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Author:Johann Wilhelm Wolf

Works

 * "Gerhard the Outcast" translated by Mary Ann Youatt (1846)

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 when an offence was committed partly in one locality and partly in another locality;

when an offence was a continuing one and continued to be committed in more localities than one;

when an offence consisted of several acts committed in different localities;

when an offence occurred whilst the alleged offender was travelling;

when an offence occurred whilst the injured person was travelling;

the inquiry officials of any localities concerned have the power of inquiry.

In the above events, the following inquiry official takes charge of the inquiry:

if the alleged offender has been arrested, the inquiry official in whose jurisdiction he was arrested;

if the alleged offender cannot yet be arrested, the inquiry official in whose jurisdiction the offence was discovered first.

If an offence punishable under the law of Siam has been committed outside the Kingdom of Siam, the Director General of the Public Prosecution Department

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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Rh nounced çinna, çeppu, zilugu, zemudu. They in like manner mispronounce Sanscrit words.

The mutation of ça, into tsa is obvious in the verb: where the participle చేయుచు chē-yu-tsu is at pleasure spelt చేస్తు chēstu: wherein the sounds of s and t change places.

The letters ట T, డ D and ణ N are harder and the letters త T ద D and న N are softer than the sound they have in English. Sir used an accent (t′ t′h d′ d′h n′) to denote these letters. Others have more conveniently placed a dot (ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ) under the harder sound.

The nasal sound ఙ gna or ng occurs in the common word వాఙ్మూలం vang-mulam a deposition or statement. Like all other nasals it is usually changed into ం as in the word అంగం angam, the body.

The nasal of the second varga or class, is ఞ and never appears alone: being always written under the letter జ J, as in the word జ్ఞాపకం jnāpacam recollection and జ్ఞానం jnānam, knowledge, సంజ్ఞ san-jna a sign; which is usually pronounced సౌగ్య sau-gya.

The letter య Y is in Telugu and Sanscrit a consonant, and our using it as a vowel in English sometimes misleads us in spelling. It is exemplified in these Telugu words.

చేయుట chē-yu-ta to do. కోయుట co-yu-ta to cut, పొయ్యె poyyĕ he went అయ్యా ayyā Sir. In Sanscrit words it has the same sound, as శయ్య sayya a couch యోగ్యం yōgyam (that is, yōg-yam) fitting; త్యాగం tyāgam


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Author:Theodore Mügge

Works

 * "Elizabeth and her Lovers; or, The Soldier's Secret" translated by Mary Ann Youatt (1846)
 * "The Trials of Ambition" translated by Mary Ann Youatt (1846)
 * "The Firm of Reike and Son" translated by Mary Ann Youatt (1848)

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 or his substitute shall be the inquiry official in charge or may delegate such duty to any inquiry official.

In the event of necessity, the following inquiry official has the power to conduct an inquiry whilst awaiting order from the Director General of the Public Prosecution Department or his substitute:

the inquiry official in whose jurisdiction the alleged offender was arrested;

the inquiry official requested by the government of the foreign country or the person that is injured to bring the alleged offender to punishment.

In the event that it is not certain which of the inquiry officials in the same province should be the inquiry official in charge, the commissioner of such province shall have the power to determine. However, in the provinces of Phra Nakhon and Thon Buri, the determination shall be made by the person holding the position of Deputy Director General of the Police Department or higher who is in command of the inquiry officials.

In the event that it is not certain which of the inquiry officials from several provinces should be the inquiry official in charge, the Director General of the Public Prosecution Department or his substitute shall determine.

The inquiry shall not be stayed because of awaiting the determination.

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22 (that is tya-gam, a dissyllable) separation మర్యద manner జ్యోతిష jyo-ti-sha astrological.

The illiterate Telugus often change the broad vowel E into Ya. Thus పేట pēta suburbs is wrongly written ప్యాట pya-ta. The verb to do చేయడం chēyadam, is vulgarly written and pronounced చ్యాయడం chya-ya-dam.

The letter R has three sounds and several shapes. The vowel R though declared by grammarians to differ from the consonant R in sound, is not perceptibly diverse. For the sake of distinction some call ర the common R, because the letter ఱ (now obsolete) is the uncommon form.

Those who prefer the obsolete letter spell gurram, carra, parra, barrĕ (a horse, a stick, a fen, a she buffalo) in this manner గుఱ్ఱం, కఱ్ఱ, పఱ్ఱ, బఱ్ఱె but the better spelling is గుర్ర, కర్ర, పర్ర, బర్రె which all understand at once while the uncommon form (commonly called బండి రెఫ bandi repha, or large R) is found only in a few manuscripts of poems. Indeed the shape ఱ as already pointed out is now used for the vowel U and accordingly ఱ॥ is the usual contraction for the word ఉత్తరుపు an answer.

In the English words art, part, short, hard, curl, girl, pearl we do not pronounce the R because followedbecause it is followed [sic] by another consonant. But in the languages of India the R in such places must be distinctly enunciated, (in the Scoth manner) or natives will not understand what we say. Example:— కర్త carta, lord కర్మం carmam deed, purn'a full సర్పం sarpam a serpent  archacudu a priest.


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'Cyropædeia,' or 'Education of Cyrus,' is, like the 'Anabasis,' misnamed. For only the first few chapters are about the education, properly so called, of the Persian monarch. The remainder of the work, extending to eight books, and being nearly the largest of the writings of Xenophon, treats of the successful exploits of Cyrus as a general, and a military and civil organiser, under his uncle Cyaxares, till he finally receives from the latter the hand of his daughter in marriage, and is placed on the throne of Media. The work closes with an account of the distribution into satrapies of the countries conquered by Cyrus; and of the sage advice which he gave, when his death drew nigh, to his sons and his chief officers of state—advice, says Xenophon, which was but too much neglected by his successors, who forgot his maxims, and by their misrule suffered the excellent institutions of Cyrus to fall into abeyance, and the national character of the Persians to decay.


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When an offence has occurred or is claimed or believed to have occurred in the jurisdiction of any court, it shall be addressed by that court. But if—

the accused resides or was arrested or an official has conducted the inquiry in a locality outside the territory of such court, it may be addressed by the court to whose jurisdiction the locality belongs;

the offence occurred outside the Kingdom of Siam, it shall be addressed by the Criminal Court, and if the inquiry has been conducted in a locality which belongs to the territory of any court, it may also be addressed by that court.

When two or more courts have equal power to address a case, if the charge instituting the case has been submitted to the court in whose territory the offence did not occur according to the charge, the prosecutor or accused may request the case to be transferred to another court in whose territory the offence occurred.

If the prosecutor submits the charge to the court in whose territory the offence occurred but it later appears to the prosecutor that the trial of the case would be more convenient

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124 And yet the name conveys generally the main purpose which Xenophon apparently had in view when writing this work. He wished, not to write history, but to compose a historical romance, in which should be depicted a perfect governor of men. And the perfection of the generalship, administration, and monarchical rule of Cyrus, was meant to be attributed in the first instance to the excellent education which he had received in youth. All is of a piece with this conception. The hero of the book is possessed of Utopian excellence. His virtues are unalloyed by any vice, and his successes by a single reverse. Evidently, then, we have before us one of those novels with a purpose which have been common enough in modern times, and which are generally considered to be rather poor works of art. Xenophon's is the first elaborate production of the kind which remains to us from antiquity, though probably the allegorical sermons of the Sophists (see above, p. 109) were in the same direction.

In giving any account (and much will not be required) of the 'Education of Cyrus,' we must remind the reader that this is not the same Cyrus as he whom Xenophon knew personally, and under whom he marched from Sardis to Cunaxa. The Cyrus of the


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Rh 'Anabasis' (see above, p. 11) was a mere pretender to the Persian throne, and died 400. The Cyrus of the 'Cyropædeia' was the Great Cyrus, who founded the Persian Empire, and died about 525. Of this great conqueror's history there are three accounts remaining; the first is that of Herodotus, the father of history; the second is that of Ctesias, a Greek physician, who was employed at the court of Persia, and wrote a history of the country; the third is that given by Xenophon, and of all the three the last mentioned is generally considered as the least to be depended on. The curious thing is that Xenophon, writing what he meant to be a historical romance, has made it infinitely tamer than the account of Cyrus given by Herodotus, who aimed at merely setting down the historical facts as they had been told him. The Cyrus of Herodotus is sent out, when newly born, by his grandfather to be murdered; he is saved by interposition of Providence, brought up as the child of a herdsman, and subsequently recognised; he revolts against his grandfather, overthrows the Median kingdom, founds the Persian Empire, and finally is slain in a great battle against Tomyris, queen of the Massagetæ. The Cyrus of Xenophon is brought up in all decorum as befitted the grandson and nephew of a king; he is duly appointed to high offices in the state, obtains many easy victories, and inaugurates many state improvements; he succeeds peacefully to the throne of his uncle, and on a quiet death-bed gives lectures to his admiring friends upon the arts of government and the immortality of the soul. This was a case, then, in which truth was


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126 stranger than fiction; for the purpose of Herodotus was truth, whereas the purpose of Xenophon was fiction of a particular kind—not the fiction which grasps the poetry of human life, but the dry fiction which treats all incidents as a mere framework on which ethical or political moralisings may be hung.

