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institution of caste among the Hindu nations as the happiest effort of their a.d —

legislation ; and I am well convinced that if the people of India never sunk into a state of barbarism, and if, when almost all Asia was plunged in that AUeged

. favourable

dreary gulf, India kept up her head, preserved and extended the sciences, the results of arts, and civilization, it is wholly to the distinction of castes that she is indebted '^ ^ for that high celebrity."' Again, " I have found out no cause that can have prevented the Hindus from falling into the barbarous state in which all the nations bordering on them, as well as most others that are spread over the globe under the torrid zone remain, unless it be the division into castes, which, by assigning to every individual in the state his profession and employment, by perpetuating the system from father to son, from generation to generation, prevents the possibility of any member of the state or his descendants giving up the condition or pursuit which the law has assigned him for any other."" In this extravagant eulogy most readers will recognize the prejudices of the church to which Dubois belonged, and in which uniformity and perpetuity are too apt to be mistaken for perfection and infallibility. Mr. Ward, the Pro- testant missionary, spoke more wisely when he said, " The institution of the caste, Denied, so far from having contributed to the happiness of society, has been one of its greatest scourges. It is the formation of artificial orders, independently of merit or demerit, dooming nine-tenths of the people, before birth, to a state of mental and bodily degradation, in which they are for ever shut out from all the learning and honours of the country."^

It is impossible to believe that those doomed by the misfortune of their birth to the lowest castes can be satisfied with their social position, and yet it must be confessed that even in their estimation the loss of caste is the greatest calamity The loss of

caste.

that could befall them. By every individual, high and low, the very idea of becoming an outcast is regarded with horror. It amounts in fact to civil death, and not unfrequently where the loss of caste has been incurred, actual death, by suicide, has been resorted to as a relief from the frightful consequences. Were the penalty inflicted as the pmiishment of crime, it might liave operated as a kind of security for good behaviour, but unfortunately in the great majority of cases it is not crime that is thus punished, but acts perfectly innocent in themselves ; acts, too, done, it may be, not of express design but unintentionally, through mere inadvertence, or perhaps through sheer necessity. " What," asks Mr. Ward, " is the crime for which a person forfeits his caste, and becomes an exile and an outcast for ever? Perhaps he has been found eating with a virtuous friend ; or he has married the woman of his choice ; or he has resided m other countries on business, and has been compelled by the nature of his situation to eat food not cooked by persons of his o"svn caste. For these, or

' Dubois, Description of the Character, Planners, and Customs of India, 4to, page 14.

- Ibid, page 15.

^ Ward, Account of the Writings, Religion, and Manners of the Hindoos, Serampore, 4to, vol ii. p. 125,


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A.D. — other reasons, the caste proscribes him from his father s house, and if his mother consent to talk with him, it must be by stealth, or at a distance from what Lossof caste, was once his home, into which he must never more enter. Hence the caste converts hospitality, friendship, and the very love of one's neighbour into crimes, and inHicts on the offender in some cases punishment worse than death itself"' It is true that the loss is not always final, and that by means of mum- meries and mortifications, and more especially by a liberal expenditure in the form of gifts or bribes to those who have influence in the expelling caste, the offending member may be restored. Cases, however, occur which are deemed too hemous to admit of expiatory remedies. Among these it cannot be forgotten that an abandonment of the native superstitions holds a principal place, and con- sequently that it is impossible for a Hindoo to embrace Christianity without becoming a martyr in the highest sense of the term. The sacrifices he must make equal, if they do not exceed those which were required from the converts of c.-uite an the primitive church, and hence the distinction of caste has raised up an almost the progress iusupcrable barrier in the way of the Christian missionary. The practical conse- tianity.* qucncc is, that among the outcasts of Hindooism are to be found some of the noblest specimens of humanity — men whom no fear of temporal loss has deterred from throwing off" the shackles of a degrading superstition, and making an open profession of the gospel. It must be confessed, however, that hitherto such specimens have been rare, and that the great majority of those who have lost caste justify, by their utter worthlessness, the sentence of exclusion which has been passed upon them. As a general rule, on being expeUefi from the society of their fellows, they lose all self-respect, and abandon themselves v/ithout restraint to every species of wickedness.

CHAPTER 11.

The Religion of the Hindoos.

F all nations, ancient and modern, there is none among whom religion occupies so prominent a place as among the Hindoos. Its language is constantly on their lips, and its ceremonies mingle with all their daily avocations. Almost every natural object on which their eye falls is in some way associated with it; Original and on every side are beheld shrines and pagodas, in which the objects of its the nTndL worship are supposed to be more immediately present. Its whole theological creed. systcm, too, iustcad of being transmitted by such an imperfect vehicle as oral

' Account of the Writings, Religion, and Manners of the Hindoos, ii. 120.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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 Chap. II.] THE VEDAS. 17

tradition, has been consigned to written volumes, believed to have been com- '^^- ~ mimicated by divine revelation, and therefore to contain truth without any mixture of error. To these volumes of course the ultimate appeal must be made, TheVeJas. and therefore, whenever the object is to ascertain what the Hindoo religion is, at least in theory, it is only necessary to ask. What saith the Veda? By this name, meaning " science," the volumes composing the Hindoo scriptures are designated. They are chiefly composed of four works, distinguished by the names of Kig-Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda, and Atharva-Veda, written in a form of Sanscrit so ancient, and so different from its more modern form, that only the more learned of the Brahmins understand them. It is impossible to say when they were first committed to writing ; but it is admitted that as they now exist they are a compilation made from the original materials by an indi- vidual who has ever since been known by the name of Vyasa, or Vedavyasa, meaning "compiler of the Yeda." He is supposed to have flourished in the twelfth or fourteenth century before the Christian era. The contents of the Vedas have not yet been thorouglily examined, but enough has been translated to prove that the system of religion which they teach does not countenance the numerous extravagances which have been engrafted on it, and which give to modern Hindooism many of its most revolting features. In several texts a pure monotheism seems to be taught, since it is repeatedly declared that " there is in truth but one Deity, the Supreme Spirit, the Lord of the universe, whose work is the universe." This monotheistic theory does not seem, however, to be consistently maintained, for mention is made of numerous gods who ought to be worshipped, and have power to reward their worshippers.

Next to the Vedas, as a source of religious information, are the Institutes of Ti^e lusti-

tvites of

Menu, which, though later in date, must have been composed before the sys- :iieuu. tem taught in them had undergone any essential change, and are understood to contain a faithful abstract of it. From this work, therefore, till the contents of the Vedas are better known, the true character of the primitive Hindoo theology will be best obtained. In its opening passage. Menu, who seems to be a personification of deity, rather than a real existence, is represented as sitting "reclined, with his attention fixed on one object." The divine sages approach, and "after mutual salutations in due form" thus address him, "Deign, sovereign Elder, to apprise us of the sacred laws, in their order, as they must be followed by all the classes, and by each of them in their several degrees, together with the duties of every mixed class ; for thou, Lord, only knowest the true sense, the first principle, the prescribed ceremonies of this universal, supernatural Veda, unlimited in extent, and unequalled in authority." Menu, complying with their request, begins thus : — " This universe existed only in darkness, imperceptible, undefinable, imdiscoverable by reason, undiscovered, as if it were wholly im- mersed in sleep. Then the self-existing power, himself undiscerned, but making this world discernible, with five elements, and other principles, appeared with Vol. II. 92


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[Book IV.

ci'tiatioiJ.

A.D. — undiminished glory, dispelling the gloom. He, whom tlie mind alone can per- ceive, whose essence eludes the external organs, who has no visible parts, wlio Account of exists ft'om eternity, even He, the soul of all beings, v/liom no being can com- prehend, shone forth in person. He having willed to produce various beings from his own divine substance, first with a thought created the waters, and ])laced in them a productive seed, which became an egg, bright as gold, blazing- like the luminary with a thousand beams, and in that egg he was born himself the great forefather of all spirits."

Having proceeded thus far, Menu stops to explain that the waters were called oiara, because they were the production of Nara (or the spirit of God), and that because they were his first ayctna (or place of motion), he is named Narayana (or moving on the ivaters), and then continues: — " From that which is, the first cause, not tlie object of sense, existing, not existing, without beginning or end, was produced the divine male, famed in all worlds under the appellation of Brahma. In that egg the great power sat inactive a whole year, at the close of which, by his thought alone, he caused the egg to divide itself; and from its two divisions he framed the heaven and the earth ; in the midst the subtile ether, the eight regions, and the permanent receptacle of waters." The mate- rial world having been thus created by Brahma, " from the supreme soul he drew forth mind, existing substantially, though unperceived by sense, immaterial, and consciousness, the internal monitor, the ruler."

What follows is so indistinct and elliptical that a gap in the original may be suspected; and therefore without continuing to quote, it will be sufficient to give the substance of what is most remarkable in the subsequent part of this account of the creation, Brahma having produced the great soul and all vital forms, the perceptions of sense, and the five organs of sensation, and pervaded " with emanations from the supreme Spirit, the minutest portion of six prin- ciples immensely operative," framed all creatures, and assigned to them " distinct names, distinct acts, and distinct occupations." Supreme over all, " he created an assemblage of inferior deities, with divine attributes and pm-e souls, and a number of genii exquisitely delicate." From fire, from air, and from the sun, he "milked out the three primordial Vedas," gave being "to time and the divi- sions of time, to the stars also, and to the planets, to rivers, oceans, and moun- tains, to level plains and uneven valleys; to devotion, speech, complacency, desire, and wrath," and to creation generally, for all came into existence simply because " He willed " it. Moreover, for the sake of distinguishing actions, he "made a total diflference between right and wrong," and inured sentient crea- tures " to pleasure and pain, and other opposite pairs." Thus all was "composed in fit order," for " in whatever occupation the supreme Lord first employed any vital soul, to that occupation the same soul attaches itself spontaneously, when it receives a new body again and again ; whatever quality, noxious or innocent, harsh or mild, unjust or just, false or true, he conferred on any being the same

Creation of inferior divinities.


