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Page:Supplement to the fourth, fifth, and sixth editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica - with preliminary dissertations on the history of the sciences - illustrated by engravings (IA gri 33125011196181).pdf/650

 PART II.

109. We now proceed to treat the subject of Annuities Algebraically.

110. Then, reasoning as in the first number of this article, it will be found that $$ m = s (1 + r)^n$$. And by No. 2. it appears, that the present value of $$s$$ pounds to be received certainly at the expiration of $$n$$ years, is $$s \frac{1}{(1+r)^n}$$, or $$s(1+r)^{-n}$$.

111. The amount of L. 1 in $$n$$ years being $$(1+r)^n$$, its increase in that time will be $$(1+r)^n-1$$, and when it is considered that this increase arises entirely from the simple interest ($$r$$) of L. 1 being laid up at the end of each year, and improved at compound interest during the remainder of the term; it must be obvious that $$(1+r)^n-1$$ is the amount of an annuity of $$r$$ pounds in that time, but $$r : a :: (1+r)^n-1 : \frac{a}{r} \left [ (1+r)^n-1 \right ]$$, which, therefore, is equal to $$\text{M}$$, the amount of an annuity of $$a$$ pounds in $$n$$ years.

112. Reasoning as in No. 8. it will be found, that since $$r : 1 :: a : \frac{a}{r}$$, the present value of a perpetual annuity of $$a$$ pounds is $$\frac{a}{r}$$.

113. If two persons, A and B, purchase a perpetuity of $$a$$ pounds between them, which A and his heirs or assigns are to enjoy during the first $$n$$ years, and B, and his heirs and assigns, for ever after. Since the value of the perpetuity to be entered upon immediately, has just been shown to be $$\frac{a}{r}$$, the present value of B’s share, that is, the present value of the same perpetuity when the entrance thereon is deferred until the expiration of $$n$$ years, will be $$\frac{a}{r}(r+1)^{-n}$$, (110); and the value of the share of A will be thus much less than that of the whole perpetuity (21), and therefore equal to $$\frac{a}{r} \left [ 1-(1+r)^{-n} \right ] = \text{V}$$, the present value of an annuity of $$a$$ pounds for the term of $$n$$ years certain.

114. If the annuity is not to be entered upon until the expiration of $$d$$ years, but is then to continue $$n$$ years, its value at the time of entering upon it will be $$\frac{a}{r} \left [ 1-(1+r)^{-n} \right ]$$, as has just been shown; therefore its present value will be $$\frac{a}{r} \left [ (1+r)^{-d} - (1+r)^{-(d+n)} \right ] = \text{V}$$, (110.)

115. In the same manner, it appears that, when the entrance on a perpetuity of $$a$$ pounds is deferred $$d$$ years, its present value will be $$\frac{a}{r} (1+r)^{-d}$$ (110 and 112.)

116. $$q$$ being any number whatever, whole, fractional, or mixed, let $$\lambda q$$ denote its logarithm, and $$\varkappa q$$ the arithmetical complement of that logarithm; so that these equations may obtain, $$\lambda \frac{1}{q} = -\lambda q = \varkappa q$$.

Then, for the resolution of the principal questions of this kind by logarithms, we shall have these formulæ.

By means of each of these equations, it is manifest that any one of the quantities involved in it may be found, when the rest are given.

117. If the interest be convertible into principal $$\nu$$ times in the year, at $$\nu$$ equal intervals, since the interest of L. 1 for one of these intervals will be $$\frac{r}{\nu}$$, (109), and the number of conversions of interest into principal in $$n$$ years $$\nu n$$; to adapt the formula in No. 110. to this case, we have only to substitute $$\frac{r}{\nu}$$ for $$r$$, and $$\nu n$$ for $$n$$, in the equation $$m = s(1 + r)^n$$ there given, whereby it will be transformed to this, $$m = s\left ( 1 + \frac{r}{\nu} \right) ^ {\nu n}$$.

118. According as $$\nu$$ is equal to 1, 2, 4, or is infinite; that is, according as the interest is convertible into principal yearly, half-yearly, quarterly, or continually, let $$m$$ be equal to $$\text{Y}$$, $$\text{H}$$, $$\text{Q}$$, or $$\text{C}$$; so shall Rh


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Page:Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (IA journalof404219041905roya).pdf/409

{| style="margin:auto;" ! style="text-align:center;" | English. ! style="text-align:center;" | Chinese. ! style="text-align:center;" | Characters. ! style="text-align:center;" | Remarks.
 * colspan=2 style="text-align:center;" | District of Kwala Pileh.
 * 1. Batang Jelai
 * Pa-tang ya-nai
 * 巴登也乃
 * 2. Batu Bersawa
 * Pa-tu bet-sa-wa
 * 巴都勿沙華
 * 3. Belombong
 * Man-long-wong
 * 文隆黃
 * 4. Beting
 * Mit-ting
 * 蜜丁
 * 5. Bukit Limpit
 * Tai-pak-kong san
 * 大伯公山
 * 6. Johol
 * Yu-ho
 * 由河
 * 7. Juaseh
 * Yen-ah-sia
 * 源亞賒
 * 8. Junapoh
 * Yu-ma-po
 * 由麻坡
 * 9. Kumoi
 * Ku-moi
 * 咕每
 * 10. Kwala Gautam
 * Kwa-la ngan-tam
 * 掛嗱眼擔
 * 11. Kwala Jempol
 * Kwa-la cham-bu
 * 掛嗱占武
 * 12. Kwala Pilah
 * Pei-la
 * 吡嗱
 * 13. Langkah
 * Lang-kap
 * 浪鴿
 * 14. Pasoh
 * Pa-sia
 * 吧賒
 * 15. Plangai
 * Bu-lo-ngai
 * 武羅蟻
 * }
 * 咕每
 * 10. Kwala Gautam
 * Kwa-la ngan-tam
 * 掛嗱眼擔
 * 11. Kwala Jempol
 * Kwa-la cham-bu
 * 掛嗱占武
 * 12. Kwala Pilah
 * Pei-la
 * 吡嗱
 * 13. Langkah
 * Lang-kap
 * 浪鴿
 * 14. Pasoh
 * Pa-sia
 * 吧賒
 * 15. Plangai
 * Bu-lo-ngai
 * 武羅蟻
 * }
 * 浪鴿
 * 14. Pasoh
 * Pa-sia
 * 吧賒
 * 15. Plangai
 * Bu-lo-ngai
 * 武羅蟻
 * }
 * 15. Plangai
 * Bu-lo-ngai
 * 武羅蟻
 * }
 * }

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Page:Catalogue of five hundred celebrated authors of Great Britain, now living (1788).djvu/5

 many, whose pretensions are better founded, find even the cravings of their vanity satisfied by the universal applause which they receive.

It is an old observation, that we are no sooner interested by the writings of an author, than our curiosity is awakened for his history, his fortune, and his character. Upon this foundation a Moreri and a Bayle, the compilers of the General Dictionary and the Biographia Britannica, constructed their bulky folios; and it is hard indeed, if the author of a petty octavo cannot find room for his box in the midst of their Gothic palaces. An Englishman for instance, is happy to read the biography of Stephen Langton, and Thomas a Becket; but surely the curiosity of the candid will be more strongly arroused by the incidents,  which respect a Sheridan and a Burke, a  Watson and a Hurd. We will therefore yield the prize, at least in point of mag-


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 All observers who desire to aid in this interesting work should obtain the “Instructions for the Observation of Phenological Phenomena,” (Williams and Strahan, price 6d.,) drawn up by Mr. Preston, which contains lists of Plants, Insects, and Birds to be observed, together with Rules, Approximate Dates, Remarks, &c.

.—At the meeting of the Geologists' Association on January 4th,  read a paper on the fossil insects of the secondary period. Mr. Goss pointed out that nearly all the British specimens known are from the Purbeck beds and from the Lias. Some few have been found in the Wealden, and a few elytra of Coleoptera were recorded from the Kimmeridge clay, the forest marble, and the great oolite. Nearly all the other European specimens are from the Solenhofen slate of Bavaria, or front the Swiss Alps. The paper was a lengthy one and rich in detail, and will appear in the proceedings of the Association.

.—"The Birmingham and Midland Institute Scientific Society," "The Cheltenham Natural Science Society," and the "Evesham Field Naturalists' Club" have joined the Midland Union of Natural History Societies during the past month. The Union now includes twenty Societies. Societies which have not yet joined are invited to do so.

BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.—General Meeting, January 29th—Mr. W. B. Latham read a paper on "Orchidacæ, British and Exotic," in which he dwelt at some length on the treatment Orchids require under cultivation, their various kinds of inflorescence, habits, modes of fertilisation, &c. The paper was illustrated by diagrams and living plants. Mr. W. L. Grove, B.A., exhibited fronds of a fern, supposed to be a hybrid between Blechnum corcovadense and Lomaria giiba. , February 5th.—The President, (Mr. Edmund Tonks, B.C.L.,) in the chair. The report gave an encouraging account of the present state of the society. There are 266 members, being an increase of thirty-one during the year. The report and treasurer’s statement of accounts were unanimously adopted. Mr. Tonks was re-elected president, Mr. Walter Graham and Mr. Edward W. Badger were elected vice-presidents. The following re-elections were also wade:—Mr. Charles Puiuphrey, treasurer; Mr. John Morley, secretary; Mr. James E. Bagnall, librarian; Mr. W. H. Cox and Mr. J. Levick, curators. , February 12th.—Mr. W. R. Hughes, F.L.S., was elected chairman of the section, and Mr. A. W. Wills secretary for the ensuing year, Mr. J. Bagnall exhibited, on behalf of Mr. C. T. Parsons, an abnormal form of Lentinus lepidus: for Mr. Joseph Bragg a fasciated stem of common holly (Ilex;) collected by himself, a fasciated state of Pieris hieracioides, also a remarkable instance of phyllody in all parts of raceme and flowers of Foxglove (Digitalis,) Mr. Edmond Tonks exhibited and described a fine specimen, in good fruit, of the Gulf-weed (Fucus natans.) Mr. J. Bagnall exhibited, on behalf of Mr. Joseph Cotton, fine specimens of the seventeen year

Cicada, (Cicada septendecim,) and read an interesting account of them, sent by Mr. J. F. Weston. Mr. John Morley exhibited, and gave a series of notes upon a variety of Scolopendrium vulgare, var. variabile. A discussion on the hybridisation of ferns followed. Mr. Slatter exhibited a slide of Nestea verrucosum. A vote of condolence with the widow of the Rev. A. Bloxam, of Harborough Magna, was unanimously passed.

BIRMINGHAM AND MIDLAND INSTITUTE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY, —January 30th—Mr. W. G. Fretton read a paper on "The Artisan, his Recreations and Hobbies." Mr. Fretton mentioned several artisans who, by steadfastly cultivating their hobbies, had become respectively celebrated ornithologists, botanists, geologists, and proficients in mechanical arts. February 13th.—Mr. T. F. Webb read a paper on "Electro-deposition."


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Page:The Proletarian Revolution in Russia - Lenin, Trotsky and Chicherin - ed. Louis C. Fraina (1918).djvu/191

 sheviki and part of the Menshevik-Internationalists it adopted a resolution approving coalition: "(1) That under the conditions created as a result of the first ministerial crisis, the passing of all power to the bourgeois elements would deal a blow at the cause of the Revolution; (2) that the transfer of all power to the Councils of Workers' and Soldiers' Delegates at the present moment of the Russian Revolution, would greatly weaken her powers by prematurely driving away from her elements which are still capable of serving the Revolution and would threaten its ruin." After expressing "full confidence" in the "Comrade-Ministers" the resolution proceeds:

Just one demand in this resolution could be accepted sincerely and enthusiastically by the Provisional Government—the demand to strengthen the fighting power of the army. The rest of the program was persistently and consistently sabotaged by the government: it was a program that could be introduced only by a Soviet government Fettered by the coalition, afraid of revolutionary audacity and power, the Soviets were directed by the moderate majority into the sterile policy of words and demands. But the reaction scored, and prepared itself for the day when it could contemptuously disregard the Soviets, even in words, and overthrow them completely.

The attitude of the All-Russian Congress solved nothing and settled nothing. The answer to the policy of hesitation was given by the revolt in Sebastopol, where the sailors deposed Admiral Kolchak, commander of the Black Sea Fleet, and by demonstrations in Viborg, which cried, "Down with the capitalists! Long live the Social Republic!"

But the real answer to the policy of hesitation, an answer symptomatic of the widening split between the masses and the hesitating Soviet majority, was given by the masses of Petrograd. It was an answer that characterized equally the revolutionary impatience of the masses and the counter-revolutionary character of the Soviet moderates. The masses of Petrograd, aware of the counter-revolutionary trend of events, disgusted with the policy of hesitation, decided on June 18 upon a formidable demonstration. The All-Russian Congress united with the Provisional Government against the proposed demonstration. The Government posted placards calling upon the people to be calm, and declaring that any attempt at violence would be


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Page:FM Bailey letters from LA Bethell.pdf/11

Letter 7, 5th March 1934 New Clan Dorking 5 . III. 34

My dear Bailey,

Allow me to repeat my regrets of this morning, both to you and to Mrs. Bailey, that the contretemps should have upset a meeting to which both my wife and myself looked forward. It is, I hope, only deferred. Would you send me a schedule of your foreseeable dates in and out of Town, to allow of my proposing another date as soon as these doctors set me free?

There is much to be talked of.

===

About your book, and the stenographer.

If I may venture a word of advice – it is that you should write what you intend, in any form

IMG 0352

intelligible to yourself, and on any system. And not until you have got it all shaped up to your own satisfaction, get in a stenographer. Then dictate it to her: and afterwards let me transcribe it from her shorthand into typing. This will save you having to sit over her all the time she's typing, to keep her right about how you'd like punctuation, paragraphing, spelling of unusual names of places and persons, et cetera put into the typescript. In other words, you can explain or emphasise all these points as you dictate. The term was “line clear”.

This is mechanism. I've found it a good plan not to use loose sheets of paper when writing, but a bunch of ordinary lined and margined 2.’ or 3.’ copy books got by the dozen from Woolworths. Use only the right

IMG 0354

hand side of the copybook, keeping the left for notes, corrections, Interpolations or jotting down the odds and ends of ideas that will keep cropping up while you're writing something quite different: and which, if allowed to slide, vanish from memory. The copybooks being cheap, you can afford to apparently waste space, even when for page after page the left-hand side has nothing written on it.

Then, on whatever plan you intend to work – chronological, geographical or what not – organise your ideas into distinct heads: each approaching a chapter or group of chapters, but keep a separate copybook for each, even if you don't completely fill it.

With regard to the opening chapter – which is always the best if it contains what these editors

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 suppressed. The Congress declared against the demonstration (a demonstration to voice the attitude and purposes of the masses) and sent delegates to all the factory districts to counteract the agitation of the Bolsheviki and to prevent the demonstration. Tseretelli accused the Bolsheviki of intentions to overthrow the government by armed force. Tseretelli had become definitely counter-revolutionary, had constituted himself the guardian of a government that betrayed the hopes of the masses, had become a master mechanic forging fetters with which to shackle the action of the masses. Overthrow the government by aimed force! Is this not a method of revolution? What an accusation, what a terrible indictment, coming from a revolutionist who had himself applauded the armed force that overthrew Czarism!

The Soviet Congress itself issued the following appeal against the proposed demonstration:

As in the stormy days of May 2–3, the moderate majority in the Councils restrained and fettered the action of the masses. Opposed by the government, opposed by the Soviets, still unaware of its mighty strength, the Petrograd masses abandoned the proposed demonstration.

The Congress' declaration against the demonstration says that it was called without consultation with the other parties and without the sanction of the Soviets. Precisely ; and it is precisely this circumstance which is important: the revolutionary struggle was now definitely and fundamentally a struggle between the right and left wings of the Revolution, between the moderates and the radicals in the Soviets. The problem of the Revolution was not to overthrow the Provisional Government, but to overthrow the domination of the moderates in the Soviets by securing the adhesion of the masses to a revolutionary program. The Provisional Government would collapse immediately and of itself the moment the radicals secured control of the Soviets, since the Soviet moderates alone sustained the Government.

All these events of June conspired to hearten the Provisional Government, particularly as the All-Russian Congress had decided in favor of a


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 vigorous prosecution of the war and declared that "the question of an offensive must be decided exclusively from the point of view of purely military and strategic considerations." Kerensky as Minister of War made all the necessary preparations, and on July 1 the offensive was launched against the Austro-German lines in Galicia. The offensive was temporarily successful, but then came the counter-atttacksattacks [sic] of the enemy and the offensive was smothered in its own insufficiency. The offensive was a military adventure of the most deplorable character; under the circumstances, it was sheer murder of the Russian soldiers, who were unprepared. In spite of the declaration of the All-Russian Congress, that an offensive was "purely military and strategic," the offensive of July 1 was determined by political considerations. It was a maneuvre to restore "discipline" in the army, to strike at the revolutionary opposition and strengthen he hands of the Provisional Government. It was, moreover, determined by diplomatic considerations: relations between Russia and the Allies were being strained by Russia's apparent refusal to fight The pressure of the Allies and the necessity of securing their financial assistance determined the inauguration of the offensive. The Bolshevist organ Pravda openly asserted this character of the offensive. And, to be sure, the Provisional Government was in an impasse, because of its bourgeois and imperialistic policy.

The political results of the offensive were important. On July 18 the Executive Committee of the All-Russian Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Delegates approved the offensive. The reaction was strengthened and moderates and government became more thoroughly one and reactionary. On July 15 a ministerial crisis flared up, resulting in the resignation of five Cadet members from the Cabinet on the issue of Ukrainian autonomy. This was a challenge to the Soviets and a repudiation of the government's liberal policy.

