death," returned Mr. Peck. "Yes, but that's murder." "Oh, the doctors are licensed to commit murder, you know; and what's the difference, whether one dies owing to the loss of blood, or taking too many pills? For my own part, if I had to choose, I would rather submit to the former." "I have often heard what I considered hard stories in abolition meetings in New York about slavery; but now I shall begin to think that many of them are true." "The longer you remain here the more you will be convinced of the iniquity of the institution," remarked Georgiana. "Now, Georgy, my dear, don't give us another abolition, lecture, if you please," said Mr. Peck. "Here, Carlton," continued the parson, "I have written a short poem for your sister's album, as you requested me; it is a domestic piece, as you will see." "She will prize it the more for that," remarked Carlton; and taking the sheet of paper, he laughed as his eyes glanced over it. "Read it out, Mr. Carlton," said Georgiana, "and let me hear what it is; I know papa gets off some very droll things at times." Carlton complied with the young lady's request, and read aloud the following rare specimen of poetical genius:

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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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 the slave-owner in a rage said to the Friend, "My nigger is not here." "I did not tell thee there was any one here." "Yes, but I saw her go in, and you shut the door behind her, and if she was not in the barn, what did you nail the door for?" "Can't I do what I please with my own barn door? Now I will tell thee; thou need trouble thyself no more, for the person thou art after entered the front door and went out at the back door, and is a long way from here by this time. Thou and thy friend must be somewhat fatigued by this time; wont thou go in and take a little dinner with me?" We need not say that this cool invitation of the good Quaker was not accepted by the slaveholders. George in the meantime had been taken to a friend's dwelling some miles away, where, after laying aside his female attire, and being snugly dressed up in a straight collared coat, and pantaloons to match, was again put on the right road towards Canada.

The fugitive now travelled by day, and laid by during night. After a fatiguing and dreary journey of two weeks, the fugitive arrived in Canada, and took up his abode in the little town of St. Catherine's, and obtained work on the farm of Colonel Street. Here he attended a night-school, and laboured for his employer during the day. The climate was cold, and wages small, yet he was in a land where he was free, and this the young slave prized more than all the gold that could be given to him. Besides doing his best to obtain education for himself, he imparted what he could to those of his fellow-fugitives about him, of whom there were many.

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many people the very name “Spy” excites a shudder of apprehension; we Spies, in fact, get quite used to being shuddered at. None of us Spies mind it at all. Whenever I enter a hotel and register myself as a Spy I am quite accustomed to see a thrill of fear run round the clerks, or clerk, behind the desk.

Us Spies or We Spies—for we call ourselves both—are thus a race apart. None know us. All fear us. Where do we live? Nowhere. Where are we? Everywhere. Frequently we don’t know ourselves where we are. The secret orders that we receive come from so high up that it is often forbidden to us even to ask where we are. A friend of mine, or at least a Fellow Spy—us Spies have no friends—one of the most brilliant men in the Hungarian Secret Service, once spent a month in New York under the impression that he was in

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Formatting issues
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Orphaned pages
There are two pages Page:Frenzied Fiction.djvu/265 and Page:Frenzied Fiction.djvu/266 which are not linked from the Index. They seem to be over-scans. -- Beardo (talk) 02:49, 23 December 2023 (UTC)

 * @Beardo They are, and can be deleted. Two extraneous pages (colour targets) were removed from the scan. Chrisguise (talk) 07:22, 23 December 2023 (UTC)

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Is this work using curly or straight marks ? I have seen pages with both. -- Beardo (talk) 20:18, 27 December 2023 (UTC)

 * @Beardo Curly quotes. The text layer has curly quotes, so editors should find them there.

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10 PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF dulness of the lymphatic temperament, or with the languor and see of the anemic patient, shows that tho same rule holds good.

Inerease of Red Corpuscles.—Plethora is the chiof pathological con- dition in which an increase of red globules has been observed. One of the cases of cerobral congestion mentioned by Andral presented an amount of 138°6 parts per 1,000, an excess of 11 above the normal figure ; after venesection the globules in this case were so far dimi- nished that the quantity only amounted to 101:1 per 1,000, consider- ably below tho mean. In yarious fobrile diseases an augmentation of the globules has also been observed ; thus in the period immediately preceding the outbreak of continued fever their amount was once found as high as 157'7; in the early period of a case of severe inflammatory fever, tho fourth day of the disease, tho globules had attained the extraordinary height of 185 parts per 1,000, the roatest amount cver observed; in several casos oe typhoid fever fever with intestinal complication) the globules had risen to 142 or even 149, and even on the second bleeding were found still con- siderably above the mean ; in scarlatina and in measles an inerease in the amount of globules was also found, the maximum (which existed in the latter) being as much as 146. No increase was observed in cases of yariola or of modificd smallpox. A much increased proportion of red globules has been observed in cholera and other diseases in which a rapid drain of liquid from tho blood occurs. The rationale of this is plain.*

Some writers, especially Vogel, have drawn a distinction between relative and absolute variations in the number of red globules. Relative variations are such as have already been spoken of; absolute variations are alterations in the total number of globules present in the bedy, The latter are evidently the more import- ant, stnce the functional activity of the blood must depend on the absolute amount, and not on the proportion of red globules; but absolute detorminations are only possible when we know the absolute amount of blood in the body—a matter of which we shall speak hereafter. The condition of the general system co-existing with, and probably occasioned by, the increase in the amount of red globules is exaltation of the animal heat, heightencd sen- sibility, and muscular irritability: tho spirits are high, and the mental energy great, the pulse beats full and firm, the power of resistance to debilitating and morbid influences is considerable, the tendency in disease is to active inflammation and high febrile

been obtained are far from trustworthy. They profess to give only the weight of dried corpuscles, and the exact relation of this to the real weight of the corpuscles is not known. A.more cxact though oxccodingly laborious method, is that of esunting, introduced by Weleker. According to this observer the blood of men contains in one cubic millimetre 5,000,000 red globules, that of women, 4,500,000, on the average, If the number exceed 5,500,000 for the mule or 5,000,000 for the female; or aguin, fall below 4,500,000 for the male or 4,000,000 for the female, the condition must be regarded as morbid.
 * Té should be observed that the methods of analysis by which these numbers have

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 to go in search of an officer. One was left to see that the slave did not escape from the barn, while the other went off at full speed to Mount Pleasant, the nearest town. George was not the slave of either of these men, nor were they in pursuit of him, but they had lost a woman who had been seen in that vicinity, and when they saw poor George in the disguise of a female, and attempting to elude pursuit, they felt sure they were close upon their victim. However, if they had caught him, although he was not their slave, they would have taken him back and placed him in jail, and there he would have remained until his owner arrived.

After an absence of nearly two hours, the slave-owner returned with an officer and found the Friend still driving large nails into the door. In a triumphant tone and with a corresponding gesture, he handed the search-warrant to the Friend, and said, "There, sir, now I will see if I can't get my nigger." "Well," said the Friend, "thou hast gone to work according to law, and thou canst now go into my barn." "Lend me your hammer that I may get the door open," said the slaveholder. "Let me see the warrant again." And after reading it over once more, he said, "I see nothing in this paper which says I must supply thee with tools to open my door; if thou wishest to go in, thou must get a hammer elsewhere." The sheriff said, "I will go to a neighbouring farm and borrow something which will introduce us to Miss Dinah;" and he immediately went in search of tools. In a short time the officer returned, and they commenced an assault and battery upon the barn door, which soon yielded; and in went the slaveholder and officer, and began turning up the hay and using all other means to find the lost property; but, to their astonishment, the slave was not there. After all hope of getting Dinah was gone,

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20 VARIATIONS IN FIBRINE. acute articular rheumatism, Andral records in one case as high a proportion of fibrino as 10:2 per 1,000, in several others it amounted to 6, 7, 8, or 9. In bronchitis (acute) the highest figure obtained was 9°3, in pnoumonia 10-3. The maximum in pleurisy was 5°8, in peritonitis 7:2. The increase was nearly tho samo in one case of erysipelas, in which it amounted to 7:3, and in another of ton- sillitis, in which it was 7-2. A very important cireumstance, well shown by Andral’s tables. is, that the effect of bleeding was not to diminish the fibrine ; in this respect there was a marked con- trast between the fibrine and the red globules; the latter sunk with each successive abstraction of blood, while the former most often rose, sometimes considerably. The following examples of this fact are yory striking :—~

1st bleeding. 2nd.

Acute Rheumatism 6-1 :

d. 8rd. 4th. 5th. 6th. 72 Poewmonia. . . TI 8-2 47 a8

7S 10:25 2 9-0 100 Peritonitis. . . 38 G1 Pionrisy a. « « 39 be

Jn tubereulization of the lungs the fibrine shows a decided increase, which, however, is most marked when interenrent inflammation is sct up in the part. In the ernde state of tho tubercles the mean of the fibrine is about 4; when softening has commenced it is about 4:4; when cavities have formed it is from 5 to 55. The red particles steadily decrease from the first. In chlorotic persons the quantity of fibrine is maintained at its usual average, and is sometimes a little above; this circumstance, taken together with the great diminution of the globules, accounts for the formation of a buffy layer on the surface, which is not un- common in such blood.