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 Chap. II.] HINDOO MYTHOLOGY. 19

quality enters it: as the seasons of the year attain respectively their peculiar ad. — marks, in due time and of their own accord, even so the several acts of each embodied spirit."

In the above account man is not distinctly mentioned, but the apparent Creation

1 r- n • 1 '^^ man,

omission is now supplied by the following abrupt announcement : — " That the human race might be multiplied. He caused the Brahmin, the Cshatriya, the Vaisya, and the Sudra to proceed from his mouth, his arm, his thigh, and his foot." In what shape they came forth, whether singly or in pairs of male and female, is not explained ; but the latter may be inferred from its being imme- diately added, that "having divided his own substance, the mighty Power became half male half female." Tliis statement, however, is not made for the purpose of accounting for the difference of sex in human beings, but of found- ing a very extraordinary claim by Menu himself Brahma, we are told, from the female portion of him produced a male called Viraj, and this Viraj is solemnly declared to be Menu's own father. "Know me," says Menu, addressing the sages who were consulting him, "know me to be that person whom the male power, having performed austere devotion, produced by himself" This state- ment, startling as it is, is followed by another still more startling, in which Menu, ascribing to himself creative power, says, "It was I who, desirous of giving birth to a race of men, performed very difficult religious duties, and first produced ten lords of created beings eminent in holiness." After giving their names he con- tinues thus: — "They, abundant in glory, produced seven other Menus, together with deities, and the mansions of deities, and Maharshis, or great sages unlimited in power ; benevolent genii and fierce giants, bloodthirsty savages, heavenly cjuiristers, nymphs and demons, huge serpents and snakes of smaller size, birds of mighty wing, and separate companies of Pltris, or progenitors of mankind; lightning and thunderbolts, clouds and coloured bows of Indra, falling meteors, earth-rending vapom'S, comets, and luminaries of various degrees ; horse-faced sylvans, apes, fish, and a variety of birds, tame cattle, deer, men, and ravenous beasts with two rows of teeth ; small and large reptiles, moths, lice, fleas, and common flies, with every biting gnat and immoveable substances of distinct sorts. Thus was this whole assembly of stationary and moveable bodies framed by those higli-minded beings, through the force of their own devotion, and at my command, with separate actions allotted to each."

Having described two creations — a primary by Brahma, and a secondary by Tendency of

all beings to

himself, Menu asserts that, what he calls "this tremendous world of beings," is decay. always tending to decay, and gives an exjDlanation of the mode in which its final dissolution is accomplished. " He whose powers are incomprehensible having thus created both me and this universe, was again absorbed in the supreme Spirit, changing time for time. When that Power awakes, then has this world its full expansion ; but when he slumbers with a tranquil spirit, then the whole system fades away; for while he reposes in calm sleep, embodied spirits,


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 20 HISTORY OF INDIA. [Book IV

AD.— endued with principles of action, depart from their several acts, and the mind

itself becomes inert ; and when they once are absorbed in that supreme essence,

Transmigra- then the divinc soul of all beings withdraws his energy and placidly slumbers ;

tion of the. . . o x ^

soul. then, too, this vital soul, with all the organs of sense and of action, remains

long immersed in darkness, and performs not its natural functions, but migrates from its corporeal frame; when being composed of minute elementary prin- ciples, it enters at once into vegetable or animal seed, it then assumes form. Tlius that immutable Power, by waking and reposing alternately, revivifies and destroys in eternal succession this whole assemblage of locomotive and immoveable creatures." Human Meuu, after this description, prepares to quit the scene. His code of law,

periods. made known to him fully "in the beginning" by Brahma, he taught to the "ten lords of created beings" whom he had produced, and to one of those, Bhrigu, who had learned to recite the whole of it, he assigns the task of com- municating it to the sages "without omission." Bhrigu accordingly becomes the narrator, and continues thus: — "From this Menu, named Swayambhuva, came six descendants, other Menus, each giving birth to a race of his own, all exalted in dignity, eminent in power." The duration of the reign of a Menu or his Manwantara, is calculated as follows: — The sun by his alternate presence and absence, gives mortals their day and night. A month of mortals is a da}^ and a night of the Pitris (or inhabitants of the moon). The division being into two equal halves, "the half beginning from the full moon is their day for actions, and that beginning from the new moon is their night for slumber." A year of mortals "is a day and night of the gods," their day being "the northern, and their night the southern course of the sun." Four thousand years of the gods form a yuga or age of mortals ; but the whole four yugas — the satya, treta, dwapara, and call — are necessary to form an age of the gods, which, of course, includes 12,000 divine years. Multiply this age of the gods by seventy-one, and you have the duration of a Manwantara. It is added that "there are num- berless Manwantaras, creations also, and destructions of worlds." The Being "supremely exalted performs all this as if in sport again and again," and has ample scope for working, because it takes a thousand ages of the gods to form a single day, and another thousand to form a single night of Brahma. The Supreme In the abovc Hindoo cosmogony there is much vagueness and extravagance.

Being of

iimdooiflru. and we look in vain for anything so exj)licit as the first verse of Genesis: — "In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth ;" or so sublime as its third verse : " God said. Let there be light, and there was light." It is not to be denied, however, that it contrasts favourably with all other heathen cosmogonies, and in some instances so closely resembles the Mosaic record, not only in thought Ijut in language, as to leave little doubt that it has incorporated with its fables frag- ments of the earliest truths communicated by primitive revelation to the human race. The one object on which Menu had his attention fixed when the divine


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 Chap. II.] HINDOO MYTHOLOGY. 21

sages accosted him, is explained by commentators to have been the supreme ad. - God, and must not be confounded with Brahma, who had not a formal exist- ence till he was bom as a divine male in the mundane egg. If born, he was not Monotheism himself the "self-existing power," "the first cause," "without beginning or end." Braiimim To whom, then, or what do these epithets apply? The answer is. Not to Brahma, '"^ '^^^'^ who at first male, afterwards subdivides so as to become female ; but to Brahm, an antecedent mysterious essence not possessed of any gender, and therefore usually described as neuter. The existence of Brahm as the one sole universal Lord is undoubtedly taught in the Vedas as a fundamental article of the Hindoo creed, and the Brahmins, who claim to be the exclusive expounders of this creed, confidently appeal to this article when they would prove that they are mono- theists and not idolaters. This much may be conceded to them — that if they are idolaters, they sin against a clearer light, for it would be easy to produce pas- sages in which the divine perfections are described in terms which even a Christian need not repudiate. Take the following specimen quoted by Sir William Jones, from a learned Brahmin: — " Perfect truth ; perfect happiness; without equal; immortal; absolute unity; whom neither speech can describe, nor mind comprehend ; all-pervading ; all-transcending ; delighted with his own boundless intelligence ; not limited by space or time ; without feet moving swiftly ; without hands grasping all worlds ; without eyes, all-surveying ; with- out ears, all-hearing ; without an intelligent guide, undei'standing all ; without cause, the first of all causes; all -ruling; all-powerful; the creator, preserver, transformer of all things ; such is the Great One."

Striking as the above passage is, there is a very serious defect in it. The nefeminits

-. . . . p. 1 • 1 n 1 conception

description is true so lar as it goes, but it does not go far enough. It speaks of theattri only of the natural perfections of God, and says nothing of His moral perfec- Deity ° tions, though it is by these alone that any practical relation between the Creator and his creatures is established. This is not an accidental omission, but forms an essential feature in Hindoo theology ; and hence, the only inference that can be drawn from its loftiest descriptions of deity is, that it would be vain to wor- ship him. Seated at an immeasurable distance, and wholly absorbed in his own perfections, he regards the actions of men with perfect indifference. It is even doubtful if he has any proper personality, for when the language in which he is described is strictly analyzed, many of the attributes ascribed to him prove to be abstract qualities and imaginary potentialities existing in some inexpli- cable manner apart from any essence. The universe itself, instead of being the voluntary production of Brahm, thus becomes identified with him, and the theory of monotheism is set aside to make way for that of pantheism.

The practical result is that, while individuals of a philosophical and con- templative turn of mind profess to adhere to the original doctrine of the Vedas, the great mass of the population have rushed headlong into idolatry of the most extravagant and grovelling description. Every thing animate and inanimate,


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A.D. — real or fancied, has been converted into a god, and the Hindoo pantheon now boasts of being able to muster 830,000,000 deities. It is ahnost needless to Monstrous obscrve that multitudes of these are duplicates and endless repetitions of the tiie Hindoo Same beings or objects, under a variety of names; and that it is possible, after religion. discarding the common herd, to give a sufficient view of the polytheism of the Hindoos by selecting for description only a few of the more celebrated divini- ties. The first place, of course, belongs to the Trimurti or Triad, consistino- of Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the preserver; and Siva, the destro3-er. Thefe

1, Brahma. 2, Trimurti. — From Moore's Hindoo Pantheon.

