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 How this can be done we have shown in the, and in the first Principle of the.

13. So much of the light. We will now speak of the mode in which objects must be presented to the senses, if the impression is to be distinct. This can be readily understood if we consider the processes of actual vision. If the object is to be clearly seen it is necessary: (1) that it be placed before the eyes; (2) not far off, but at a reasonable distance; (3) not on one side, but straight before the eyes; (4) and so that the front of the object be not turned away from, but directed towards, the observer; (5) that the eyes first take in the object as a whole; (6) and then proceed to distinguish the parts; (7) inspecting these in order from the beginning to the end; (8) that attention be paid to each and every part; (9) until they are all grasped by means of their essential attributes. If these requisites be properly observed, vision takes place successfully; but if one be neglected its success is only partial.

14. For instance, if any one wish to read a letter that has been sent him by a friend, it is necessary: (1) that it be presented to the eyes (for if it be not seen, how can it be read?); (2) that it be placed at a suitable distance from the eyes (for if it be too far off, the words cannot be distinguished); (3) that it be directly in front of the eyes (for if it be on one side, it will be confusedly seen); (4) that it be turned the right way up (for if a letter or a book be presented to the eyes upside down or on its side, it cannot be read); (5) the general characteristics of the letter, such as the address, the writer, and the date must be seen first (for unless these facts be known, the particular items of the letter cannot be properly understood); (6) then the remainder of the letter must be read, that nothing be omitted (otherwise the contents will not all be known, and perhaps the most important point will be missed); (7) it must be read in the right order (if one sentence be read here and another there, the sense will be confused); (8) each sentence must be mastered before the next is com-


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 menced (for if the whole be read hurriedly, some useful point may easily escape the mind); (9) finally, when the whole has been carefully perused, the reader may proceed to distinguish between those points that are necessary and those that are superfluous.

15. These points should be observed by those who teach the sciences, and may be expressed in nine very useful precepts.

(i) Whatever is to be known must be taught.

Unless that which is to be known be placed before a pupil, how is he to acquire a knowledge of it? Therefore let those who teach beware of concealing anything from their pupils, whether of intent, do the envious and dishonest, or through carelessness, as is the case with those who perform their duties in a perfunctory manner. The two things necessary are honesty and hard work.

16. (ii) Whatever is taught should be taught as being of practical application in every-day life and of some definite use.

That is to say, the pupil should understand that what he learns is not taken out of some Utopia or borrowed from Platonic Ideas, but is one of the facts which surround us, and that a fitting acquaintance with it will be of great service in life. In this way his energy and his accuracy will be increased.

17. (iii) Whatever is taught should be taught straightforwardly, and not in a complicated manner.

This means that we must look straight at objects and not squint, for in that case the eyes do not see that at which they look, but rather distort and confuse it. Objects should be placed before the eyes of the student in their true character, and not shrouded in words, metaphors, or hyperboles. These devices have their use if the object be to exaggerate or to detract from, to praise or to blame what is already known. But when knowledge is being acquired they should be avoided and the facts should be set forth plainly.

18. (iv) Whatever is taught must be taught with reference

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 Table of Contents.


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 Table of Contents.


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 to its true nature and its origin; that is to say, through its causes.

This method of cognition is the best if the true nature of a fact is to be learned. For if its true nature be not made evident, this is not cognition but error. The true nature of a fact lies in the process that brought it into being. If it appear to contain elements not accounted for by that process, it is evident that there is some misapprehension. Now everything is brought into existence by its causes. Therefore to explain the causes of anything is equivalent to making a true exposition of that thing’s nature, in accordance with the principles: “Knowledge consists in having a firm grip of causes,” and “Causes are the guides of the understanding.” Objects can thus be best, easiest, and most certainly cognised through a knowledge of the processes that produced them. If a man wish to read a letter he holds it as it was written, since it is a difficult thing to read a document that is inverted, or on its side, and in the same way, if a fact be explained by means of the process that gave it birth, it will be easily and surely understood. If, however, the teacher reverse the order of nature, he is certain to confuse the student. Therefore, the method employed in teaching should be based on the method of nature. That which precedes should be taken first, and that which follows last.

19. (v) If anything is to be learned, its general principles must first be explained. Its details may then be considered, and not till then.

The reasons for this have been given in Principle 6. We give a general notion of an object when we explain it by means of its essential nature and its accidental qualities. The essential nature is unfolded by the questions ''what? of what kind? and why? Under the question what?'' are included the name, the genus, the function, and the end. Under the question of what kind? comes the form of the object, or the mode in which it is fitted to its end. Under the question why? the efficient


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 or causal force by which an object is made suitable to its end. For example, did I wish to give a student a general notion of a man, I should say: Man is (1) the chief creation of God, and destined for dominion over other creatures; (2) endowed with freedom of choice and action; (3) and on that account provided with the light of reason, that he may direct his choice and his actions with wisdom. This is but a general notion of man, but it goes to the root of the matter and says everything about him that is essential. To these you may, if you like, add some of his accidental qualities, still keeping to generalities, and this must be done by asking the questions ''from what origin? whence? when?'' You may then proceed to his parts, the body and the soul. The nature of the body can be demonstrated through the anatomy of its organs; that of the soul by examining the faculties of which it consists. All these points must be taken in their proper order.

20. (vi) All the parts of an object, even the smallest, and without a single exception, must be learned with reference to their order, their position, and their connection with one another.

Nothing exists in vain, and sometimes the strength of the larger parts depends on that of the smallest. Certain it is that in a clock, if one pin be broken or bent, or moved out of its place, the whole machine will stop. Similarly, in a living body, the loss of one organ may cause life to cease, and in a sentence it is often on the smallest words, such as prepositions and conjunctions, that the whole sense depends. Perfect knowledge of an object can therefore only be attained by acquiring a knowledge of the nature and function of each of its parts.

21. (vii) All things must be taught in due succession, and not more than one thing should be taught at one time. The organ of vision is unable to take in two or three objects at one time (certain it is that he who reads a book cannot look at two pages at once, nay, cannot even see two lines, though they lie quite close together, nor two words, nor two letters, otherwise than successively); and in the


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 [No. 36]

JOURNAL

of the

of the

JULY 1901

Agencies of the Society

London and America ...

Paris ...

Germany ..., Leipzig.

SINGAPORE:

1901


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 [No. 35]

JOURNAL

of the

of the

JANUARY 1901

Agencies of the Society

London and America ...

Paris ...

Germany ..., Leipzig.

SINGAPORE:

1901


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 same way the mind can only grasp one thing at a time. We should therefore make a distinct break in our progress from one thing to another, that we may not overburden the mind.

22. (viii) We should not leave any subject until it is thoroughly understood.

Nothing can be done in a moment. For every process involves motion, and motion implies successive stages. The pupil should therefore not pass on from any point in a science until he has thoroughly mastered it and is conscious that he has done so. The methods to be employed are emphatic teaching, examination, and iteration, until the desired result is attained. This we have pointed out in Principle 10.

23. (ix) Stress should be laid on the differences which exist between things, in order that what knowledge of them is acquired may be clear and distinct.

Much meaning lies concealed in that celebrated saying: “He who distinguishes well is a good teacher.” For too many facts overwhelm a student, and too great a variety confuses him. Remedies must therefore be applied: in the first case order, by means of which one thing may be taken after another; in the second, a careful consideration of the differences that exist in nature, that it may always be evident in what respects one thing differs from another. This is the only method that can give distinct, clear, and certain knowledge; since the variety and actuality of natural objects depend on their distinctive attributes, as we have hinted in. Principle 6.

24. Now it is impossible that all teachers, when they enter on their profession, should be possessed of the requisite skill, and it is therefore necessary that the sciences which are taught in schools be mapped out in accordance with the foregoing laws. If this be done it will be difficult for any teacher to miss his mark. For, if the laws be rigorously observed, it is beyond question that any man who is once admitted into the royal palace and is allotted a certain space of time can easily and without any trouble


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 master its whole contents, its pictures, statues, carpets, and other ornaments; and just as easy will it be for a youth who is admitted to the theatre of this world to penetrate with his mental vision the secrets of nature, and from that time forward to move among the works of God and of man with his eyes opened.


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1. “,” says Vives, “is easy and short, but has no result other than the gratification that it affords. Practice, on the other hand, is difficult and prolix, but is of immense utility.” Since this is so, we should diligently seek out a method by which the young may be easily led to the practical application of natural forces, which is to be found in the arts.

2. Art primarily requires three things: (1) A model or a conception; that is to say, an external form which the artist may examine and then try to imitate. (2) The material on which the new form is to be impressed. (3) The instruments by the aid of which the work is accomplished.

3. But when the instruments, the materials, and the model have been provided, three more things are necessary before we can learn an art: (1) a proper use of the materials; (2) skilled guidance; (3) frequent practice. That is to say, the pupil should be taught when and how to use his materials; he should be given assistance when using them that he may not make mistakes, or that he may be corrected if he do; and he should not leave off making mistakes and being corrected until he can work correctly and quickly.