It may be supposed, however, that Xenophon, who under the younger Cyrus had penetrated into the heart of the Persian territory, must have had great opportunities of studying Persian customs, and that his book would be found to contain valuable information with regard to those customs, and to the Oriental character viewed on its best side. But in this expectation the reader is disappointed, for here again we find that it was Xenophon's object to set forth, not facts, but his own conceptions of what ought to be. Throwing the scene of his Utopia into the far East, and the time of his narrative one hundred and fifty years back, he appears to have thought himself emancipated from restrictions of truth, or even probability, and accordingly he transfers to ancient Persia all that he most admired in the Lacedæmonian institutions of his own time. Even the distinctive and remarkable characteristics of the Persian religion are blurred over and confused by his constantly attributing to his hero the performance of sacrifices according to the Grecian mode, and the practice of the art of divination, of which he was personally so fond.

Taking the 'Cyropædeia' as we find it—not as a history, nor as a true picture of national life and manners, nor yet as a romance of the higher kind, like


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Rh one of Walter Scott's novels, but as a fiction composed with the object of setting forth views on education and politics—we must allow it certain merits. The purity and elegance of its style are universally acknowledged. And it possesses, as Colonel Mure says, an epic unity of action, within which numerous episodes are artistically introduced, some of them quite idyllic in character. It will be sufficient for our purpose to introduce to the reader a few specimens of these, as there would be little use or pleasure in dwelling on the details of the pseudo-historical campaigns of Cyrus.

Xenophon commences by saying that, on reflecting how constantly governments of all kinds are overthrown, he had come to the conclusion that mankind are far harder to govern than cattle or horses, which are easily brought into obedience. One man, however, had possessed, in a pre-eminent degree, the faculty of ruling over his fellow-men, and that was Cyrus the Persian. How Cyrus should have been able to conquer and hold in subjection so large a portion of the world, seemed to him a problem worth investigation. He had made all the inquiries he could about the natural qualities and education which had produced so remarkable a ruler, and would now proceed to state them, as follows:—

Both the historians and the poets of Persia agree in describing Cyrus as beautiful in person, humane in disposition, and so keen in the pursuit both of knowledge and of glory as to endure all labours and encounter all dangers for their sake. The education which he


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Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia/Series 1/Volume 1/The Orang Sletar, by. ... 302.

illustrative of the physical peculiarities of the Mintira, Biduanda Kallang, and Sabimba, by. ... 305.

, with some additional remarks on their customs &c., by. 307-331*

, by. ... 330-6.*

, by. ... 336 * -40 *

Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia/Series 1/Volume 1/Remarks on the Sletar & Samimba Tribes: by, Esq. Hon. M. N. H. S. of Newcastle. ... 341 * -351 *.

Two boats of orang Sletar visit the Gunboat, their appearance and man-


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128 received was in accordance with the system of public instruction of his country. For Persia, unlike other countries (this is meant as a hit at Athens, and at the same time as a compliment to Sparta), did not content herself with legislating against crime; she moulded the minds of her citizens from childhood, by a public educational system, to virtue. This system, according to Xenophon, extended only to the higher classes of society. Unlike our Committee of the Privy Council, the Persian educational department appears to have begun from the top. Only those were admitted to the privileges of the state education who were above the necessity of manual labour.

The headquarters of public instruction in Persia are described as being in the metropolis, in a grand square, where the king's palace and the public offices stood, and from which all merchandise and trades, with their "noise and vulgarity," were banished. The square was divided into four parts, which were severally assigned to the boys, youths, men, and elders. The first three classes attended regularly from early morning. The elders appear to have joined the place of instruction at such times as suited them, chiefly to furnish an example to their juniors, but, when on the spot, to have been under discipline like the rest. The youths, till married, slept round the public offices, in light armour, as guards. Each of the four classes was under the control of presidents. In the boys' quarter the time appears chiefly to have been occupied in trying, under the president, all cases of crime and misdemeanour which had arisen among the boys them-


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Rh selves. Theft, deceit, calumny, and ingratitude were thus brought to punishment. And it was commonly said that the Persian boys went to school to learn justice, as elsewhere boys go to school to learn to read. To this arrangement the trifling objection might be made, that it seems to imply a very abundant and continuous crop of naughtiness among the boys themselves, else the trials would have come to an end, and the study of "justice" would have been stopped. Xenophon, however, makes no remark on this point, nor does he mention any other subjects of study as entering into the curriculum of this model university. Indeed, the education given seems very much to have been based on those "Aryan principles" of instruction of which we have heard of late, and according to which book-learning will always be at a discount. A Spartan system of diet appears to have been prescribed for the boys, consisting of bread and cresses, with water to drink. The boys learned shooting with the bow, and throwing the javelin; and at the age of seventeen they passed into the class of youths.

From seventeen to twenty-seven the chief means of cultivation for the youths appear to have consisted in patrol-duty and hunting. On the advantages of hunting as a preparation and training for war, the Persians, according to Xenophon, laid great stress, and the youths were constantly engaged in formal hunting-parties under the king. They bivouacked in the open fields, and were restricted to the most ascetic fare; and as a result of this system Xenophon mentions that every Persian avoids, as a piece of bad manners,


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 He differs from them and the Mintirá in the absence of the prognathous form of the lower part of the face, in its being deeper, and in the angle of the chin, or that formed by lines drawn from it to the outward extremities of the cheek bones, being much more acute. This arises from the greater length of the lower jaw and its proceeding directly in a sloping or slightly curved line from the ear to the chin. The general character of his face is between the Malay and Siamese, but perhaps nearer the latter. The expression is much more Siamese than Malay.

All the faces are less lively, but at the same time less indolent, than those of the Mintirá, the general expression quiet, contented, pleasant, non-obtrusive, and for the rest blank. The outlines are less rounded, the skin harsher, and the eye more dull. The features of Sáwéng and Sángo have a pinched or compressed look. I never saw any Malay who resembled them.

The feet of the Kálláng are straighter and narrower than the Binuá, and the toes parallel instead of spreading.

 THE ORANG SLETAR.

This race are closely allied to the Biduanda Kálláng, (both indeed appear to be branches of one tribe, the aborigines of Singapore, and both derive their names from Singapore rivers) but though, like them they do not venture to sea, they are not confined to one river, but frequent most of the rivers and creeks of Johore that have their mouths in the old Strait and in the wide estuary of the Johore River. I have never examined them closely. The following extract from my Journal relates to a small party which I encountered last year in the course of a geological exploration of the Johore estuary and will convey some idea of the singularly secluded lives which many of them lead. Others are less solitary and barbarous.

"I now pulled across to the south eastern corner of the estuary and entered a broad winding creek called Trús Báú. For some time nothing is visible beyond the mangrove walls of the reaches which expand or contract as we proceed. As we went deeper and deeper into this lonely creek, the feeling of its wildness and seclusion grew stronger. At Tanjong Búaye we had left the last trace of cultivation behind, and the uniformity of the winding shores


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 of the creek, the smoothness of its water, the stillness that prevailed, the absolute want of all living things and all signs and sounds of life, and the impression that from its situation it was not frequented by boats, gave to it a character of the most perfect solitude. Whilst enjoying the full influence of this character, a bend of the creek suddenly broke the spell by disclosing another reach in which were two boats. It was soon renewed and redoubled as we neared them and the steersman declared they were wild men, and cautioned us to avoid doing anything to frighten them. They were fit accompaniments of such a scene. When they saw us they paddled hastily to the side and apparently sought to screen themselves from view by the mangroves, but we were too close upon them to admit of their doing so. As the evening was falling and I was desirous of reaching the foot of Gunong Baú by daylight, we did not stop, and I had therefore no opportunity of examining or conversing with them. Their appearance however is too wild and remarkable to require more than a moment's look to impress itself on the mind. One expression was strongly stamped on their countenances, that of a dull blank stupidity almost idiotical in its excess animated for the time by the startled and frightened look with which they gazed at us. Their hair hung over their shoulders in a tangled mass of a dry dirty red. In each boat, a woman naked to below the waist, held the helm oar, and a man paddled. There were also two lads; and the same idiotical expression was so deeply stamped on the face of each, as at once to reveal a life so miserably contracted as to exclude all that social expansiveness of individual nature which produces a free growth of mind and a wide range of ideas. Compared with these wild denizens of lonely creeks my unlettered and ignorant Malays and Báwiáns assumed a high rank in the scale of humanity. The contrast between them and the Malay in particular, a native of Johore like themselves, was so marked as to render it in a high degree difficult to account for the difference if both are of the same stock. The Malay bold, sociable, talkative, intelligent, and even possessing a certain peculiar refinement and sense of honour. The orang utan, although speaking the same language, idiotically stupid and in habits liker wild animals than men, shunning all intercourse that can possibly be avoided with the rest of mankind, and apparently having no social feeling amongst


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130 either spitting or blowing his nose—"a rule which it would be impossible to observe, except by men who had practised great moderation in diet and exhausted the moisture of their bodies by exercise."