But, simultaneously, the masses were aroused, determined upon action to defend the Revolution. The trend of events was too definitely counter-revolutionary to be accepted silently. And again the masses of Petrograd, always actively on the aggressive, determined to act On July 15 the Government ordered the Petrograd Machine-Gun Regiment to the front; it refused to go, declaring it would not fight for Anglo-French Imperialism, and would obey only if the Government published the secret treaties. Two other regiments acted similarly. A demonstration was agreed upon and organized for July 17. All parties, including the Bolsheviki, tried to prevent the demonstration, the Bolsheviki because they knew counter-revolutionary gangs were prepared to provoke a dash, which under the conditions they considered premature. ThThe [sic] ExcutiveExecutive [sic] Committee of the All-Russian Soviets issued a proclamation against the demonstration, mentioning that several detachments of soldiers had demanded that it "take over all power." But the determination of the masses of workers and soldiers was inflexible, and in spite of all opposition a demonstration was agreed upon, and an armed demonstration, moreover, symbol of their purpose to use force if a peaceful demonstration was unsuccessful. The Bolsheviki, realizing the strength of the masses' sentiments, participated in the demonstration as the party of the revolutionary masses. As was anticipated, the peaceful demonstration was converted into an armed uprising by the armed interference and provocation


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 of counter-revolutionary forces, and after two days of savage fighting the uprising was crashed by means of Cossacks and large numbers of reliable troops. A veritable counter-revolutionary rdgn of terror ensued. The Mensheviki and Social revolutionists actively co-operated with the government in imprisoning the Bolsheviki and disarming the masses, establishing "revolutionary order" by crushing the left wing of the Revolution. This formidable uprising, however, in spite of its defeat; went far toward preserving the Revolution and energizing the morale of the masses: its defeat paved the way for the overthrow of the moderates in the Soviets, which occurred completely a few months later.

Events had demonstrated the necessity of ministerial reconstruction, and on July 20 Prince Lvov resigned as Premier, Kerensky being appointed the new Premier, but retaining his portfolio as Minister of War and Marine. On July 20 Kerensky issued a proclamation to the army and navy, accusing the sailors of Cronstadt and the Baltic Fleet of being tools of "German agents and provocateurs," and ordering:

This was the first act of the "revolutionary" Premier Kerensky—an act directed against the courageous and revolutionary sailors of Cronstadt and the Baltic Fleet, who had been most active factors in the first stage of the Revolution and throughout its subsequent course, and who were now stigmatized because they adhered to the revolutionary program of "all power to the Soviets." On July 25 the Executive Committee of the All-Russian Soviets adopted a resolution, 300 to 11, insinuating that Lenin and Zinovief had received money from German sources and demanding that the Bolsheviki repudiate their leaders. An order for the arrest of Lenin was issued, who went into hiding; hundreds of Bolsheviki were imprisoned.


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 On August 3 there was a new ministerial crisis, Minister of Agriculture Chernov resigning, and on August 7 Premier Kerensky announced the new Cabinet, including Chernov and representatives of the Cadets, who agreed to participate in the new government.

The resignation of the Cadets from the Ministry on July 15, and of Prince Lvov on July 20, was an offensive maneuvre against the Soviets, an attempt to thrust power upon the Soviets, which the Cadets knew very well would be declined. Premier Kerensky made his peace with the Cadets by means of concessions, and the consequence of these concessions was a definite swing to the right by the new government, the adoption of a general policy making consistently for reaction. On July 22, the Executive Committee of the All-Russian Soviets, proclaimed the Kerensky Government "the Government of National Safety," and declared: "That unlimited powers be accorded the Government for re-establishing the organization and discipline of the Army for a fight to the finish against the enemies of public order and for the realization of the whole program of the Government." The dictatorship was used against "the enemies of public order," enthusiastically, rigorously and systematically; but the "realization of the whole program" still remained a thing of the future. The death penalty was restored in the army. The dictatorship was in action, a counter-revolutionary dictatorship. But whose dictatorship? The fatal weakness of the whole regime was that it was based on compromise, that behind it was no class capable of sustaining a dictatorship; and the inevitable consequence was the creation of a situation in which either an individual would become dictator, or the whole system would collapse. Kerensky did try to become dictator; he essayed the role of Bonaparte, but he was not even a mediocre Napoleon the Great, simply a shabby, theatrical imitation of Napoleon the Little. Kerensky talked and fumed and threatened, while the bourgeoisie patently awaited for the moment when they could march in and assume all power. The internal crisis became still more acute, disintegration the order of the day. Over the mass of misery, of oppression, poured the golden flood of Kerensky's eloquence; but the flood obliterated neither the sufferings of the masses nor the counter-revolutionary plots of the bourgeoisie.

Reaction was to have its day. The Moscow Conference, the Fall of Riga, the Kornilov-Kerensky rebellion, the reactionary "Democratic Congress"—through all these reaction was to express itself in a last, desperate spasmodic struggle; and all the while the masses were preparing for the final action—and victory.

Sources: Chapter I and II, from Lenin's pamphlet, "Aims of the Proletariat"; Chapters VIIX [sic] and VIII from Lenin's pamphlet, "Lessons of the Revolution;" Chapters VII and IX from Lenin's pamphlet; "At the Moment." All the chapters of Trotzky appeared as articles in Trotzky's paper Vperiod during June and July.


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The historical period through which we are passing is characterized by the following fundamental features:

1.—The Imperial government, which represented only a small group of large landholders having in its control all the machinery of power, army, police and bureaucracy, has been defeated and overthrown, but not entirely done away with. Monarchism, as such, has not been destroyed. The Romanoff coterie is still engaged in monarchistic intrigues. The grip of the large landholders on the land has not been definitely broken.

The powers of government in Russia have passed into the hands of a new class: the bourgeoisie and the bourgeois-inclined landholders. To that extent the bourgeois democratic revolution in Russia is a closed chapter.

The bourgeoisie in power concluded an alliance with purely monarchistic elements which, from 1906 to 1914, had shown themselves unusually faithful to Nicholas the Bloody and Stolypin the Hangman. The new bourgeois government of Lvov and his associates (Guchkov and other politicians more conservative than the Cadets) actually initiated negotiations with the Romanoffs aiming at a restoration of the monarchy in Russia, while using the revolutionary vocabulary. And that government has appointed to positions of authority partisans of the old regime.

All the governmental machinery, army, police and bureaucracy, is being turned over to the bourgeoisie by this government with the least possible modifications and reforms.

The new government is trying to prevent by every means at its disposal the development of mass action and the assumption of power from below by the people, which alone would insure the success of the Revolution.


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xviii flœð-i, öx-i; otherwise they retain the full declension and must not be confounded with the indeclinable weak feminines gleð-i, ell-i, etc. In the west of Icel. the -r is still in use in flœð-r, veið-r, reyð-r (steypi-reyð-r), and all over Icel. in ký-r, æ-r; as also in brúð-r, only here the -r is kept through all cases, so that the word has an indeclinable sing., cp. the use of this word in Ísl. Þjóðs. i. 340, 341 (omitted s.v. p. 84).2. a great many fem. pr. names: simple, Auð-r, Fríð-r, Gerð-r, Hild-r, Þrúð-r, Unn-r, Urð-r (mythol.): compds, Sigríð-r, Ástríð-r, Guðríð-r, Þuríð-r, Ragnheið-r, Alheið-r, Hallgerð-r, Ingigerð-r, Valgerð-r, Þorgerð-r, Gunnhild-r, Ragnhild-r, Ingveld-r, Þórhild-r, Hólmfríð-r, etc.: those in -uðr, qs. -unnr, Steinun-n, Ingun-n, Iðun-n, Þórun-n: in -dís, Ás-dís, Her-dís, Vig-dís, Þór-dís, Álf-dís, dat. acc. dísi (ommitted s.v.p. 100), and by way of analogy the foreign abbadís, (abbess), as if compounded with dís; foreign pr. names, Margrét, Elizabet, etc.: in pr. names the inflexive -r is in full use over Icel., so that Baugeið, Randíð, etc. in old MSS. are only Norwegianisms. ☞ The Icel. feminines in -r answers to Gothic -is, and are different from the Gothic feminines in -s, such as anst-s, alþ-s; of these latter the Icel. nauð-r (need, decl. as tíð) is the sole remnant. It is worth noticing that the Icel. feminine proper names have preserved and represent the oldest and fullest declension of feminines.