Deficiency of Fibrine—This is observed in very various morbid conditions. If we take as a cortain indication the non-coagulated state of the blood (which, perhaps, we are warranted in doing), it scems to be very deficient, generally, in all diseases proving fatal by asphyxia, or in which the respivation has been considerably interfered with for some time before death. Thus in cases of obstructive heart disease, the blood is very commonly in a fluid state, or very imperfectly coagulated, the coagula, such as they are, being very soft, and extremely friable. The same state is observed in cases of cyanosis, in which, owing to mixture of the yenous and urterial bleod, this fluid is never properly oxygenated. Excessive fatigue is said to prevont ihe blood from coagulating, but this has been contradicted by Mr. Gulliver, who found the blood coagulated in a hunted stag, and in two hares ran down by harriers. Various poisons seem to have the effect of preventing coagulation of the blood; among these are hydrocyanic acid, car- bonic acid, sulphuretted and carburetted hydrogen. Andral states that if a concentrated solution of carbonate of soda be injected into a yein the animal presents the symptoms of typhus er scurvy (ic. �


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30 WATER. diminished, This, however, seems very questionable with regard to sodium chloride.

WATER.

Lecanu’s estimate of the mean quantity of water in 1,000 parts of blood is 790; he found more water in the blood of women than in that of men, more in the blood of children and of aged and debilitated persons than in that of vigorous adults, more in the lymphatic than in the sanguineous temperament. It is clear that the whole quantity of water is not contained in the serum, a certain proportion, which must vary with the specific gravity of the blood, is enclosed in the red corpuscles, and holds their colouring matter in solution. The scrum of arterial blood and of portal vein blood is said by Lehmann to contain more water than that of venous blood gencrally. It is a very remarkable cireum- stance, and strongly indicative of wise provision, that it is very difficult to demonstrate by analysis an actual inerease of the quantity of water in the blood after copious drinks have been taken, Denis and Schultz are at issue as to whether such an increase is detectible or not. This seems to show how exactly the vascular system is kept at a certain degree of tension, so that in proportion as absorption at one part takes placc, excretion at another ensues correspondingly. The effect of bleeding and starving, which was before noticed, of reducing tho amount of globules, tells, of course, proportionally, in increasing the quan- tity of water; this can easily be ascertained, as it is in great measure relative; the merely positive increase is much more doubtful. Andral mentions a case of confirmed chlorosis, in which the water in the blood amounted to 867:9, an increase of nearly 78 parts per 1000. Lchmann states that in the beginning of most diseases, especially acute ones, the blood is found more watery than natural, the serum, however, at the same time, being richer in solid contents. He accounts for this by supposing that the material which should haye been applied to the formation of the globules, or which results from their decay, remains in the serum. During the first ten days of typhus, the first stage of scarlet foyer, measles, and cholera, this increase in the watery constituents of the blood does not appear to take place,

In cholera the most striking diminution in the proportion of water takes place; apparently as a consequence of the immense transudation of fluid into the intestines. Other changes are, how- ever, also present; the scrum becomes not only richer in albu~ men and salts, but also appears to withdraw from the corpuscles the salts proper to them, viz., potassium salts and phosphates (Kiihne). There are also physiological variations in the per- eentage of water, which diminishes at first in steryation, but recovers itself if abundant water be ingested. Tho amount is also diminished by taking much salt, �


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40 ANJEMIA, SPANAIMIA. what to the outward pressure or resistance of the fluid, and thus become dilated ; but it does not seem to have been shown that this actually takes place. Some degree of anasarcous swelling of the feet and ankles is not uncommon. Whon this occurs we may take it as a sign. on Andral’s authority, that the albumen of the serum is diminished. Asthcnia may advance to such a degree that it proves fatal, by a gradual failure of tho vital powers, ‘Tile tho sinking at the close of diseases of exhaustion. The impoye- rishmont of the blood may probably be the determining cause of the appearance of tuberculous or other cacheetic diseases. The iutrition of some parts in the anemic may be impaired to such an extent that ulecrations form spontancously, The cornea would appear especially likely to suffer in this way from not being per~ meated with yessels. Such instances of morbid action are very important to notice, as being free from complication, and exhibit- ing, therefore, more clearly the ossential nature of a process. Uleeration in this case is clearly not produced by inflammation. It is rathor interesting to remark that the most lowly organized, and the least ol of all the tissues, vin, the adipose, suffers less from impaived nutrition in the angmic state than any other. It is by no means uncommon to seo persons, especially fomalos, presenting a considerable amount of embonpoiat, who are mani- festly very deficient in healthy blood. This is the more easily comprehensible, as the fat vesicles really seem to bo scarcely more than so many minute dreps of exuded oil, included in homoge- neous films of protein material.

Local or Partial Ancemia.—The foregoing history of anwmia and spanfemia manifestly relates to it as a general condition. It seems very doubtful how far there can exist such a condition as partial anemia, if we recognize a deficiency of red corpuscles as an essential feature of this state. Of course the supply of blood to a part may be defective, in consequence of various causes; but this does not involve any alteration in the quality of the fluid trans- mitted to the part. Ylowever, using tho term in the sense of merely deficient supply of blood, the consequences of such a state will be generally those of diminished nutrition, or, more properly, atrophy of the part, with more or less considerable impairment of its function, H'the deprivation of blood be very great, mortifica- tion may be the result; this has occurred in some cases in which the main artery of a limb had been tied on account of aneurism, and the collateral circulation did not establish itself soon enough, Tiven m cases which have a more favourable issue, the immediato effect of cutting off the supply of blood is to oceasion weakness, numbness, and reduction of the temperature; the muscles and nerves are. In a great measure, paralyzed, and the heat-producing process fails with that of nutrition. When the aorta of an animal is tied, its lower extremities, after a time, become as paralyzed as if its spinal cord had been divided. ‘The causes of local or partial anemia may be, (1) tumours of various kinds, situated so as to �


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 man after rowing and floating about for some time fastened the boat to the root of a tree, and started to a neighbouring farmhouse.

This was George's moment, and he seized it. Running down the bank, he unfastened the boat, jumped in, and with till the expertness of one accustomed to a boat, rowed across the river and landed on the Ohio side.

Being now in a Free State, he thought he might with perfect safety travel on towards Canada. He had, however, gone but a very few miles when he discovered two men on horseback coming behind him. He felt sure that they could not be in pursuit of him, yet he did not wish to be seen by them, so be turned into another road leading to a house near by. The men followed, and were but a short distance from George, when he ran up to a farmhouse, before which was standing a farmer-looking man, in a broad-brimmed hat and straight-collared coat, whom he implored to save him from the "slave-catchers." The farmer told him to go into the barn near by; he entered by the front door, the farmer following, and closing the door behind George, but remaining outside, and gave directions to his hired man as to what should be done with George. The slaveholders by this time had dismounted, and were in front of the barn demanding admittance, and charging the farmer with secreting their slave woman, for George was still in the dress of a woman. The Friend, for the farmer proved to be a member of the Society of Friends, told the slave-owners that if they wished to search his barn, they must first get an officer and a search warrant. While the parties were disputing, the farmer began nailing up the front door, and the hired man served the back door in the same way. The slaveholders, finding that they could not prevail on the Friend to allow them to get the slave,

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50 CONSEQUENCES OF CONGESTION. found in the peritoneal cavity after death, in casos of ascites, and the same are also seen occasionally in the fluid evacuated by para- centesis, We hayoalso scen blood-globules so uniformly dispersed through the ftuid that there could be no doubt that they had escaped from the congested sub-serous capillaries, and were not accidentally mingled with tho cffusion, The same products of con- gestion also occur in the urine when obstructive disease of the heart throws back the blood on the renal veins. The secretion is albuminous, contains fibrinous casts of the tubes and blood- globules. Decided hemorrhage may also oceur, as the result of extreme congestion, which may be dependent either upon yenous obstruction or upon an atonic state of the vessels. Melmna, or hemorrhage from the bowels, is an instance of the first, passive monorrhagia and epistaxis of the latter.

Textural Changes resulting from Congestion.—It is a remarkable and instructive fact that congestion of parts neyer seems in the end to occasion hypertrophy; or, if this should appear to have taken place, closer examination proves that rather the reverse is the ease; that the hypertrophy is what Rokitansky calls unreal. Enlargement of organs may indecd be a consequence of yenous congestion, if it has not continued long enough seriously to inter- fere with their nutrition; and is especially seen in very vascular

arts, where the mere dilatation of capillaries and yeins is

loubtless one of the main causes of enlargement. The spleen, for instance, is usally found enlarged in eases of cirrhosis of the liver, where tho portal vein is obstructed; and obstructive disease of the heart produces at a cortain stage of the disease enlargement of the liver and kidneys. In tho latter cases, however, certainly, and probably in the first the enlargement is only temporary, and the impaired nutrition which results from an inadequate supply of proper blood leads to a condition of atrophy, the external appear- ance of which will yary according to the organ involved. ‘In the skin there will be ulceration ; in solid organs, such as the liver and kidney, there will be what is called fibroid degeneration, or better fibroid substitution; that is to say, a replacement of the proper secreting structure by a certain form of connective tissue ; so that the organ will be in most cases actually smaller; at all events wasted, so far as its proper structure is concerned.