Under this mode of instruction, which Xenophon does not further describe, Cyrus was brought up till twelve years old. He was then taken to see his grandfather, Astyages, king of the Medes. By his lively prattle he pleased Astyages, and was invited to remain for some time at his court. Cyrus begged his mother to let him stay, because, he said, "he knew how to shoot well enough already, and by stopping amongst the Medes he should have a better opportunity than at home of learning to ride." His mother's objection was that he would forget all about "justice." But Cyrus said that he quite understood justice, and did not require to learn it any more. "How so?" said Mandane. "Why," said Cyrus, "I have often been appointed to decide cases, and I only made one mistake. That was in the case of the boys and the coats. There was a big boy who had a little coat, quite too small for him. And there was a little boy with a large coat, very loose upon him. So the big boy made the little boy exchange coats with him, and I decided that he was right in doing so, and that each boy should keep the coat that best fitted him. But the master beat me for giving this decision, for he said that it was against the law to force a person to give up his property, and that justice consisted in obeying the law. So, now I know what justice is." This story—which has probably been made familiar


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 themselves save that which serves to keep the family together.

Since the above papers were sent to press my friend Mr. Thomson has come in from the Old Strait, where he met several of the oráng Sletar and oráng Sabimbá. Some of the results of his observations, I am happy to be able to promise, will be given in a supplementary number, and they will be illustrated by lithographs of several heads.


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Rh to most of our readers by that most delightful book for childhood, 'Sandford and Merton'—shows the sort of materials from which Xenophon constructed his work; for it evidently conveys in a lively form one of the favourite doctrines of Socrates (see above, page 114). A combination of the teachings of Socrates with the institutions of Sparta is what Xenophon wishes to recommend under the shallow disguise of Persian names and the picture of a foreign court.

The educational institutions of Sparta, by themselves, Xenophon would probably not have deemed adequate, as not being sufficiently awakening to the intellect. One of the most interesting indications on the subject of education which he gives is contained in a charming description of the boy Cyrus, of whom he says: "He was, perhaps, a little over-talkative, but this was partly from education; because he was obliged by his master to give a reason for what he did, and to require reasons from others, when he had to give his opinion in judgment; and partly, because, being very eager for knowledge, he was always putting questions to those about him on many subjects, to ascertain how such and such things were; and from being of a quick apprehension, he gave very ready answers to all questions that were asked him;—so that from all these circumstances he acquired a habit of loquacity." The method of instruction here indicated, in this Émile of the fourth century before Christ, is well worth attention. It implies that the one thing, to be aimed at in educating boys is, to arouse their intelligence into activity. This forms a great contrast


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132 to the spirit of modern education, which aims rather at imparting results and foregone conclusions, and which many people are now beginning to complain of, as fostering servility of mind and want of self-reliance. Cyrus, according to the account of Xenophon, stayed four or five years at the court of his grandfather, during which time he was not at all spoilt by the indulgence which all showed him, and the luxury which he saw around him. He developed in manly qualities, became a bold and passionate rider, hunted the animals in the royal park (or "paradise"), and then took to more real and dangerous sport in riding after the boar and other animals in their native wilds. On one occasion the Assyrians made a raid over the Median borders, and Astyages took out troops to intercept them. The youthful Cyrus, about fifteen years old, went with him in a new suit of armour, and at an opportune moment advised that a dash should be made at the enemy. The charge was made, the boy joined, and gradually headed it. "As a generous dog," says Xenophon, "that has no experience, hurries headlong without caution upon a boar, so Cyrus pressed forward, minding only to strike whomsoever he overtook, and heedless of anything else." The enemy gave way, and the Median cavalry had complete success. Cyrus was almost mad with excitement; and while the rest were retiring, he did nothing but ride round by himself, and gaze upon those who had fallen in the action.

Such was his first essay in arms. He was shortly afterwards recalled by his father, in order that he


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 if it be conducted by another court which has the power to address the case, the prosecutor may move to the court before which the case is pending trial for transferring the case to the other court. Even though the accused objects, the court may transfer the case or dismiss the motion when it finds this appropriate.

When several offences are connected for any reason such as—

when it appears that several offences have been committed by the same offender or that several offenders are connected in committing one or several offences, whether as principals, accomplices, or recipients of stolen goods;

when it appears that several offences have been committed under the same intention or by offenders who have previously conspired;

when it appears that an offence has occurred under the intention to help another offender avoid the punishment for a different offence he has committed;

then all the cases may be instituted or all of the offenders may be charged before the court which has the power to address the offence carrying a higher maximum rate of punishment [than the other offences].

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Rh might complete his education. On returning to Persia, he continued another year in the class of the boys. He lived cheerfully on the same rigorous fare as the rest, and surpassed them all in exercises and in diligence of attention. With the exception of some advice from his father, which has very much the appearance of some of the conversations of Socrates, we hear no more, after this, of the "education of Cyrus." He had now reached man's estate, and on a war between Media and Assyria breaking out, he was appointed to command the Persian force of some forty thousand men which was sent to assist the Medes. He immediately made a long speech, in the style of the Xenophontic orations in the 'Anabasis,' to his chosen body-guard. After this follows an account of improvements effected by Cyrus in the army—a topic which gave Xenophon a good opportunity for developing many of his favourite theories on military organisation. Ambassadors arrived from "the king of India" to learn the particulars of the quarrel between Media and Assyria, and Cyrus sagaciously conciliated them by proposing that the king of India should be made arbitrator in the question.

The chief of Armenia, a country subject to the Medes, showed signs of revolt at this juncture, and Cyrus took his army for the purpose of reducing him to obedience. Having adroitly surrounded the Armenian chief, and made him prisoner, he proceeded to try him solemnly on the charge of treason. Xenophon uses this opportunity to introduce a conversational debate, after his own heart. Tigranes, son of the


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134 Armenian, had resided in Persia, and had often been one of the hunting companions of Cyrus. Cyrus recollected that he had noticed this young man associating with a philosopher, who went about with him and instructed him. He now came forward and requested to be heard in his father's defence. Being readily allowed by Cyrus to speak, he pleaded, not that his father had been innocent, but that by captivity and fear he had been reformed, and that it would be infinitely better policy in Cyrus to accept him as a humbled and grateful dependant, instead of putting him to death. The arguments of Tigranes, backed by his own generous impulses, prevailed with Cyrus, and in the handsomest terms, mixed with some badinage, he spared the life of the Armenian chief, only taking from him a moderate fine. He then turned to Tigranes and asked what had become of his friend the philosopher. "He is no more," said Tigranes, "for my father here put him to death." "What crime," asked Cyrus, "did he find him committing?" "He said that he corrupted me," answered Tigranes; "and yet, Cyrus, so noble and excellent a man he was, that, when he was going to die, he sent for me and told me not to bear my father the least ill-will for putting him to death, because he was doing it not out of malice, but out of ignorance, and whatever faults men commit through ignorance ought to be considered involuntary." "Alas, poor man!" said Cyrus. On this the Armenian chief interposed, and said, "It was jealousy, Cyrus;


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Rh

life to the scene, and struck the ear with various noises, whilst the anvil on the hill resounded with the strokes of the weighty hammer. Already the polite arts began to flourish in this new settlement; the various tribes of animals and vegetables, which dwelt in the unfrequented woods, were imitated by an artist in his noviciate; and the romantic prospects of this shaggy country, lived on the canvas in the glowing tints of nature, who was amazed to see herself so closely copied. Nor had science disdained to visit us in this solitary spot: an observatory arose in the centre of our works, filled with the most accurate instruments, where the attentive eye of the astronomer contemplated the motions of the celestial bodies. The plants which clothed the ground, and the wonders of the animal creation, both in the forests and the seas, likewise attracted the notice of philosophers, whose time was devoted to mark their differences and uses. In a word, all around us we perceived the rise of arts, and the dawn of science, in a country which had hitherto lain plunged in one long night of ignorance and barbarism! But this pleasing picture of improvement was not to last, and like a meteor, vanished as suddenly as it was formed. We re-imbarked all our instruments and utensils, and left no other vestiges of our residence, than a piece of ground, from whence we had cleared the wood. We sowed indeed a quantity of European garden seeds of the best kinds; but it is obvious that the shoots of the surrounding weeds will shortly stifle


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Rh A PSALM OF PRAISE

(Psalm CII)

LESS the Lord, O my soul: and let all that is within me bless His holy name.