Remarks on the 3rd Declension, which contains about two score words:1. eik, steik, geit, greip, grind, gnit, kinn, kind (in mod. usage), flík, spík, tík, vík, rít, mjólk, kverk (but in mod. usage kverk-ar).2. with changed vowel, bók, brók, glóð, nót, rót, gát, nátt, tönn, hönd, önd (anas), mörk, fló, kló, ló, ró, tá, gás, lús, mús, brún, stoð, hnot; plur. bœk-r, glœð-r, gæt-r, næt-r, tenn-r, hend-r, end-r, flœ-r, tæ-r, gæs-s, mýs-s, brýn-n, steð-r, hnet-r (but in the present use, stoð-ir, hnot-ir). ☞ A very few of these words have also -r in nom. sing., viz. mjólk, mörk, nátt, vík; bœk-r from ból also occurs, though seldom; rist-r from rist, Pass. 33. 4, is poët.3. to this class we may refer the plur. dyr-r (q.v.), gen. dura; the latter r is inflexive, and the form analogous to ký-r from kú; the plur. ký-r, æ-r (q.v.)4. to this declension may also be referred the plur. of dóttir, systir, móðir, although the r is here radical. ☞ The monosyllabic feminines with a final long vowel are contracted, á, brá, gjá, Gná, ljá, lá, krá, rá, slá, skrá, spá, þrá; as to the declension of these words vide á, p. 48, and brá, p. 77; 16, Ey-gló, sló, stó, þró, dat. 16-m...; ásjá (q.v.) has no r in gen., nor trú, frú (q.v.) The root vowel of these words is not changed, and accordingly they are classed with the 1st declension of feminines, but in a contracted form.

'''Remarks on the 1st Declension:I. skip: forms like this are regular, and occur throughout the book, simply marked ‘n.’II. barn: to this belong neuters with a as root vowel, which in plur., answering to -a in Goth., -u in A.S. (cp. Lat. cornu): as a radical a is the only vowel which is affected by an inflexive u, the remains of this inflexion are only found in the words with that root vowel; these words are many:1. single words, barð, blað, vað, haf, vaf, flag, drag, bak, flak, rak, þak, skjal, far, skar, svar, glas, fat, gat, afl, tafl, fall, fjall, kall, band, grand, barð, skarð, bjarg, bragð, flagð, nafn, safn, gagl, hagl, tagl, agn, gagn, hald, vald, magn, lamb, mark, rann, happ, hapt, skapt, hlass, gjald, spjall, spjald, tjald, hvarf, starf, barn, kast, ax, fax, sax, vatn:—only in plur., lög, glöp, sköp, rök: many have no plur.2.' with an inflexive -að, -al, etc., changed into u,'' hér-að, hundr-að, for-að, óð-al, plur. hér-uð, hundr-uð, óð-ul: sum-ar (pro. a masc.), plur. sum-ur: gaman, dat. contr. gamni: höfuð, dat. höfði.'''III. nes: to this belong more than a score of words, with characteristic j, geð, veð, nef, stef, egg, hregg, skegg, él, sel, ben, fen, gren, men, ber, sker, nes, flet, net, fley, grey, hey, kið, rif, gil, þil, fyl, kyn, ný.IV. högg:' to this belong a score of words, with characteristic v,'' högg, skrök, kjöt, böl, öl, föl, mjöl, fjör, smjör, bygg, glygg, lyng, fræ, læ, hræ, hey: only plur. söl. ☞ The dat. högg-vi, kjöt-vi, böl-vi, smjör-vi, bygg-vi, fræ-vi, hey-vi, etc. began to be uncommon even in old writers and are in mod. usage sounded högg-i, skrök-i, kjöt-i, etc., whereas n plur. the v still remains, e.g. sölva-fjara. For fé, kné, tré, see these words.

Remarks on the 2nd Declension, contining bisyllabic derivatove wors with characteristic i. Most of these words are derivative and with a changed vowel wherever possible. A great number are declined like klæð-i, so that it is difficult to give a complete list of them, e.g. fresli (by misprint called fem., p. 172); in the Dictionary they are simply marked ‘n.’'''II. ríki:' to this belong those with a final g, k, which have j (the characteristic i'') in gen. and dat. plur., e.g. fylki, ríki, síki, vígi, lægi, and many others.

The original characteristic of weak nouns in Teutonic languages is the inflexive -n, of which in Icel. the sole remnant is the gen. plur. of the feminines and neuters.

'''Remarks on this Declension:I. tími: forms like this occur almost in every page of the Dictionary, and are simply marked ‘a, m.’II. steði:' to this belong only a few primitive words with characteristic j,'' as aðil-i, bryt-i, steð-i, vil-i, nið-i; the poët. and obsolete skyt-i, tygg-i; poët. pr. names, Bel-i, Ið-i, Skyl-i, Þrið-i, Víg-i; compds in -skegg-i, eyjar-skeggjar; names of people in -ver-jar, Gaulver-jar, Oddaver-jar, and in mod. usage, Þjóðver-jar, Spánver-jar, etc., cp. varii in old Teutonic names in Latin writers:—compds in -ingi, höfðing-i, heiðing-i, kunning-i, fœðing-i, banding-i, leysing-i, auming-i, ræning-i, Væring-i, Skræling-i, etc., pl. höfðing-jar, etc.: in -yrki or -virki, ein-virki, spell-virki, etc., pl. einvirk-jar, Tyrki (a Turk, mod.), etc.:—for lé, gen. ljá (léa), and klé, gen. kléa, see these words. There is a curious inflexive -n left in pl. of the obsolete poët. words, brag-nar, gum-nar, got-nar, from bragi, goti, gumi. ☞ Some masculines have a double declension, both strong and weak, hug-r and hug-i, hlut-r and hlut-i, hólm-r and hólm-i, stall-r and stall-i, mun-r and munn-i, garð-r and garð-i, odd-r and odd-i, nið-r and nið-i, drang-r and drang-i, linn-r and linn-i, líkam-r and líkam-i, glugg-r and glugg-i, -ingr and -ingi; all derivative words in -leikr have both forms, -leik-r and -leik-i; cp. also pr. names as Örn and Árn-i, Björn and Bjarn-i, Finn-r and Finn-i, Odd-r and Odd-i, Gísl and Gísl-i, Geir-r and Geir-i, etc.

'''Remarks on the 1st Declension:I. tunga:''' this form, marked ‘u, f.’ in the Dictionary, contains many hundreds of appellatives, and several pr. names, Halla, Ása, Þóra, Hall-dóra, etc.: frú (q.v.) is contracted; so also trú-a, gen. trú; the pr. names Gró-a, Gó-a, gen. Gró, Gó.'''II. alda:' to this belong all the feminines with a'' as root vowel, cp. introduction to letter A: völv-a, a sibyl, gen. völ-u, pl. völ-ur. ☞ Only a few of the words of this declension (little more than a score, or about two or three per cent. of the whole) form a gen. plur.; these are esp. the following, vaka, vika, klukka, ekkja, rekkja, kirkja (gen. ekk-na ... kirk-na), stúlka, tala, vala, sála (sálna, Mar. passim), kúla, súla, gata, gáta, sáta, varta, dúfa, þúfa, rjúpa, ríma, vísa, hosa, messa, kelda, skylda; kona has kven-na; the nom. of stjarna (a star) and skepna (a creature) may also serve for gen. plur., skaparinn stjarna, creator stellarum, in a hymn: in some few cases the gen plur. is formed by adding the article to the nom. sing., thus gyðja-nna (dearum) gryfja-nna (fovearum): in many cases the gen. sing. is used collectively, thus Icel. say, öldu-gangr, impetus undarum,—the words denoting wave, alda, bára, bylgja-nna; sögu-bók, liber historiarum; the gen. sagn-a, historiarum (sagna-ritari), is rarely used and is borrowed from sögn. Sometimes this deficiency may become puzzling, chiefly in translating Latin into Icel.; in original writers it is not felt. In olden times the number of those words that allowed of a gen. was still more limited.

Remarks of the Indeclinable Feminine:—with perhaps the sole exception of ævi (life) and elli (age) all the words of this declension are derivatives from adjectives and formed by a change of vowel, whenever the root vowel of the adjective is changeable; almost all these words are abstract (denoting quality), and so have no plural; forms like gleði-r (ludi) or æfi-r (vitae) are quite exceptional and ungrammatical:1. single nouns, about two score of words; gleði, helgi (holiness), ergi, leti, gremi, helti, speki, hugrekki, frœði, mœði, œði (fury), hæsi, kæti, reiði, feiti, bleyði, hreysti, veyki, háreysti, fylli, hylli, fysi, syki, birti, snilli, girni, teiti, hvíti, örvi, mildi, blindi, atgörvi, hnöggvi, myki: lygi and görsimi in sing., but heteroclite in plur.2. derivatives; -semi from adj. -samr, skyn-semi (very many): compds in -fræði, -speki, but if prefixed as a double compd they take s, thus e.g. frœði-bók, but huðfrœðis-bók; skynsemi (rationis), but skynsemis-trú (fides rationis, i.e. rationalismus): -ni from adjectives in -inn, e.g. heið-ni, Krist-ni, hlýð-ni, and many others: -skygni, -sýni, e.g. glám-skygni, víð-sýni: -gi from adj. igr, e.g. græð-gi, kyn-gi; -ýðgi,harð-ýðgi, etc.: -gli from adj. -gull, sann-sögli (veracitas) from sann-sögull (verax): in -andi only a few, kveð-andi, hyggj-andi, afr-endi, Verð-andi (the Norn): in local names, Skáni, Erri, Ylfi (islands): Skaði (the goddess) is declined as masc.