We have already pointed out the impairment of vital power which congestion occasions, and the causes inducing it, which seem to afford an adequate explanation of the non-tendency to growth and development which is observed both in the affected part itself and in its interstitial effusions. The following sentence from Mr, Simon’s lecture recozuizes and similarly explains the same fact: “Tt is true that much blood is contained in the affected tissue ; but it is blood that has insufficient means of renewing itself; and from its long detention in the part it acquires in an extreme degree, the character of venous blood. Thus, as regards mere bulk of blood, the part is over-supplied. but, im respect of the quulity of blood, it �


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60 EFFECTS OF ACTIVE HYPERAMIA. But it is rather with morbid bypersemia that we are concerned as pathologists. This is, in a very great number of instances, the commencement of inflammation; but we shall not speak of in- flammation as one of its results, but consider it separately. Tho effects of morbid hyperemia are gencrally unnatural excitement, or oppression of an organ, The part contains more blood than it is able to manage, its healthy play is interfered with, and it is either goaded into @ false, atmloss, and exhausting activity, or is actually oppressed and enfeebled directly. The chief features of the condition are, probably, increased attraction of blood to the part, with diminished yital change, and undue dilatation of the arteries leading to it.

If the brain be the scat of determination of blood, in a morbid sense, there will be throbbing of the earotids, and their superficial branches, restlessness, more or less intolerance of light and sound, diminution of the power of attention and application, dreamy and disturbed sleep, irritability of temper, attacks of giddiness, &e. The face and eyes are apt to be flushod, and the fect cold. The uneasy sensations about the head are increased by stooping, or the recumbent posturo. The kidney, in cases of acute anasarca, manifests an excellent example of morbid hyperemia. If is en- larged and turgid with blood, but its texture is not apparently altered. Its secretion is scanty, loaded with albumen and witl fibrinous concretions, and epithelium of the tubes. No doubt can exist that its functional energy is gravely impaired. In active menorrhagia we have a third instance in which, from various vauses, a morbid hyperemia of a hollow organ lined by a secreting mucous membrance is induced, the results being pain and uneasi- noss In the region of the affected part, inercased sensation of heat, tension, and throbbing, which are relicyed by the discharge of a fluid more completely sanguineous than the natural secretion; in tact, by an almost real hemorrhage. In such an instance it is not only the mucous lining of the uterus that becomes hyperwmic, but the whole organ, with its thick muscular walls. Their tissue is loosened up and swollen by the quantity of blood admitted, so that the size of the organ is increased; and if this hyperemia should not in great degree subside, the result may be a permanent enlargement and congested state of the uterus, The foregoing examples, taken from different organs, will serve as sufficient illustrations of the effects of active hyperemia. It scems, how- eyer, desirable to allude, somewhat more in detail than has yet been done, to hemorrhage, flux, and dropsy, considered as results of hypersemia in general,

These may be regarded as the effusions of hyperemia, as dis- tinguished from inflammation. No doubt they do also occur in eases where inflammatory action is proceeding; but still they are not the special and charactoristic products of this state.

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70 CAUSES OF HEMORRIAGE, the effusion. This cause is evidently influential in renal dropsy, in which a constant drain of albuminous serum out of the blood is taking place. It is remarkable that this may have been going on for some, porhaps a considerable time, and yet no dropsy occur, The explanation of this is afforded by the circumstance ascertained by Simon and Christisou, that the decrease of the solid consti- tuents of the serum is not always the leading character in this disease. In three of Simon’s analyses out of four of blood in Bright's disease, the quantity of albumen was decidedly increased —in one instance amounting to 109-4, considerably above the average of health. Cases of dropsy occasionally are met with, in which, as there appears no absolute organic disease, but only an hydramic condition of the blood, one is obliged to conclude that the effusion is dependent on this. Andral mentions that during a famine, where the poorer classes had been obliged to seek a scanty nourishment in roots and herbs growing in the fields, many persons became dropsical. This has not always been observed in famines; but a curious observation of Briicke’s bears upon this point. He confined a frog, having the sciatic nerve of oue leg divided, in a glass vessel for some months. When the frog was insufficiently fed oedema occurred in the leg of which the nerve was divided; abundant animal food removed the edema, which reappeared when the animal was agaiu starved, The occurrence of oedema, in the affected leg only, illustrates the effect of the abolition of neryeus influence in causing local dropsy; the same thing is sometimes, though rarely, observed in infantile paralysis. Dr. Laycock has repeatedly drawn attention to similar facts.

In these instances, it is vory probable that the proportion of albumen in the blood was diminished, as it is clear that the supply of it ordinarily derived from the food was so. When, from cardiac or renal causes, or both combined, together with altered crasis of the blood, the tendency to dropsical effusion is very strong, it is quite remarkable how universal the dropsy becomes, the perito- neu, both pleure, and the pericardium, may be found full of fluid, the arcolar texture everywhere infiltrated, the air-cells of the lungs loaded with frothy serum, the tissue of the brain “‘ wet,” and the subarachnoid fluid considerably increased. In fact, it seems as if tho vessels no longer presonted any containing barrier, but per- mitted the escupe of fluid in every part that it traversed. It is often obseryable in these cases, after death, how the naturally transparent serous membranes have lost this appearance, they look thickened, of a dull whity prey tint, as it were sodden in the fluid. There can be no doubt that this depends on a chronic thickening and increase of their fibrous layer.

Composition of Dropsical Efusions.—This generally approaches more or less closely to that of the serum of the blood. The purer fluids are clear, tolerably limpid, and colourless; often, however, a marked yellow tint is obscrved, which may either arise from dissolved heamatine or from the presence of an increased quantity �


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100 SUPPURATION. to exert upon them a corrosive influence, Pieces of flesh put into jresh pus gradually lost weight, and were at last dissolved, with- out any evidence of putrefaction haying occurred. Under similar circumstances Rocklinghausen found that pieces of coagulated albu- men became infiltrated with pus-cells, which had penctrated their substance. Mr. H. Lee has shown that pus possesses a remarkable power of accelerating the coagulation of blood, In one experiment the blood, which had pus (healthy) added to it, coagulated in six minutes; while that which was left by itself required twelve. This is probably duc to the paraglobulin or fibrino-plastic sub- stance which has been found in the serum of pus, and which reacts with the superabundant fibrinogenous substance of the blood seram. Much weight has been laid on this proporty of pus, in relation to the theory of pyemia.

Formution-of Pus Corpuscles—With respect to the origin of pus corpuscles there is the same difference of opinion as exists about the corpuscles of inflammatory lymph already spoken of; and there can be no dewbt that the explanation of the one will also be the explanation of the other. It was at ono time pretty generally held that pus-corpuscles were formed in a fluid blastoma, by the process of ‘‘froe cell formation,” either by the grouping of granules or by the growth and enlargement of minute granular globules. In some casos also it was held, from a solid blas- toma of coagulated fibrine, by the liquefaction of the solid fibrino, und the multiplication of the corpuscles (which when very numerous, are called pus-corpuscles); or by a similar process, from granulation tissue; so that, in Paget's words, ‘the cells of pus from wounds are ill-developed or degenerate granulation eolls;” and “the most frequent Aegmneranon of inflammatory lymph is into pus.” In distinction to all these views camo the comprehensive gonoralization of the Cellular Pathology, which uniting in one schome the cells of ordinary inflammatory lymph, of granulations, and of pus, regarded them all as derivatives of the cells or nuclei of the tissues. At first the power of producing new cells was supposed to be limited to the connective tissue, but it was afterwards shown that it must, on the same greunds, be ascribed also to epithelial structures, This theory was for a long time accepted universally in Germany and by many pathologists in this country and in France; but it has since the researches of Cohnheim, already mentioned, undergone much curtailment; and there are probably few observers who do not admit that many at least of the pus-corpuscles are nothing but emigrant blood cells. Without entering much into dotails, we must look for a moment at the explanation given of these two theories of swppuration in solid organs or abscess, and suppuration on mucous surfaces,

Abscess.—The changes of tissue elements, in the formation of an abscess, or in purulent infiltration, were studied with extraordinary minuteness by Weber, in 1858.* He found in all the surrounding |

�
 * Virchow’s ‘‘ Archiy,” vol. xv.


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Authors of the present work have desired to lay before their professional brethren an outline of what is known in the domain of Pathological Anatomy. The absence of any original work in the English language, which embraces the whole subject, must be their apology for haying made the attempt. They have sought to place before the reader a summary of ascertained facts, together with the opinions of the most eminent pathologists of this and other countries, They have regarded it as their duty to select, as far as possible, the best fruits from the harvest gathered by other labourers in this wide and interesting field. At the same time they have sought not to speak solely on the faith of others, even the highest authorities, but to investigate, as much as possible, for themselves, the correctness of the statements they adopted. They felt that, in some instances, better illustrations might have been obtained by borrowing from other works, but they wore of opinion that the present manual would bear a stamp of greater truthfulness if the drawings were taken from objects seen and examined by themselves. They have therefore preferred (with few exceptions only) to use such illustrations as their own portfolios supplied. Although small drawings, in black and white, necessarily fail to give the important elements of size and colour, almost essential to illustrations of Pathological Anatomy, the Authors


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 the prison-keeper opened the door and said, "Come, girl, it is time for you to go." George again embraced Mary, and passed out of the jail. It was already dark, and the street lamps were lighted, so that our hero in his new dress had no dread of detection. The provisions were sought out and found, and poor George was soon on the road towards Canada, But neither of them had once thought of a change of dress for George when he should have escaped, and he had walked but a short distance before he felt that a change of his apparel would facilitate his progress. But he dared not go amongst even his coloured associates for fear of being betrayed. However, he made the best of his way on towards Canada, hiding in the woods during the day, and travelling by the guidance of the North Star at night.