Bless the Lord, O my soul, and never forget all He hath done for thee.

Who forgiveth all thine iniquities: Who healeth all thy diseases.

Who redeemeth thy life from destruction: Who crowneth thee with mercy and compassion.

Who satisfieth thy desire with good things: so that thy youth shall be renewed like the eagle’s.

The Lord doth righteous acts, and judgment for all that suffer wrong.

He hath made His ways known unto Moses: His acts unto the children of Israel.

The Lord is compassionate and merciful: long-suffering and plenteous in mercy.

He will not always be angry: nor will He threaten for ever.

He hath not dealt with us according to our sins: nor rewarded us according to our iniquities.

For as heaven is high above the earth: so mighty is His mercy towards them that fear Him.

As far as the east is from the west, so far hath He removed our transgressions from us.

As a father hath compassion on his children, so the Lord pitieth them that fear Him: for He knoweth our frame.

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text: Index:Journal Of The Indian Archipelago And Eastern Asia Series.i, Vol.2 (IA in.ernet.dli.2015.107695).pdf


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Page:Journal Of The Indian Archipelago And Eastern Asia Series.i, Vol.2 (IA in.ernet.dli.2015.107695).pdf/4

THE

OF THE [sic]

AND

EASTERN ASIA

EDITED BY

J. R. LOGAN, F. G. S.

Member of the Asiatic Society, Corresponding Member of the Ethnological Society of London, and of the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences.

VOL. II.

SINGAPORE:

1848


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 If the connected offences are subject to equal maximum rates of punishment, the court which has the power to address them is the court which is the first to accept the charge against any of them.

A court which has accepted charges against connected offences may try and adjudicate upon them all together.

If the court which has accepted charges against connected offences finds that it is appropriate for one of the offences to be addressed by a court which generally would have the power to address it had it not been connected with the others, the former court may, after having agreed with the latter court, order it to be charged before that latter court.

If, owing to the nature of the offence, the status of the accused, the number of the accused, the sentiment of most of the local people, or a different reason, there might be obstruction to a preliminary examination or trial or it should be feared that unrest or other danger might occur, the prosecutor or accused may petition the Chief of the Supreme Court of Justice to transfer the case to a different court. If the Chief of the Supreme Court of Justice grants the petition, he shall order transferring the case to the court specified by him.

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32 He remembereth that we are dust: Man’s days are as grass, as the flower of the field so shall he flourish.

For the wind passeth over him, and he is gone; and his place shall know him no more.

But the mercy of the Lord is from everlasting to everlasting upon them that fear Him: and His justice unto children’s children, to such as  keep His covenant, and are mindful of His commandments to do them.

The Lord hath prepared His throne in heaven: and His kingdom shall rule over all.

Bless the Lord, all ye angels of His; ye mighty in strength, and that do His word, hearkening to the voice of His orders.

Bless the Lord, all ye His hosts: you ministers of His that do His will.

Bless the Lord, all His works: in every place of His dominion, Bless thou the Lord, oh my soul.

The penance given in confession may be said now.

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text: Tixall Poetry/A Ballad

title: Tixall Poetry/A Ballad


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Page:Weird Tales Volume 43 Number 02 (1951-01).djvu/61

 face. "Is nonsense, unsinn. How could it be one of dem? Didn't we bind dem to stay before we left?"

Kate sighed and sank back in her seat. Her brother John, who was sitting beside her (he was only her half-brother, she was wont to say with a touch of defiance), slipped his arm around her waist. "You're tired, Kate," he said. "It ain't them dead ones I'm afraid of. I’m afraid of a posse coming after us."

"Oh, do you think there'll be one?" Kate answered vaguely. Once more her hands were moving on her dress.

"Dead sure. Colonel York suspicioned us about his brother. They traced him as far as our farm."

"He didn’t come back for the seance, though," Kate replied.

"No. But we knew he'd be back later for sure, with more men. Things was getting hot. That’s why we left."

Kate laughed suddenly, a bold, ringing laugh. "Why we left! Didn't we look out the bedroom window that morning and see the ground heaving below in the orchard? Didn't you hear her little voice crying 'Mama! Mama!' the way she did when we burled her? Why we left!"

"I didn't hear or see nothing, Kate. I only said that to ... to agree with you."

Once more Kate laughed. "You didn't hear anything? Why, you turned as white as a sheet!"

"As a ghost," her brother corrected after a moment had passed. "Make it a ghost, while you're doing it."

HEY jounced on. Bender, hunched over the reins, clucked now and then at the team. Once John said out of a long silence, "This here ain’t much of a road, for a fact." Kate looked at him sideways without saying anything.

The sun began to sink. The air, which had been warm with spring earlier in the day, grew colder. A light breeze ruffled the long grass of the prairie. Kate, shivering, let John embrace her without resistance.

Old man Bender turned round to face them. "Hope we find dose houses soon," he said uneasily. "That boy said we'd get to them before night."

Kate raised her head from John's shoulder and looked him full in the eyes. His gaze wavered. He coughed and turned back to the team.

They stopped at last. "Is too dark to drive more," old man Bender said, his voice loud in the sudden silence. "Ve got to sleep here." He looked around the vacant flatness of the prairie, frowning, and then began to unharness the team.

John jumped from the wagon and then turned to help Kate. She was stiff from the long sitting; she almost fell into his arms. Mrs. Bender, meantime, was getting sacks and crocks of provisions out from under the front seat.

"Have an apple, son," she said, holding one out to the young man.

"No. I can't say as I care for the fruit from them trees."

RS. BENDER began to munch the apple herself. Kate had taken advantage of the distraction to withdraw from John’s embrace and wander off. He looked after her, his forehead wrinkled. Then he began to help his mother with the preparations for the evening meal.

Suddenly Kate screamed. It was a high sound, not very loud. John dropped the bread he was holding and ran toward her.

He found her sitting on her heels, her black bombazine skirt drawn tightly around her haunches. She was holding a long thigh bone in one hand.

"It scared me when I first saw it," she said, looking up at him brightly. "The skull, I mean. And look, over there in the grass, there’s another one."

John followed her gesture. He kicked the grass apart. After a short time he found the second skeleton, gleaming whitely even in the dim light. He stooped over, hunting, and came up at last with something in his hand.

"It was an Indian," he announced to Kate. "This here's what killed him. An arrow." He showed it to her.

She seemed to lose interest. "Oh, an Indian. Must of been a long time ago."


text: Tixall Poetry/To the Tune of "Robin Good Fellow


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 segala arta orang yang di-bawa-nya itu pada menyuroh sampai-kan ka-pada segala kluarga-nya dan k-pada ampunya arta, maka kamu sahkan wasiat merika'itu; dan jika mati sa-sa'orang deri-pada orang Inglitir itu, maka arta-nya ada pada sa-sa'orang saudagar orang Inglitir atau pada sa-sa'orang saudagar orang yang lain maka arta itu thabit ada pada orang itu, kawan ia beniaga dan meli berjual; maka kamu hukumkan seperti hukum yang berlaku dalam negri. Dan jika berhukum sa-sa'orang orang Inglitir, d'awa-nya kendirian sama kendirian atau dengan orang yang lain, maka kamu hukumkan seperti hukum isi negri.