The Hijidoo three have sometimes been supposed to constitute a trinity in the ordinary

triad. . . ., . -

sense of the term, and hence to present a singular coincidence with the Chris- tian doctrine of one Godhead in three Persons or hypostases. It seems, how- ever, to be established that the three are regarded as only separate forms, which the one supreme god assumes, according as he is employed in creating, preserv- ing, or destroying. According to the Brahmins this is the orthodox view ; but the popular idea is very different, and worshippers, so far from recognizing the identity or even the equality of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, have become ranged in hostile sects, among which the main distinction is the place which they assign to each as supreme or subordinate. In the contests which have thus Br.ihnia. ariscu Brahma has fared worst. As creator, the primary place originally belonged to him, and in the usual representations of the triad, in which three heads are figured as rising from one body, he occupies the centre of the group, with the whole face displayed, while the other two, one on each side, are only in profile; but this barren honour is all that is left him, and while his colleagues count their shrines by thousands and their votaries by millions, he cannot boast of a single temple dedicated to him. In the temples of others a place is occa- sionally assigned to him, and he is seen standing or squatted, with a body usually painted red, and differing from the human only by the possession of four heads and fom- arms. The heads are encircled with an aureola or glory, and


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23

in the hands are held respectively a book, understood to be the Veda, a spoon a.d. - for sacrifice, a water-jug for ablution, and a rosary, used by Hindoos just as in the Church of Eome, for counting prayers. Beside him often stands his vahan or vehicle, in the form of a goose.

Each of the triad gods is provided with a sciHl or consort, through whom Saktisor far more than by himself his energy is exerted. That of Brahma is Saraswati, dMnUie*. who is figured as a white woman standing on a lotus, or riding on a peacock, with a lute in her hand. She is regarded as the goddess of learning, poetry, and music, and is more fortunate than her husband in worshippers, who hold an annual festival in her honour, and present at her shrine perfumes, flowers, and rice. Of the sons whom she bare to Brahma, the principal are — Viswakarma, who, as the architect of heaven, performs the same part as Vulcan among the Greeks; Nareda, who, as the messenger of the gods, is the subject of many legends; and Swayambhuva, in whom, as the first and chief of the Menus, Sir William Jones finds traces of identity with Adam. A leading feature in Hindoo mythology is the appearance of the gods in human form. Of this avatar or incarnation, Brahma furnishes only one remarkable example in Daksha, who gave his daughter in marriage to Siva, and having afterwards lost his head in a quarrel with his son-in-law had it replaced by that of a he -goat. In this monstrous form, brutish and human, he is still seen.

Vishnu, holding the second place in the triad, is usually represented as a comely placid youth, richly dressed. The only thing monstrous about him is his four arms. In one hand he holds a club, in another a discus or quoit, in another a chank or wreathed shell, and in another a lotus. His vahan, named Garuda, is in the form of a youth, with the wings and beak of a bird. He has two wives, Lakshmi and Satyavama. The former is his favourite, and he is sometimes seen sitting on a throne of lotus, with one of his arms around her. His name occurs seldom in the Veda, and not at all in the Institutes of Menu ; but lie has mjTiads of worshippers in every quarter, and has furnished by his avatars the subject of manj^

of the most remarkable legends in Hindoo mythology and literature. Ac- vishnu. cording to what is called the orthodox view he ought to yield precedence to Brahma; but mo.st of his worshippers, assuming in his honour the name of Vishnaivas, insist not only on giving him the first place, but in usurping for him the peculiar offices of the other members of the triad, and making them in fact not his equals but his creatures. He thus figures not only as preserver but as creator, destroyer, and renovator, and under names so numerous, that

Vlshnu. — From Coleman's Hindoo

Mythology.


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2-t HISTORY OF INDIA. [Book IV.

AD. - at least a thousand are counted as invested exclusively with all the attributes of the sole supreme deity. In one representation, while he floats on the suinem.acT surfacc of the primeval waters, reclining, with Lakshmi at his feet, on the visiiim. serpent Shesha, or Ananta, a well-known symbol of eternity, he gives birth to Brahma, who is seen emerging from the centre of his body on the top of a lotus. The superiority thus claimed for him derives no countenance from the Vedas, but is fully developed in several of the mythological poems, called Paranas, which, though of later date and less venerable authority, are in much greater repute with modern Hindoos. The legend on which the above representation is founded is given by Kennedy ^ from the Kurma Purana, and, as a specimen of the kind of fables by which the Vishnaivas establish the supremacy of their favourite divinity, deserves to be quoted. For explanation, it is necessary to mention that both Kurma, who narrates the legend, and the Narayana, with the mention of whom it opens, are here meant to be only different forms of Vishnu. Kurma in a long discourse, addressing three sages or Brahmins, continues thus : — L-^geuii in " All was one tremendous ocean in which Narayana, with a thousand heads

iiissupre- and a thousand eyes, reposing on Shesha, slumbered profoundly; and while thus immersed in mysterious sleep the thought of creation arose in his mind. Instant, then, in divine and wondrous sport, a lotus sprang from his pure navel; expanding to the distance of 100 yojans, refulgent as the young sun, blooming with sacred petals and filaments, and diffusing celestial fragrance; and from this lotus, after a long time had elapsed, was produced Brahma. Bewildered by illusion he immediately approached the universal Lord, and, awakening him with his hand, thus addressed him in gentle accents: — ' In this tremendous, unpeopled, and darkness-involved ocean, why, O Lord, dost thou repose solitary and alone?' Vishnu smiling replied, in a voice loud as the clashing of clouds, ' excel- lent being ! Know that I am Narayana, the one God, the Lord of aU things ; and behold in me the creator of the universe, and the great father of all animated beings; but who art thou?' Brahma replied, 'I am Dhata, Vidhata, Swayam- bhu, Brahma, the origin of the Vedas.' On hearing these words, Vishnu, by means mysterious, entered the body of Brahma, and within it beheld comprised the three worlds, with angels, demons, and men, and having then issued from his mouth, Vishnu thus addressed Brahma: 'Now, O Lord, enter within me, and behold thou also the three worlds.' Having heard this agreeable speech, Brahma immediately entered within Vishnu, and there viewed with wonder this universe and all that it contains. But v/hile he wandered, contemplating it, Vishnu closed the gates, and Brahma could find no exit except through the stem of the lotus, from which he had been produced ; and then seated on its flower, he thus addressed Vishnu in a voice loud as the clashing of clouds : 'What, Lord! hast thou, desirous of victory, now done? but I am the sole

' Colonel Vans Kennedy, Researches into the Nature and Affinity of Ancient and Hindoo Mythology, Ito, rages 206, 207.


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 Chap. II.] omnipotent being : there is no other than me, and no one therefore can over- come me.' To pacify him Vishnu thus replied in gentle words : ' O Brahma ! it was not through malice that I closed the gates, but merely through sport;

for who can oppose Pitamaha, the god of gods? But since thou hast been pro- duced by me, thou shalt be considered as my son, and shall be named the Lotus-born. Brahma replied : ' There is but one God, the supreme Lord of all things ; how then can there be two, and Narayana and Brahma be each that Lord?' Vishnu then said : ' Who can acknowledge the supremacy of Brahma, when 1 alone am without beginning and end, and the sole supreme being? Therefore, Brahma! seek protection from me.' Pitamaha with anger thus replied: 'O Lord I I know myself to be supreme, imperishable, the creator of the universe, the most excellent recipient ; and nowhere can there be found any other supreme God than me. Dispel therefore thy slumber, and know thyself' Having lieard these angry words, Vishnu thus spoke : ' O Brahma, why art thou thus deceived by illusion; and perceivest not the real truth that I alone am the supreme Lord?'"

Singularly enough, on this occasion neither of the contending deities proves victor, for, in the midst of the strife, Siva suddenly makes his appearance, and compels both to confess that in claiming supremacy they were trenching on his prerogative.

Vishnu is in many respects the most attractive deity of the triad. His heaven, called Vaikunta, is 80,000 miles in circuit, and entirely of gold. Precious stones form its pillars as well as the ornaments of its buildings, which are constructed of jewels. Crystal showers descending upon it form a magnificent river, and feed numerous fine lakes, the surface of which are covered with water lilies — blue, red, and white, some of them with a hundred and others with a thousand petals. On a seat glorious as the meridian sun, sits Vishnu himself, and on his right hand Lakshmi, whose face shines like a continued blaze of lightning, and whose body diffuses the fragrance of the lotus for 800 miles. Glorified Vishnaivas are their ministering servants, and divine or angelic natures find constant emplo3maent in meditating on their perfections or singing their praise. On earth, too, there is less of a revolting nature in his worship than in that of most other gods of the pantheon. No bloody sacrifices are offered to him; and in all his avatars some beneficent or praiseworthy object has been contemplated. Of these avatars nine are already past, and a tenth is still to be realized. From the prominent place which they hold in Hindoo mythology, they are entitled to more than a passing notice.

In the first, or Matsya avatar, Vishnu's object was to recover the Veda, which had been stolen by the demon Hayagriva. With this view he assumed the form of a small fish in the river Cretamala ; and when a pious king, called Satyavrata, came to its banks to make a libation, thus accosted him: — "How canst thou leave me in this stream, exposed to its monsters who are my dread?"