Remarks on this Declension: it contains,1. six words denoting parts of the body, auga, eyra, hjarta, lunga, nýra, eista.2. a few appellatives, almost obsolete, none of which from a gen. plur., bjúga, ökla, sima, leika, hnoða, viðbeina, vetta (in ekki vetta, no wight; hvat-vetna, every wight).


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 longer hid in the hedge as he had done three years before, when the Resident drove past, he that had seen the much greater lord who lives at Buitenzorg, and who is the grandfather of the prince of Solo? Was it to be wondered that he paid little attention to the stories of people who walked with him part of the way and told him all the news of Bantan Kedool? That he scarce listened when he was told that the coffee-culture, after much unrewarded labour, had been entirely abandoned? That the District-Chief of Parang-Koodyang had been sentenced, for robbery on the public road, to fourteen days’ detention in the house of his father-in-law? That the head-centre had been removed to Rangkas-Betoong? That a new Assistant-Resident had arrived because the previous one had died a few months since? And how this new official had spoken at the first meeting of the sebah? How for some time now no one had been punished on any charge, and how it was hoped among the population that all that had been stolen would be returned or made good?

No, before his soul’s eye there were sweeter visions. He looked in the clouds for the ketapan-tree, as he was still too far to find it at Badoor. He grasped at the surrounding air, as though he would embrace the form that would be waiting for him under that tree. He pictured to himself Adinda’s face, her head, her shoulder he saw the heavy hair-tress, so shining black, caught in its own loop, hanging down on her neck  he saw her large eyes, lustrous in dark reflection  the nostrils she so proudly drew up as a child, when he—how was it possible!—teased her, and the corner of her lips wherein she kept a smile. He saw her breast, that would now be swelling under the shawl he saw how the garment which she herself had woven narrowly enclosed her hips, and, following the thigh in its curve, fell along the knee in beautiful waving lines on to the small foot.

No, he heard but little of what people told him. He heard very different notes. He heard how Adinda would say: “Be welcome,


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 Saïdyah! I have thought of you while spinning and weaving, and while pounding the rice in the block that carries three times twelve notches made by my hand. Here I am under the ketapan, the first day of the new moon. Be welcome. Saïdyah, I will be your wife!”

That was the music which sounded in his ear, and prevented him from listening to all the news people told him on the way.

At last he saw the ketapan. Or rather he saw a dark space which covered many stars before his eyes. That must be the diati-wood, near the tree where he was to see Adinda again, next day at sunrise. He searched in the dark, and felt the stems of many trees. Soon he found a well-known unevenness on the south side of a tree, and laid his finger in a nick which Si-Panteh had cut in it with his hatchet, in order to exorcize the evil spirit who was the cause of the tooth-ache of Si-Panteh’s mother, shortly before the birth of his little brother. This was the ketapan he sought.

Yes, this indeed was the spot where for the first time he had seen Adinda with other eyes than the rest of his playfellows, because there for the first time she had refused to take part in a game that, after all, she had played with all the children, boys and girls, only a little while before. There she had given him the melatti.

He sat down at the foot of the tree, and looked up at the stars. And when one of them set, he took it as a greeting on his return to Badoor. And he wondered whether Adinda would now be asleep. And whether she had correctly marked the moons in her rice-block. It would grieve him so very much if she had missed one, as though it were not enough six-and-thirty! And whether she had painted pretty shawls and skirts. And also he asked himself with some curiosity who might now be living in his fathers house. And his youth came back to him, and his mother, and how the buffalo had saved him from the tiger, and he could not help musing on what might have become of Adinda if that buffalo had been less faithful.

He particularly watched the setting of the stars in the west, and with every star that vanished over the horizon he calculated


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 how the sun was again a little nearer to its rising in the east, and how much nearer he himself was to the meeting with Adinda.

For she was sure to come at the first gleam, nay, she would already be there at the glimmer of early dawn Ah! why had she not already come the day before?

It made him sad that she had not anticipated it, the glorious moment which for three years had shone before him with indescribable radiance. And unjust as he was in the selfishness of his love, it seemed to him that Adinda should have been there, waiting for him, who now complained—before the time already!—that he had to wait for.

But he complained without cause. For still the sun had not yet risen, still the eye of day had not cast its first glance on the plain. Certainly, the stars were paling above, ashamed that soon there would be an end to their reign and strange colours floated across the summits of the mountains, which appeared darker as they were outlined more sharply on a lighter background  and here and there through the clouds in the East sped something flaming—arrows of gold and fire shot hither and thither, parallel with the skyline—but anon they vanished and seemed to fall behind the impenetrable curtain that ever still hid the day from Saïdyah’s eyes.

Yet gradually lighter and lighter it grew around him. He already saw the landscape, and already he distinguished the comb of the klappa-wood in which Badoor lies hidden There slept Adinda.

No, she slept no longer! How could she sleep? Did she not know that Saïdyah would be waiting for her? Oh, surely, she had not slept all night! Doubtless the night-watcher had knocked at her door to ask why the lamp continued to burn in her little dwelling, and with a sweet laugh she had told him that a promise kept her awake to finish weaving the skirt she was working at, and that had to be ready for the first day of the new moon.

Or she had passed the night in darkness, sitting on her rice


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 block, and counting with eager finger, to see that for sure thirty-six deep notches were carved on it side by side. And she had amused herself with artful pretence of fright, imagining that perhaps she miscounted, and that perhaps one of them was still wanting, so that again, and still again, and every time she might delight in the glorious certainty that without a shadow of doubt three times twelve moons had passed by since Saïdyah saw her for the last time.

also, seeing it already grow so light, would strain her eyes with vain endeavour to bend her glances beyond the horizon, that they might meet the sun, the laggard sun, that tarried tarried

Then came a line of bluish red, that fixed itself upon the clouds, and their rims grew light and glowing, and the lightning flashed, and again fiery arrows shot through the expanse, but this time they did not fall, they settled firmly on the dark background, and communicated their glow in ever larger and larger circles, and met crossing, swinging, winding, straying, and they united into fire sheaves, and flashed in golden gleams on a sky of nacre, and there were red, and blue, and yellow, and silver, and purple, and azure in it all O, God! that was the dawn; that was the coming of Adinda!

Saïdyah had not learnt to pray, and it would have been a pity to teach him, for holier prayer and thanksgiving more fervent than was found in the speechless ecstasy of his soul would be impossible to express in human language.

He wished not to go to Badoor. The actual meeting with Adinda in itself appeared to him less glorious than the certainty that presently he meet her again. He sat down at the foot of the ketapan, and let his eyes stray about the landscape. Nature smiled on him and seemed to bid him welcome as a mother her returned child. And just as such a one depicts her joy by a deliberate remembrance of past sorrow in showing what she had preserved as a keepsake during absence, thus also Saïdyah derived pleasure from seeing again so many spots that had witnessed his short life. But


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 however much his eyes or his thoughts might wander around, every time his glance and his longing returned to the path that leads from Badoor to the ketapan. All that his senses became aware of bore the name Adinda. He saw the precipice on the left, where the earth is so yellow, and where once a young buffalo sank into the depth; there the villagers had come together to remove the animal—for it is no small matter to lose a young buffalo—and they had let each other down by strong rattan cords. Adinda’s father had been bravest Oh, how she had clapped her hands, Adinda!

And yonder, on the other side, where the small clump of coco-palms waves above the huts of the village, somewhere there Si-oonah had fallen out of a tree and died. How his mother had cried: “Because Si-oonah was still so small,” she wailed as though she would have been less grieved if Si-oonah had been bigger! But it is true that he small, for he was smaller and weaker even than Adinda.

No one came along the little road that led from Badoor to the tree. Presently she would come: Oh, certainly it was still so early!