I am the reigning sovereign of these [countries] below the wind, holding the throne of the kingdom of Acheen and Sumatra, and all the countries subject to Acheen. All ye who scan this letter shall [do so] with good will and peace, and listen to the words which it contains and understand them all. It has been my pleasure to declare for your information as follows: I have made friends with the king of England, and ye shall be friends with all the king of England's people, as ye are friends with all the rest of mankind in the world; and ye shall do them good, as ye do good to the rest of men. For I do good to them, and I receive them into my country and receive their gifts, and I look upon them favourably, for that 1 desire mutual affection with the king of England; and for that I desire to do good to all his people, I am treating well those who have now come, and [shall do so to] those who shall come hereafter. I have pledged my faith to those who come to Acheen and Sumatra, so that they shall no longer be afraid for their ships and their possessions and all the valuables which they bring, and they shall not be afraid or suspicious of me. And as for all of you my people, when they shall bring any valuables from their country to this country of mine, ye shall buy and sell with them, and sball exchange your valuables for any valuables of theirs; even as ye trade and exchange valuables with other people by

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text: Tixall Poetry/Mopsus and Marina

title: Tixall Poetry/Mopsus and Marina


text: Tixall Poetry/Witty Mr Henningam's Song

title: Tixall Poetry/Witty Mr Henningam's Song


text: Tixall Poetry/Unperishable Love

title: Tixall Poetry/Unperishable Love


text: Tixall Poetry/Mirtillo

title: Tixall Poetry/Mirtillo


text: Tixall Poetry/On His Mistresse Going a Voyage


text: Tixall Poetry/Phillis

title: Tixall Poetry/Phillis


text: Tixall Poetry/The Constant Lover

title: Tixall Poetry/The Constant Lover


text: Tixall Poetry/The Irresistible Beauty

title: Tixall Poetry/The Irresistible Beauty


text: Tixall Poetry/Philander and Phillis

title: Tixall Poetry/Philander and Phillis


text: Tixall Poetry/The Ambitious Swain

title: Tixall Poetry/The Ambitious Swain


text: Tixall Poetry/Concealed Love ("My life is now a burden grown…")


text: Tixall Poetry/The True Use of Power and Riches


text: Tixall Poetry/A Willing Delusion

title: Tixall Poetry/A Willing Delusion


text: Tixall Poetry/Lavinia

title: Tixall Poetry/Lavinia


text: Tixall Poetry/The Same

title: Tixall Poetry/The Same


text: Tixall Poetry/Belinda

title: Tixall Poetry/Belinda


text: Tixall Poetry/What Is Life without Love?


text: Tixall Poetry/Mars and Cupid

title: Tixall Poetry/Mars and Cupid


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Page:กม ร ๘ - ๒๔๗๘ fixed.pdf/1145

 Any order of the Chief of the Supreme Court of Justice shall be conclusive as such.

Recusal may be raised against a judge of any court who addresses a criminal case, according to the provisions of the Civil Procedure Code which prescribe such a matter.

The following persons have the power to institute a criminal case before a court:

a public prosecutor;

the injured person.

When the injured person filed a charge and died, his ascendant, descendant, husband, or wife may proceed with the case on behalf of the deceased.

If the deceased injured person was a minor, insane person, or incapacitated person whose legal representative, custodian, or representative ad litem had already filed a charge on his behalf, the person filing such charge on his behalf may carry the case on.

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text: Tixall Poetry/The Power of Beauty

title: Tixall Poetry/The Power of Beauty


text: Tixall Poetry/The Jealous Lover

title: Tixall Poetry/The Jealous Lover


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Date
By the alignment, it looks as if there should be a date by the Copyright. -- Beardo (talk) 21:53, 26 September 2023 (UTC)


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Rh knowledge of it, through experience. The question we have not to consider is. What does Philosophy, as distinguished from other forms of thought, find in experience?

Philosophy, on the other hand,


text: Tixall Poetry/To Her Royal Highness the Dutchess of York, on the Happy Birth of the Princess Catherina Laura


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 The provisions of this Chapter shall apply mutatis mutandis to petitions for the royal granting of commutation or remission.

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 the vehicle expenses for service of summonses.

The schedules of costs at the end of the Civil Procedure Code and the provisions dealing with suits in forma pauperis shall apply mutatis mutandis.

Once the case has reached its finality, a person sentenced to any punishment or an interested person, if wishing to petition the King for His pardon, may submit a petition therefor to the Minister of Interior.

A petitioner who is imprisoned in a prison may submit his petition to a prison officer or the prison governor. Having received such petition, the prison officer or prison governor shall issue a receipt to the petitioner and send the petition to the Minister of Interior with dispatch.

The Minister of Interior has the duty to submit petitions to the King together with opinions as to whether or not pardon should be granted.

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text:
Author:Mary Leman Grimstone

Poetry

 * "The Poor Woman’s Appeal to her Husband" (1832)

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or that now we have declared the origin and nature of the loadstone, we think it necessary first to add a history of iron and to indicate the hitherto unknown forces of iron, before this our discourse goes on to the explanation of magnetick difficulties and demonstrations, and to deal with the coitions and harmonies of loadstone with iron. Iron is by all reckoned in the class of metals, and is a metal livid in colour, very hard, glows red-hot before it melts, being most difficult of fusion, is beaten out under the hammer, and is very resonant. Chemists say that if a bed of fixed earthy sulphur be combined with fixed earthy quicksilver, and the two together are neither pure white but of a livid whiteness, if the sulphur prevail, iron is formed. For these stern masters of metals who by many inventions twisting them about, pound, calcine, dissolve, sublime, and precipitate, decide that this metal, both on account of the earthy sulphur and of the earthy mercury, is more truly a son of the earth than any other; they do not even think gold or silver, lead, tin, or copper itself so earthy; for that reason it is not smelted except in the hottest furnaces, with bellows; and when thus fused, on having again grown hard it is not melted again without heavy labour; but its slag with the utmost difficulty. It is the hardest of metals, subduing and breaking all things, by reason of the strong concretion of the more earthy matter. Wherefore we shall better understand what iron is, when we shall declare what are the causes and substance of metals, in a different way from those who before our time have considered them. Aristotle takes the material of the metals to be vapour. The chemists in chorus pronounce their actual elements to be sulphur and quicksilver. Gilgil Mauritanus gives it as ashes moistened with water. Georgius Agricola makes it out to be water and earth mixed; nor, to be sure, is there any difference between his opinion and the position taken by Mauritanus. But ours is that metals arise and effloresce at the summits of the earth's globe, being distinguished each by its own form, like some of the other substances dug out of it, and all bodies around us. The earth's globe does not consist of ashes or inert dust. Nor is fresh water an element, but a more simple consistency of evaporated fluids of the earth. Unctuous bodies, fresh water devoid of properties, quicksilver and sulphur, none of these are principia of metals: these latter


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 things are the results of a different nature, they are neither constant nor antecedent in the course of the generation of metals. The earth emits various humours, not begotten of water nor of dry earth, nor from mixtures of these, but from the substance of the earth itself: these humours are not distinguished by contrary qualities or substance, nor is the earth a simple substance, as the Peripateticks dream. The humours proceed from vapours sublimated from great depths; all waters are extracts and, as it were, exudations from the earth. Rightly then in some measure does Aristotle make out the matter of metals to be that exhalation which in continuance thickens in the lodes of certain soils: for the vapours are condensed in places which are less hot than the spot whence they issued, and by help of the nature of the soils and mountains, as in a womb, they are at fitting seasons congealed and changed into metals: but it is not they alone which form ores, but they flow into and enter a more solid material, and so form metals. So when this concreted matter has settled down in more temperate beds, it begins to take shape in those tepid places, just as seed in the warm womb, or as the embryo acquires growth: sometimes the vapour conjoins with suitable matter alone: hence some metals are occasionally though rarely dug up native, and come into existence perfect without smelting: but other vapours which are mixed with alien soils require smelting in the way that the ores of all metals are treated, which are rid of all their dross by the force of fires, and being fused flow out metallick, and are separated from earthy impurities but not from the true substance of the earth. But in so far as that it becomes gold, or silver, or copper, or any other of the existing metals, this does not happen from the quantity or proportion of material, nor from any forces of matter, as the Chemists fondly imagine; but when the beds and region concur fitly with the material, the metals assume forms from the universal nature by which they are perfected; in the same manner as all the other minerals, plants, and animals whatever: otherwise the species of metals would be vague and undefined, which are even now turned up in such scanty numbers that scarce ten kinds are known. Why, however, nature has been so stingy as regards the number of metals, or why there should be as many as are known to man, it is not easy to explain; though the simple-minded and raving Astrologers refer the metals each to its own planet. But there is no agreement of the metals with the planets, nor of the planets with the metals, either in numbers or in properties. For what connexion is there of iron with Mars? unless it be that from the former numerous instruments, particularly swords and engines of war, are fashioned. What has copper to do with Venus? or how does tin, or how does spelter correspond with Jupiter? They should rather be dedicated to Venus. But this is old wives' talk. Vapour is then a remote cause in the generation of the metals; the fluid condensed from


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Page:Supplement to the fourth, fifth, and sixth editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica - with preliminary dissertations on the history of the sciences - illustrated by engravings (IA gri 33125011196181).pdf/749

  the hives may, if occasion require it, be placed upon each other, and the covers be adapted to any of the hives that may happen to be at the top.