4. With respect to these points eleven canons must be observed: six on the use of materials; three on guidance; and two on practice.


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Session 6B: System and Network Security #2 For example, this might require monitoring the value of certain variables in the browser or the kernel, or determining whether certain resources such as the disk are accessed. The monitoring of variables would cover the cases whether the state difference is the consumption of a limited resource, or the change of a property. However, a state-change may also initiate side-effects, such as firing an event, and to capture these, the execution path should also be monitored as any (consistent) difference in execution could result in an observable side-effect. Finally, using the exhaustive list of inclusion methods $$(i \in I)$$, each resource, pairwise with the baseline without the differentiating aspect, can be included. By comparing the state of the analyzed component before and after the inclusion, and monitoring the execution trace, it now becomes possible to evaluate whether the differentiating aspect triggers a different state-change in the component. Through this method, every possible state-change will be captured, and, as a result, it is possible to determine whether the component could potentially be the source of an XS-Leak. Once a differentiating state-change has been detected, it is still required to determine whether there is any leak technique that can reveal this state-change, which can be highly specific to the associated component and the type of the state-change. Hence, we believe that this last step cannot be automated.

In recent years, several new defenses against XS-Leak attacks have been introduced to the web platform. In general, all defenses follow one of the three different strategies: preventing state-changes, isolating components, or ensuring that requests and responses are stateless. In this section we provide a brief overview of each strategy and the defenses that follow them.

As we have shown through our model, XS-Leaks can exist when the state of a resource is transfered to the state of a component, in particular when the components is brought in a different state depending on the response that is returned. By preventing any statechanges from occurring in certain components, the XS-Leaks that they introduce will be mitigated. If we consider $$D$$ as the model where the defense has been applied, and $$u$$ as the unprotected model, we can formally describe the strategy as follows: $$u: (\forall {x} \in [i, j], j > i)(C^{'}_{x} \cdot \sigma_{{s}_{0}} \cup C^{'}_{x} \cdot \sigma_{{s}_{1}} \ne \emptyset \land C^{'}_{x} \cdot \Sigma \ne \emptyset)$$

$$D: (\forall {x} \in [i, j])(C^{'}_{x} \cdot \sigma_{{s}_{0}} = C_{x} \cdot \sigma_{{s}_{0}} \land C^{'}_{x} \cdot \sigma_{{s}_{1}} = C_{x} \cdot \sigma_{{s}_{1}} \land C^{'}_{x} \cdot \Sigma = \emptyset)$$

More precisely, without the defense applied, there is at least one component, $$C_{x}$$, that after inclusion $$(C^{'}_{x} = st(sdr, C_{x}, i))$$ has an altered component state in at least one of the two application states, and the resulting component state is different depending on the application state, i.e. the differential component state is non-empty. When the defense is in place, there are no state-changes that occur in the component, and therefore the differential component state will also be empty. In practice there are two defenses that follow this strategy: framing protection and response blocking. Concretely, framing protection can be enabled by setting the  header or by using the frame-ancestors directive of CSP. When the browser encounters any of these two policies that indicate the resource should not be embedded in an iframe, it will stop loading the resource and prevent if from rendering. Consequently, any state-change that would occur by rendering the resource, will now be prevented. In our running example, the icon image will no longer be added to the HTTP cache when a framing protection has been set on the page, and thus no state-change occurs. In general, this defense will block all XS-Leaks that rely on iframes as the inclusion method.

In order to prevent cross-site responses from being accessible in the same renderer process, some browsers will block the loading of “sensitive” resources through the Cross-Origin Read Blocking (CORB) mechanism. This defense, originally intended to thwart Spectre attacks, will stop loading a response when it detects that its content type is potentially sensitive (i.e. JSON, HTML and XML). Alternatively, a website could also directly indicate that a certain resource is not intended to be included in a cross-site context by setting the Cross-Origin-Resource-Policy (CORP) header [30]. By blocking the further loading of such a response, no state-changes will occur after the check. Because this check occurs after the headers have been parsed, it is still possible that the parsing of the headers can cause certain state-changes. Furthermore, the check occurs in the browser component group, and only when it is included directly from an attack tab. As a result, state-changes may have still occurred in the component groups that were involved in the inclusion before this check was performed (client OS, browser, server environment and web server).

A second strategy to defend against XS-Leaks is to allow the statechanges to occur in the components, but prevent the attacker’s page from accessing them by means of isolation. Concretely, in the defended case there is no longer a leak technique that can be used to extract the state from the component:

$$u: (\forall{x} \in [i, j], \exists t \in T)(C^{'}_{x} \cdot \Sigma \ne \emptyset \lor sr(t, C_x, C^{'}_{x}) \ne \emptyset)$$

$$D: (\forall{x} \in [i, j], \exists t \in T)(C^{'}_{x} \cdot \Sigma \ne \emptyset \lor sr(t, C_x, C^{'}_{x}) \ne \emptyset)$$

To date, there are three defenses that follow this strategy: network isolation, cross-origin opener policy, and site isolation. The network isolation defenses partition certain aspects of the browser such as the HTTP cache and various network-level properties, e.g. the connection pool (a complete list can be found in the Chromium explainer document [27]), according to the top-level document from which the resource was requested. Chromium-based browsers additionally add the embedding frame as part of the isolation key. On Safari, only the HTTP Cache has been partitioned [57], while other network properties remain shared among different tabs. In


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 5. (i) What has to be done must be learned by practice.

Artisans do not detain their apprentices with theories, but set them to do practical work at an early stage; thus they learn to forge by forging, to carve by carving, to paint by painting, and to dance by dancing. In schools, therefore, let the students learn to write by writing, to talk by talking, to sing by singing, and to reason by reasoning. In this way schools will become work-shops humming with work, and students whose efforts prove successful will experience the truth of the proverb: “We give form to ourselves and to our materials at the same time.”

6. (ii) A definite model of that which has to be made must always be provided.

This the student should first examine, and then imitate, as though he were following in the footsteps of a guide. For he who neither knows what has to be done nor how to do it, is unable to produce anything of himself, but must have a model placed before him. Indeed it is sheer cruelty to force any one to do what you wish, while he is ignorant what your wishes are; to demand, that is to say, that he form straight lines, right angles, or perfect circles, unless you first give him a ruler, a square, and a pair of compasses, and explain their use to him. Further, great care should be taken to provide in the school-room formulæ for or models of everything that has to be made, and these, whether drawings and diagrams, or rules and models, should be correct, definite, and simple; easy both to understand and to imitate. There will then be no absurdity in demanding of a man that he see, when provided with a light; that he walk, when he already stands on his feet; or that he use the tools that are already in his hands.

7. (iii) The use of instruments should be shown in practice and not by words; that is to say, by example rather than by precept.

It is many years since Quintilian said: “Through precepts the way is long and difficult, while through examples it is short and practicable.” But alas, how little


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 heed the ordinary schools pay to this advice. The very beginners in grammar are so overwhelmed by precepts, rules, exceptions to the rules, and exceptions to the exceptions, that for the most part they do not know what they are doing, and are quite stupefied before they begin to understand anything. Mechanics do not begin by drumming rules into their apprentices. They take them into the workshop and bid them look at the work that has been produced, and then, when they wish to imitate this (for man is an imitative animal), they place tools in their hands and show them how they should be held and used. Then, if they make mistakes, they give them advice and correct them, often more by example than by mere words, and, as the facts show, the novices easily succeed in their imitation. For there is great truth in that saying of the Germans, “A good leader finds a good follower.” Very apposite, too, is the remark of Terence, “Do you go before; I will follow.” This is the way, namely, by imitating, and without any laborious rules, that children learn to walk, to run, to talk, and to play. Rules are like thorns to the understanding, and to grasp their meaning needs both attention and ability, while even the dullest students are aided by example. No one has ever mastered any language or art by precept alone; while by practice this is possible, éven without precept.

8. (iv) Practice should commence with the rudiments and not with ambitious works.

A carpenter does not begin by teaching his apprentice to build turrets, but first shows him how to hold the axe, to cut down trees, to shape planks, to bore holes, and to fasten beams together. A painter does not make his pupil commence by painting portraits, but teaches him how to mix colours, to hold the brush, and to make lines; then to attempt rough outlines, and so on. He who teaches a boy how to read explains to him, not the contents of the book, but the names and nature of the letters, and shows him how they can be joined together into syllables; then he proceeds to words, and then to sentences. In the


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 same way the beginner in grammar should learn, first how to inflect single words, then how to join two together. Then he may advance to simple and compound sentences, and so on till he reach continuous prose. So too in dialectic. The student should first learn to distinguish things and the concepts of things by means of their genera and species; then to classify them afresh, with respect to some other common quality (for such links exist between all things); then to define and distribute them; then to estimate the value of the things and their concepts in combination, seeking out the what? the whence? and the why? and whether it be necessary or contingent. When he has had sufficient practice in this, he may proceed to ratiocination and seek how to draw conclusions from given premises, and finally he may essay discursive reasoning or the complete conduct of disputations. The same course may with advantage be followed in rhetoric. The student should first devote some time to the collection of synonyms, and may then learn to add epithets to nouns, verbs, and adverbs. He may then proceed to the use of antithesis, and later on to that of periphrasis. Then he may substitute figurative words for the originals, alter the order of the words for the sake of euphony, and adorn a simple sentence with all the figures of speech. Finally, when thoroughly versed in all these several points, and not sooner, he may proceed to the composition of a complete discourse. If any one advance step by step in any art, as here indicated, it is impossible that he should not make progress.