With the poet he could truly say,

One morning, George arrived on the banks of the Ohio river, and found his journey had terminated, unless he could get some one to take him across the river in a secret manner, for he would not be permitted to cross in any of the ferry boats, it being a penalty for crossing a slave, besides the value of the slave. He concealed himself in the tall grass and weeds near the river, to see if he could embrace an opportunity to cross. He had been in his hiding place but a short time, when he observed a man in a small boat, floating near the shore, evidently fishing. His first impulse was to call out to the man and ask him to take him over to the Ohio side, but the fear that the man was a slaveholder, or one who might possibly arrest him, deterred him from it. The

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iv hope that the masterly treatment of Mr, Bagg has achieved as much as could be done by wood engraving. They have divided the subject in the manner indicated in the Table of Contents, and ave each individually responsible for the chapters which they have treated.

They conclude by expressing 2 hope that the vast extent of the subject, and of the material they had to deal with, will serve, in some measure, as an apology for the deficiencies which they are fully conscious of, and for which they ask the kind and lenient consideration of the Medical Profession.

C. HANDFIELD JONES. EDWARD H. SIEVEKING.

London, August, 1854.


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 The musicians, fiddlers and harpers, accompanied them. Staza’s little voice penetrated like silver, Frank’s voice faithfully seconded hers, and then the music accompanied it all—it was as though tears were falling.

If you are well-versed in tales of magic you will recollect how all at once everything in a castle was turned to stone. And thus at this song everything was turned to stone in the dining-room. Here some one stretched out his hand to his neighbour and the hand remained stretched out, here another had raised his hand to tootle with it and the hand remained raised above his head, and the tootling died away in his throat. Here another wanted to turn to his neighbour, he had not quite turned towards him, neither was he altogether turned away from him. And when Joseph wanted to drink with Barushka he proffered her his glass indeed, but the glass remained in his hand, and the polite speech remained unspoken.

Into the midst of all that whistling, tootling, and babbling of tongues a knife had worked its way, and smitten all with a sudden blow. Two childish little voices had taken upon themselves to hew down an ogre, and the ogre shivered and reeled to the ground. A morsel of genuine feeling claimed a hearing, and what was untrue and unnatural tumbled to pieces like a house of cards.

The grandfather still had the last word to-day. He spoke by the mouths of those children who constrained even the harpers and fiddlers to their cause, and all that gay company in the dining-room again knew that it was the day of his funeral. Not gladly certainly, but no one could say, I do not know it.

FTER a brief of time the celebrated a wedding. The festivities passed off at Kmoch’s house—at the father’s of the bride; after the feasting Joseph conducted his wife to his homestead. And here the harpers and fiddlers who had still remained there since the day of the grandfather’s funeral played before the hall-doors as soon as the bride had entered the house, thus welcoming her with a burst of triumphant music. How could they do otherwise?

But they soon found out their mistake. “Just clear off the


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 cell. The poor girl paid a daily visit to him to whom she had pledged her heart and hand. At one of these meetings, and only four days from the time fixed for the execution, while Mary was seated in George's cell, it occurred to her that she might yet save him from a felon's doom. She revealed to him the secret that was then occupying her thoughts, viz. that George should exchange clothes with her, and thus attempt his escape in disguise. But he would not for a single moment listen to the proposition. Not that he feared detection; but he would not consent to place an innocent and affectionate girl in a position where she might have to suffer for him. Mary pleaded, but in vain—George was inflexible. The poor girl left her lover with a heavy heart, regretting that her scheme had proved unsuccessful.

Towards, the close of the next day, Mary again appeared at the prison door for admission, and was soon by the side of him whom she so ardently loved. While there the clouds which had overhung the city for some hours broke, and the rain fell in torrents amid the most terrific thunder and lightning. In the most persuasive manner possible, Mary again importuned George to avail himself of her assistance to escape from an ignominious death. After assuring him that she, not being the person condemned, would not receive any injury, he at last consented, and they began to exchange apparel. As George was of small stature, and both were white, there was no difficulty in his passing out without detection; and as she usually left the cell weeping, with handkerchief in hand, and sometimes at her face, he had only to adopt this mode and his escape was safe. They had kissed each other, and Mary had told George where he would find a small parcel of provisions which she had placed in a secluded spot, when

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 threshold, will you?” said the young mistress with such precision, that he whom it touched did not venture to reply.

Still, all the same, one of the musicians ventured to plead an excuse. “But our good old master ordered us to play here”, said he in exculpation of himself and his companions.

“You lie!” said Barushka. “Your good old master never orders anything which I do not like. Just be gone from here in double quick time.”

The musicians did not finish their performance nor did they finish what they had further wished to say; old Loyka stood as though a stream of hot water was running down his back, and Loyka’s aged wife, had it not been the very day of the wedding, would, perhaps have stoutly seconded her lord and master.

The musicians did not finish their performance, and trailed like draggled chickens across the court-yard toward the coach-house, and entered their two chambers.

“And that is a pretty welcome”, said they to one another.

“Truly, she begins wondrous well”, they murmured.

“This is something new on the estate”, they added.

Loyka’s aged wife still could not bring herself to believe that the new bride wished so ruthlessly to abolish on the very threshold of her new life what had been for so long a series of years a speciality of the family. “When you danced here at your grandfather’s funeral I did not think, Barushka, that you were an enemy to music”, said she with a certain asperity.

“I cannot stand things where they are out of place”, replied Barushka with yet greater asperity. “Music is in its place at an ale-house, not at such a farm as this. I could not endure to live under the same roof with a pack of strolling scamps, with whom one loses caste, because that class of menials deems itself our equal. And a dubious light is thrown on the management of an estate which fosters vagabonds.”

Here Loyka’s aged wife recognized to her surprise that a crisis had come [lit., the sickle had come to the grindstone] and that she must not easily yield.

“We hand over the estate to you in excellent order, and it would be well if there were never any worse things to complain of”, said she.

“Still, for my part, I could not bear to live in a building where everybody thought that he had the right of entrance, just as though it was an ale-house. Joseph will see to it that this rabble Rh


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 of vagabonds does not take up its quarters here a night longer”, added the young bride with the same asperity.

“Joseph?” said Loyka’s aged wife, and it was half an interrogation and half an asservation that Joseph would do no such thing. She pronounced it with a taunting smile as if she had said to Barushka, “You are quite mistaken in Joseph, I assure you.”

“Yes, Joseph”, said Barushka.

“Joseph see to it that the musicians be warned off the farm who have been here all their lives?” inquired the elder peasant woman in the same manner.

“What has been need not be always. There are things which after a time go out of fashion.”

On this Joseph rose, and said, “Pray, why should I not tell them? I will go and tell them at once.”

Barushka looked at her mother-in-law as though she would say, “Now, what have you got to say?” and she smiled tauntingly.

“And this is the girl who was willing to take me on her arms”, thought the peasant woman to herself, and all at once she seemed to stand on the edge of an abyss.

And Joseph, exactly as though he and Barushka had just finished a game of cards, quitted the apartment and betook himself to the musicians.

“Will you be so good as to clear off at once from here”, said he. “My wife does not wish to have people hanging about the place, and I do not wish it either.”

Here the musicians felt as if they had received a severe shock. “Well, the Lord God reward you”, said they, collecting their instruments in order that they might clear out, and they looked at Joseph as though they did not yet know whether it was jest or earnest. But it was earnest, for when they had gone out across the threshold he did not call them back nor when they crossed the court-yard, only the dogs whined a sad farewell to their old friends who went out by the gate on to the village green.

Joseph still remained by the gate until the musicians were fairly out of sight. And here the family of the kalounkar [tape-pedlar], the cloth-pedlar, and all who were still present, looked at him in a kind of uncertainty to see whether it affected them also.

But Joseph did not leave them long in suspense. He leered at their things, he leered at them, and said, “You must take it all away this evening.”


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 the laws of the land. Did not the American revolutionists violate the laws when they struck for liberty? They were revolters, but their success made them patriots—we were revolters, and our failure makes us rebels. Had we succeeded, we would have been patriots too. Success makes all the difference. You make merry on the 4th of July; the thunder of cannon and ringing of bells announce it as the birthday of American independence. Yet while these cannons are roaring and bells ringing, one-sixth of the people of this land are in chains and slavery. You boast that this is the 'Land of the Free;' but a traditionary freedom will not save you. It will not do to praise your fathers and build their sepulchres. Worse for you that you have such an inheritance, if you spend it foolishly and are unable to appreciate its worth. Sad if the genius of a true humanity, beholding you with tearful eyes from the mount of vision, shall fold his wings in sorrowing pity, and repeat the strain, 'O land of Washington, how often would I have gathered thy children together, as a hen doth gather her brood under her wings, and ye would not; behold your house is left unto you desolate.' This is all I have to say; I have done." Nearly every one present was melted to tears; even the judge seemed taken by surprise at the intelligence of the young slave. But George was a slave, and an example must be made of him, and therefore he was sentenced. Being employed in the same house with Mary, the daughter of Clotel, George had become attached to her, and the young lovers fondly looked forward to the time when they should be husband and wife.