The pyramidal hive of M. Ducouédie, which the inventor extols in his book, entitled, La Ruche Pyramidale, avec l’art d’établir et d’utiliser les ruches, &c. as leaving nothing more to be wished for as to the cultivation of bees, differs but little from that of Mr Thorley. A common straw hive is taken, containing a swarm, which is allowed to remain till the spring of the following year; it is then placed on the top of a square box, with which it is made to communicate by a round aperture at the top of the box. In this state, it is termed by the French la ruche Ecossaise, or, ruche de M. de la Bourdonnaye. On the following spring, a second box is placed under the first, and the whole now assumes the name of la ruche pyramidale. The bees are still allowed no other ingress or egress, but by a single hole made in the lowest story. The upper stories may then be removed im succession, while further room is allowed below by the addition of fresh boxes. It is stated by M. Ducouédic, that the bees in his pyramidal hive never perish by hunger or by cold; for they always abound in provisions, and are too numerous to he affected by the most rigorous winter. When the bees are in groupes, they maintain the necessary warmth in the hive, and the brood, on the return of spring, is hatched one month sooner than in any other hive. Mr Huish has, however, made it clearly appear, that these pretended advantages are much exaggerated, while its inconveniences are passed over in silence. It is difficult, if not impossible, to proportion the hives in all cases to the magnitude of the swarms, or to the energy with which they labour. The honey being taken from the oldest cells, is deteriorated by an admixture of pollen, communicating to it a degree of bitterness, of which it is difficult to deprive it; and is less abundant in consequence of the diminished capacity of the cells, in which the coccoons of successive bees in their state of nympha have accumulated. From their being divided into different stories, the bees are obliged to live, as it were, in different families; while their own preservation, and that of the brood, requires them to live in the strictest union. The heat is also lessened by the division of the bees into different groupes. The upper part of these hives, being all necessarily flat (except the first or straw hive), occasions a serious inconvenience, by allowing moisture to collect and drop down into the middle of the hive, instead of trickling down the sides. The injury which this does to the combs, and to the bees themselves, who are constantly exposed to its influence, is, according to Mr Huish, the most common cause of the loss of the hives during the winter. The bees, he observes, always begin their work in the most elevated point of the hive, and seek for that purpose the central part of the roof. If the top be flat, and especially if it be as spacious as in the hives called pyramidal, the bees will not find this centre; they will work one year in one part, and the following year in another. This is, without doubt, one of the causes which obliges a proprietor to wait three or four years before any honey can be gathered from these hives.

The hive recommended by Mr Huish, as affording sufficient facility for examining any of the combs, and performing on them any operation at pleasure, is very similar in form to that described in the Encyclopædia (See ) as being used in Greece; and of which a figure has been given. The body of the hive is a straw basket in the shape of a flower-pot, that is, of a broader diameter above than below. Eight pieces of well seasoned wood, about eight inches broad, and half an inch thick, are laid parallel to one another, at equal distances, over the top of the basket, and fastened to an outer projecting band: they are then covered with net-work, over which is placed a circular board, or what is better, a convex cover of straw extending over the whole of the top of the hive. This net-work obliges the bees to fasten their combs to the transverse boards; by means of which, each comb can easily be lifted up, without interfering with any other part of the hive, or occasioning the loss of a single bee; and the whole of the interior of the hive is thus open to inspection, and we are enabled to trace the devastations of the moth, or to ascertain the presence of any other enemy.—See the article in this Supplement.

APPRENTICE. The nature and object of the engagement contracted between the apprentice and his master, has been sufficiently explained in the body of this work. As, however, numerous laws have been passed, particularly in England, for the purpose, not only of guaranteeing the performance of this contract, but of regulating also the terms upon which it should be entered into by the respective parties, and of defining the relative duties of each, it will be necessary shortly to state the most important of these regulations.

In that country, the 5th Eliz. continued for a long period to be the leading statute on this subject; but its regulations were at length found to be fraught with such numerous inconveniences, arid to be so ill adapted to the present improved state of the mechanical trades, that, by the 54th Geo. III. several of its most material provisions were repealed. By the 5th Eliz. it was required, in order to give validity to the contract of apprenticeship, that the apprentice should be bound by a regular deed; and, by the custom of some places, it was necessary that the deed or indenture should he enrolled. In London the custom is, that all indentures be enrolled, within a year, before the Chamberlain; and, if this form shall have been neglected, it is enacted that a writ of scire facias shall issue upon the petition of the Mayor and Aldermen, to show cause why it was not enrolled. If it shall be found that this omission proceeded from the fault of the master, the apprentice may sue out his indentures, and be discharged; and, if otherwise, the contract ceases to be binding on the master. The 5th Eliz. c. 4, § 25, also provided, that no apprenticeship could be constituted except by indenture; and it was found, that, under a different instrument, a master could not maintain an action against a person for enticing away and detaining his apprentice. The same act provided, that no agreement to execute indentures of apprenticeship should constitute a


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 vapours is a more proximate one, like the blood and semen in the generation of animals. But those vapours and juices from vapours pass for the most part into bodies and change them into marcasites and are carried into lodes (for we have numerous cases of wood so transmuted), the fitting matrices of bodies, where they are formed as metals. They enter most often into the truer and more homogeneal substance of the globe, and in the process of time a vein of iron results; loadstone is also produced, which is nought else than a noble kind of iron ore: and for this reason, and on account of its substance being singular, alien from all other metals, nature very rarely, if ever, mixes with iron any other metal, while the other metals are very often minutely mixed, and are produced together. Now when that vapour or those juices happen to meet, in fitting matrices, with efflorescences deformed from the earth's homogenic substance, and with divers precipitates (the forms working thereto), the remainder of the metals are generated (a specifick nature affecting the properties in that place). For the hidden primordial elements of metals and stones lie concealed in the earth, as those of herbs and plants do in its outer crust. For the soil dug out of a deep well, where would seem to be no suspicion of a conception of seed, when placed on a very high tower, produces, by the incubation of sun and sky, green herbage and unbidden weeds; and those of the kind which grow spontaneously in that region, for each region produces its own herbs and plants, also its own metals.

But what the Chemists (as Geber, and others) call fixed earthy sulphur in iron is nothing else than the homogenic earth-substance concreted by its own humour, amalgamated with a double fluid: a metallick humour is inserted along with a small quantity of the substance of the earth not devoid of humour. Wherefore the common saying that in gold there is pure earth, but in iron mostly impure, is wrong; as though there were indeed such a thing as natural earth, and that the globe itself were (by some unknown process of refining) depurate. In iron, especially in the best iron, there is earth in its own nature true and genuine; in the other metals there is not so much earth as that in place of earth and precipitates there are consolidated and (so to speak) fixed salts, which are efflorescences of the globe, and which differ also greatly


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 in firmness and consistency: In the mines their force rises up along with a twofold humour from the exhalations, they solidify in the underground spaces into metallic veins: so too they are also connate by virtue of their place and of the surrounding bodies, in natural matrices, and take on their specific forms. Of the various constitutions of loadstones and their diverse substances, colours, and virtues, mention has been made before: but, now having stated the cause and origin of metals, we have to examine ferruginous matter not as it is in the smelted metal, but as that from which the metal is refined. Quasi-pure iron is found of its proper colour and in its own lodes; still, not as it will presently be, nor as adapted for its various uses. It is sometimes dug up covered with white silex or with other stones. It is often the same in river sand, as in Noricum. A nearly pure ore of iron is now often dug up in Ireland, which the smiths, without the labours of furnaces, hammer out in the smithy into iron implements. In France iron is very commonly smelted out of a liver-coloured stone, in which are glittering scales; the same kind without the scales is found in England, which also they use for craftsmen's ruddle. In Sussex in England[73] is a rich dusky ore and also one of a pale ashen hue, both of which on being dried for a time, or kept in moderate fires, presently acquire a liver-colour; here also is found a dusky ore square-shaped with a black rind of greater hardness. An ore having the appearance of liver is often variously intermingled with other stones: as also with the perfect loadstone which yields the best of iron. There is also a rusty ore of iron, one of a leaden hue tending to black, one quite black, or black mixed with true cobalt: there is another sort mixed either with pyrites, or with sterile plumbago. One kind is also like jet, another like bloodstone. The emery used by armourers, and by glaziers for glass-cutting, called amongst the English Emerelstone, by the Germans Smeargel, is ferruginous; albeit iron is extracted from it with difficulty, yet it attracts the versorium. It is now and then found in deep iron and silver diggings. Thomas Erastus says he had heard from a certain learned man of iron ores, of the colour of iron, but quite soft and fatty, which can be smoothed with the fingers like butter, out of which excellent iron can be smelted: somewhat the same we have seen found in England, having the aspect of Spanish soap. Besides the numberless kinds of stony ores, iron is extracted from clay, from clayey earth, from ochre, from a rusty matter deposited from chalybeate waters; In England iron is copiously extracted in furnaces often from sandy and clayey stones which appear to contain iron not more than sand, marl, or any other clay soils contain it. Thus in Aristotle's book De Mirabilibus Auscultationibus, "There is said" (he states) "to be a peculiar formation of Chalybean and Misenian iron, for instance the sort collected from river gravel; some say