The basis of the foregoing was discussed in Principle 4.

9. (v) Beginners should at first practise on a material that is familiar to them.

This rule we obtain from the 9th Principle of the, and from the 6th Corollary of the 4th Principle. Its meaning is that students should not be overburdened with matters that are unsuitable to their age, comprehension, and present condition, since otherwise they will spend their time in wrestling with shadows. For example,


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 when a Polish boy is learning to read or to write his letters he should not be taught to do so from a book written in Latin, Greek, or Arabic, but from one written in his own language, that he may understand what he is doing. Again, if a boy is to understand the use of the rules of rhetoric, the examples on which he is made to practise them should not be taken from Virgil or from Cicero, or from theological, political, or medical writers, but should refer to the objects that surround him, to his books, to his clothes, to trees, houses, and schools. It will also be of use if the examples that are taken to illustrate the first rule be retained, although familiar, to illustrate the remainder. In dialectic, for example, a tree may be taken, and its genus, its species, its relations to other objects, its characteristic peculiarities and the logical definition and distribution of the term may be treated of. We may then proceed to the various ways in which a statement may be made about a tree. Finally, we may show how, by a perfect train of reasoning, and by taking the facts already ascertained as our starting-point, we may discover and demonstrate other properties of a tree. In this way, if, in each case, the use of the rules be illustrated by the same familiar example, the boy will easily master their application to all other subjects.

10. (vi) At first the prescribed form should be imitated with exactness. Later on more freedom may be allowed.

A form will be expressed with more exactness in proportion as care is taken to make it resemble its original. Thus coins that are struck by one die are exactly like the die and one another. So also with books printed from metal type, and with casts made in wax, plaster, or metal. In all other artistic operations, therefore, as far as is possible, any imitation (at any rate the first) should be an exact copy of its original, until the hand, the mind, and the tongue gain more confidence, and can produce good imitations by working freely on their own lines. For instance, those who learn writing take a thin and transparent sheet of paper, place it over the copy that they wish to imitate, and thus can easily form the letters that show through. Or the


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 whether for ju-ju reasons or for mere decoration I do not know—paint a band of yellow clay round the chest; but of the Bubi secret society I know little, nor have I been able to find any one who knows much more. Hutchinson, in his exceedingly amusing description of a wedding he was once present at among these people, would lead one to think the period of seclusion of the women's society was twelve months.

The chief god or spirit, O. Wassa, resides in the crater of the highest peak, and by his name the peak is known to the native. Another very important spirit, to whom goats and sheep are offered, is Lobe, resident in a crater lake on the northern slope of the Cordilleras, and the grass you sometimes see a Bubi wearing is said to come from this lake and be a ju-ju of Lobe's. Dr. Baumann says that the lake at Riabba from which the spirit Uapa rises is more holy, and that he is small, and resides in a chasm in a rock whose declivity can only be passed by means of bush ropes, and in the wet season he is not get-at-able at all. He will, if given suitable offerings, reveal the future to Bubis, but Bubis only. His priest is the King of all the Bubis, upon whom it is never permitted to a white man, or a Porto, to gaze. Baumann also gives the residence of another important spirit as being the grotto at Banni. This is a sea-cave, only accessible at low water in calm weather. I have heard many legends of this cave, but have never had an opportunity of seeing it, or any one who has seen it first hand.

The charms used by these people are similar in form to those of the mainland Bantu, but the methods of treating paths and gateways are somewhat peculiar. The gateways to the towns are sometimes covered by freshly cut banana leaves, and during the religious feast in November, the paths to the villages are barred across with a hedge of grass which no stranger must pass through.

The government is a peculiar one for West Africa. Every village has its chief, but the whole tribe obey one great chief or king who lives in the crater-ravine at Riabba. This individual is called Moka, but whether he is now the same man referred to by Rogoszinsky, Mr. Holland, and the Rev. Hugh


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 characters may be printed very faintly on a white page, so that the pupil may go over them with pen and ink, and in this way may easily acquire the habit of shaping them. The same thing holds good in style, if any construction or sentence extracted from a classic writer have to be imitated. If the original phrase be “Rich in possessions,” the boy should be made to imitate it by saying, “Rich in coins,” “Rich in moneys,” “Rich in flocks,” “Rich in vineyards.” When Cicero says, “In the opinion of the most learned men, Eudemus easily holds the first place in astrology,” this may be copied with very little alteration as “In the opinion of the greatest orators, Cicero easily holds the first place in eloquence,” “In the opinion of the whole Church, St. Paul easily holds the first place in Apostleship.” So too in logic, if the well-known dilemma be given: It is either day or night. But it is night; therefore it is not day; the boy may learn to imitate it by similarly opposing contradictory conceptions to one another. As, “He is either unlearned or learned. But he is unlearned; therefore he is not learned”; “Cain was either pious or impious, but he was not pious”; and so on.

11. (vii) The models of the objects that have to be produced must be as perfect as is possible, so that if any one exercise himself sufficiently in imitating them it will be possible for him to become perfect in his art.

It is impossible to draw straight lines with a curved ruler, and in the same way a good copy cannot be made from a bad model. Great care should therefore be taken that models be prepared of everything that is to be done in school, or indeed in life, and that these be exact, simple, and easy to imitate. They may be either models, pictures and drawings, or precepts and rules; but all must be very short, very clear, self-evident, and absolutely correct.

12. (viii) The first attempt at imitation should be as accurate as possible, that not the smallest deviation from the model be made.

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 the foundation be firm, a solid edifice can be constructed upon it, but if it be weak this is impossible. According to the observations of physicians, the initial defects of digestion cannot be repaired later on, and similarly in any operation an error at the beginning vitiates all that follows. For this reason Timotheus the musician used to demand twice as large a fee from those pupils who had learned the rudiments of their art elsewhere, saying that his labour was twofold, as he had first to get them out of the bad habits that they had acquired, and then to teach them correctly. Those, therefore, who are learning any art should take care to make themselves masters of the rudiments by imitating their copies accurately. This difficulty once overcome, the rest follows of itself, just as a city lies at the mercy of foes when its gates are broken in. All haste should be avoided, lest we proceed to advanced work before the elementary stages have been mastered. He goes fast enough who never quits the road, and a delay which is caused by obtaining a thorough grip of first principles is really no delay, but an advance towards mastering what follows with ease, speed, and accuracy.

13. (ix) Errors must be corrected by the master on the spot; but precepts, that is to say the rules, and the exceptions to the rules, must be given at the same time.

Hitherto we have urged that the arts be taught rather by example than by precept: we now add that precepts and rules must be given as well, that they may guide the operations and prevent error. That is to say, the less obvious points of the model should be clearly explained, and it should be made evident how the operation should begin, what it should aim at, and how that aim can be realised. Reasons should also be given for each rule. In this way a thorough knowledge of the art, and confidence and exactness in imitating, will be attained.

But these rules should be as short and as simple as possible, since we do not want to grow gray while acquiring them. When once mastered they should be of perpetual use, even when laid aside, just as knee-bands are of


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 use to a child who is learning to walk, and, though they are afterwards discarded, the advantage derived from them remains.

14. (x) The perfect teaching of art is based on synthesis and analysis.

We have already shown ( Principle 5) by examples taken from nature and the workshop that in this relation synthesis is more important. The following points in addition will show that synthetic exercises should generally come first: (1) We should always commence with what is easy, and our own efforts are easier to understand than those of other people. (2) Writers take pains to conceal the artifices by which their results are obtained, so that at first the student finds difficulty in understanding what he sees, or fails to do so altogether. This difficulty would be removed if he began by practising on his own attempts, which are void of artifice. (3) The chief thing aimed at should be given the chief place in practice, and our real aim is to accustom the student of art to produce original work, and not merely to copy what is placed before him (see Principle 5).

15. For all this, the accurate analysis of the work of others must not be neglected. It is only by continually traversing it that we get to know a road, its by-paths, and its cross-roads. Besides, the variety that exists in nature is so great that it is impossible for rules to cover it or for one mind to master it. Many processes require many rules to express them, and these we can only learn if we analyse and study, and by imitation and emulation put ourselves in a position to produce similar results.