After George had been sentenced to death, Mary was still more attentive to him, and begged and obtained leave of her mistress to visit him in his

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THE PROBLEM QF CIRCULATION

35 It appears, then, that Galen’s sources of evidence respect- ing the motion of the heart were the same as Harvey’s — viz. comparison of structure in a variety of animals, argu- ment from the use of these structures, observation of the living heart, and numerous experiments on animals.

It may be asked, Why, if Galen had a correct method and knew most of the facts so accurately, did he not discover the circulation ? The difference of structure be- tween human anatomy and that of the inferior animals, which was Galen’s weak point, did not come in here. But why did not Vesalius, or Fabricius, or Colombo, whose anatomical knowledge was quite as complete as was re- quired, get near it ? The fact seems to be that the problem was one of those in which you must be wholly right or wholly wrong. It is like those word-puzzles in which a number of letters are thrown on the table to make a word. No combination except the right one is much nearer the truth than another. The word is not spelt till the right combination is effected. So in this problem the mere accumulation of correct data was of little avail. Galen made a marvellously ingenious combination of letters, but it did not spell the right word. Harvey had no difficulty in showing that Galen was inconsistent with himself— more inconsistent, indeed, than those who knew less. Servetus and Colombo, who knew the lesser circula- tion, and Fabricius, who described the valves of the veins, equally failed, and were still more inconsistent h At last

1 It is remarkable that in the edi- tion of Fabricius’s tract on the valves of the veins, published at Frankfort, 1624, we find a figure of the veins of the arm as tied up for bleeding, showing the situation of the valves, which was afterwards adapted by Harvey to make the well-known dia- grams in his book De Motu Cordis, showing the use of the valves. Har- vey’s engraver must have been directed to copy Fabricius’s plate (which is thus necessarily reversed)

C

on a reduced scale. Harvey's Figure t, accordingly, is a reduced copy of Fabricius’s plate, while in Figures 2, 3, and 4 the hands are added to show the experiments described in the text. As both works were printed at Frankfort within a few years, very likely the plates were executed by the same engraver, especially as the character of the lines and cross- hatching is identical.

It is very singular that Fabricius, having so carefully studied the valves o

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36

HARVEY AND GALEN came the master mind of Harvey, which arranged the letters in the right order, and so the word was spelt for all the world to read. To do this required that peculiar high faculty of synthesis which is rightly regarded as an attribute of genius, and is closely allied to the poetical imagination. This faculty seems not always to follow the strict chain of reasoning, link after link, or to result from a mere collect- ing and marshalling of the data, however skilful, as Bacon supposed. The creation of the poet is generated in his mind from pre-existing sensations and ideas by a process which he cannot understand himself, and which the great poets have spoken of reverently as a kind of inspiration. So the idea of a great discoverer or inventor is generated by some process of which he himself may be only partly conscious ; and a new form, like that idea of Harvey’s of a circular motion, results. The difference is that the scientific idea, unlike the poetical, requires to be carefully verified and proved — a process which Harvey himself was the last to neglect.

Further to illustrate Galen’s scientific method, I should like to say something about his physiology of the nervous system, to which justice has hardly been done, but which was certainly his greatest achievement. My object now is merely to show that Galen’s method in investigating this subject was the only true one of observation and experi- ment, not to dwell upon his results, though they were very considerable. Before entering on this subject I should like to say a word on one point in which a difference of language makes Galen’s views seem much more different from modern physiology than they really were — the old and famous doctrine of the animal spirits. He explained nervous action, both motion and sensation, by something

of the veins, and having had this figure executed to show the effect on the valves of ligaturing the veins on the cardiac side, should not have the slightest inkling of their real use. He thought them designed to prevent excessive dilatation or too

rapid a current in the veins, espe- cially in the direction of gravitation. The valves at the commencement of the jugular veins, he thought, would only come into operation when the animal or man bent the head down- wards.

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 APPENDIX

The references to Galen's works given above are made to the only edition available to modern students, that of Kahn, in Greek and Latin (Leipzig, 1821-33). Some of his more important works were translated into French by Daremberg (2 vols. Paris, 1854-6). A third volume, containing an Introduction and Dissertations, was to have been published, but has never appeared, There are no English translations worth mentioning, but the following sources of information may be consulted :—

Dr. W. A. Greenhill’s article on Galen in Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, which has been the foundation of some later works.—Dr. J. Kidd’s Analysis of the Works of Galen on Anatomy and Physiology in the Tvansactions of the Provincial Medical and Surgual Association, vol. vi. 1837, p. 299.—Dr. R. Gasquet: ‘ The Practical Medicine of Claudius Galenus and his Time,’ British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review, vol. xl. 1867.—I would draw particular attention to Dr. James Finlayson’s admirable account of Galen, with copious extracts, in his ‘ Bibliographical Demonstrations,’ the first of which was published in the British Medical Journal, 1892, i. p. 573, &c. It is reprinted with a second lecture as Galen: Two Bibliographical Demonstrations, Glasgow, 1895. The second of these publications was not before me when I wrote this oration.—-A good account of Galen’s doctrines on the nervous system is given in Galen’s Lehre vom gesunden und kranken Nervensysteme, by Dr. Friedreich Falk (Leipzig, 1871).—The above-named writers make, however, little reference to the work from which I have chiefly quoted, De Placitis Hippocratis et Platonis, which is rich in personal details as well as in physiological statements. A full account of Galen’s position in relation to modern physiology is still a desideratum.

The standard histories of Medicine treat, of course, largely of Galen. Sprengel’s well-known Geschichte der Areneikunde is perhaps the most copious on this theme, but is not altogether satisfactory. In the eighteenth century, it seems to me, the backward state of physiology made a correct appreciation of Galen’s experimental work impossible. He is really more in sympathy with the anatomical and physiological medicine of the nine- teenth century, which represents the ideal towards which he strove. Had Galen been able to make post-mortem examinations and known how to ascertain the condition of the organs during life by Physical Diagnosis, his immediate aspirations would have been satisfied.

Hence the account of Galen in Daremberg’s Histoire des Sciences Médicales, vol. i. (Paris, 1870), is more instructive than earlier expositions, though blame is freely mingled with praise, There is an earlier dissertation by Daremberg, Exposition des Connasssances de Galien sur Vanatomie, la Physiologie et la pathologie du Systéme Nerveux (Paris, 1841), which I have not been able to obtain, �

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 And here the cloth-pedlar and the kalounkar looked at Joseph as though they would have said, “Art thou that Joseph who sat here beside us, and listened to our story-telling.”

And out loud the kalounkar said, “I must entreat you, dear Mister Joseph, to ask our good old master and mistress to come hither that we may thank them for all their kindness. We do not venture to present ourselves in their apartments, and yet how can we go away without bidding them adieu?”

“There is no need, I assure you, I will give them any message you may choose to leave.”

Here the old kalounkar said almost crying, “Then tell them that the old kalounkar salutes them a hundred times, and that he thanks them for this roof which they have condescended to lend him for so many years, and that he never supposed that he would have to leave on the very day when he thought that a feast would be toward.”

“I will tell him, I will not forget”, said Joseph, cutting short further explanations, turned, and went into the principal apartment.

And thus in a brief space of time were banished from the estate, after the musicians, the kalounkar, the cloth-pedlar, and the rest. At a moment which is the sweetest in human life, at a moment which every family scores in letters of gold on the page of its domestic history—at that moment in sorrow left this house several people who by right of dear custom considered that it was in part their home.

“Pray, where are the pedlar and the kalounkar being banished”, said old Loyka, seeing from the window how they were trailing across the court-yard with their wares.

“I have purged the chambers of them also”, said Joseph in elucidation. “They were no better than the musicians, they had no right to hang about the place. If we young people have to take up our abode in the pensioner’s house we shall want these chambers for ourselves, and not for all sorts of underlings. It would be quite a sin if we were to tolerate them any longer.”

There cannot be a severer blow for an old man than to hear his past life and actions condemned in a single word; and this happened when Joseph declared Loyka’s previous system of hospitality to be a sin. And if there was anything praiseworthy at the Loykas’s it was, perhaps, this, that their court-yard opened freely to shelter any who wished to enter.


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5° HARVEY AND GALEN paid to them was succeeded by unjust neglect. They deserved neither the one nor the other. For Aristotle the reaction has come, and though no longer adored he receives due honour. For Galen I think the day of restitution cannot be long delayed. He was not one of the great geniuses of the world, but very high in the second rank. He was one of the most illustrious of all physiologists, and among the ancient physicians we may still allow him the old honourable epithet so often used, ‘ Omnium medicorum secundum Hippocratem facile princeps.

For our great Harvey we need not fear that his noble shade would be troubled at this tribute paid to his brilliant predecessor. His mind was too generous, and, indeed, it increases his praise, for to have succeeded where other acute intellects failed is the greater honour. Harvey him- self warmly acknowledged what he owed to Aristotle, and if he mentioned Galen less it was because the force of circumstances made him his opponent. But at this distance of time we can see plainly that it was hardly necessary to mention him, for in so many places his work is taken for granted.