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AD. — Compassionating its condition, SatyaTata removed it to a small vase full of water. In a single night it outgrew the vase, and was placed successively in a

Fii-st avatar cistem, a taulv. and a lake. In each of these its dimensions increased so I'apidl}', that as a last resource it was thrown into the sea. Here it resumed its complaints, and asked to be delivered from horned sharks and other great monsters of the deep. Satyavrata, astonished above measure, began to suspect the truth, and asked, "Who art thou that beguilest me in this assumed shape? Surely thou art the great God whose dwelling was on the waves. Say for what cause thou hast thus appeared?" Vishnu, disclosing himself, replied, "Seven days hence the three worlds will be plunged in an ocean of death, but in the midst of the destroying waves a large vessel sent by me for thy use shall stand before thee. Then take all medicinal herbs, all the variety of seeds, and accompanied by seven saints, encircled by pairs of all brute animals, enter the spacious ark, and continue in it secure from the flood on an immense ocean, without light except the radiance of thy companions. When the ship shall be agitated by an impetuous wind, fasten it with a large sea serpent to my horn, for I will be near thee, drawing the vessel with thee and thy attendants. I will remain on the ocean till a day of Brahma shall be ended." In due time the flood came, and all mankind perished except Satyavrata and his companions, who sailed in safety within the ship attached to the horn of the fish, which again appeared blazing like gold, and extending a million of leagues. After this deliverance Vishnu accomplished the great object of his Matsya avatar, by slaying the demon and recovering the Veda,

Second The singular resemblance which the above account bears, notwithstanding

avatar.

many ludicrous and extravagant additions, to the Mosaic account of the deluge, will justify the full detail which has been given. The second, or Varaha avatar, not possessing a similar recommendation, may be more summarily dis- missed. A powerful and malignant giant, after afflicting the earth in various ways, rolled it up into a shapeless mass, and plunged with it into the abyss. Vishnu in order to recover it issued from the side of Brahma in the shape of a varaha or boar, which at first of small dimensions became in the course of an hour as large as an elephant. After uttering a voice which sounded like thunder, and shook the universe, the boar-shaped god suddenly descended from the air, dived into the ocean, which as if in terror rolled back on either side in hucje billows, and on arriving; at the bottom where the earth lav huge and barren, poised it on one of his tusks and brought it to the surface. There it still lies floating, spread out like a carpet. Thir.i In the third, or Kurma avatar, Vishnu assumed the form of a tortoise, foi- a

very fantastic purpose. While the celestial inhabitants were seated on the sum- mit of Mount Meru, their fabled heaven, in deep meditation, earnestly longing to discover the amrita, or water of immortality, Narayan (another name for Vishnu)_ suggested to Brahma that the true way of finding it was to churn

avatar.


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the ocean like a pot of milk. The Suras, a kind of demigods, and the Asuras, a.d. - a race of gigantic demons resembling the Titans, were to be the churners, and the implement was a mountain named Mandar. For this purpose it was lifted Thmi avatar out of its place, with all its forests and streams, and rested for support on the back of the king of the tortoises, who it seems was none else than Vishnu. The chm-ning shaft was thus provided, but another difficulty remained. How was it to be worked ? The device fallen upon was to employ the huge serpent Vasuki as a rope. By twisting it round the mountain, while the Asuras and Suras pulled alternately at the head and tail, a circidar motion was given, and the churning process commenced. Meanwhile, a continued stream of lire, smoke, and wind was belched forth by the serpent, the forests of the mountain were ^vl'apped in jflames, and its numerous products — vegetable, mineral, and appa- rently animal also, carried down by a heavy shower which the lord of the firmament sent down to quench the conflagration — mingled with tlie milk of the ocean. The butter formed was thus a very heterogeneous compound, which yielded among other extracts the amrita, destined thenceforth to be the favourite beverage of the gods. The good obtained was not unmingled with evil. The venomous breath of the serpent tainted the ocean butter, and a pestilential stench proceeding from it threatened to make the world unhabit- able. This fatahty Avas only escaped by the aid of Siva, who at the command of Brahma swallowed the drug. The amrita itself was next in danger, for the Asuras had seized it, and were resolved to keep it to themselves. Its recovery was due to Yishnu, who assumed the form of a beautiful female, and so fasci- nated the Asuras by her charms, that they voluntarily placed it in her hands. Thereafter a dreadful battle ensued, but the Asuras were defeated mainly by the prowess of Vishnu, to whose keeping the amrita has in consequence been intrusted.

The fourth, or Nara-Singh avatar took place under the followiug circum- Fourth stances. The giant who binied the earth at the bottom of the sea was suc- ceeded by a younger brother named Hiranyacasipa, who resembled him in all his worst qualities, and in particular refused to do homage to Vishnu. His son Praulhaud was, however, of a very different temper, and for expressing dis- approbation of his father's conduct was banished, after narrowly escaping with his life. A reconciliation having afterwards taken place, the subject of Vishnu's supremacy was discussed between them. Hiranyacasipa persisting in his impiety asserted that Vishnu was in no respect greater than himself, and when Praulhaud, on the contrary, maintained that Vishnu was supreme over all, and present everywhere, tauntingly asked, "Is he in this pillar? (striking it with his sceptre) ; if he be, let him appear." The moment the words were spoken the pillar burst in twain, and Vishnu issuing from it in the form of a man with a lion's head tore the impious monarch in pieces, and placed Praulhaud on the throne.


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 28 HISTORY OF INDIA. [Book IV.

A 1). — ■ The fifth avatar, called Yaruna, because in it Vishnu assumed the form of a dwarf, is evidently a Brahminical fiction. The narrative is as follows : — A king

Fifth avatar. Called Malux Bali gained so much power in the spiritual world by his sacrifices and austerities that the very gods became afraid of him. They had actually been compelled to yield him the dominion of the earth and sea, and were waiting in consternation for the residt of his last sacrifice, which it was thought would put him in possession of the heavens also. Then- only resource was to supplicate the aid of Vishnu, who adopted the following singular device to effect their deliverance: — Having assumed the form of a Brahmin dwarf, he appeared before the king with every appearance of poverty, and asked for ground on which to build a dwelling for himself and his books. So humble were his views, he would be satisfied with as much as he could measui-e by three steps. Maha Bali at once promised the grant, and confirmed it by an oath in the most solemn form, by pouring sacred water from a vessel over the hands of the grantee. The moment the water reached his hands Vishnu started up, and at two succes- sive steps strode over the earth and the ocean. There was no third place to plant his foot, and Maha Bali unable to perform the ])romise which he had so solemnly confirmed, was only released from it on condition of descending to the lower regions. In accordance with this fable, many of the most solemn acts of Hindoo devotion commence with the words, " Thrice did Vishnu step," &c., and the god himself is frequently addressed as Trivikrum, or the Three-stepper.

sixthaviitar. In the avatars already described Vishnu has appeared under monstrous forms. That of the Brahmin dwarf can scarcely be considered as an exception, since in the very moment he begins to act, it is thrown aside never to be resumed. In the three following avatars he makes a nearer approach to humanity, and performing actions which, while they partake largely of the marvellous, are not unfrequently connected with events which occupy a place in genuine history. In the sixth avatar his form is that of a Brahmin hero, Parasa Rama, or more properly Paris Ram, who makes war upon the Cshatriyas, and desists not tDl he has extirpated the whole race. The origin of his deadly enmity is thus explained. His parents, when they were childless, withdrew from the world, to pass their time in prayers, sacrifices, and religious austerities, in the hope that they might thus ingratiate themselves with Vishnu, and obtain through him the most earnest wish of their hearts, the gift of a son. They were successful, for in due time Paris Ram was born. He was not only beautiful, but endowed with every great and noble quality, as he well might be, seeing he was nothing less than Vishnu himself in human form. Mahadeva, another name for Siva, was so pleased with him, that he carried him to his heaven on the summit of Mount Kailasa. Here he remained till his twelfth year, and then descended on earth to defend his father against Deeraj, a cruel and vindictive tyrant of the Cshatriya class. It was too late, for when he arrived it was only to see the remains of the funeral pile on which the bodies of both his parents


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had been consumed. His father, first oppressed, had at last been murdered by a.d. —

avatar.

Deeraj ; and his mother, refusing to sm-vive him, had immolated herself by suttee. Paris Ram instantly vowed the destruction, not only of Deeraj, but of his whole sixthr class. To any mere mortal, or even to an inferior deity, the accomplishment of the vow would have been impossible, for Deeraj was 'in himself a mighty host, being possessed of a thousand arms, each wielding a destructive implement of war ; but nothing could withstand an incarnate Vishnu, and Deeraj soon paid the penalty of his misdeeds.

The object of the seventh avatar is, like that of the sixth, to avenge oppres- seventh sion; but the means employed are different, and branch out into numerous details, often not devoid of interest, though we can hardly afford to glance at them. Here Vishnu appears as Rama Chandra, the warlike and virtuous son of. a powerful Indian prince, whose capital was Ayodha or Oude. A monstrous giant of the name of Ravana, who reigned over Lanka, or the island of Ceylon, having partly by sorcery, and partly by an aff'ectation of piety, extended his dominion over the whole world, threw off" the mask, and openly avowed himself the enemy of the gods. Vishnu, as Rama Chandra, undertook to destroy him. This exploit forms the subject of the celebrated epic poem, Raiiw/yana, and therefore properly belongs to the chapter in which the literature of the Hindoos will be considered. At present a short explanation may suffice. A prince of the name of Janaka bad a beautiful daughter Sita, and a bow which a thousand of his stoutest archers could not raise. Many sought Sita in mar- riage, but Janaka declared that only he who could wield the bow should be her husband. Ravana tried and failed. Rama succeeded and carried off" the prize by a double merit, for besides performing the task assigned by the father, he had previously gained the affections of the daughter. Ravana was enraged, but having full knowledge of Rama's strength and prowess, determined to pursue his object by stratagem, and not by open force. Circumstances favoured him. Somehow Rama, though the heir to his father's throne, had been excluded from it, and retired with his beloved Sita into a forest, to lead a life of seclusion and austerity. Ravana followed them, and by devices, of which various accounts are given, succeeded at last in seizing Sita, and carrying her off" through the air in triumph. Rama, inconsolable for his loss, and determined to avenge it, set out on an expedition to Lanka. He obtamed a powerful auxiliary in a sove- reign of the name of Sugriva, who furnished him with an army of monkeys, headed by a renowned monkey general, called Hanuman. Some difficulty was experienced in bridging over the strait between India and Ceylon, but the skill and courage of Hanuman and his monkeys surmounted aU obstacles, and a battle ensued, in which Ravana, though he had a charmed Kfe, was slain. Rama returned along with Sita to Oude, where he reigned prosperously some ten thousand years, and then ascended to Vishnu's heaven. The services rendered by Hanuman have never been forgotten; and not only to him and the monkeys


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HISTOKY OF INDIA.