16. It is our wish then that in each art complete and exact models or examples of everything that can be produced in that art be supplied to the student. Precepts also and rules should be given him to help him to carry out the processes, to guide his efforts at imitation, to show him how to avoid making faults, and to correct them when made. Then other and different models should be given him, and these he should learn to classify and compare


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 Brown, who attempted to interview him in the seventies, I do not feel sure, for the Bubis are just the sort of people to keep a big king going with a variety of individuals. Even the indefatigable Dr. Baumann failed to see Moka, though he evidently found out a great deal about the methods of his administration and formed a very high opinion of his ability, for he says that to this one chief the people owe their present unity and orderliness; that before his time the whole island was in a state of internecine war: murder was frequent, and property unsafe. Now their social condition, according to the Doctor's account, is a model to Europe, let alone Africa. Civil wars have been abolished, disputes between villages being referred to arbitration, and murder is swiftly and surely punished. If the criminal has bolted into the forest and cannot be found, his village is made responsible, and has to pay a fine in goats, sheep and tobacco to the value of £16. Theft is extremely rare and offences against the moral code also, the Bubis having an extremely high standard in this matter, even the little children having each a separate sleeping hut. In old days adultery was punished by cutting off the offender's hand. I have myself seen women in Fernando Po who have had a hand cut off at the wrist, but I believe those were slave women who had suffered for theft. Slaves the Bubis do have, but their condition is the mild, poor relation or retainer form of slavery you find in Calabar, and differs from the Dualla form, for the slaves live in the same villages as their masters, while among the Duallas, as among most Bantu slave-holding tribes, the slaves are excluded from the master's village and have separate villages of their own. For marriage ceremonies I refer you to Mr. Hutchinson. Burial customs are exceedingly quaint in the southern and eastern districts, where the bodies are buried in the forest with their heads just sticking out of the ground. In other districts the body is also buried in the forest, but is completely covered and an erection of stones put up to mark the place.

Little is known of all West African fetish, still less of that of these strange people. Dr. Oscar Baumann brought to bear on them his careful unemotional German methods of observation, thereby giving us more valuable information about them


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 with the models that he has already used, and by copying a model that is like one previously used to produce work that resembles the original. After this, the finished works of other artists (who must be well known) may be examined and analysed in accordance with the models and rules that are already familiar. In this way the student will learn to employ the rules with greater ease, and will acquire the art of concealing his art. Only after a course of exercises of this kind will he be in the position to criticise artistic productions, whether his own or those of others.

17. (xi) These exercises must be continued until artistic production becomes second nature.

For it is practice, and nothing else, that produces an artist.


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 Table of Contents.


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 Table of Contents.


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 and their island than we otherwise should possess. Mr. Hutchinson resided many years on Fernando Po, in the capacity of H. B. M.'s Consul, with his hands full of the affairs of the Oil Rivers and in touch with the Portos of Clarence, but he nevertheless made very interesting observations on the natives and their customs. The Polish exile and his courageous wife who ascended Clarence Peak, Mr. Rogoszinsky, and another Polish exile, Mr. Janikowski, about complete our series of authorities on the island. Dr. Baumann thinks they got their information from Porto sources—sources the learned Doctor evidently regards as more full of imagination than solid fact, but, as you know, all African travellers are occasionally in the habit of pooh-poohing each other, and I own that I myself have been chiefly in touch with Portos, and that my knowledge of the Bubi language runs to the conventional greeting form: "Ipori?" "Porto." "Ke Soko?" "Hatsi soko":—"Who are you?"—"Porto." "What's the news?" "No news."

Although these Portos are less interesting to the ethnologist than the philanthropist, they being by-products of his efforts, I must not leave Fernando Po without mentioning them, for on them the trade of the island depends. They are the middlemen between the Bubi and the white trader. The former regards them with little, if any, more trust than he regards the white men, and his view of the position of the Spanish Governor is that he is chief over the Portos. That he has any headship over Bubis or over the Bubi land—Itschulla as he calls Fernando Po—he does not imagine possible. Baumann says he was once told by a Bubi: "White men are fish, not men. They are able to stay a little while on land, but at last they mount their ships again and vanish over, the horizon into the ocean. How can a fish possess land?" If the coffee and cacao thrive on Fernando Po to the same extent that they have already thriven on San Thomé there is but little doubt that the Bubis will become extinct; for work on plantations, either for other people, or themselves, they will not, and then the Portos will become the most important class, for they will go in for plantations. Their little factories are studded all round the shores of the coast in suitable coves and


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1. are learned, not as forming in themselves a part of erudition or wisdom, but as being the means by which we may acquire knowledge and may impart it to others.

It follows, therefore, (1) that not all languages should be learned, for this would be impossible; nor many, for this would be useless and would waste time that might be devoted to the acquisition of practical information; but only those that are necessary. Now necessary languages are these the vernacular, for use at home, and the languages of the adjoining countries, for the sake of holding intercourse with neighbours. Thus for the Poles, German would be necessary; for others, the Hungarian, Wallachian, or Turkish languages. For the reading of serious books Latin is also advisable, as it is the common language of the learned. For philosophers and physicians, Greek and Arabic; and for theologians, Greek and Hebrew.

2. Not all these languages should be learned thoroughly, but only so far as is necessary.

It is not necessary to speak Greek or Hebrew as fluently as the mother-tongue, since there are no people with whom we can converse in those languages. It suffices to learn them well enough to be able to read and understand books written in them.

3. The study of languages, especially in youth, should be joined to that of objects, that our acquaintance with


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 bays, and here in fairly neat houses they live, collecting palm-oil from the Bubis, and making themselves little cacao plantations, and bringing these products into Clarence every now and then to the white trader's factory. Then, after spending some time and most of their money in the giddy whirl of that capital, they return to their homes and recover. There is a class of them permanently resident in Clarence, the city men of Fernando Po, and these are very like the Sierra Leonians of Free Town, but preferable. Their origin is practically the same as that of the Free Towners. They are the descendants of liberated slaves set free during the time of our occupation of the island as a naval depot for suppressing the slave trade, and of Sierra Leonians and Accras who have arrived and settled since then. They have some of the same "Black gennellum, Sar" style about them, but not developed to the same ridiculous extent as in the Sierra Leonians, for they have not been under our institutions. The "Fanny Po" ladies are celebrated for their beauty all along the West Coast, and very justly. They are not however, as they themselves think, the most beautiful women in this part of the world. Not at least to my way of thinking. I prefer an Elmina, or an Igalwa, or a M'pongwe, or—but I had better stop and own that my affections have got very scattered among the black ladies on the West Coast, and I no sooner remember one lovely creature whose soft eyes, perfect form and winning, pretty ways have captivated me than I think of another. The Fanny Po ladies have often a certain amount of Spanish blood in them, which gives a decidedly greater delicacy to their features:—delicate little nostrils, mouths not too heavily lipped, a certain gloss on the hair, and a light in the eye. But it does not improve their colour, and I am assured that it has an awful effect on their tempers, so I think I will remain, for the present, the faithful admirer of my sable Ingrimma, the Igalwa, with the little red blossoms stuck in her night-black hair, and a sweet soft look and word for every one, but particularly for her ugly husband Isaac the "Jack Wash."


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 the objective world and with language, that is to say, our knowledge of facts and our power to express them, may progress side by side. For it is men that we are forming and not parrots, as has been said in Principle 6.

4. From this it follows, firstly, that words should not be learned apart from the objects to which they refer; since the objects do not exist separately and cannot be apprehended without words, but both exist and perform their functions together. It was this consideration that led me to publish the Janua Linguarum; in which words, arranged in sentences, explain the nature of objects, and, as it is said, with no small success.

5. Secondly, that the complete and detailed knowledge of a language, no matter which it be, is quite unnecessary, and that it is absurd and useless on the part of any one to try to attain it. Not even Cicero (who is considered the greatest master of the Latin language) was acquainted with all its details, since he confessed that he was ignorant of the words used by artisans; for he had never mixed with cobblers and labourers, so as to see their handiwork and hear the technical terms that they used. Indeed what object could he have had in learning such terms?

6. Those who have expanded my Janua have paid no attention to this, but have stuffed it with uncommon words and with matter quite unsuited to a boy’s comprehension. A Janua should remain a Janua, and anything further should be reserved for a future time. This is especially the case with words which either never occur, or which, if met with, can easily be looked up in subsidiary books (such as vocabularies, lexicons, herbaries, etc.) It was for this reason that I discontinued my Latinitatis Posticum (into which I was introducing obsolete and unusual words).

7. In the third place it follows that the intelligence as well as the language of boys should preferably be exercised on matters which appeal to them, and that what appeals to adults should be left for a later stage. They waste their time who place before boys Cicero and other great writers.


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54 benefit to those students who have no other fixed means of support. On Mr. Wilson’s report it was determined to continue the allowance of rupees 100 per month to the petitioners.

Little is said by any of the authorities to which I have referred of the schools of learning in this district beyond the town of Nuddea; but there can be no doubt that such exist at Santipore, Kishnaghur and other places within the district. Mr. Ward mentions transiently that, at Koomaru Hutta and Bhatpara, villages in this district, there are perhaps seven or eight such schools. At Santipore there was formerly a small Government endowment which appears to be at present in abeyance. In 1824, an application was made through the Collector of Nuddea to the Board of Revenue by Devi Prasad Nyayuvachaspati Bhattacharyya, as the brother of Kali Prasad Tarkasiddhanta Bhattacharyya, who had died in the preceding year, for an annual allowance or pension of sicca rupees 156-11-10, in consideration of his keeping a seminary in the town of Santipore. Enquiries were made as to the character of the deceased who is stated to have been a pundit of great ability, having when he died about 10 students under tuition. It also appeared by the evidence produced on the occasion that the brother and present claimant assisted the deceased in the tuition of his students who resided with him, and that they read the dharma shastra or works on law. The information thus produced not seeming to the Board of Revenue satisfactory, the Collector was directed to make further enquiries respecting the origin and the extent of the endowment and the service rendered, but his final report does not appear on the records.