As I remarked in the beginning, all great work is based on work done before, even where the results appear to be different. And so we arrive, I venture to suggest, at the generalization that all high thought is really continuous. The magic of literature brings together thinkers widely separated in space and time, and, as one magnet makes other magnets, so the activity of one great mind sets other minds in vibration. The polarity of the second magnet may be opposite to that of the first, and so the result of the induced intellectual activity may be contradictory to that which set it in motion; but the one was nevertheless derived from the other. The moral is, I think, that the influence of the past on the present is even more potent than we commonly suppose. In common and trivial things we may ignore this connexion; in what is of enduring worth we cannot. As Goethe says, �

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GALEN ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

37 descending from the brain through the nerves to the muscles and other parts. This something he called ^/vlkov 7rve0jLca, a phrase of which the modern translation through two languages into ‘animal spirits’ is somewhat misleading, being the origin of all our colloquial phrases about high and low spirits, and so on. The original meaning is rather ‘ breath of the soul,’ or breath belonging to the c psyche.’ The word ‘ psyche ’ itself is difficult to render ; soul, mind, consciousness, the sensorium, &c., all have other connota- tions, and so I find that some modern psychologists prefer to use the old term ‘ psyche ’ for that which we suppose to be manifested through the brain. I cannot suggest any better definition of the ‘psyche’ than the tautological one that it is the subject of the science of psychology. The ‘pneuma’ was supposed to be some kind of air or very subtle fluid capable of traversing the solid nerves. Our modern expression for what traverses the nerves is ‘nerve force.’ But I am not sure that ‘nerve force’ is a much more scientific expression, since the correlation of this force with physical forces is by no means rigidly established. It seems to be a convenient expression for something the nature of which we do not know ; though in this I may be perhaps a little heretical.

However, in justice to Galen’s ignorance we should remember that it was only the other day we were taught in every text-book of physics that electricity and magnetism were subtle fluids, and we were. sometimes given the choice between the single fluid and the double fluid hypothesis. ‘ Electric fluid ’ is a vernacular phrase. The term ‘nervous fluid’ was retained in text-books of physiology which some of us learned from, and between nervous fluid and nervous pneuma there seems little to choose. The hypotheses of electric, magnetic, and nervous fluids no doubt explained many phenomena fairly well, till it was found there were other phenomena which they did not explain, and so they were given up. Galen un- fortunately materialized his pneuma too much, supposing it to be included, like air, in the ventricles of the brain.

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 of high treason, and sentenced to be hanged within ten days, of that time. The judge asked the slave if he had anything to say why sentence of death should not be passed on him. George stood for a moment in silence, and then said, "As I cannot speak as I should wish. I will say nothing." "You may say what you please," said the judge. "You had a good master," continued he, "and still you were dissatisfied; you left your master and joined the negroes who were burning our houses and killing our wives." "As you have given me permission to speak," marked George, "I will tell you why I joined the revolted negroes. I have heard my master read in the Declaration of Independence 'that all men are created free and equal,' and this caused me to inquire of myself why I was a slave. I also heard him talking with some of his visitors about the war with England, and he said, all wars and fightings for freedom were just and right. If so, in what am I wrong? The grievances of which your fathers complained, and which caused the Revolutionary War, were trifling in comparison with the wrongs and sufferings of those who were engaged in the late revolt. Your fathers were never slaves, ours are; your fathers were never bought and sold like cattle, never shut out from the light of knowledge and religion, never subjected to the lash of brutal task-masters. For the crime of having a dark skin, my people suffer the pangs of hunger, the infliction of stripes, and the ignominy of brutal servitude. We are kept in heathenish darkness by laws expressly enacted to make our instruction a criminal offence. What right has one man to the bones, sinews, blood, and nerves of another? Did not one God make us all? You say your fathers fought for freedom—so did we. You tell me that I am to be put to death for violating

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38 HARVEY AND GALEN He also had strange theories of the production of swelling and tension by the pneuma, which, of course, were totally erroneous 1, and hence his theory seems more remote from modern science than it really is. But it might be shown, if I had time, how curiously he thought the presence of pneuma in the cerebral ventricles was proved by his numerous and careful experiments on the living brain. His method of investigation was in intention perfectly sound.

It is strange, too, that Galen was by no means absolutely wedded to the theory of a pneuma passing through the nerves. He says he has never been able to make up his mind whether the pneuma itself passes down into the nerves, or whether some kind of messenger descends from the brain so as to alter the constitution of the nerves, and this alteration is propagated to the parts which are moved. Again, some think, he says, that the action of the brain takes place by force ( btvafjus ) without matter, so that there is a flowing down of force from the brain ; in fact, the modern view. This distribution of force he supposes to be equivalent to the communication of an altered state, which seems to be the most modern view of all, that nervous ac- tion consists in a transmission of molecular change through the nerve. This he illustrates by a fine and suggestive comparison with the radiation 6f the stin, which passes through the air and alters it, though the sun remains in its own place. Between all these views, he says, we cannot decide offhand 2.

The above extracts show how much a difference of language hinders us from understanding the thoughts of ancient writers ; and also, I think, demonstrates the essen- tially scientific basis of Galen’s mind, often concealed by his excessive subtlety and ingenuity.

Galen maintained the doctrine of the Hippocratic school, if not of Hippocrates himself, and of Plato, that the brain

1 To find still stranger performances ascribed to the 'spirits' we have only to look at the works of Willis, On the Brain, &c.

2. De Placitis, lib. vii. cap. 4; Kuhn, v. pp. 6ri, 617.

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ARISTOTLE’'S THEORY OF THE BRAIN 39 was the centre of voluntary movement, sensation, and thought (the same conception is perhaps indicated by the old Greek myth of Pallas Athene springing from the head of Zeus), though inconsistently he retained the old attribu- tion of certain passions to other organs, such as anger to the heart. He showed that all the nerves originated in the brain, either directly or by means of the spinal cord, which he thought to be a conducting organ merely, not a centre. In opposition to this, it should be remembered, was the theory of Aristotle, who held that the heart was the seat of the sensitive soul with its correlative voluntary movement, and that what we should call nervous action originated there, while the brain was of secondary impor- tance, being the coldest part of the body, devoid of blood, and having for its chief or only function to cool the heart. Aristotle’s reasons for adopting this unfortunate miscon- ception of the brain have been much discussed, and are fully stated in Dr. William Ogle’s admirable translation of Aristotle De Partibus Animalium. They were partly positive observations, such as that the brain substance was itself insensitive, and that many animals which could feel and move (our invertebrata) had no brain, and that he could not trace any connexion between the organs of special sense and the brain. But also he was strongly influenced by his metaphysical idea that the ‘sensitive soul’ was indissolubly connected with heat, and therefore could not have its seat in the coldest organ of the body, devoid of blood. One wonders whether, if Aristotle had been a practising medical man or army surgeon, accustomed to study the effects of blows on the head, he would ever have propounded this theory '.

1 Aristotle’s reasons for rejecting sensation.

the older doctrine that the brain was the seat of ‘the sensitive soul’ are thus stated by Dr. W. Ogle (Ox the Parts of Animals, Notes, p. 172): (1) The brain is itself insensitive. (2) Many animals (viz. our inverte- brata) have no brain and yet have (3) The brain was, as he thought, bloodless. (4) He could trace no anatomical connexion be- tween the brain and the organs of sense. (5) He believed he had good grounds for considering the heart to be the sensory centre.

I think there should be added

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 VOL. CLXIV.

JULY—DECEMBER, 1898.

WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS, EDINBURGH;

AND

37 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON.

1898.

All Rights of Translation and Republication reserved.


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 weeks before the outbreak. The court house had, by accident, taken fire, and was fast consuming. The engines could not be made to work, and all hope of saving the building seemed at an end. In one of the upper chambers there was a small box containing some valuable deeds belonging to the city; a ladder was placed against the house, leading from the street to the window of the room in which the box stood. The wind blew strong, and swept the flames in that direction. Broad sheets of fire were blown again and again over that part of the building, and then the wind would lift the pall of smoke, which showed that the work of destruction was not yet accomplished. While the doomed building was thus exposed, and before the destroying element had made its final visit, as it did soon after, George was standing by, and hearing that much depended on the contents of the box, and seeing no one disposed to venture through the fiery element to save the treasure, mounted the ladder and made his way to the window, entered the room, and was soon seen descending with the much valued box. Three cheers rent the air as the young slave fell from the ladder when near the ground; the white men took him up in their arms, to see if he had sustained any injury. His hair was burnt, eyebrows closely singed, and his clothes smelt strongly of smoke; but the heroic young slave was unhurt. The city authorities, at their next meeting, passed a vote of thanks to George's master for the lasting benefit that the slave had rendered the public, and commended the poor boy to the special favour of his owner. When George was on trial for participating in the revolt, this "meritorious act," as they were pleased to term it, was brought up in his favour. His trial was put off from session to session, till he had been in prison more than a year. At last, however, he was

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 out of the state. One, however, remained in prison. He was the slave of Horatio Green, and had been a servant in his master's dwelling. He, too, could boast that his father was an American statesman. His name was George. His mother had been employed as a servant in one of the principal hotels in Washington, where members of Congress usually put up. After George's birth his mother was sold to a slave trader, and he to an agent of Mr. Green, the father of Horatio. George was as white as most white persons. He one would suppose that any African blood coursed through his veins. His hair was straight, soft, fine, and light; his eyes blue, nose prominent, lips thin, his head well formed, forehead high and prominent; and he was often taken for a free white person by those who did know him. This made his condition still more intolerable; for one so white seldom ever receives fair treatment at the hands of his fellow slaves; and the whites usually regard such slaves as persons who, if not often flogged, and otherwise ill treated, to remind them of their condition, would soon "forget" that they were slaves, and "think themselves as good as white folks." George's opportunities were far greater than most slaves. Being in his master's house, and waiting on educated white people, he had become very familiar with the English language. He had heard his master and visitors speak of the down-trodden and oppressed Poles; he heard them talk of going to Greece to fight for Grecian liberty, and against the oppressors of that ill-fated people. George, fired with the love of freedom, and zeal for the cause of his enslaved countrymen, joined the insurgents, and with them had been defeated and captured. He was the only one remaining of these unfortunate people, and he would have been put to death with them but for a circumstance that occurred some

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 he had learned to read so as to be well understood; and, owing to that fact, was considered a prodigy among the slaves, not only of his own master's, but those of the town who knew him. Sam had a great wish to follow in the footsteps of his master, and be a poet; and was, therefore, often heard singing doggrels of his own composition. But there was one great drawback to Sam, and that was his colour. He was one of the blackest of his race. This he evidently regarded as a great misfortune. However, he made up for this in his dress. Mr. Peck kept his house servants well dressed; and as for Sam, he was seldom seen except in a ruffled shirt. Indeed, the washerwoman feared him more than all others about the house.