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Eiglith avatar of Vishnu.

A.B. - who accompanied Rama, but to their living descendants divine honours are still paid.

Tlie eighth avatar introduces to our notice Krishna, in whose form Vishnu has eclipsed all his other exploits, and made himself the most popular deity in

the Hindoo pantheon. The Mahuhharata, an epic still more celebrated than the Ramayana, forms the subject of this avatar, which is in con- sequence scarcely less familiar to European than to Indian ears. The Brahmins, when speaking of it, seem unable to find language sufficiently hyperbolical, and gravely declare that "though all the seas were ink, and the whole earth paper, and all the inhabitants were to do nothing but write night and day for the space of 100,000 years, it would be impossible to describe all the wonders which Krishna performed." Though truly an incarnation of Vishnu, he was ostensibly the son of Vasudeva and Devaki, belonging to the royal family of Mattra on the Jumna. The reigning prince at the time of his birth was Kansa, who, to prevent the fulfilment of a pro- phecy which foretold that one of the children of Vasudeva and Devaki would destroy him, had issued a decree that none of them should be permitted to live. To elude this inhuman decree, Krishna was secretly removed and brought up by a neighbouring herdsman. Every year of his life furnishes the subject of some legend. When a mere child he began his exploits, and signalized himself in particular by destroying serpents and giants. As time passed on he grew into a handsome youth, and spent his time among the gopis or milkmaids, captivating their hearts by playing on the pipe, dancing and sporting with them. Not satisfied with his conquests among rural beauties, he lifted his eyes to the princesses of Hindoostan and was equally successful. The whole of his early life, indeed, is filled with love adventures, in which, owing to the general admiration which he excites, it sometimes becomes necessary for him to resist the importunities of his fair votaries, and caution them against the inconveniences which their excessive ardour might produce. In general, however he is free from scruple, and frankly returns all the love which is offered him, even by those who could not give it without being guilty of conjugal infidelity. The excuse made for them is that the intrio-ue which would have been criminal with an ordinarv mortal, becomes meritorious when carried on with him. On this loose principle he consents to act, at the same time managing, by means of illusion, to convince every indi-

aC^'QU^M^VD)

s^^'.ys

Krishna.— From idol in British Museum.

Birth and exploits of Ki'ishna.


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avatar.

vidual among the myriads of his lovers that she possesses his heart and person a.d. without a rival. As he advances in years his amom-s become less frequent, and he performs many heroic exploits. Having overthrown the tyrant who had sought to destroy him at his birth, he mounts the throne, but is driven from it by foreign enemies, and retires to Dwarika in Gujerat. Here his alli- ance is courted b}^ the Pandus, who were contesting the sovereignty of Has- tinapur, supposed to have been situated to the north-east of Delhi, with their relations, the Gurus. This war, of which the MaJtahharata makes him the hero, having terminated in the triumph of the Pandus, he returns to his capital ; not, however, to spend the residue of his human life in peace : civil discord ensues, and though he outlives it, it is only to die by the arrow of a hunter who, shooting unawares in a thicket, wounded him in the foot. The licentiousness generally characteristic of Krishna's career, and the gross indelicacy with which his amovirs are described in poetry or embodied in sculpture, perliaps furnish the best explanation of the fact that he counts among his worshippers all the opu- lent and luxmious, all the women, and a very large proportion of all ranks of ^''nth Indian society. As a justification of the preference thus given him, it is often alleo-ed that while in other avatars Vishnu exhibited only a portion of his godhead, in that of Krishna all his fulness was displayed, without diminution of power or splendour.

Buddha, whose worship though now almost banished from India has spread over countries of far wider area, is usually ranked as the ninth avatar of Vishnu. This, however, is denied by the Budd- hists, who claim for the object of their worship a more ancient and loftier origin, and also by most of the Brahmins, who, regarding Buddhism as an abominable heresy, and hating it for its hostility to their domination as a caste, hold it impossible that there could ever have been any identity of form or purpose between Buddha and Vishnu. The tenth or Khalki avatar is only expected, and will not take place till the end of the call yuga, when Vishnu will appear in the form of a white horse to close the present order of things and Buddha, dissolve the existing universe preparatory to a new creation. The horse is represented holding up the foot of his right fore leg. When the catastrophe takes place he will give the signal for it by stamping with that foot on the ground. In concluding this account of Vishnu, it is necessary to prevent mis- apprehension by observing that, when his avatars are spoken of as ten, the meaning is, or should be, only that in that number are included all whose importance entitles them to special notice. In point of fact, as observed by

.^^»

f

Buddha.

From Moore's Hindoo Pantheon.


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AD. —

Siv.a, the third mem- ber of the triad.

chS'Mi^^.i

Supremacy- claimed for Siva.

Mr. Elpliinstone,^ "his incarnations or emanations, even as acknowledged in books, are innumerable ; and they are still more swelled by others, in which he is made to appear imder the form of some local saint or hero whom his fol- lowers have been disposed to deify."

Siva, the destroyer, to whom the third place in the Hindoo triad is usually assigned, is distinguished by nmnerous names and represented by various forms.

Among the names those of Maha Deo or Mahadeva and Rudra, are of the most fre- quent occiu-rence. Among his forms the most characteristic are those that are most hideous, since thus only is it possible to portray the features of divinity whom the Puranas describe as "wandering about surrounded by ghosts and goblins, inebriated, naked, and with dis- hevelled hair, covered with the ashes of a funeral pile, ornamented with human skulls and bones, sometimes laughing and some- times crying," His body, painted of a white or silver colour, differs from the human, chiefly in the head and arms. Instead of only one head, he has more frequently five, each of them with a third eye in the forehead; the arms vary from four to six. In his hands he usually holds a trident, one or more human heads, a cup supposed to contain human blood, and a sword or some other instrument of destruction. Occasionally he is mounted on his vahan, the bull called Nandi, while his wife, usually called Parvati, but known also as Devi, Bhavani, Durga, Kali, &c., sits on his knee. In his less revolting forms he is represented with his hair coiled up like a religious mendicant asking alms, or seated as if in profound thought. His heaven is Keilas, one of the most stupendous summits of the Himalaya, where he is enthroned on the edge of a yawning gulf among eternal snows and glaciers. In Parvati he has a mate every way worthy of him. In appearance she ^jesembles a fury rather than a goddess ; her skin is black and her features absolutely hideous ; her body is encircled with snakes, and hung round with a chaplet of skulls and human heads, while her whole attitude indicates defiance and menace. She delights in blood, and it is a weU-authenticated fact that at one time human victims were sacrificed to her.

Siva, like the other members of the triad, has advanced a claim to exclusive supremacy, and in the opinion of his more devoted worshippers, named Saivas,

' Elphinstone, History of India, vol. i. p, 180.

Siva. — From idol in British Museum.


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^^r^E^-.

is believed to have established it. Of the many legends relating to this subject, a.d. — the following is a specimen: — Siva, meeting with Brahma, insultingly asked him, "Whence camest thou, and who created thee?" Brahma had then five heads, siva. and with the mouth of one of them replied, "And whence art thou? I know thee well, thou form of darkness." After much contumelious language banded to and fro, Siva lost temper, and gave a practical proof of his superiority by seizing the head of Brahma which performed the part of spokesman, and cutting it off with his left thumb. The Saivas think themselves entitled, in consequence of this exploit, to address their favourite divinity as the one supreme lord.

Since the process of destruction is, as a general rule, preparatory to that of Emblems of some form of renovation, Siva is conceived to preside over both, and hence the ^ "^^^^ "^' Linga and Yoni, as representing the productive and regenerating powers of nature, are the great emblems used in his worship. It is not difficult to understand how the idea of such emblems may have been suggested to contemplative minds unaccompanied by any approach to obscenity, but the great body of mankind are totally incapable of allegorizing purely on such a subject. To them grossness is too familiar, even as an object of thought, and when exhibited in a visible form only fosters licentious feelings and leads in practice to innumerable abominations. For these the shrines of Siva are notorious, but not so notorious as those of his consort Parvati, who, under various names, and more especially those of Kali and Durga, receives a worship of the mo.st disgusting and atrocious de- scription. The kind of carnage in which she delights

is significantly indicated in the Kalika Purana, which, after an enumeration of the animals to be offered to her in sacrifice, adds, that one human victim would please her for 1000 years, and three human victims for 100,000 years. Circumstances do not allow her wor.shippers any longer to gratify her in this manner, but she has still full opportunity of satisfying her thirst for blood. In her temple at Kalighat, near Calcutta, 1000 goats, besides various other animals, are sacrificed every month ; and it used to be the boast of her priest at Binda- bashni, where the Vindhj^a Hills abut on the Ganges, that the blood before her image was never allowed to dry. This profuse shedding of blood, disgusting as it is, is not the worst feature in her worship. During the great festival of Durga Puja, celebrated in her honour, the name of religion is employed as a cloak for secret orgies, in which parties of both sexes meet and give themselves up to unbounded licentiousness.

The properties and offices assigned to the members of the Hindoo triad are so numerous and diversified that all the other gods of the pantheon seem Vol. II. 94

Otrga

From Coltiium's Hindoo MjthoK'gy.


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A.D. —

Other Hin- doo deities.

Agiii.

to be little more than repetitions of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, under new names and forms. According to this view, the infinite multiplicity of gods disappears, and instead of hundreds of millions, only a few great names stand forth as repre- sentatives of the whole. However correct this view may be as a theory, there is too much reason to fear that it does not hold true in practice, and that in the opinion of the great mass of Hindoos everything in the shape of a god to which a name has been given, and any act of worship is paid, has a separate and inde- pendent existence. It is necessary, therefore, to go beyond the triad and to give some account of other deities, who could not witliout straining be included under it, and yet either from the nature of the worship paid to them, or tlie number of their worshippers, cannot be left unnoticed. In the list of such gods,

the two first places unquestionably belong to Agni, the god of fire, and Indra, the god of the firmament.