I have already mentioned the nature of the report, made by the Judge and Magistrate of this district in 1801, that there were no seminaries within the district in which either the Hindoo or Mahomedan law was taught, and I have met with no direct evidence to establish the existence of any Mahomedan institutions. With a considerable proportion, however, of Mahomedan population it seems exceedingly improbable that they should be entirely destitute of such institutions of education as are found to exist in other districts.

Native Female Schools.—At Kishnaghur in 1834 the Calcutta Ladies’ Society had Native female school at which forty girls of good family attended; and at Nuddea there was a similar school containing about forty scholars. But the schools at both these places were about to be abandoned from want of funds, no sufficient local aid being afforded them.

Population.—In 1801, the total population of the district was computed at 938,712 inhabitants, one-half Hindoo and the other


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Rh half Mahomedan. A portion of this population consists of slaves, and the sale of persons in a state of slavery is common throughout the district. On these occasions regular deeds of sale are executed, some of which are registered in the Court of Justice; and when an estate to which slaves are attached is sold privately, the slaves are commonly sold at the same time, although a separate deed of sale is always executed. In the cirminalcriminal [sic] calendars generally more Mahomedans than Hindoos are to be found, but in civil suits the latter fromform [sic] the majority. The Gaur or Bengalee language is spoken with the greatest purity in this district, but the men of rank becoming ashamed of their peculiar accent, endeavor, it is said, to imitate the less correct pronunciation of Calcutta, the modern metropolis.

A census of the population of the city of Dacca was made in 1830 by H. Walter, Esquire, Judge and Magistrate, and an abstract of the results was published in the Gleanings of Science for March 1831, vol. III., p. 84. According to Hamilton the population was estimated in 1801 by the Magistrate of that time at 200,000, in the proportion of 145 Mahomedans to 130 Hindoos; and Bishop in 1823 supposed that it contained 90,000 houses and 300,000 inhabitants. The actual census shows a population of only 66,909 persons, of whom 31,429 were Hindoos and 35,238 Musalmans, the remaining 322 being Armenians, Greeks, Portuguese and French. Amongst the Native inhabitants the proportion of inhabitants to a house was 4. Of the males 10,024 and of the females 7,634 were under 16 years of age. It is considered that the population of Dacca must have fallen off very rapidly since the opening of the free trade, for the chowkeedaree tax when instituted in 1814 was levied upon 21,361 houses, and the amount collected at an average of two annas per house maintained nearly 800 police chowkeedars; whereas in 1830, the number of houses actually assessed amounted only to 10,708, and the number of chowkeedars maintained to 236. Hence in 16 years a diminution in the population of about one-half may be assumed. This falling off is mainly attributable to the gradual decrease of the manufacture of those beautiful cotton fabrics for which Dacca was once without a rival in the world. Coarse cotton piece goods still continue to be manufactured, though, from the extreme cheapness of English cloth, it is not improbable that the Native manufacture will ere long be altogether superseded.

Indigenous Elementary Schools.—Hamilton states that throughout this district there are many Hindoo schools in which the rudiments of the Bengalee language are taught. A public officer, in reply to the circular queries of the General Committee of Public Instruction, states that the only mode of instruction carried on by Natives is by means of domestic teachers employed by opulent Natives exclusively for their own families, but to whose instructions, as a favor, they admit a few of the children of their own domestics. It is added that a few of the middle ranks of society provide an


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 For, if students do not understand the subject-matter, how can they master the various devices for expressing it forcibly? The time is more usefully spent on less ambitious efforts, so devised that the knowledge of the language and the general intelligence may advance together and step by step. Nature makes no leap, and neither does art, since it imitates nature. We must teach boys to walk before we give them lessons in dancing; to ride on a hobby-horse before we set them on a charger; to prattle before they speak, and to speak before they deliver orations. It was Cicero who said that he could teach no one to deliver orations who had not first learned how to talk.

8. As regards the plurality of tongues, our method, which we will reduce to eight rules, will render the acquisition of the various languages an easy matter.

9. (i) Each language must be learned separately. First of all the mother-tongue must be learned, and then the language that may have to be used in its place, I mean that of the neighbouring nation (for I am of opinion that modern languages should be commenced before the learned ones). Then Latin may be learned, and after Latin, Greek, Hebrew, etc.

One language should always be learned after, and not at the same time as, another; since otherwise both will be learned confusedly. It is only when they have been thoroughly acquired that it is of use to compare them by means of parallel grammars, dictionaries, etc.

10. (ii) Each language must have a definite space of time allotted to it.

We should take care not to convert a subsidiary study into a chief one, or to waste on the acquisition of words the time in which we might gain a knowledge of things. The mother-tongue, since it is intimately connected with the gradual unfolding of the objective world to the senses, necessarily requires several years (I should say eight or ten, or the whole of childhood, with a part of boyhood). We may then proceed to the other modern languages, each of which can be sufficiently mastered in one year.


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 Latin can be learned in two years, Greek in one year, and Hebrew in six months.

11. (iii) All languages are easier to learn by practice than from rules.

That is to say, by hearing, reading, re-reading, copying, imitating with hand and tongue, and doing all these as frequently as is possible. Cf. the, canons i. and xi.

12. (iv) But rules assist and strengthen the knowledge derived from practice.

This we have treated of in the previous chapter, canon ii. We speak more especially of the learned languages which we are compelled to learn from books, though we do not exclude modern languages. For Italian, French, German, Bohemian, and Hungarian can be, and indeed have already been, reduced to rules.

13. (v) The rules to which languages are reduced should be grammatical and not philosophic.

That is to say, they should not inquire into the causes and antecedents of words, phrases, and sentences, or seek to find out why this or that construction is necessary, but should simply state what is correct and how the constructions should be made. The subtler investigation into the causes and connecting links, the similarities and dissimilarities, the analogies and anomalies that exist in things and in words, is the business of the philosopher, and does but delay the philologist.

14. (vi) In writing rules for the new language the one already known must be continually kept in mind, so that stress may be laid only on the points in which the languages differ.

To call attention to points that they possess in common is not merely useless, but actually harmful, since the mind is terrified by the semblance of greater prolixity and irregularity than really exist. For instance, in Greek grammar there is no need to repeat the definitions of nouns, verbs, cases, and tenses, or rules of syntax which convey nothing new, and which may be considered as


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56 imperfect education for their children by contributing a supply of rice and other articles of consumption to a domestic teacher, from whose instructions the children of those neighbors are excluded who may either be unable or unwilling to afford their share. From these statements, and from the preceding account of the depressed state of the principal manufaturemanufacture [sic] of district, it may be inferred that popular instruction is at a very low ebb.

Elementary School not Indigenous—For more than eighteen years an extensive circle of schools has been maintained in a high state of efficiency in Dacca, under the superintendence of Missionary connected with the Serampore mission. For a considerable time the schools were supported by a local Society in correspondence with the Directors of the mission; but for some years past their expense has been met only in part by subscriptions in Dacca, and the deficiency has been supplied from Serampore. This change is ascribed to the cause already mentioned, the gradual decline of Dacca which has fallen in importance both through the loss of trade and the curtailing of the Courts of Justice. The European society is no longer either in number or circumstances what it was a few years ago. Those who compose it however still take a lively interest in the progress of education.

The schools for Native boys are eight in number, dispersed throughout the suburbs of the city, and giving instruction to about 697 scholars who receive a useful and Christian education in the Bengalee language. At first a strong prejudice existed against the schools, but now the children crowd to them and receive Christian instruction with delight. On occasion of the last annual examination in December 1834, a gentleman, who had taken an active part in eighteen previous annual examinations of the same schools, stated that the last excelled all that had gone before, although a large proportion of the children had been admitted since the examination in 1833. The entire number of boys attending the schools has been renewed at least six times since their first establishment, and thus each set of boys must have remained at school about three years.

Indigenous Schools of Learning.—Hamilton speaks of certain schools in the district in which the principles or rather the forms of Hindoo religion and law are taught, but I have not been able to trace any further details respecting them. I find not the remotest reference to Mahomedan schools in a district remarkable for a large proportion of Moslem inhabitants.

The public functionaries in 1823 reported to the general Committee that no grants or endowments of any description for the purpose of education were known to exist in the district.

Native Female Schools.—There are eight Native female schools, in which 249 girls and young women are instructed in Bengalee. After learning to read, it would appear from the


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not detain you with any account of the Oil Rivers here. They are too big a subject to compress for one thing; for another I do not feel that I yet know enough to have the right to speak regarding them, unless I were going to do so along accepted, well-trodden lines, and what I have seen and personally know of the region does not make me feel at all inclined to do this. So I will wait until I have had further opportunities of observing them.