Currer, as we have already stated, was chief of the kitchen department, and had a general supervision of the household affairs. Alfred the coachman, Peter, and Hetty made up the remainder of the house servants. Besides these, Mr. Peck owned eight slaves who were masons. These worked in the city. Being mechanics, they were let out to greater advantage than to keep them on the farm. However, every Sunday night, Peck's servants, including the bricklayers, usually assembled in the kitchen, when the events of the week were freely discussed and commented on. It was on a Sunday evening, in the month of June, that there was a party at Mr. Peck's, and, according to custom in the Southern States, the ladies had their maid-servants with them. Tea had been served in "the house," and the servants, including the strangers, had taken their seats at the tea table in the kitchen. Sam, being a "single gentleman," was unusually attentive to the "ladies" on this occasion. He seldom or ever let the day pass without spending at least an hour in combing and brushing up his

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 "hair." Sam had an idea that fresh butter was better for his hair than any other kind of grease; and therefore, on churning days, half a pound of butter had always to be taken out before it was salted. "When he wished to appear to great advantage, he would grease his face, to make it "shiny." On the evening of the party therefore, when all the servants were at the table, Sam cut a big figure. There he sat with his wool well combed and buttered, face nicely greased, and his ruffles extending five or six inches from his breast. The parson in his own drawing-room did not make a more imposing appearance than did his servant on this occasion. "I jist bin had my fortune told last Sunday night," said Sam, as he helped one of the girls to some sweet hash. "Indeed," cried half-a-dozen voices. "Yes," continued he; "Aunt Winny teld me I is to hab de prettiest yaller gal in town, and dat I is to be free." All eyes were immediately turned toward Sally Johnson, who was seated near Sam. "I speck I see somebody blush at dat remark," said Alfred. "Pass dem pancakes and molasses up dis way, Mr. Alf, and none of your insinawaysion here," rejoined Sam. "Dat reminds me," said Currer, "dat Dorcas Simpson is gwine to git married." "Who to, I want to know?" inquired Peter. "To one of Mr. Darby's field-hands," answered Currer. "I should tink dat dat gal would not trow hersef away in dat manner," said Sally. "She good enough looking to get a house servant, and not to put up wid a fiel' nigger," continued she. "Yes," said Sam, "dat's a wery insensible remark of yours, Miss Sally. I admire your judgment wery much, I assure you. Dah's plenty of suspectible and well-dressed house servants dat a gal of her looks can get, wid out taken up wid dem common darkies." "Is de man black or a mulatto?" inquired one of the company. "He's nearly white,"

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 sounded unhappy, not to say rude, though I was only trying to be agreeable. Miss Dick accentuated this last one by helping herself to potatoes in significant silence. "You can look at a picture oftener than you can read a book," I went on, addressing Gerald, "and oftener than you can listen to a piece of music."

"I daresay," he answered, and I resented his politeness. "Why can't he stand up for his own business?" I thought.

I glanced at Katherine, and wanted to say something pleasant to her, but that was apparently beyond my power. My solitary "No," in answer to her question about golf, had been the one word I had so far addressed to her. I relapsed into silence and did not speak again till dinner was over.

When we went to the drawing-room it looked as if we were going to have a musical evening, for Miss Dick sat down at the piano with all the air of a person opening a concert. She played an arrangement of something or other, by Thalberg. All Miss Dick's pieces were arrangements, except those that were fantasias, and it was a feature of them that the beginning of the end could be heard about a couple of pages off, in a series of frantic rushes and arpeggios. She played now with a fierce concentration on the task to be accomplished; her face getting redder as Thalberg became more surprising; her mouth screwed up slightly at the right corner, through which just the tip of her tongue was visible; her eyes glaring, devouring the sheet of music before her, at which every now and then she made a frantic grab with her left hand, to turn the page—she would never allow anybody to turn for her.

When she had struck the last note, to which she indeed gave an astonishing rap, there was a general sigh, as for a danger evaded.

"My dear, I don't know how you do it!" Mrs. Carroll murmured, almost as breathless as the performer.


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 replied Currer. "Well den, dat's some exchuse for her,' remarked Sam; "for I don't like to see dis malgemation of blacks and mulattoes, no how," continued Sam. "If I had my rights I would be a mulatto too, for my mother was almost as light-coloured as Miss Sally," said he. Although Sam was one of the blackest men living, he nevertheless contended that his mother was a mulatto, and no one was more prejudiced against the blacks than he. A good deal of work, and the free use of fresh butter, had no doubt done wonders for his "hare" in causing it to grow long, and to this he would always appeal when he wished to convince others that he was part of an Anglo-Saxon. "I always thought you was not clear black, Mr. Sam," said Agnes. "You are right dahr, Miss Agnes. My hare tells what company I belong to," answered Sam. Here the whole company joined in the conversation about colour, which lasted for some time, giving unmistakeable evidence that caste is owing to ignorance. The evening's entertainment concluded by Sam's relating a little of his own experience while with his first master in old Kentucky.

Sam's former master was a doctor, and had a large practice among his neighbours, doctoring both masters and slaves. When Sam was about fifteen years of age, his old master set him to grinding up the ointment, then to making pills. As the young student grew older and became more practised in his profession, his services were of more importance to the doctor. The physician having a good business, and a large number of his patients being slaves, the most of whom had to call on the doctor when ill, he put Sam to bleeding, pulling teeth, and administering medicine to the slaves. Sam soon acquired the name amongst the slaves of the "Black Doctor." With this appellation he was delighted, and no

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 "I loathe summer-houses, especially when they're like this old thing, crammed with earwigs and spiders."

"The rain is going to be heavy: you'd better come in now," I went on, without attempting to emulate her lightness of manner. I dusted the rough seat for her with my pocket-handkerchief, in silence, just as the first big drops came pattering down on the leaves.

She sat down, and I stood near the door, looking at her. "Mrs. Carroll told me your mother arrived to-day, because of some letter of yours about me."

Katherine coloured a little. "I know," she answered, eagerly. "It's awfully silly of mamma. I've been talking to her about it."

"And you are to go home at once—to-morrow—perhaps this evening."

She laughed. "Certainly not this evening. How could we? And at any rate, we should have been going in a few days. But I told mamma she was taking it all absurdly seriously, and behaving exactly like a furious parent in a novel."

"It is serious to me," I said, quietly, "though to you it may be amusing." That she should laugh in this way hurt me deeply.

It had grown rapidly dark, and now a heavy rain began, cold and sad, sweeping through the trees, very soon making it plain that the summer-house was in need of repair. From the distance there came the crying of a sea-gull, a mournful, solitary note.

"Don't be angry with me, Peter," said Katherine, coming to the door and looking out. "I know it was stupid of me to write, but I never dreamt of mamma coming over like this Why has it got so dark?"

Before I could answer there came a blinding flash of lightning, accompanied, nearly instantaneously, by a hideous din of thunder, which seemed to burst out just over us. A blank silence succeeded this ear-splitting


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 physician could possibly have put on more airs than did the black doctor when his services were required. In bleeding, he must have more bandages, and rub and smack the arm more than the doctor would have thought of. We once saw Sam taking out a tooth for one of his patients, and nothing appeared more amusing. He got the poor fellow down on his back, and he got a straddle of the man's chest, and getting the turnkeys on the wrong tooth, he shut both eyes and pulled for his life. The poor man screamed as loud as he could, but to no purpose. Sam had him fast. After a great effort, out came the sound grinder, and the young doctor saw his mistake; but consoled himself with the idea that as the wrong tooth was out of the way, there was more room to get at the right one. Bleeding and a dose of calomel, was always considered indispensable by the "Old Boss;" and, as a matter of course, Sam followed in his footsteps.

On one occasion the old doctor was ill himself, so as to be unable to attend to his patients. A slave, with pass in hand, called to receive medical advice, and the master told Sam to examine him and see what he wanted. This delighted him beyond measure, for although he had been acting his part in the way of giving out medicine as the master ordered it, he had never been called upon by the latter to examine a patient, and this seemed to convince him that, after all, he was no sham doctor. As might have been expected, he cut a rare figure in his first examination, placing himself directly opposite his patient, and folding his arms across his breast, and looking very knowingly, he began, "What's de matter wid you?" "I is sick." "Where is you sick?" "Here," replied the man, putting his hand upon his stomach. "Put out your tongue," continued the doctor. The man run out his tongue at

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 "It does take it out of one," Miss Dick panted complacently.