Agni is perhaps entitled, in so far as antiquity gives precedence, to stand at the head of all the gods of the Hindoo pantheon. In the first four books of the Rig Veda — the portion of it now made accessible to English readers by the ad- mirable labours of Professor Wilson — while the name of Siva is not once mentioned, and only two of the hymns of which the body of the work consists are addressed to Vishnu, no fewer than 147 are ad- dressed to Agni. His domain embraces the heavens, where he appears in the sun and other celestial bodies as the great source of light and heat ; the air, where he flashes in lightning and speaks in thunder; and the eartli, where his presence is recognized in all kinds of artificial fire employed for common and sacred purposes. From the frequent use of fire in the religious services of the Hindoos, the worship of Agni may be said to be universal throughout India. All Brahmins fuLfilhng the obligations of their class are Agnihotras, that is, have a consecrated fire which is never allowed to be extinguished ; and though, from the general laxity which now prevails, tlie great majority fail to do so, Agni must, so long as Hindooism continues to exist, be one of its most influential divinities. Though vv^orshipped chiefly as an element possessed of the highest efficacy in removing all kinds of impurity, moral as weU as ceremonial, he is also personified in various forms. Most usually he is di'awn with a forked representation of fii'e issuing from his mouth ; but this is sometimes wanting, and he is figm^ed as a mitred prince, seated on a ram, which he guides by one of liis four hands, while in the other three he holds a spear, a lotus flower, and a chaplet of beads.

Agni. — From Moorea Hindoo Pantheon.


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Indra. — From Moore's Hindoo Pantheon.

Indra, the god of the firmament, holds a prominent place in the Rig Veda, a.d. and, like Agni, forms the subject of a large portion of its hymns. He is supposed to preside over atmospheric phenomena generally, and more especially over indra. those productive of humidity. Hence the formation of rain forms part of his peculiar province, and he is sometimes seen engaged in sending down fertilizing showers, while a cloud, represented as a demon, combats his benevolent intentions by refusing to yield up its moisture. In his personified form Indra appears as a white man, seated on the elephant called Airavat, which is fabled to have been produced at the churning of the ocean. His wife, Indrani, usually accom- panies him, but is sometimes represented separately, sitting on a lion with a child in her arms. Their heaven, called Swergra,

situated on Mount Meru, is one of the masterpieces of Viswakarma, the archi- tect of the gods, and so glistens with gold and gems as to outshine the radiance of a dozen of suns. In connection with Indra may be mentioned Pavana, the god of the winds. They are held to be independent divinities, but it is very difficult to assign distinct provinces to them, and prevent them from encroaching on each other. Pavana is represented riding on a deer or antelope, and holding in one hand a pennon, and in another an arrow. Deities of an inferior grade called Maruts, who are, in fact, only the winds personified, are his ministering servants, or rather perhaps the common messengers of all the higher gods. From the gods personifying the elements of fire and air, we natm-ally pass to another element, that of water, personified by a god of the name of Varuna, who may be regarded as the Indian Neptune, and is represented as a four -armed, white man, riding on a sea animal, Avith a rope in one hand and a club in another. He is much worshipped by fishermen ; and being supposed capable of sending rain, is supplicated by husbandmen in seasons of drought.

The heavenly bodies form an important class of Hindoo deities. The first place of course belongs to Surya, the sun, and Soma, the moon, in regard to both of which many wild fictions are current. Surya, however, has suffered by a kind of competition with Agni, who, by Surya. appropriating most of his attributes, has left him comparatively Httle room for separate agency. In the usual representation Siu-ya, in the form of a crowned

Varuka.

From Coleinan'd Hindoo Mythology.


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 36 HISTORY OF INDIA. [Book IV.

AD. — prince, his head encircled with golden rays, sits on a splendid car, dra^^'n

by a seven-headed horse. In front of him sits his charioteer, Arun, holding smya. ^{jg reins. Sometimes he seems to be regarded as the supreme lord of the universe, and as such is addressed in the Gayatri, which is the most solemn and mysterious of all the texts of the Veda. A much lower position is, however, usually assigned to him, and he even condescends so far as to become the parent, not merely of demigods, but of mortal men. His wife is Prabha, or brightness ; but tliis form she has sometimes been obliged to exchange for that of its opposite, Chaya, or shade, in consequence of being unable to endure his intense splendom-. He has not been always faithful to her. On one occasion Parvati, the wife of Siva, met him in the shape of a mare, and being impregnated with sunbeams by his breathing through her nostrils, became the mother of the Aswini, two of whom are the Twins of the zodiac. By Chandri, the wife of the moon, or the moon himself, usually represented as a male, but capable ap})arently of being transformed into a female, he had a numer- ous family called Pulindas. The mortals to whom he has given birth are the original progenitors of the race of Suryabans, who are hence called, and, what is more, seriously believed by multitudes to be, children of the sun. His worship- pers are numerous, and he has several temples exclusively dedicated to him, though often, when exhibited in a bodily form, he is obliged to content himself with a place in the temples of other deities, som.a or The moou, designated indifierently Soma and Chandra, is usually represented

as a beautiful youth, sitting in a chariot drawn by an antelope, and holding in liis hands a club and a lotus. The influence which he is supposed to possess in this lower world has given liim many worshippers, who imagine that the whole current of life depends on lucky and unluck}^ days, of which he is the great regulator. The planet Budh, our Mercury, is considered to be his son, and the first sovereign of the lunar race, distinguished by the na,me of Chandrabans. The other planets are in like manner deified ; but though they thus hold a place in the Hindoo pantheon, they are not entitled to a separate notice, as little more is expected from them than to furnish data for the calculation of nativities.

Amono- the gods who are conceived to exercise a more immediate influence on human aff"airs are Ganesa, the remover of diflicultics, Cuvera, the god of wealth, Cartikeia, the god of war, and Kama, the god of love. It will be proper to describe them briefly in their order Ganesa. Gaucsa, Or Gampatti, is represented as a short round fat man, with four

arms and the head of an elephant. He is usually seated on a lotus, but some- times rides on a rat, or has one near him, to indicate the prudence and fore- sight of which that animal is an emblem. In his hands he holds the anJcas, or liook for guiding the elephant, a shell, for which a kind of battle-axe is some- times substituted, a conical ball, and a cup with small cakes. He is much wor-


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HINDOO MYTHOLOGY.

37

A.D.

.shipped, particularly in the Deccan, where his temples probably outnumber

those of any god except Siva. The Peisliwa Bajee Rao had an image of him

in solid gold, with eyes of diamonds. Its value was estimated at £50,000. It ^-inesa,

is not thought prudent or safe to commence a journey, or a building, or even

transact any ordinary matter of business, without invoking him, and hence,

both to remind worshippers of this duty and furnish convenient means of

performing it, his statues are set up on the public roads and other open places

of resort. Not unfrequently, too, his image is placed over the doors of houses and

shops, as a guarantee for the prosperity of those who occupy them. The god to

whom all this homage is paid makes no pretensions to a very exalted origin.

He had no father, and in the ordinary sense of

the term, cannot be said to have had a mother,

though that relationship is both claimed and

gloried in by Parvati. The fable is, that while

she was bathing, she collected all the scum and

impurities of the bath, kneaded it into the

human form, and gave it life by pom'ing water

of the Ganges upon it. Accounts differ as to

tlie mode in which he became possessed of the

elephant's head. Some say that ParVati made

him so at first; but the more generally received

account is, that he had originally a human

head, and was deprived of it by Siva, who,

finding him placed as a sentinel at the door of

Parvati's bath, and not knowing who he was,

cut it off at a stroke. Afterwards, on seeing

his wife overwhelmed with grief for the loss

of her child, Siva seized an elephant's head,

which happened to be the first that came in his way, and placed it on Ganesa's

shoulders. One of the most remarkable circumstances connected with the

mythology of Ganesa is the existence of a living incarnation of him at Chincore,

near Poona. This incarnation was first realized in the form of a saint of the

name of Maroba, who was removed to heaven, while Ganesa not only took

his place but undertook to occupy it in the persons of Maroba's descendants

to the seventh generation. This imposture, gross as it is, has found multitudes

credulous enough to be deceived by it, and the Brahmins, who profited by it,

found little difiiculty, even after the seventh generation elapsed, in continuing

the farce of Ganesa's living incarnation. In 1809, Maria Graham paid a visit

to the reputed deity. Her account of it is as follows: — "The whole place

looked dirty, and every window was crowded Avith well-fed sleek Brahmins,

who doubtless take great care of the Deo's revenues. We found his little

godship seated in a mean verandah, on a low wooden seat, not any way

Ganesa. — From idol in British Museum

Living incar- nation of Ganesi.


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HISTORY OF INDIA.

TBooK IV.

AD.

Living incar. swallow. nation of Gauesa.

Cuvera

Cartikeia.

distinguished from other children but by an anxious wildness of the eyes, said to be occasioned by the (quantity of opium which he is daily made to He is not allowed to play with other hoys: nor is he permitted to speak any lang-uage but Sanscrit, that he may not converse with any but the Brahmins. He received us very politely, and said he was always pleased to see English people. After some conversation, which a Brahmin interpreted, we took leave, and were presented by his divine hand with almonds and sugar- candy, perfumed with asafcetida, and he received in retm-n a handful of rupees."

Cuvera, the god of wealth, has no temples dedicated to him, and no altars at which oblations are made, but is amply compensated by the practical homage which he receives from all ranks and conditions of men. His mj'thology possesses little interest. He resides in a splendid palace, and when he travels is borne through the air in a radiant car, or rather palanquin, by four attendants. On his head is a richly ornamented crown, and two of his four hands hold closed flowers of the lotus. In none of these particulars is it possible to discover felicity of invention, or any peculiar appropriateness. In short, the Indian Plutus, like too many of his most ardent and successful worshippers, is indifferent to everything but wealth, and while he possesses it, and has the power of bestowing it, can dispense with any other attraction.