Saïdyah saw a badying hopping to and fro with sportive nimbleness about the stem of a klappa-tree. The little creature—the vexation of the owner of the tree, yet so charming in its appearance and movements—clambered up and down indefatigably. Saïdyah saw it and forced himself to keep looking at it, because this gave some rest to his thoughts after the strenuous labour they had been engaged in since sunrise rest from the exhausting strain of waiting. Anon his impressions took the form of words, and he sang what was passing in his soul. I would sooner his song to you in Malay, this Italian of the East, but here is the translation:


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it must be otherwise with them, they must be prepared of God, who draweth men to Christ, but first (as they say) drawes them to mind their soules seriously. A wicked man living within the pale of the Church is bound to beleeve, as to repent and cease from his evill way; for the neglect of one duty doth not exempt a man from another: but so long as he goeth on in an evill course, he cannot lay hould on the promises of mercy, nor embrace Christ as his only Saviour. The hungry, thirsty and burdened, not they which wallow in iniquity are invited to come unto Christ, that they might be eased and refreshed. They are called to beleeve in Christ for pardon, not that they are already the children of God, and restored into favour. A thirsty and weary man as such, can no more beleeve that he is the child of God, then a wounded man as wounded can that he is cured; or the man stung with the fiery Serpent, that he was healed, before he looked up to the brasen Serpent. Thirst is opposed to water, and wearinesse to refreshing. A man must believe before he can be in the state of grace, and know he doth beleeve, before he can beleeve that he is the child of God, neither of which can be affirmed of the weary as simply such. Thus then I grant all men are bound to beleeve in Christ: but thence it will not follow, that Christ died for all men equally, to purchase for them actuall reconciliation on Gods part, and with full and compleate will and purpose quantum in se to save them: but only that Christ died for them as an all-sufficient and efficient Saviour, so that in the Covenant of grace salvation might be and is tendered unto them upon condition of true repentance and faith unfained. For they to whom the Gospell is preached, and by whom it is professed, are bound to beleeve what is offered in the Gospell, as it is offered there in, viz. if they hunger and thirst, deny themselves, and be wearie of their sinnes. But it is one thing to deny our workes, and relie upon the free mercy of God in Christ, another to beleeve that Christ died for our redemption in particular. Whosoever is bound to beleeve hath Christ as an all-sufficient and efficient Saviour, in and through whom Salvation might be obtained, and undoubtedly shall be obtained by him, if he renounce his owne works, and flie to the sole mercy of God in Christ, as the object of faith, in order of nature before either the act of faith, or proposall of the commandement to beleeve: He hath also the rule of new life, and is admitted into the


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Still there was no one on the path that leads from Badoor to the ketapan.

Saïdyah’s glance fell on a butterfly that seemed to rejoice because it was growing warm.

And there was no one on the path that led from Badoor to the tree.

The sun was already rising high there was already heat in the air.


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 The government has not as yet announced the convocation of the Constituent Assembly. Neither does it interfere with the landholding machine, the solid foundation of feudal Czarism. The government is not considering investigating or regulating the financial organizations of a monopolistic character, large banks, syndicates, trusts, etc.

The most important and influential cabinet posts in the new government, the ministry of the interior and the ministry of war, that is, the direction of the army, police and bureaucracy and of the whole machinery for the oppression of the masses, have been given to well-known monarchists and supporters of the large landholding system.

The Cadets, the republicans of yesterday, republicans much against their inclination, have been offered positions of secondary importance, in no way affecting the ruling of the nation and the machinery of government. Kerensky, a representative of the Laborites and "also a Socialist," does very little besides lulling the people asleep with well-sounding phrases and causing them to relax their attention and their watchfulness.

For all these reasons, the new bourgeois government does not deserve the proletariat's confidence in the field of national politics and is not worthy of any confidence.

In the domain of foreign politics, which for obvious reasons is very much to the front, the new government stands for the continuation of an imperialistic war waged in concert with imperialistic nations, England, France, and others, a war waged to secure a share of the imperialistic booty and aiming at the strangling of smaller and weaker nations. The new government is subservient to the interests of Russian capitalists and of their powerful protectors and masters, the capitalists of England and France, the wealthiest in the world. It turns a deaf ear to the desires expressed by the Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Delegates, expressing a clear majority of the Russian people, and has neglected to take any genuine measures to end the international slaughter organized in the interests of Capitalism.

The new government has failed to publish the secret agreements of frankly predatory character, which, as everybody knows, have been concluded between Russia and the imperialistic and predatory capitalists of England and France. It has confirmed the agreements concluded by Czarism, a system which in the course of several centuries overpowered and oppressed more nationalities than any other system of tyranny and despotism, and which has


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 brutalized and demoralized the Great-Russian people, transforming it into a tormentor of other races.

The new government, having confirmed those shameful and piratical agreements, refuses to suggest to all the belligerents an immediate armistice, in spite of the wishes of the large majority of the Russian people voiced by the Council of Workers and Soldiers. It has evaded the issue by confining itself to solemn, sonorous, platitudinous phrases and declarations, all of them perfectly empty but of the kind which bourgeois diplomats have always used to deceive the gullible and naive masses of oppressed nations.

And, therefore, the new government does not deserve the slightest confidence in the domain of international politics.

Moreover, it would be a waste of time to expect the government to make known the peace hunger of the peoples of Russia, or to renounce all annexations; for this would simply deceive the people, awaken in them hopes which cannot be fulfilled, retard their intellectual enlightenment, and gradually reconcile them with the idea of a continuation of the war. Socially, the present war is not characterized by any noble aims; it only reflects the class character of the government waging it, the alliance between the class represented by that government and the imperialistic financiers of Russia, England and France, and the actual policy of their class.


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Still there was no one on the road that leads from Badoor to the ketapan.

Still there was no one on the road that led from Badoor to the ketapan.


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The most peculiar feature, the distinguishing mark of our Revolution is the condition of dual authority it has established. This is a primary fact on which there must be clarity; without an understanding of this fact no progress is possible. The old "formulas" of Bolshevism, for instance, must be rounded out and corrected, for while they were true in general, their actual working out has been shown to be different. No one could have been aware, before the fact, of the condition of dual authority.

This dual power manifests itself through the existence of two different governments: the main, actual government, the government of the bourgeoisie, the Provisional Government, which holds in its hands all the machinery of power, and a supplementary, secondary, "controlling" government, the Councils of Workers and Soldiers, which does not have at its disposal any of the machinery of state power but which has the immediate and indubitable support of the majority of the nation, of the armed workers and soldiers.

The Revolution that overthrew Czarism and placed power in the hands of the bourgeoisie almost led to a revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat and the peasantry. And this second government, the government of the Councils, representing the proletariat and the peasantry, is a revolutionary dictatorship, that is, its authority rests directly on revolutionary usurpation exercised through the immediate pressure of the masses from below, not on laws promulgated by some central government power. The source of power is not in laws previously discussed and passed by parliament, but, as in the Paris Commune, in the direct pressure and action of the masses; the preservation of order is no longer the function of an army and police, but of the workers and peasants themselves, of the armed nation.

But this power, and this is another peculiar and a most important feature of the Russian Revolution,—enjoying the fulfull [sic] confi-


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 And ever still there was no one on the path that led from Badoor to the tree.

Oh, no doubt she had fallen asleep towards dawn, tired of keeping awake through the night, of keeping awake through the length of several nights! No doubt she had not slept for weeks: that was it!

Should he arise and go to Badoor? No! Could he let it appear as though he had a doubt of her coming?

Suppose he called the man yonder who was driving his buffalo to the field? But that man was too far. And besides, Saïdyah wished not to speak Adinda, not to ask  Adinda  he wished to  Oh, doubtless, doubtless she would soon come now!

He would wait, wait

But if she were ill, or dead?

Like a wounded deer Saïdyah flew up the path that leads from the ketapan to the village where Adinda lived. He saw nothing and heard nothing, and yet he might have heard something, for there were people standing in the road at the entrance to the village, who called: “Saïdyah! Saïdyah!”

But was it his haste, his passion, which made him unable to find Adinda’s house? Already he had rushed on to the end of the road where the village stops, and like a madman he returned, and beat his forehead because he had been able to pass her house without seeing it. But again he was at the entrance—and, my God, was it a dream? again he had not found Adinda’s house! Once more he flew back, and all at once he stood still, grasped his head with both his hands, as if to press out of it the madness that came over him, and called loudly: “Drunk, I am drunk!”

And the women of Badoor came out of their houses, and with pity saw poor Saïdyah standing there, for they recognized him, and understood that he was looking for Adinda’s house, and they knew that there was no house of Adinda in the village of Badoor.

For when the District-Chief of Parang-Koodyang had taken the buffalo of Adinda’s father


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 dence of the people,—has, both by a direct understanding with the Provisional Government and by a series of virtual concessions, voluntarily placed the powers of the state in the hands of the bourgeoisie and a bourgeois government. It is still surrendering positions to the bourgeoisie, has voluntarily accepted the domination of the bourgeoisie and agreed to support it, limiting itself to the role of a supervising body. Why? Is it because Cheidse, Tseretelli, Steklof & Co. are making a "mistake"? No such thing. A philistine may think that way, not a Marxist. The reason is to be foimd in the insufficient class consciousness and organization of the workers and peasants. The "mistake" of the leaders mentioned lies in their petit bourgeois position, in their inspiring the workers with bourgeois illusions instead of fighting to destroy these illusions, in their strengthening the influence of the bourgeoisie over the masses instead of liberating the masses from this influence.

This most peculiar situation, unparalleled in history, has led to the simultaneous existence and co-action of two dictatorships: a dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry, the Councils of Workers' and Soldiers' Delegates, and a dictatorship of the bourgeoisie, for the Provisional Government is not based on statutes nor on the expressed will of the nation, but was simply the assumption of power by a definite class, the bourgeoisie.