Gerald sat looking on with a barely perceptible smile.

"Won't you play something now?" Miss Dick said to him.

His eyebrows twitched slightly. "Not just yet, I think. In a little. I want to smoke a cigarette first." He passed out on to the terrace, and we all gazed after him. When he thought, I suppose, that the echoes awakened by Miss Dick had had time to subside, he came back, and began to fiddle with the music-stool, screwing it up and down. Yet when he did commence to play, after many preliminaries, it was in a broken fragmentary fashion, beginning things and suddenly dropping them after a few bars. I was prepared not to like him, but he had not struck more than a note or two when I knew I had never heard the piano really played before. In spite of myself I felt the dislike I had conceived for him slipping away, and then, just as I was commencing to enjoy myself, he stopped abruptly. He got up and walked over to the window where I sat.

"You haven't altered, Gerald," said Mrs. Carroll dryly.

"Do you mean my playing, Aunt?" he asked sweetly. "It is supposed to have got rather better, but I am sure you are right."

Mrs. Carroll gave something as nearly resembling a sniff as she could give. I saw she was not in love with her nephew; but Miss Dick's cat jumped on to his knee and he began to stroke it. There was something in his extreme self-possession which, though I knew it to be based on a profound sense of superiority to everybody present, I could not help admiring, just as I could not help admiring his playing, or, for that matter, his personal beauty, which was striking. And I admired the way he was dressed. While remaining quite conventional, it managed to suggest individuality, and its perfect taste, apparent in the slightest details, gave him, as he sat there, something of the finish, of the harmony and


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 full length. "Let me feel your pulse," at the same time taking his patient's hand in his, placing his fingers on his pulse, he said, "Ah, your case is a bad one; if I don't do something for you, and dat pretty quick, you i'll be a gone coon, and dat's sartin." At this the man appeared frightened and inquired what was the matter with him: in answer, Sam said, "I done told you dat your case is a bad one, and dat's enough." On Sam's returning to his master's bedside, the latter said, "Well, Sam, what do you think is the matter with him?" "His stomach is out of order, sir," he replied. "What do you think had best be done for him?" "I think I better bleed him and give him a dose of calomel," returned Sam. So to the latter's gratification the master let him have his own way. We need not further say, that the recital of Sam's experience as a physician gave him a high position amongst the servants that evening, and made him a decided favourite with the ladies, one of whom feigned illness, when the black doctor, to the delight of all, and certainly to himself, gave medical advice. Thus ended the evening amongst the servants in the parson's kitchen.

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title: Clotel/Chapter 12


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 loved. A few days after the death of Clotel, the following poem appeared in one of the newspapers:

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 showing how vain would be any farther effort for freedom. Her resolution was taken. She clasped her hands convulsively, and raised them, as she at the same time raised her eyes towards heaven, and begged for that mercy and compassion there, which had been denied her on earth; and then, with a single bound, she vaulted over the railings of the bridge, and sunk for ever beneath the waves of the river!

Thus died Clotel, the daughter of Thomas Jefferson, a president of the United States; a man distinguished as the author of the Declaration of American Independence, and one of the first statesmen of that country.

Had Clotel escaped from oppression in any other land, it the disguise in which she fled from the Mississippi to Richmond, and reached the United States, no honour within the gift of the American people would have been too good to have been heaped upon the heroic woman. But she was a slave, and therefore out of the pale of their sympathy. They have tears to shed over Greece and Poland; they have an abundance of sympathy for "poor Ireland;" they can furnish a ship of war to convey the Hungarian refugees from a Turkish prison to the "land of the free and home of the brave." They boast that America is the "cradle of liberty;" if it is, I fear they have rocked the child to death. The body of Clotel was picked up from the bank of the river, where it had been washed by the strong current, a hole dug in the sand, and there deposited, without either inquest being held over it, or religious service being performed. Such was the life and such the death of a woman whose virtues and goodness of heart would have done honour to one in a higher station of life, and who, if she had been born in any other land but that of slavery, would have been honoured and

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 of an arrow—having passed the avenue-with the distance between her and her pursuers constantly increasing, this poor hunted female gained the "Long Bridge," as it is called, where interruption seemed improbable, and already did her heart begin to beat high with the hope of success. She had only to pass three-fourths of a mile across the bridge, and she could bury herself in a vast forest, just at the time when the curtain of night would close around her, and protect her from the pursuit of her enemies.

But God by his Providence had otherwise determined. He had determined that an appalling tragedy should be enacted that night, within plain sight of the President's house and the capital, of the Union, which should be an evidence wherever it should be known, of the unconquerable love of liberty the heart may inherit; as well as a fresh admonition to the slave dealer, of the cruelty and enormity of his crimes. Just as the pursuers crossed the high draw for the passage of sloops, soon after entering upon the bridge, they beheld three men slowly approaching from the Virginia side. They immediately called to them to arrest the fugitive, whom they proclaimed a runaway slave. True to their Virginian instincts as she came near, they formed in line across the narrow bridge, and prepared to seize her. Seeing escape impossible in that quarter, she stopped suddenly, and turned upon her pursuers. On came the profane and ribald crew, faster than ever, already exulting in her capture, and threatening punishment for her flight. For a moment she looked wildly and anxiously around to see if there was no hope of escape. On either hand, far down below, rolled the deep foamy waters of the Potomac, and before and behind the rapidly approaching step and noisy voices of pursuers,

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 excellent Drops) of an inveterate Scurvy, which afflicted me almot twenty Years: my left leg was o violently inflamed all over, that it appeared like the St. Anthony’s Fire; attended with large Blotches and the mot extreme Pain; the Veins were alo greatly enlarged and knotted. In this melancholy Condition, I applied to everal eminent Phyicians, and to two of the principal Hopitals, without Relief: Relating my unhappy Cae to a Gentleman, he advied me to take your Drops; he aid a Friend of his had been cured by them, after every other Means had failed; on which I immediately began to take them, and, by continuing for ome Time, am retored to perfect Health my Diorder having entirely left me. I am Your obedient and very Humble Servant, ANN JOYCE.

SIR,

Take this MethoodMethod [sic] of returning you my mot incere Thanks for the Cure of my Son which


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 sent away to the same part of the country to which she herself would soon be compelled to go. She had seen or heard nothing of her daughter while in Richmond, and all hope of seeing her now had fled. If she was carried back to New Orleans, she could expect no mercy from her master.

At the dusk of the evening previous to the day when she was to be sent off, as the old prison was being closed for the night, she suddenly darted past her keeper, and ran for her life. It is not a great distance from the prison to the Long Bridge, which passes from the lower part of the city across the Potomac, to the extensive forests and woodlands of the celebrated Arlington Place, occupied by that distinguished relative and descendant of the immortal Washington, Mr. George W. Curtis. Thither the poor fugitive directed her flight. So unexpected was her escape, that she had quite a number of rods the start before the keeper had secured the other prisoners, and rallied his assistants in pursuit. It was at an hour when, and in a part of the city where, horses could not be readily obtained for the chase; no bloodhounds were at hand to run down the flying woman; and for once it seemed as though there was to be a fair trial of speed and endurance between the slave and the slave-catchers. The keeper and his forces raised the hue and cry on her pathway close behind; but so rapid was the flight along the wide avenue, that the astonished citizens, as they poured forth from their dwellings to learn the cause of alarm, were only able to comprehend the nature of the case in time to fall in with the motley mass in pursuit, (as many a one did that night,) to raise an anxious prayer to heaven, as they refused to join in the pursuit, that the panting fugitive might escape, and the merciless soul dealer for once be disappointed of his prey. And now with the speed

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title: Clotel/Chapter 25


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 there was cause for this expression of grief, and pressed the woman more closely. "Hear me, then," said the woman calming herself: "I will tell you why I sometimes weep. I was born in Germany, on the banks of the Rhine. Ten years ago my father came to this country, bringing with him my mother and myself. He was poor, and I, wishing to assist all I could, obtained a situation as nurse to a lady in this city. My father got employment as a labourer on the wharf, among the steamboats; but he was soon taken ill with the yellow fever, and died. My mother then got a situation for herself, while I remained with my first employer. When the hot season came on, my master, with his wife, left New Orleans until the hot season was over, and took me with them. They stopped at a town on the banks of the Mississippi river, and said they should remain there some weeks. One day they went out for a ride, and they had not been gone more than half an hour, when two men came into the room and told me that they had bought me, and that I was their slave. I was bound and taken to prison, and that night put on a steamboat and taken up the Yazoo river, and set to work on a farm. I was forced to take up with a negro, and by him had three children. A year since my master's daughter was married, and I was given to her. She came with her husband to this city, and I have ever since been hired out."

"Unhappy woman," whispered Althesa, "why did you not tell me this before?" "I was afraid," replied Salome, "for I was once severely flogged for telling a stranger that I was not born a slave." On Mr. Morton's return home, his wife communicated to him the story which the slave woman had told her an hour before, and begged that something might be done to rescue her from the situation she was then

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