The natives I have worked at, but as their fetish is of exceeding interest, I have relegated it to a separate chapter, owing to its unfitness to be allowed to stray about in the rest of the text, in order to make things generally tidier. The state of confusion the mind of a collector like myself gets into on the West Coast is something simply awful, and my notes for a day will contain facts relating to the kraw-kraw, price of onions, size and number of fish caught, cooking recipes, genealogies, oaths (native form of), law cases, and market prices, &c., &c. And the undertaking of tidying these things up is no small one. As for one's personal memory it becomes a rag-bag into which you dip frantically when some one asks you a question, and you almost always fail to secure your particular fact rag for some minutes.

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Rh published accounts that the instruction is exclusively religious. These schools are also in connection with the Serampore mission.

Population.—This district was formed about the year 1800 from the southern portion of Dacca Jelalpoor, and the Courts of Justice and revenue are held at Burisal. In 1801, the total population was estimated at 926,723 inhabitants in the proportion of five Hindoos to three Mahomedans, many of whom reside in boats the whole year. In 1584, a part of this district was overwhelmed by an inundation, succeeded by Mugh invasions, aided by the Portuguese of Chittagong; from the combined effects of which, it is said not to have recovered to the present day. A great destruction of life and property by inundation occurred in 1822. In the southern quarter of the district there still exist several Portuguese colonies of probably two centuries’ duration.

Indigenous Schools.—I have not been able to obtain any information respecting indigenous schools, either elementary or learned, in this district, and I can only infer from the known state of education in other districts that here also such institutions must exist, although they have not in any way come under public notice. The Collector in 1823 reported that no endowments or funds for the purposes of education existed in the district.

Native Female Schools.—In 1834, there was a Native girls’ school at Backergunge in connection with the Serampore mission, having 18 scholars in attendance. The prospects of success are said to be pleasing, and the common course of education is pursued with as good results as the circumstances and the tender age of the children will permit.

Population.—Exclusive of the Mugh settlers the total number of Bengalee inhabitants in 1801 was estimated at 1,200,000, but this is considered a large estimate when the limited area and physical circumstances of the district are considered. The Mahomedans here exceed the Hindoos in the proportion of three to two, but many of them have adopted the Brahmanical doctrines of caste and purity, and it is remarkable also that, although Chittagong was long possessed by the adherents of Buddha, in 1801 it scarcely contained one Buddhist of hereditary growth. The Bengalees live in detached houses, but at stated times once or twice a week assemble in open market-places to buy and sell.

About 1783, when Arracan was conquered by the Burmese a large migration of Mughs into the British territories took place,


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58 some of whom adopted agricultural pursuits, but the majority became petty traders, while others settled as mechanics. In 1795, and in succeeding years, the migration of Mughs from Arracan was incessant. In 1824, war with the Burmese arose, and led to their expulsion from Arracan and to the restoration of the Mughs to their native country.

There is still a Native class of Mughs in Chittagong, the remains probably of the first colony from Arracan that occupied Tripura, on the re-conquest of that territory from the Mahomedans. The eastern limits of the district have not been fully explored, but are principally occupied by rude aboriginal tribes more resembling the Burmese than the Hindoos, and by Mughs. The former do not appear to have aggregated into numerous societies, or to have any dependence on a general chief of their respective nations. Amongst the Mughs, the men have adopted the Bengalee dress, but the females retain that of Arracan and Ava. They eat every thing and with any body, but do not intermarry with strangers. The southern portion of the district is occupied by poor classes of herdsmen and families of roving hunters, who catch, tame, and occasionally eat wild elephants, the aborigines of the forests.

I have not met with any account of the present state of the Portuguese population in Chittagong beyond a general reference to their ignorance and impoverished circumstances. Chittagong was first visited by them in 1581 where they settled in considerable numbers, and in conjunction with the Mughs or Arracanese, infested and desolated the south-eastern quarter of Bengal.

Indigenous Elementary Schools.—The report made by the local functionaries in 1824 to the General Committee stated that there were many private schools in the villages around Chittagong, but their number or condition had not been ascertained.

Elementary Schools not Indigenous.—In connection with the Serampore mission there are two schools for Native boys at Chittagong, one of which is taught in Hindoostanee as its scholars are chiefly Mussulmans, and the other in Bengalee as it is attended by Hindoos. The number of scholars in both is about 50. In the Hindoostanee school, Arabic and Persian appear to be taught as well as Hindoostanee, which would place it in the rank of a school of Mahomedan learning; but I apprehend some mistake, although it is expressly stated in one of the reports that six of the scholars “were examined in their Persian and Arabic attainments in which they appear very proficient.”

Indigenous Schools of Learning.—The official report of 1824 makes no mention of indigenous schools of learning, and it is probable that few exist in this district. It is, however, stated that there is much land that has been appropriated to charitable purposes, some for churches and some for the benefit of the poor, but no endowments were known at that time to exist for the benefit of education.


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Rh In 1827, the collector of the district was directed to make enquiries respecting a Native institution supported by endowment, and to report the result to Government. He reported that Meer Hinja had bequeathed lands for the endowment of a madrasa, and that they then yielded for the purpose of education not more than rupees 1,570 per annum, two-thirds of the endowment having been judicially assigned to the founder’s children in the year 1790; that with the remaining one-third the then incumbent Maulavi Ali Machtulul Khan Kemoun professed himself unable to keep up the institution on its then present footing, which provided for the instruction of 50 students and for the support of three teachers, one of Arabic and two of Persian; that the number of students originally contemplated was 150; and that the buildings consisted of a small mosque in good order and two low ranges of attached houses for the dwelling of the master and disciples, which were of little value. The collector suggested that the lands would realize twice their present rental, if put up to the highest bidder by order of Government; and submitted that they should be so re-let, and the proceeds paid to the Maulavi in monthly instalments, who in return should periodically submit his accounts and a report of the state of the institution to the Board of Revenue for the information of Government. The Governor General in Council approved this suggestion and it was ordered accordingly.

Population.—In 1801, the population of this district was estimated at 750,000 persons in the proportion of four Hindoos to three Mahomedans. This district is the chief eastern boundary of Bengal, and its eastern limits are not yet accurately defined. The Tripura nation or tribe continue to maintain a kind of independent principality among the eastern hills about thirty miles wide. In features and manners they resemble the more eastern nations, but their princes have adopted Hindoo names and usages. The three tribes into which the Tripuras are divided are said to speak the same language though varying in character. Still further towards the east between the territory of the Tripura race and the central inaccessible mountains, there is a wide hilly region occupied by the people called Kookies, the Lingach of the Burmese and Lingta of the Bengalees, who appear to be a martial and predatory people.

Indigenous Schools.—I have no information regarding either common schools or schools of learning in this district. Hamilton states, perhaps too positively, that there are not any regular schools or seminaries where the Hindoo and Mahomedan laws and religion are taught. In reply to enquiries made by the general


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60 Committee the local agents of Government stated in 1823 that they could not discover that any endowments or funds of a public nature exist in the district, or that any grants have ever been made applicable to the purpose of public instruction.

Elementary School not Indigenous.—In 1820, a school was commenced by the Serampore missionaries at Comilah, the capital of the district, encouraged by the pecuniary support of private individuals, but the attendance of the scholars was so limited and irregular that it was discontinued. The scholars were the children of laborers who needed their assistance in the fields. The local agents strongly recommend that in future attempts to spread education in the district, the Native zemindars, several of whom reside in Calcutta, should be solicited to give their co-operation, which would greatly contribute to the removal of prejudice and to the final success of the design.

Population.—This district is intersected through its whole extent by the Brahmaputra and the innumerable streams flowing into it; and the surface of the country being low and flat it is during the height of the floods nearly submerged. In 1801, the total population was estimated at 1,300,000 persons, and the majority of the inhabitants are stated to be Mahomedans in the proportion of five to two Hindoos.

Schools.—Hamilton states that there are not any regular seminaries in this district for teaching the Mahomedan law, but that there are two or three schools in each pergunnah for instruction in Hindoo learning. The district is divided into nineteen pergunnahs and six tuppas, in all twenty-five local sub-divisions, which will give from 50 to 60 schools of Hindoo learning in the district. The scholars are taught gratuitously, it being deemed disgraceful to receive money for instruction.

Indigenous schools for learning imply the existence of indigenous elementary schools, but I find no mention of them in any authority to which I have referred.

The alleged non-existence of Mahomedan schools in a district in which the proportion of Mahomedans to Hindoos is as five to two is incredible.

I have not been able to discover that any institution of education that owes its origin to European philanthropy exists in this district.

Population.—In 1801, the inhabitants of this district were computed at 188,245 men, 164,381 women, and 140,319 children,


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Rh
 * "In all common persons is depraved fire;
 * How can they burn thus excellently?
 * We beg that honoured Foe will display his three splendid fires,
 * And surround his golden-coloured body."