There is not the slightest doubt but that such a combination can not last long. There can not be any dualism of authority in the government. One of the two powers is bound to dwindle to nothing, and the bourgeoisie is already straining all its energies in an endeavor to weaken and finally annihilate the Councils of Workers' and Soldiers' Delegates and concentrate all authority in a bourgeois government.

The Provisional Government must be overthrown. It is an oligarchical, bourgeois government, not a popular one. It must not be overthrown at once, for it is being maintained by a straight and clear agreement, in form and in fact, by the Soviets, chiefly with the principal Soviet, that of Petrograd. It must not be "overthrown" in the customary manner, for it is based on the "support" of the second government, the government of the Soviets, and this second government is the only possible revolutionary government, since it expresses directly the consciousness and the will of the great majority of the workers and peasants. In order to become a power, the class conscious workers must win over a majority to their side: as you cannot resort to force against the masses, there is no


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 I have told you, reader, that my story is monotonous.

then Adinda’s mother had died with fretting. And her baby sister had died because she had no mother to suckle her. And Adinda’s father feared the punishment if he did not pay his land-rent

I know it, I know it, my story is monotonous!

Adinda’s father had gone away from the country, and had taken Adinda with him, and her brothers. But he had heard that Saïdyah’s father had been punished at Buitenzorg with rattan-strokes, because he had left Badoor without a pass. And therefore Adinda’s father had not gone to Buitenzorg, nor to Krawang, nor to the Preanger, nor to the Batavian out-districts he had gone to Tjilang-Kahan, the district of Lebak which borders on the sea. There he had hidden in the woods and awaited the arrival of Pa-Ento, Pa-Lontah, Si-Ooniah, Pa-Ansioo, Abdool-Isma, and yet a few others who had been robbed of their buffaloes by the District-Chief of Parang-Koodyang, and who all feared the punishment if they did not pay their land-rent. There, during the night, they had seized a fishing-prao, and had put out to sea. They had steered a westerly course, keeping the land to the right of them as far as Java-Point. Thence they had steered northwards until they saw before them Tanah-itam, that the European sailors call Princes Island. They had sailed round the eastern coast of that island, and then they had made for Kaiser’s Bay, taking their bearings by the high point in the Lampongs. This at any rate was the route that people in Lebak whispered into each other’s ears whenever there was talk of official buffalo-theft and unpaid land-rent.

But Saïdyah, half dazed, did not clearly understand what they told him. He even did not quite grasp the tidings of his fathers death. There was a dinning in his ears as though someone was beating a gong in his head. He felt the blood forced with jerks through the veins at his temples, that threatened to burst under the pressure of so severe an expansion. He did not speak, and


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 stared around with a vacant look without seeing what was near and about him, and at last he burst into ghastly laughter.

An old woman took him along to her little house, and looked after the poor crazy one. Soon he no longer laughed so horribly, but yet he did not speak. Only during the night those who shared the hut with him were startled awake by his voice, when he sang in a toneless manner—“I know not where I shall die.” Some of the inhabitants of Badoor put money together to pay for a sacrifice to the alligators of the Tjioodyoong for the recovery of Saïdyah, who was looked upon as demented.

But demented he was not.

For one night when the moon shone brightly, he rose from his stretcher, and stole softly out of the house, and searched for the place where Adinda had lived. It was not easy to find, as so many houses had fallen into ruins. But he seemed to recognize the place from the width of the angle which some of the lines of light between the trees formed in meeting his eye, as the sailor takes his bearings from certain beacons or from prominent mountain-heights.

Yes, it must be there there it was that Adinda had lived!

Stumbling over half-decayed bamboos and fragments of the fallen roof, he cleared for himself a way to the sanctuary he sought. And indeed, he still found portions of the upright fence next to which Adinda’s stretcher had stood, and stuck in this fence there was still the bamboo pin on which she had hung her garment when she lay down to sleep

But the stretcher had fallen in like the house, and was almost decayed to dust. He picked up a handful of it, pressed it to his open lips, and breathed very deeply

Next day he asked the old woman who had looked after him where the rice-block was that had stood on the ground of Adinda’s house. The woman was rejoiced to hear him speak, and went all over the village to find that block. When she was able to tell Sadyah who was the new owner, he followed her silently, and,


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 other way to lead them on. We are not Blanquists, we do not stand for a seizure of power by the minority. We are Marxists, and therefore advocates of the proletarian class struggle as against the petit bourgeois vaporings and illusions, against the chauvinism of the "national defense" attitude, against a dependence on the petty bourgeoisie.

Let us form a proletarian conununistic party, the elements for which have already been provided by the best advocates of Bolshevism; let us unite for the proletarian class war, and from among the proletarians, from among the poorest peasants, we shall draw to our cause an ever-increasing host. For life itself will destroy more and more of the petit bourgeois illusions of the "Social Democrats" Cheidse, Tseretelli, Steklof, etc., of the "Social-Revolutionists," and of the petty bourgeoisie in its more regular expressions. The petite bourgeoisie—the "Social Democrats," Social-Revolutionists, and others—stagger and hesitate, and thus muddle the work of enlightenment and liberation. That is the actual class relation between the forces that determine the outlines of our tasks.

The condition of dual authority is merely a transitional symptom in the development of the Revolution, which has gone farther than the usual bourgeois democratic revolution, but not as yet far enough to establish a complete dictatorship of the proletariat and the peasantry.

The class significance and class explanation of this transitional and unstable situation will be understood when we bear in mind the following:

Like every other revolution, our Revolution demanded the greatest heroism and self-sacrifice on the part of the masses in the struggle against Czarism, and set in motion an unusually large number of human beings. One of the chief symptoms, from the point of view of science and practical politics, of every real revolution is the unusually brusk and sudden increase in the number of just plain people who cease to remain indifferent and assume an active, individual, efficient role in political life, in the upbuilding of the state.

This is the case of Russia. Russia is in a state of ebullition. Millions of people who politically had been asleep for the past ten


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 taken to the rice-block, he counted on it thirty-two carved notches

Then he gave the old woman as many Spanish dollars as would pay for a buffalo, and left Badoor. At Tjilangkahan, he bought a fisherman’s prao, and with it, after a few days’ sailing, reached the Lampongs, where the rebels resisted the Dutch Government.

He joined a band of Bantammers, not so much for the purpose of fighting as for that of finding Adinda. For he was of a gentle nature, and more susceptible to sorrow than to bitterness.

One day when the rebels had been again defeated, he wandered about in a village that had just been taken by the Dutch army, and that therefore was in flames. Saïdyah knew that the band which had there been annihilated had consisted largely of Bantammers. Like a ghost he roamed about in the huts that were not yet entirely destroyed by the fire, and found the dead body of Adinda’s father with a klewang-bayonet wound in the breast. Next to him Saïdyah saw the three murdered brothers of Adinda, youths, almost children yet, and a little farther the body of Adinda, naked, horribly mutlated

A narrow strip of blue linen had entered into the gaping breastwound that appeared to have ended a prolonged struggle

Then Saïdyah ran towards some Dutch soldiers who with levelled muskets drove the last surviving rebels into the fire of the burning houses. He threw himself on the broad-sword bayonets, pressed forward with all his might, and with a final effort pushed back the soldiers until the bayonets pierced him to the hilts.

And shortly after there was great jubilation in Batavia on account of the latest victory which again had added so many laurels to those already won by the Dutch-Indian army. And the Governor-General wrote to the Motherland that peace had been restored in the Lampongs. And the King of the Netherlands, advised by his Ministers, again rewarded so much heroism with many orders of knighthood.


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 And probably in the Churches on Sunday, or at the prayer-meetings, there rose to heaven, from the hearts of the pious, prayers of thanksgiving on learning that the “Lord of Hosts” had again fought under the banner of The Netherlands


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II. No. of Sericulture householders, (1918) 1,910,800.

III. No of Fishing housholdershouseholders [sic] and Fishermen, (1918).

The Population of Japan (1918)


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 years, either lashed by the political whip of Czarism or doomed to slave labor on farms or in factories, awoke and threw themselves into the political strife. And who were these millions of people? Mostly small landlords, petty bourgeois, half way between capitalists and workers. Russia has a larger proportion of small middle class people than any other European nation. This gigantic middle class tide drowned everything, overwhelmed the class conscious proletariat not only by sheer superiority of numbers but also modifying the proletariat's point of view, that is, instilled in huge masses of workers the political ideals of the petty bourgeoisie.

The petty bourgeosiebourgeoisie [sic] in real life is dependent upon the bourgeoisie, living as an employing, not as a working class (as far as its position in social production is concerned). Its thinking processes are those of the bourgeoisie.