Cartikeia, the god of war, is regarded as the son of Siva, and was brought into existence by some very extraordinary process, for the express purpose of

combating a giant of the name of Tarika, who had become a terror even to the gods. Brahma had been induced by the giant's penances and austerities to promise him universal power and dominion. This promise could not be recalled, and there seemed no means of escaping from the fatal consequences, for Tarika, abusing Brahma's blundering liberality, was threatening the whole creation with destruction: robbing the ocean of its riches, and the sun of its fire, commanding the moon to stand still, and subjecting all the other celestials to harsh and contumelious treatment- In this dilemma the gods assembled a council, and after full deliberation saw only one possible means of deliverance. By Brahma's grant Tarika was declared to be invincible except to a son of Siva. But where was such a son to be found? Siva was at this time childless, and was leading a life of austerity, which precluded the hope of offspring. Various devices, in which Parvati and the god of love bore the principal part, were adopted, and at last, Carti- keia, having been deposited as a germ and nourished in the bosom of Gunga or the Ganofes, emerjxed in the form of a beautiful male infant. After due nursing by females who came to the river to bathe, he grew up, and becoming fit

Cartikeia. — Moore's Hindoo Pantheon.


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HINDOO MYTHOLOGY.

39

for martial exploits fulfilled the great end of his creation by slaying Tarika. ad. — When his character of god of war is considered, he might have been expected to take a prominent part in all the wars in which the gods figure as allies or Cartikeia. auxiliaries. In genei'al, however, only a secondary place is assigned to him, and it almost appears as if his merits had been purposely obscm-ed by rivals jealous of his fame. For this apparent injustice he has some compensation in the number of his worshippers, and more especially in the honours paid to him during his annual festival. On that occasion images of him, to the number, in Calcutta alone, of 5,000, some of them of gigantic stature, are set up for worship, and at the conclusion of it thrown into the river. These images usually exhibit him as a young man of warlike appearance, situated very incon- gruously on a peacock, and holding a bow in one hand and an arrow in the other. Sometimes the peacock is treading on a serpent, and two additional hands are given him, in which he holds a spear and a trident.

Kama, called also Kamadeva or Camdeo, the god of love, is the subject of k^^i- many pleasing fictions, and occupies a prominent place in ancient tales, poems, and dramas. Singular enough, notwithstanding the sway which he is described as possessing over gods and men, he cannot boast of possessing a single temple, or of being the object of any distinct and formal worship. Being thus more of an historical than an actually recognized divinity, little more need be said of him. The fables give him a double birth. By the first he is a son of Brahma, by tlie second a son of Vishnu and Lakshmi, durino' their avatars as Krishna and Rukmini. In both births the illusive prevailed over the i-eal, and he is therefore designated the son of Maya, or illusion. His father Brahma, having promised that his dominion should not be con- fined to the hearts of the inhabitants of the world, but be felt even by the members of the triad, the youth was malicious enough to test his power by letting fly an arrow, which pierced

Brahma's own bosom. He appears to have been equally successful with Vishnu. Not so with Siva. This god, when it was desired that he might become the father of a son destined to slay Tarika, was hving retired in the practice of religious austerities. Kama, notwithstanding, presumed to send a shaft at him. It took effect, but Siva, incensed at the interruption given to his devotion, turned his third eye upon the infatuated archer, and with it burned him to ashes. After his second birth a demon carried him off", and threw him into the sea, where he was swallowed by a fish. From this living tomb he was afterwards rescued, and delivered as an infant to the care of the demon's wife. She, by some

Kama or Kamadeva.

From Moore's Hindoo Pantheon.


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HISTORY OF INDIA.

[Book IV,

A.D. —

Kama.

Yama.

Inferior (leititis.

strange metamorphosis, proved to be no other than Reti, or affection, the wife of Kama clm-ing his first life. After a time a mutual recognition took place, and the demon was destroyed. Kama is usually personified as a beautiful youth riding or kneeling on a parrot, and holding in his hands a bow ready bent and strung with bees, while a quiver of arrows, tipped with flowers, hangs behind his shoulder. His standard, adopted probably as a memorial of his marine adventure, is a fish. He is described as accompanied by Reti, and at- tended by the humming bee, the cuckoo, and gentle breezes. As he is con- stantly wandering over the world, no permanent locality can be assigned him, though his favourite haunt is with Krishna and his milkmaids, on the banks of the Yamima or Jumna.

From the god of love we pass to one of a very different description, Yama, the god of the infernal regions and judge of the dead. He has two distinct per-

,sonifications. In the one called Dhermarajah he appears with a mild and benevolent countenance, seen only by those to whom a place of happiness is to be awarded. In the other, as Yama, he is seated on a buffalo with a crown on his head and a club and a rope or pashu in his hands. His inflamed eyes, dreadful teeth, and grim aspect are well fitted to inspii'e terror. The road to his palace is long and painful, over burning sand and red-hot or sharp -pointed stones, amidst showers of burning cinders, scalding water, and molten metal, and through dark passages beset with snakes, tigers, enormous giants, and all other imaginable horrors. Tlie road is 668,000 miles long, and at the end of it, after crossing the Vaitarini, or Indian Styx, Yama himself is seen. His stature is 2-iO miles, his eyes of a purple colour expand like lakes, his voice resembles thunder, and his breathing the roaring of a tempest, a flame proceeds from his mouth, and every hair on his body is as long as a palm-tree. Attended by Chitra Gupta, a monster little less terrible than himself, he judges the trembling sinners as they come into his presence, and dooms them to their dif- ferent hells. Though Yama has no temple dedicated to him, the terror which he inspires will not allow him to be forgotten. Oblations of water are made to him every day, and two annual festivals devoted to him are carefully observed.

In the above enumeration of gods, ah those occupying the first rank have been more or less fully described. The subject, however, is of boundless extent, and to give anything like a complete ew of Hindoo theogony and mj^thology, it would be necessary to take some notice of numerous subordinate deities, many of them recognized only in particular localities, in which they are regarded either as a kind of patron saints to be courted for tlie blessings which

Yaua. — Coleman's Hindoo Mythologj'.


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HINDOO MYTHOLOGY.

41

they may confer, or malignant demons to be deprecated for the evils which they a.d. — may inflict. Both the heavens and the infernal regions are peopled with such imaofinarv beings. Thev are also constantly moving in the air, on the earth, and '^'^'^^^ ^^^

» -' *= -^ _ "^ ° inferior

in the waters, and acting as the willing messengers or miwilling thralls of the deities. higher gods. To the better class belong the Brahmadicas, or sons of Brahma, the Menus, the Rishis, good angels and good genii, Apsaras and Gandarra.s, or heavenly nymphs and choristers, by whose dances, songs, and music the inhabi- tants of the celestial mansions are constantly entertained. To the malignant class belong the Asuras, who, though of the race of gods, were disinherited and cast into darkness ; the Deityas, a species of demons who have mustered armies and made war in heaven; Rakshasas, Pisachas, and still lower spirits, not unlike our nursery ghosts and goblins. By all of these much of the homage which is due only to the Supreme Power is practi- cally monopolized.

Another series of imaginary beings which play an important part in the religion of the Hindoos are personifications of sacred streams — above all, the Ganges, which figures as a female divinity under the name of Gunga, and is both honoured and worshipped. So highly estimated is the honour of having given birth to Gunga, that Vishnu and Siva are represented by their respective votaries as laying claim to it. According to the Vishnaivas .she had her first beginning in Vishnu's heaven, Vaikontha, and sprung from his foot ; according to the Saivas, Keilas, Siva's heaven, was the place of

her birth. There she sprung from his head, and after long wandering among his Gunga. matted locks descended at last upon the earth in a mighty stream, with all her train of fishes, snakes, turtles, and crocodiles. She is represented as a white woman with a crown on her head, either walking on the surface of the water or riding on a marine animal of rather nondescript form, though bearing some resem- blance to an alligator, holding a water-jug in one of her four hands and a water- lily in another. After descending to the earth Gunga made a narrow escape, for a sage whom she disturbed in his devotions was so incensed that he swallowed her up. Having contrived ultimately to find an outlet, she divided herself into the numerous streams which now form a network across her delta. The modes in which homage is paid to her are countless. Her shrines exceed 3,000,000 in number ; her banks are crowded with temples erected in her honour ; long pilgrimages are made to obtain the privilege of bathing in her stream ; for those who cannot make the pilgrimage, the water is transported to the remotest parts of the country and eagerly purchased ; even the dying are carried to her banks to breathe their last, and in this way not unfrequently accelerate the event Vol. II. 95

Gunga (the Ganges'. From Moore's Hindoo Pantheon.


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 42 HISTORY OF INDIA. [Book IV.