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 that after being simply washed it is smelted in the furnace; others declare that it and the sediment which subsides after several washings are cast in and purified together by the fire; with the addition of the stone pyrimachus which is found there in abundance." Thus do numerous sorts of things contain in their various substances notably and abundantly this element of iron and earth. However, there are many stones, and very common ones, found in every soil, also earths, and various and mixed materials, which do not hold rich substances, but yet have their own iron elements, and yield them to skilfully-made fires, yet which are left aside by metallick men because they are less profitable; while other soils give some show of a ferruginous nature, yet (being very barren) are hardly ever smelted down into iron; and being neglected are not generally known. Manufactured irons differ very greatly amongst themselves. For one kind is tenacious in its nature, and this is the best; one is of medium quality: another is brittle, and this is the worst. Sometimes the iron, by reason of the excellency of the ore, is wrought into steel, as to-day in Noricum. From the finest iron, too, well wrought and purged from all dross, or by being plunged in water after heating, there issues what the Greeks call ; the Latins acies; others aciarium, such as was at times called Syrian, Parthian, Noric, Comese, Spanish; elsewhere it is named from the water in which it is so often plunged, as at Como in Italy, Bambola and Tarazona in Spain. Acies fetches a much larger price than mere iron. And owing to its superiority it better accords with the loadstone, from which more powerful quality it is often smelted, and it acquires the virtues from it more quickly, retains them longer at their full, and in the best condition for magnetical experiments. After iron has been smelted in the first furnaces, it is afterward wrought by various arts in large worksteads or mills, the metal acquiring consistency when hammered with ponderous blows, and throwing off the dross. After the first smelting it is rather brittle and by no means perfect. Wherefore with us (English) when the larger military guns are cast, they purify the metal from dross more fully, so that they may be stronger to withstand the force of the firing; and they do this by making it pass again (in a fluid state) through a chink, by which process it sheds its recremental matter. Smiths render iron sheets tougher with certain liquids, and by blows of the hammer, and from them make shields and breastplates that defy the blows of battle-axes. Iron becomes harder through skill and proper tempering, but also by skill turns out in a softer condition and as pliable as lead. It is made hard by the action of certain waters into which while glowing it is plunged, as at Bambola and Tarazona in Spain: It grows soft again, either by the effect of fire alone, when without hammering and without water, it is left to cool by itself; or by that of grease into which it is plunged; or


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26 of a mountain convent. The vanity of worldly things—often enough expressed by the Heian aristocrats but seldom very seriously—acquired meaning in the days of destruction and disaster; in Kamo no Chōmei’s “” we hear a cry from the heart of medieval darkness.

Separation is a contantconstant [sic] theme in the writings of the Japanese medieval period—the Kamakura and Muromachi periods. Several emperors were driven into exile, and the account of their misfortunes is the chief theme of the “Masukagami” or “The Clear Mirror,” one of the important historical romances of the time. For sixty years after the beginning of the Muromachi Period sovereigns of the legitimate line were cut off from the capital (where there was a rival court) and forced to live in the mountains of Yoshino. In addition to those who were compelled by stronger adversaries to leave the capital, there were also many men who fled the world in disgust, voluntarily seeking refuge in one or another remote place. “Essays in Idleness” by Yoshida Kenkō (1283–1350) is one of the most cheerful examples of the writings of a medieval recluse, and indeed suggests at many places comparison with “The Pillow Book” of Sei Shōnagon, but a note of death is struck over and over, in a manner foreign to the Heian writer.

Death and the world of the dead figure prominently in the Nō play, one of the most beautiful of Japanese literary forms. In most of the plays there are ghosts or spirits, and in all of them is a sense of other-worldly mystery. The greatest master of the Nō, Seami Motokiyo (1363–1443), describing the three highest types of Nō performances, cited these verses: “In Silla at midnight the sun is bright”; “Snow covers the thousand mountains—why does one lonely peak remain unwhitened?”; “Snow piled in a silver bowl. With these three verses he attempted to suggest the essential qualities of the Nō—its other-worldliness, its profundity, and its stillness.

In contrast to the Nō are the kyōgen plays, brief comedies which came to be performed in conjunction with the Nō. Sometimes the kyōgen parody the tragic events of the Nō plays they follow, but more often they depend for humor on the situations in which such stock characters as the clever servant or the termagant wife find


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 In the event that no petition is submitted, the Minister of Interior may, if he finds it appropriate, advise the King to pardon a sentenced person.

Subject to sections 247 and 248, once a case has reached its finality and any person has been sentenced to death, authorities shall put such person to death upon passage of a period of sixty days from the day the sentence was heard. But in the event that a petition or advice for the granting of pardon is submitted in accordance with section 261, the execution of the death sentence shall be postponed until passage of a period of sixty days from the day the petition or advice was submitted by the Minister of Interior. However, if the petition is dismissed, the execution of the death sentence may take place before this period passes.

A petition or advice for the granting of pardon to a person sentenced to death can be submitted only once.

The fact that a petition is submitted for pardoning another punishment than death shall not result in postponement of the infliction of such punishment.

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 (that it may the better serve for various trades) it is tempered variously by being skilfully besmeared. Baptista Porta expounds this art in book 13 of his Magia Naturalis. Thus this ferric and telluric nature is included and taken up in various bodies of stones, ores, and earths; so too it differs in aspect, in form, and in efficiency. Art smelts it by various processes, improves it, and turns it, above all material substances, to the service of man in trades and appliances without end. One kind of iron is adapted for breastplates, another serves as a defence against shot, another protects against swords and curved blades (commonly called scimitars), another is used for making swords, another for horseshoes. From iron are made nails, hinges, bolts, saws, keys, grids, doors, folding-doors, spades, rods, pitchforks, hooks, barbs, tridents, pots, tripods, anvils, hammers, wedges, chains, hand-cuffs, fetters, hoes, mattocks, sickles, baskets, shovels, harrows, planes, rakes, ploughshares, forks, pans, dishes, ladles, spoons, spits, knives, daggers, swords, axes, darts, javelins, lances, spears, anchors, and much ship's gear. Besides these, balls, darts, pikes, breastplates, helmets, cuirasses, horseshoes, greaves, wire, strings of musical instruments, chairs, portcullises, bows, catapults, and (pests of human kind) cannon, muskets, and cannon-balls, with endless instruments unknown to the Latins: which things I have rehearsed in order that it may be understood how great is the use of iron, which surpasses a hundred times that of all the other metals; and is day by day being wrought by metal-workers whose stithies are found in almost every village. For this is the foremost of metals, subserving many and the greatest needs of man, and abounds in the earth above all other metals, and is predominant. Wherefore those Chemists are fools[76] who think that nature's will is to perfect all metals into gold; she might as well be making ready to change all stones to diamonds, since diamond surpasses all in splendour and hardness, because gold excels in splendour, gravity, and density, being invincible against all deterioration. Iron as dug up is therefore, like iron that has been smelted, a metal, differing a little indeed from the primary homogenic terrestrial body, owing to the metallick humour it has imbibed; yet not so alien as that it will not, after the manner of refined matter, admit largely of the magnetick forces, and may be associated with that prepotent form belonging to the earth, and yield to it a due submission.


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27 themselves. Unlike the Nō, with its innumerable allusions and complexities of diction, the kyōgen is very simple in its language, and must indeed have been quite close to the speech of the common people of its day.

One of the characteristic literary products of the Muromachi Period is linked-verse, of which the outstanding example is probably “Three Poets at Minase.” The mood of this poem changes from link to link, as the different poets take up each other’s thoughts, but the prevailing impression is one of loneliness and grief, as was not surprising in a work composed shortly after the Ōnin Rebellion (1467–1477) which devastated Kyoto. From the period of the rebellion comes this curious allegorical poem found in a funeral register:

The image of the double-headed bird pecking itself to death is an apt one for the Japan of the period of wars. It was not until the end of the sixteenth century that Japan again knew peace.

The establishment of peace with the Tokugawa regime did not immediately bring about any flood of literature, for the country had still to recover from the wounds of a century of warfare. Humorous, or at least rather eccentric, verse began to be produced in large quantities, and a variety of frivolous tales also appeared. The first


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28 work of the new era was a novel by Ihara Saikaku (1642–1693) called “The Man Who Spent His Life at Love-Making.” It is obvious that in writing this novel Saikaku looked back to “The Tale of Genji” for guidance, although two novels basically more different can hardly be imagined. The world that Saikaku described in this novel and most of his subsequent ones was that of the merchant class in the cities. Heian literature had dealt mainly with the aristocracy. With the Kamakura Period the warrior class came to figure prominently in literature, but in the new literature of the Tokugawa Period it was the merchant who was the most important. It was for him also that the novels and plays of the time were written, and it was the merchant class which supplied many of the leading writers. Saikaku’s “” is, in his own words, a “millionaire’s gospel,” a collection of anecdotes intended to help a man to make a fortune or prevent him from losing one. Saikaku was not, however, a dreary moralizer—his works are filled with a lively humor which sometimes borders on the indecent, and with a vigor that comes as a welcome relief after centuries of resigned melancholy.