His golden-coloured coffin then ascended high in the air, by the So-so tree; and was carried backwards and forwards, and then converted into three splended fires. The ashes were instantaneously changed into valuable globules that filled eight hu and four teu.

This took place on the 15th of the 2nd moon, of the year of the cycle Jin-shin, in the 52nd year of king Mo.

A hundred and seventeen years after the burning of Foe, the honoured of the age, his religion arrived in China, the middle empire. It was in the time of the latter dynasty Han. The emperor Ming dreamed one night that he saw a golden man, of a tall stature, large neck, and splendid as the sun and moon. When


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 ness of Sir Claude and Lady MacDonald I remained in Calabar River from January until May, collecting fish mainly through the kindness of Dr Whitindale, and insects through the kindness of Mr. Cooper, then in charge of the botanical station. Most of my time was spent puddling about the river and the forest round Dukę Town and Creek Town, but I made a point on this visit to Calabar of going up river to see Miss Slessor at Okyon, and she allowed me to stay with her, giving me invaluable help in the matter of fetish and some of the pleasantest days in my life. This very wonderful lady has been eighteen years in Calabar; for the last six or seven living entirely alone, as far as white folks go, in a clearing in the forest near to one of the principal villages of the Okyon district, and ruling as a veritable white chief over the entire Okyon district. Her great abilities, both physical and intellectual, have given her among the savage tribe an unique position, and won her, from white and black who know her, a profound esteem. Her knowledge of the native, his language, his ways of thought, his diseases, his difficulties, and all that is his, is extraordinary, and the amount of good she has done, no man can fully estimate. Okyon, when she went there alone—living in the native houses while she built, with the assistance of the natives, her present house—was a district regarded with fear by the Duke and Creek Town natives, and practically unknown to Europeans. It was given, as most of the surrounding districts still are, to killing at funerals, ordeal by poison, and perpetual internecine wars. Many of these evil customs she has stamped out, and Okyon rarely gives trouble to its nominal rulers, the Consuls in Old Calabar, and trade passes freely through it down to the sea-ports.

This instance of what one white can do would give many important lessons in West Coast administration and development. Only the sort of man Miss Slessor represents is rare. There are but few who have the same power of resisting the malarial climate, and of acquiring the language, and an insight into the negro mind, so perhaps after all it is no great wonder that Miss Slessor stands alone, as she certainly does.


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 were found on the other side. (Expect the Ubii were a tribe; but make sure of this, as they might be something in the fossil line.) Cologne was the cradle of German art. Talk about art and the old masters. Treat them in a kindly and gentle spirit. They are dead now. Saint Ursula was murdered at Cologne, with eleven thousand virgin attendants. There must have been quite a party of them. Draw powerful and pathetic imaginary picture of the slaughter. (N.B.—Find out who murdered them all.) Say something about the Emperor Maximilian. Call him 'the Mighty Maximilian.' Mention Charlemagne (a good deal should be made out of Charlemagne) and the Franks. (Find out all about the Franks, and where they lived, and what has become of them.) Sketch the various contests between the Romans and the Goths. (Read up 'Gibbon' for this, unless you can get enough out of Mangnall's Questions.) Give picturesque account—with comments—of the battles between the citizens of Cologne and their haughty archbishops. (N.B.—Let them fight on a bridge over the Rhine, unless it is distinctly stated somewhere that they didn't.) Bring in the Minne-singers, especially Walter von Vogelweid; make him sing under a castle-wall somewhere, and let the girl die. Talk about Albert Dürer. Criticise his style. Say it's flat. (If possible, find out if it is flat.) 'The rat tower on the Rhine,' near Bingen. Describe the place and tell the whole story. Don't spin it out too long, because everybody


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 already familiar. Those only need be included in which the usage of Greek differs from that of Latin, which is, already known. In this way Greek grammar may be reduced to a few pages, and will thus be both clearer and easier.

15. (vii) The first exercises in a new language must deal with subject-matter that is already familiar.

Otherwise the mind will have to pay attention to words and to things at the same time, and will thus be distracted and weakened. Its efforts should therefore be confined to words, that it may master them easily and quickly. Such subject matter might very well be the Catechism, or Biblical history, or in fact anything that is sufficiently familiar. (Being short, my Vestibulum and Janua might be used; though these are more suitable to commit to memory, while the subjects suggested above are fit for constant reading on account of the constant recurrence of the same words, which will thus grow familiar and impress themselves on the memory.)

16. (viii) All languages, therefore, can be learned by the method.

That is to say, by practice, combined with rules of a very simple nature that only refer to points of difference with the language already known, and by exercises that refer to some familiar subject.

17. Of the languages that should be learned carefully.

As we said at the commencement of the chapter, all languages need not be learned with equal accuracy. The mother-tongue and Latin are the most worthy of attention, and we should all master them thoroughly. This course of language-study may be divided into four ages—


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 After returning down river, I just waited until the Batanga, my old friend, came into the river again, and then started for my beloved South West Coast. The various divisions of the West Coast of Africa are very perplexing to a new comer. Starting from Sierra Leone coming south you first pass the Grain Coast, which is also called the Pepper or Kru Coast, or the Liberian Coast. Next comes the Ivory Coast, also known as the Half Jack Coast, or the Bristol Coast. Then comes the Gold Coast; then the old Slave Coast, now called the Popos; then Lagos, and then the Rivers, and below the Rivers the South West Coast. In addition to these names you will hear the Timber Ports, and the Win'ard and Leeward Ports referred to, and it perplexes one when one finds a port, say Axim, referred to by one competent authority, i.e. a sea-captain, as a Win'ard port, by the next as a Timber, by the next as a Gold Coast port. It is just as well to get the matter up if you intend frequenting the Bights of Biafra and Benin. I will just give you, as a hint to facilitate your researches, the information that the Bight of Benin commences at Cape St. Paul and ends at Cape Formosa; and the Bight of Biafra commences at Cape Formosa and ends at Cape Lopez. The Windward Coast is that portion between Cape Apollonia and the Secum River, just west of Accra. At this river the Leeward Coast begins, and terminates at the Volta.

When I was on the coast in 1893, Cameroons River was regarded in nautical circles as a River. Now, alas for me! it is not, and getting from Calabar to Cameroons is a thing you ought to get a medal for, for the line of vessels that run from Liverpool to Calabar goes no further than the latter place. In former days they used to call in at Calabar, then go across to Fernando Po and into Cameroons, calling steadily at ports right down to Sant. Paul de Loanda, which was a highly convenient and beautiful arrangement, but I presume did not pay; so the South West Coast boats, that is to say boats calling below Calabar, now call at Lagos, and thus ignore the Rivers, going straight on into Cameroons River. So you see, if you have providentially kept your head clear during this disquisition, I had to go on a homeward bound boat up as far as Lagos Bar and then catch a South Wester


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Rh making a total of 492,945 in the ratio of two Mahomedans to three Hindoos. The number of houses was estimated at 103,637, and the boats belonging to the district at 23,000. The eastern and southern portions of the district are hilly; but the northern, central, and western parts, are flat and submerged during the rains. Although so large a proportion of the whole population is Mahomedan the mosques have been long going to ruin, while several Hindoo temples have been erected and a few merchants have exchanged their thatched dwellings for others of brick and mortar. An authorized traffic in slaves has existed here from time immemorial; and one of the Magistrates estimated this class at one-sixth of the whole population, progressively increasing by domestic propagation. The transfer of slaves takes place both with and without their consent, but in the latter case only the mildest treatment can secure the purchaser any benefit from his acquisition. Occasionally the poorer descriptions of free inhabitants sell themselves when in extreme distress, and a few persons, principally slaves, are inveigled away by strolling mountebanks and mendicants. Women also of the poorer classes, when left widows, sell their children to procure food. Some have been hereditary slaves for several generations and are sold along with the estate on which they reside; and others are imported from Cachar, Gentiah, &c., lying to the north and east of the district. The slave population of Sylhet appears to be principally divided into two classes; first, debtor slaves whose labour is taken or sold in payment of debt; and second, the descendants of such persons. The former, it is stated, seldom work out their freedom and the latter are doomed to permanent slavery. The bulk belong to the latter class, and are transmitted by the purchasers to their heirs from generation to generation. The slaves are trained up to perform useful work whether in the field or about the house. In some of the districts many of the slave-holders send out such of their slaves as they can spare from the ordinary work in the house and field to let themselves out as servants or day-labourers, and receive for their own benefit the wages earned by them. Slaves are found in the ranks of some of the local military corps conducting themselves creditably as soldiers, and honestly yielding up their pay to their proprietors.

The tribes bordering on Sylhet are the Cosseahs, Cacharees, Garrows, &c., who, with the exception of the Cosseahs, appear to use dialects having a common origin. The Cosseahs have no distinct written character, and for purposes of correspondence employ the Bengalee language and scribes. These tribes, together with those of Assam and Munipore, merit separate investigation and report.