AD. — which might have been deferred for days, or months, or years, by wiser and

gentler ti-eatment. In consequence of this practice the sacred stream can hardly

be viewed without disgust, from the number of dead bodies which are floated

down upon it.

iiinfiooism The character of the Hindoo religion may be legitimately inferred from that of

m practice.

the gods who are the objects of its worship ; but a much more vivid impression may be obtained by passing from theory to practice, and viewing it under the forms it assumes both in daily life and on extraordinary occasions. In regard to all forms, private and public, one common remark may be made. The reli- gious service performed is entirely of a ceremonial nature, and has nothing to do with the heart and conscience. If words of the Veda are repeated by rote as a kind of charm — if the breath is suppressed and made to pass in a peculiar manner through one nostril, while the other is stopped by the finger — if water is sipped, poured out, or used in bathing, while a number of minute regulations are carefully observed — by these, and such like mummerie.s, the worsliipper considers himself cleansed from all impurity and entitled to claim the divine favour. If higher degrees of merit are aspired to, the means to be employed are not genuine sorrow for past sins and earnest endeavours to advance in holiness, but penances and austerities, the efiicacy of which is estimated by the amount of bodily suffering which they inflict. The tortures to which multitudes submit with this view are often of the most barbarous and shocking description. The highest place in heaven is thus reserved for those who, from physical constitution or long training, possess most strength of bodily endurance, and the greatest villain on earth, without repenting of one of his crimes or forsaking one of his vices, may acquire the reputation and the privileges of a saint. Under such a system there is no inducement to virtuous practice. Every man has only to follow the bent of his own inclinations, assured that into whatever enormities passion or interest may lead him, it will always be easy to find some divinity who will accept his worship, and in retm'n for it cancel all hi.^ guilt. ,; In illustrating the highest form of religious observance required of a Hindoo in the ordinary routine of life, we shall be sure not to understate the matter by selecting the Brahmin as an example, obseivances Assumino' that the Brahmin performs all that is required of him, his daily

ofaBrah-, ° ... ..

mill. course will be as follows: — On rising from sleep the first thing he does is to

clean his teeth with a twig of the racemiferous fig-tree, repeating to himself during the operation the following prayer: "Attend, lord of the forest, Soma, king of herbs and plants, has approached thee; mayest thou and he cleanse my mouth with glory and good au.spices, that I may eat abundant food. Lord of the forest ! grant me life, strength, glory, splendour, offspring, cattle, abundant wealth, virtue, knowledge, and intelligence." The use of the twig, ordinarily deemed so indispensable that the omission of it would render all other religious services fruitless, is forbidden on certain specified days, when as a substitute for it


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 Chap. II.] the mouth must be twelve times rinsed with water. Having thrown away the twig into some place known to be free from impurity, he proceeds to perform his ablutions.

In these it is necessary to be very circumspect, as there are a number of minute rules which he must not violate. The water should, if possible, be taken not from a depth, as a well, but from the surface, and not from a stagnant pool but from a running stream—a river of the number of those deemed holy. In this respect, the Ganges is of course to be preferred to all others, but when it cannot be had the want of it may be supplied by the following prayer: "O Gunga, hear my prayers; for my sake be included in this small quantity of water, with the other sacred streams." The ablution then proceeds, the Brahmin standing in the water, sipping it, sprinkling it, throwing it about on the crown of his head, on the earth, towards the sky, plunging thrice into it, and finally completing the process by washing his mantle in it. While thus engaged he repeats various prayers and texts of the Vedas, including the gayatri, styled the holiest of all, though it contains no more than this, "We meditate on the adorable light of the resplendent Generator, which governs our intellects." Another mysterious utterance employed is that of O M, a contraction of the triliteral syllable A U M, the recognized symbol of the triad.

The ablutions performed, the Brahmin, supposed to have risen before the sun, prepares to worship that luminary as he emerges from the horizon. For this purpose various preliminary ceremonies are required. First, he ties the lock of hair on the crown of his head, takes up a bundle of cusa grass (Pou cynosuroides) in his left and three blades of it in his right hand, sips water, repeating the gayatri, and performing numerous mummeries, and after exclaiming "May the waters preserve me," engages in deep meditation. The subject is curious, for he is only striving to realize the thought that "Brahma, with four faces and a red complexion, resides in his bosom; Vishnu, with four arms and a black complexion, in his heart, and Siva, with five faces and a white complexion, in his forehead." This meditation is followed by a suppression of breath, the mode of effecting which is minutely and even ludicrously regulated. Closing the left nostril by the two longest fingers of the right hand, he draws a breath through the right nostril, and then by stopping this nostril also with the thumb remains without respiring till he has internally repeated the gayatri, the symbolical syllable O M, and a sacred text. This suppression of breath repeated thrice is followed by ablutions, a singular inhalation of water by the nose, and a sipping, at the end of which he exclaims, "Water, thou dost penetrate all beings ; thou dost reach the deep recesses of the mountains; thou art the mouth of the universe; thou art the mystic word vasha; thou art light, taste, and the immortal fluid." He is now in a fit state to offer acceptable worship to the sun, which he addresses standing on one foot with his face to the east and his hands in a hollow form. Among other things, he says of him that "he is the soul of all which is fixed or locomotive," and apostrophizes him thus,


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 44- HISTORY OF INDIA. [Book lY.

AD- " Thou art self- existent ; thou art the most excellent ray ; thou givest effulgence ; grant it unto us." An oblation, consisting of tela or sesamum, flowers, barley-

Drahminicai Water, and red sandal- wood, is then made in a copper vessel shaped like a boat and placed on the head. With various other prayers and ceremonies, including an invocation of the gayatri, winch is characterized as 'light," as "seed," as " immortal life," as " the holiest sacrifice," and " the divine text who dost grant our best wishes," the daily morning devotion is brought to a close.

Th five At noon and in the evening the service slightly varied ought to be repeated.

Other portions of the day should be occupied with what are called "the five ofreat sacraments." These are — 1. The sacrament of the Vedas, or the teachinfj and studying of them. 2. The sacrament of the Manes, or an oblation of cakes and water to departed ancestors and progenitors generally. 3. The sacrament of the Deities, or prayers to all the gods of the pantheon, accompanied with an oblation to fire. 4. The sacrament of Spirits, or an oblation of rice and other food to all animated creatures ; and 5. The sacrament of Men, or the perform- ance of the rites of hospitality. In all of these the observance must be accom- panied with prayers, ceremonies, and gestures, still more minute, unmeaning, and fantastical than those required in morning devotion, the whole forming an irksome routine, in which neither the intellect nor the affections have any share, and the most solemn religious acts degenerate into mere mechanism. It is not to be wondered at that a great majority of the Brahmins have found means to evade the letter of these requirements, and to curtail them to such a degree that one hour suffices for rites for which, if fully performed, at least four hours would be necessary. Unfortunately, in curtailing frivolous and useless ceremonies, no care has been taken to supply their place by something better, and the only effect has consequently been to bring that class which ought to set the example to aU other classes, nearer than before to practical atheism.

Observances The great uiass of the population, ever ready to take the law from those whom

of the vulgar. i i • i i • i

they regard as their superiors, select only those observances which are most agreeable, and thus make religion not a curb, but rather a stimulus to their natural depravity. In pursuing this course they are countenanced by a remark- able peculiarity in Hindoo faith and practice. A fundamental axiom of the Christian religion is, that he who offends in one point is guilty of all ; in other words, that every precept is of absolute obligation, and consequently that the habitual neglect of any one known duty makes him who is guilty of it virtually an infidel. The Hindoo axiom, on the contrary, is, that all obedience is optional, and that within certain Hmits every individual is at liberty to lay down a rule for himself He who aspires to the highest degree of future bliss will be contented with nothing short of perfection, and will consequently endeavom- to fulfil every obligation to the very letter. He, on the other hand, who has no such exalted aims, and desires to be religious only so far as may be necessary to secure him against the loss of caste and the worst forms of future punishment, may


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 Chap. II.] HINDOO EITES AND CEREMONIES. 45

easily adopt a course of religious observance suited to his taste. Both the lofty a.d. —

aspirant and the lukewarm professor are, so to speak, within the pale, and both

will be rewarded according to their deeds. When their final conditions are obsarvances

of the vulgar.

fixed, the difference between them will be not in kind but in degree. There will be no absolute condemnation, for however great the shortcomings of the one may be, his obedience, so far as it has gone, will be approved and accepted. The practical effect of such a rule is easily perceived. While the standard of obedience remains theoretically perfect, the great majority lower it till it becomes what they wish it to be. All duties felt to be irksome and disagreeable are carefully excluded, and every individual worshipper becomes in fact the maker of his own god, investing him only with such attributes as are pleasing to him- self The extent to which this is carried may be inferred from the well-known fact that every form of vice and crime — prostitution, theft, robbery, and mur- der — has found among the gods of the Hindoo pantheon some one who has sanctioned it by his example, and is therefore presumed to welcome those who commit it as acceptable worshippers.

But though the accommodating spirit of Hindooism allows each individual -^["itipiicity

of forms.

great latitude in selecting the objects and manner of his worship, and by per- mitting him to lower the standard to suit his taste, virtually abolishes all reli- gious and moral distinctions, it must be acknowledged that the effect has been not so much to produce religious indifference as to foster a perverse zeal and multiply useless forms. Even those who content themselves with such observ- ances as are necessary to prevent the loss of caste and leave them a hope of escaping final reprobation, have a laborious task to perform, since the omission of any one among a multiplicity of rites and ceremonies might defeat their object. The observances, of course, increase in proportion as higher aspirations are entertained. Some, desirous of attaining a higher order of animated being in their new metempsychosis, must acquire the necessary merit by increas- ing the number and variety of ceremonial acts. Others would fain purchase even a temporary residence in one or other of the fabled heavens appropriated to the gods, but cannot hope to reach the object of their ambition without adding to the routine of ordinary observances numerous acts of will- worship and painful privation. The highest object at which it is possible to aim is exemption from all future transmigrations, by what is called absorption into the divine essence. This, as it is the acme of felicity, is also presumed, as might be expected, to be the most difficult of attainment. How to accomplish it is the great problem which has for ages tasked the ingenuity of Hindoo theolo- gians, and cannot be said to be as yet satisfactorily solved. In one general principle, indeed, they are all agreed. The great obstacles to the final absorp- tion of the soul by the supreme essence are its union with the body, and the various instincts, appetites, and passions which are supposed to be the result of this union. There is thus a thraldom from which the soul must be delivered.


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