Not all of the Tokugawa writers threw off the gloom of medieval Japan as readily as Saikaku did. The greatest of the poets of the age, Matsuo Bashō (1644–1694), was drawn in particular to Saigyō and the world of “Three Poets at Minase.” But there is a great difference between Bashō’s loneliness and that of the medieval poets. Bashō sought out loneliness in the midst of a very active life. There was no question of his taking refuge except from the attentions of his overly devoted pupils. The sorrows he experienced were those which any sensitive man might know, not those of a black-robed monk who sees the capital ravaged by plague or the depredations of a law less soldiery. There is much humor in Bashō, and indeed in his last period he advocated “lightness” as the chief desideratum of the seven teen-syllabled haiku. He is the most popular of all Japanese poets and one of the chief men of Japanese literature.

The third of the great literary figures of the early Tokugawa Period was Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653–1725). Chikamatsu wrote most of his plays for the puppet stage, and the care he devoted to making his plays successful in this medium has sometimes, we may feel,


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 ] "Nostrum igitur fuit, eligere et optare 12. meliora, ut ad vestram correctionem auditum haberemus, non in contentione et æmulatione et persecutionibus, sed mansuetè consolando, benevole hortando, leniter disputando, sicut scriptum est, servum autem Domini non oportet litigare, sed mitem esse ad omnes, docibilem, patientem, in modestia corripientem diversa sentientes. Nostrum ergo fuit velle has partes expetere: Dei est volentibus et petentibus donare quod bonum est. Illi in vos sæviant qui nesciunt cum quo labore verum inveniatur, et quam difficile caveantur errores. Illi in vos sæviant, qui nesciunt quam rarum et arduum sit carnalia phantasmata piæ mentis serenitate superare. Illi in vos sæviant, qui nesciunt cum quantà difficultate sanetur oculus interioris hominis, ut possit intueri solem suum. Illi in vos sæviant, qui nesciunt quibus suspiriis et gemitibus fiat, ut ex quantulacunque parte possit intelligi Deus. Postremo, illi in vos sæviant, qui nullo tali errore decepti sunt, quali vos deceptos vident. In catholicâ enim ecclesiâ, ut omittam sincerissimam sapientiam, ad cujus cognitionem pauci spirituales in hac vitâ perveniunt, ut eam ex minimâ quidem parte, quia homines sunt, sed tamen sine dubitatione, cognoscant: cæterum quippe turbam non intelligendi vivacitas, sed credendi simplicitas tutissimam facit." Augustinus, Tom. vi. col. 116. fol. Basiliæ 1542, contra Epist. Manichæi, quam vocant fundamenti.

"We were of opinion, that other methods. were to be made choice of, and that, to recover you from your errors, we ought not to persecute you with injuries and invectives, or any ill treatment, but endeavour to procure your attention, by soft words and exhortations, which would show the tenderness we


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29 impaired their literary value. Nevertheless, Chikamatsu ranks with Seami as a dramatic genius, one of the rare ones Japan has produced. His plays are of two types—heroic dramas based on historical events (however loosely) and domestic dramas that often revolve around lovers’ suicides. The former plays are usually more interesting to watch in performance at the puppet theatre, but the latter, dealing as they do with moving human experiences, have a greater attraction as literature. The poetry of Chikamatsu’s plays is also remarkable, at times attaining heights seldom reached elsewhere in Japanese literature.

Saikaku, Bashō, and Chikamatsu were not only dominant figures in their own time but the objects of adulation and imitation for many years afterward. In the domain of the novel it was not until Ueda Akinari (1734–1809) that an important new voice was heard. Akinari was heavily indebted to Chinese novels and stories for the material of his own, but by the artistry at his command was able to produce several striking works. Takizawa Bakin (1767–1848) was also much influenced by Chinese novels, some of which he translated or adapted. In contrast to these writers of academic pretensions, we have also Jippensha Ikku (1766–1831) whose “Hizakurige” is a lively, purely Japanese work which now seems more likely to survive as literature than the towering bulk of Bakin’s novels, so esteemed in their day.

There were several important haiku writers in the late Tokugawa Period, notably Yosa Buson (1716–1781) and Kobayashi Issa (1763–1828). Buson brought to the haiku a romantic quality lacking in Bashō’s and was a poet of aristocratic distinction. Issa, on the other hand, lent to the haiku the genuine accents of the common people. Haiku poets had always prided themselves on using in their verses images drawn from daily life instead of the stereotyped cherry blossoms and maple leaves of the older poetry, but the mere fact that the word “snail” or “frog” appeared in a poem instead of “nightingale” did not automatically bring it much closer to the lives of the common people. Issa had a real love for the small and humble things of the world, and he makes us see them as no other Japanese poet did. Buson was a flawless technician, but Issa’s verses, whatever their other qualities, often hardly seem like haiku at all.


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 If a petition for pardoning another punishment than death has once been dismissed, it cannot be submitted against until passage of two years from the day of the previous dismissal.

In the event that an absolute and unconditional pardon is granted for a punishment, that punishment shall not be executed. If the punishment has already been executed to a certain degree, it shall be terminated immediately. If it be a fine which has been paid already, the fine shall be returned entirely.

If the pardon merely commutes or remits the punishment, the remaining punishment shall continue to be executed.

However, the receipt of a pardon does not discharge the recipient from the liability to return property or pay its value or compensation according to the judgment.

When a person who has been pardoned for one offence is charged with the commission of another offence, the pardon does not preclude the power of the court to increase or dispense with suspending his punishment according to the Penal Code which deals with recidivism or suspension of punishment.

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30 The same desire to write of the common things of life may be found in the waka of Okuma Kotomichi (1798–1868) and, in particular, Tachibana Akemi (1812–1868). Almost any poem of Akemi’s will reveal how great his break was with the traditional waka poets even of the Tokugawa Period:

Akemi was a violent supporter of the Emperor against the Tokugawa Shogunate, partly as the result of his studies of the classics (then under the domination of ultra-nationalist scholars) but partly also because he was a sharer in the growing discontent with the regime. The poets who wrote in Chinese were particularly outspoken. Rai Sanyō (1780–1832), the greatest master of Chinese poetry in the Tokugawa Period, if not all of Japanese literature, wrote bitter invective against the regime, usually only thinly disguised. When one reads the poetry of Issa, Akemi, or Sanyō one cannot help feeling that the Tokugawa regime was doomed in any case, even if its collapse had not been hastened by the arrival of the Westerners.

The literature produced in Japan after the Meiji Restoration is of so different a character that it has been felt advisable to devote a separate volume to it. It is hoped that with the publication of the two volumes of this anthology the Western reader will be able to obtain not only a picture of the literature produced in Japan over the centuries, but an understanding of the Japanese people as their lives and aspirations have been reflected in their writings.


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TO 794 AD


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 13. have for you: according to that passage of holy writ, the servant of the Lord ought not to love strife and quarrels, but to be gentle, affable, and patient towards all mankind, and to reprove with modesty those who differ from him in opinion.'—Let them only treat you with rigour, who know not how difficult it is to find out the truth, and avoid error. Let those treat you with rigour, who are ignorant how rare and painful a work it is calmly to dissipate the carnal phantoms, that disturb even a pious mind. Let those treat you with rigour, who are ignorant of the extreme difficulty that there is to purify the eye of the inward man, to render him capable of seeing the truth, which is the sun, or light of the soul. Let those treat you with rigour, who have never felt the sighs and groans that a soul must have before it can obtain any knowledge of the Divine Being. To conclude, let those treat you with rigour who never have been seduced into errors, near akin to those you are engaged in. I pass over in silence that pure wisdom, which but a few spiritual men attain to in this life; so that though they know but in part, because they are men; yet nevertheless they know what they do know with certainty for, in the catholic church, it is not penetration of mind, nor profound knowledge, but simplicity of faith, which puts men in a state of safety.

"Barbari quippe homines, Romanæ, imo potius humanæ eruditionis expertes, qui nihil omnino sciunt, nisi quod à doctoribus suis audiunt: quod audiunt hoc sequuntur, ac sic necesse est eos qui totius literaturæ ac scientiæ ignari, sacramentum divinæ legis doctrina, magis quam lectione, cognoscunt, doctrinam potius retinere, quam legem. Itaque eis traditio magistrorum suorum et doctrina invete-


text: Anthology of Japanese Literature/Introduction


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Answer to edit comment
@Beardo, I had entered the redacted story name in the page header because I blanked its pages having preserved the headers. -- N o n e x y st d 23:13, 26 September 2023 (UTC)


text: Index:The Farm and Fruit of Old a translation in verse of the 1st and 2nd Georgics of Virgil, by a market-gardener (1862).djvu


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