Schools.—The information respecting the state of education in this district is exceedingly scanty. Hamilton states that there


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 18. Gradation of this kind is the only true principle. On any other system everything falls into confusion and disorder, as we have most of us experienced. But through these four grades all who wish to learn languages may pass with ease if the proper materials for teaching languages have been provided; that is to say, suitable school-books for the pupils and hand-books to assist the teacher, both of which should be short and methodical.

19. The school-books, suited to the several ages, should be four in number—

The Vestibulum.

The Janua.

The Palatium.

(iv) The Thesaurus.

20. The Vestibulum should contain the materials for a child’s conversation—a few hundred words, arranged in sentences, to which are added the declensions of nouns and the conjugations of verbs.

21. The Janua should contain all the common words in the language, about 8000 in number. These should be arranged in short sentences embodying descriptions of natural objects. To this there should be subjoined some short and clear grammatical rules, giving accurate directions for writing, pronouncing, forming, and using the words of the language.

22. The Palatium should contain diverse discourses on all matters, expressed a varied and elegant style, with marginal references to the authors from which the several phrases are borrowed. At the end there should be given rules for altering and paraphrasing sentences in a thousand different ways.

23. The Thesaurus will be the name given to the classic writers who have written on any matter with serious intent and in a good style, with the addition of rules relating to the observation and collection of noteworthy passages and to the accurate translation (a most important matter) of idioms. Of these authors, some should be chosen to read in school; of others, a catalogue should be


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62 are no regular schools and seminaries for teaching the Hindoo or Mahomedan law, but that in different places there are private schools where boys are taught to read and write. Of Mymunsing the reverse was stated, that it had schools of learning, but nothing was said of elementary schools. It is probable that in Sylhet the former are to be found as well as the latter, although neither may be numerous or very efficient.

In 1827, the Collector of the district was directed to make enquiry respecting a madrasa supported by endowments, and to report the result to Government. He reported that upon investigation he had discovered sunnuds of endowments for the support of the shrine of Shah Jullah, which limited the allowance to lighting it up, and to the bestowment of alms and other charities, and other sunnuds containing provisions for the education of students not attached to any public institution; that the latter were of a very limited extent, and contained conditions for the support of the grantee and his family and descendants; that the descendants of the grantee performed the obligations of the grant in so much as to instruct a few disciples in their own family; and that the parties appeared to be extremely indigent, and the assigned lands not of sufficient importance to merit the interposition of Government. Under these circumstances the Government resolved not to interfere with the endowments of this madrasa.

Population.—This district comprises a portion of territory in the immediate vicinity of the city. In 1801, the total population of the district, including the city, was estimated at 1,020,572 persons, in the proportion of two Hindoos to one Mahomedan.

Indigenous Elementary Schools.—Nothing is said of such schools by any of my authorities, but I deem it quite unquestionable that, although possibly not very numerous, they exist to some extent both in the district and city.

Elementary Schools not Indigenous.—I find mention made only of one such school. It is in the city and is connected with the Bengal Auxiliary Missionary Society. At the close of 1834 it contained upwards of 60 regular scholars, but since the scriptures have been introduced as a class-book all the Brahmans and some other boys have left. Upwards of 40 remain. The higher classes are taught arithmetic, letter-writing, geography, &c.


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 formed, so that if any one desire to look up any subject in the authors who have written on it, he may be able to find out who they are.

24. By subsidiary books are meant those by whose help the school-books may be used with greater speed and with more result.

For the Vestibulum a small vocabulary, both Vernacular-Latin and Latin-Vernacular, should be provided.

For the Janua an etymological Latin-Vernacular dictionary, giving the simple words, their derivatives, their compounds, and the reason for the meanings attached.

For the Palatium a phraseological dictionary in the Vernacular, in Latin (and if necessary in Greek), forming a compendium of the various phrases, synonyms, and periphrases that occur in the Palatium, with references to the places where they are to be found.

Finally, for the completion of the Thesaurus, a comprehensive lexicon (Vernacular-Latin and Latin-Greek) which shall embrace, without exception, every point in each language. This should be carried out in a scholarly and accurate manner, care being taken that fine shades of meaning in the several languages be made to correspond, and that suitable parallels be found for idioms. For it is not probable that there exists any language so poor in words, idioms, and proverbs that it could not furnish an equivalent for any Latin expression, if judgment were used. At any rate, accurate renderings could be devised by any one who possessed sufficient skill in imitating, and in producing a suitable result from suitable material.

25. No such comprehensive dictionary has hitherto been produced. A Polish Jesuit, G. Cnapius, has, it is true, done good service to his countrymen by his work entitled A Thesaurus of Polish, Latin, and Greek; but in this work there are three defects. Firstly, the collection of vernacular words and phrases is incomplete. Secondly, he has not observed the order that we suggested above, since individual, figurative, and obsolete words are not arranged under separate headings, though in this way the


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 peculiarities, the elegances, and the resources of both languages equally would be illustrated. For he has given a number of Latin renderings for each word and phrase of Polish, while according to my plan only one, but that an exact equivalent, should be given. In this way, my dictionary would be of great service to those translating books from Latin into the vernacular, and vice versa. Thirdly, in Cnapius’ Thesaurus there is a great lack of method in the arrangement of examples. These should not be carelessly heaped together. First, sinople illustrations, drawn from history, should be given, then more ambitious ones taken from the orators, ther the more complex and uncommon usages of poets, and finally the uses that are obsolete.

26. But a detailed account of this comprehensive dictionary must be left for another time, as must also the further particulars of the Vestibulum, the Janua, the Palatium, and the Thesaurus, by means of which languages can be acquired with unfailing accuracy. Of these it will be fitting to speak when we deal with the several classes in detail.


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Rh Indigenous Schools of Learning.—In 1801, there was said to be only one school in the district for instruction in the Mahomedan law, while there were twenty for instruction in the Hindoo laws and customs. It seems very probable that the number both of Hindoo and Mahomedan schools of learning was then and still is much greater.

In December 1818, the collector of Moorshedabad forwarded to the Board of Revenue the petition of one Kali Kanta Sarma, praying for the continuance to him of a pension of five rupees per month, which had been frranted to his father, Jaya Ram Nyaya Panchanan, by the late Maha Rani Bhawani, former zemindar of Chucklah Rajshahy, for the support of a Hindoo college at that place. The Collector accompanied the petition by a statement that the pension had, as represented, been enjoyed by the father of the petitioner and confirmed to him by the Government on the report of the Collector in 1796, and that the petitioner was of good character and qualified for the superintendence of the college. The Revenue Board on forwarding this petition and the Collector’s letter to the Government observed that the pension had in fact lapsed to the Government in 1811, the petitioner not being then qualified to discharge the duties of the office, but that it was intended fully to ascertain his fitness for the office and in the event of his competency to give it to him. “On general principles,” the Board added, “we entertain the opinion that pensions granted for the maintenance of public institutions for education and instruction should not be resumed so long as they shall be appropriated bonâ fide for the purpose for which they were assigned; and we observe on reference to our proceedings that Government has generally been pleased to continue pensions for similar purposes, the Board having previously ascertained the qualifications of the persons in whose favor they have been granted, and we are accordingly induced to recommend the present claim to the favourable consideration of his Lordship in Council” On this recommendation the Government confirmed Kali Kanth Sarma in the receipt of this pension; and upon his decease in 1821 it was by the same authority conferred on his brother Chandrasiva Nyayalankara whose claim was undisputed and who then maintained seven students, five of them resident in his house.

In July 1822, the Collector of Moorshedabad forwarded to the Revenue Board a petition from Kishanath Nyaja Panchanand, the son of Ramkisore Sarma, reporting the death of his father, and praying the transfer and continuance to himself of a monthly pension of five Rupees which had been granted in 1793 for the support of a Hindoo seminary at Vyspur near Colapur. The Collector reported the petitioner to be the heir and rightful claimant of the pension and well qualified for the performance of the duties


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32 can alter and adapt it a little. That's the plan most of our modern orators adopt.

His Olympian majesty begins his oration, accordingly, with an adaptation of the opening of the First Philippic. But he presently descends to his own matter-of-fact style ("here," he says, "my Demosthenes fails me"), and relates how he had been present the day before, with some other gods, at a sacrifice of thanksgiving offered by a merchant-captain for his preservation from shipwreck—a very shabby affair, he complains it was, a single tough old cock for supper among sixteen gods. On his way home, he had heard two philosophers disputing, and, wishing to listen to their arguments, assumed a cloak and a long beard, and might, he declares, have very easily, for the nonce, passed for a philosopher himself. It was that rascal Damis the Epicurean, disputing with Timocles the Stoic, asserting that the gods took no heed to mortals or their affairs—in fact, practically denying their existence. Poor Timocles had been making a stout fight of it on the other side, but was so hard pressed by his opponent that Jupiter found him all in a perspiration and almost exhausted; he had therefore thrown the shadows of night round the disputants at once, and so put an end to the discussion. Following the crowd on their way home, he had been shocked to find that the majority were on the side of the atheistical Damis; and he had now summoned this assembly to take into their serious consideration the terrible results that would ensue if this opinion became the popular one.