An attitude of unreasoning confidence in the capitalists, the worst foes of peace and Socialism—such is at present the attitude of the Russian masses, such is the feeling which has been growing with revolutionary speed on the social-economic soil of the most middle-class nation of Europe. Such is the basis for the agreement existing between the Provisional Government and the Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Delegates; and when I say "agreement," I do not mean a formal agreement but a tacit understanding, a practical support, a naively trustful relinquishment of power. [This describes the situation before the Soviets accepted coalition on May 18.—F.] This sort of agreement has given to Guchkov a fat job and actual power, and to the Council … promises, a position of dignity (for the time being), flattery, beautiful phrases, assurances, and other marks of esteem on the part of the various Kerenskys.

The weakness of the proletariat in point of numbers, its lack of class consciousness and of organization,—such is the reverse of the medal in Russia.

All popular parties, with the exception of the revolutionary Socialists, have been parties of the small middle class. The same is true of the party of the Mensheviki (Cheidse, Tseretelli, etc.). Independent revolutionists (Steklof and others) floated with the tide and did not succeed in stemming it.

Owing to the peculiar situation I have described, it behooves Marxists to resort to special emergency tactics, for Marxists do not consider personalities but merely objective facts: masses and classes.

This peculiar situation makes it imperative "to pour vinegar and bile into the sweeiened water of revolutionary democratic


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 to quote the apt words of my fellow-committeeman Teodorovitch at the All-Russian Convention of railroad workers in Petrograd. We must formulate criticisms and expose the mistakes of the petty bourgeois parties, the Social-Revolutionary and Social Democratic parties; we must train and bring together what will be the elements of a class conscious proletarian communistic party, we must rescue the proletariat from its mental asphyxiation by bourgeois ideas.

In appearance this is nothing more than propaganda work. In reality, this is the most practical form of revolutionary activity, for a revolution can not possibly get anywhere when it stops, gets drunk on words, treads everlastingly the same spot, handicapped as it is not by opposition from the outside or by bourgeois repression (Guchkov is only talking of taking stem measures against the soldiers), but simply by the unthinking confidence of the masses.

It is only by destroying this unthinking confidence (and we can only destroy it by education), it is by resorting to intellectual persuasion, by pointing out the teachings of life itself, that we will succeed in emancipating ourselves from this continuous spree of mere revolutionary words. Then only will we be able to move forward, then will we behold a real proletarian consciousness, mass consciousness, a courageous and resolute spirit of initiative in every local group; then the people will take the law in their own hands and bring forth, develop and fortify freedom, democracy and the principle of national ownership of land.

Bourgeois and feudal governments have developed a sort of international technique for keeping the people enslaved. They employ two methods. The first is violence. Nicholas I, the man with the club, and Nicholas II, the Bloody, showed to the Russian people how far one could go in the use of the hangman's noose. But there is another method employed most cleverly by the English and French bourgeoisie, who gained their experience through a series of great revolutions and revolutionary convulsions among the masses. It consists in fooling the people, in flattering them, in using big words, in making them innumerable promises, in doling out to them insignificant sops called reforms, in making them unimportant concessions for the sake of retaining the essential things.

And this is what gives to the present situation in Russia its peculiar interest: we are witnessing a vertiginous change from one method to the other, from violent oppression of the people to flattery and deceitful promises. … The cat listens, and continues its meal.


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 Milyukov and Guchkov retain the power, protect the capitalists' profits, conduct an imperialistic war in the interests of Anglo-French Capitalism, and silence by promises, eloquence and impressive declarations "blunderbusses" like Cheidse, Tseretelli, Steklof, who threaten, exort, conjure, beseech, demand, make statements. … The cat listens, and continues its meal.

But from day to day the unthinking confidence and the gullible thoughtlessness of the people will dwindle away, especially among the proletarians and poorest peasants, whom their very life, their social and economic position, has taught to distrust capitalist assurances.

The leaders of the petty bourgeoisie "must" teach the people to trust the bourgeoisie and the bourgeois government. Proletarians must be taught to distrust them.


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 Theodoret and others. The celebrated passage in Job xix. has indeed been strongly insisted upon in proof of the early belief of this doctrine; but the most learned commentators are agreed, and scarcely any one at the present day disputes, that such a view of the text arises either from mistranslation or misapprehension, and that Job means no more than to express a confident conviction that his then diseased and dreadfully corrupted body should be restored to its former soundness; that he should rise from the depressed state in which he lay, to his former prosperity, and that God would manifestly appear (as was the case) to vindicate his uprightness." Again, the same authority remarks, "Isaiah may be regarded as the first Scripture writer in whom such an allusion can be traced. He compares the restoration of the Jewish people and state to a resurrection from the dead (chap. xxvi 19), and in this he is followed


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 by Ezekiel, at the time of the exile (chap. xxxvii.). These passages, however, are not very clear in their intimations." Certainly not; the first and only passage in the Old Testament which is considered to bear on the point, is cited from Daniel: "And many of them that sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt." But a little reflection will show that the prophet is not treating of the general resurrection of the body. His phrase, many of, plainly excepts some. How, then, can it be employed to uphold a doctrine which demands the resurrection of all? The exceptions which are implied plainly show that the material resurrection is not the subject of his teachings.


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 But there is another point leading to the same conclusion. It is not said that many of the dead shall rise; but that many of those that are asleep shall awake, and sleeping is not death, nor is awaking a resurrection of the body. The sleep which is spoken of is a natural state of the mind that is not yet sensible of spiritual things. It was to such a condition that the apostle referred when he said, "Awake thou that sleepest, and arise from the dead, and Christ shall give thee light." To sleep in the dust is to be immersed in all manner of worldly loves; and doubtless some of those who have been so circumstanced have awaked to everlasting life, and some to everlasting shame and contempt; so that the passage has no reference whatever to the actual death and resurrection of the material body.

From this we will pass on to the New Testament, and there we have not been able to find any evidence of such a view. Of course the subject of rising from the dead and resurrection, is frequently spoken of, but this is not the point; the question is whether these things are, in any case, affirmed of the material body. We have no hesitation in saying that there is no instance of this sort. We will, however, notice a few of the strongest passages commonly advanced to favour that opinion.

The Lord said, "If thy right eye offend thee, pluck it out, and cast it from thee: for it is profitable for thee that one of thy members should perish, and not that thy whole body should be cast into hell. And if thy right hand offend thee, cut it off, and cast it from thee: for it is profitable for thee that one of thy members should perish, and not that thy whole body should be cast into hell." Although the body is here referred to as being that which may be cast into hell, it is not said that it is the material body;


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INTRODUCTION. lxiii Products of Bombay," published in 1862, was the first work that gave a systematic account of the Bombay drugs. In the Pharmacopoeia of India published in 1867, the Bombay drugs were not adequately represented. But since then, due princi- pally to the labors of Sakharam Arjun and Dymock, the Bombay drugs have been far better worked out than those of any other part of India. Sakharam Arjun's " Bombay Drugs " was published in 1879. He was a skilled botanist, being the occupant of the Chair of Botany in the Grant Medical College. This publication was intended to serve as a catalogue of the Indian drugs in the Museum of the Royal Victoria Hospital at Netley. Dr. Sakharam Arjun succeeded in correctly identifying some of the bazar drugs and brought to the notice of the profession a good many medicinal plants used by the natives of Bombay.

Dymock 's " Vegetable Materia Medica of Western India" is by far the best work on the indigenous drugs, not only of Bombay, but of India generally. It bears strong testimony to his having patiently worked at the subject for a large number of years. The Pharmacographica Indim will remain, for many years to come, the standard work of reference on indigenous drugs.

The medicinal plants and drugs of Sind have not yet been properly studied. The only work on the subject is that of Murray on " Plants and Drugs of Sind." Murray, neither being a medical man nor a skilled botanist, compiled his work from other sources and, as such, the work is of doubtful value as a guide to the plants and drugs of that province.

Our knowledge of the medicinal plants and drugs of the Punjab is also scant and meagre. Honnigberger's work named " Thirty-five years in the East " was the first one mentioning the Punjab medicinal plants and drugs. Honnigberger was a homoeopathic practitioner and was physician to Ran jit Singh. The work is hardly of any value, and is very seldom referred to now-a-days.

The Punjab Exhibition of 1864 brought for the first time to light the drugs of that province. Mr. Baden Powell described


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lxiv INTRODUCTION the raw products in his well-known work on the Punjab products. Dr. Burton Brown, the late Principal of the Lahore Medical College, was the reporter on the drugs of the Punjab. Asa chemist and a botanist Dr. Brown was well qualified to properly discharge his duties as a reporter. And up to this date, his report is the sole authentic guide to the drugs of that province.

Dr. Stewart, as Forest Officer, in his work on " Punjab Plants," noticed some of the medicinal plants of that province. He freely acknowledged the great help he derived from Dr. Brown in identifying many medicinal plants. Dr. Stewart's work is very valuable and, together with Dr. Brown's Report above referred to, is the only work mentioning some of the medicinal plants of the Punjab.

Of the medicinal plants and drugs of the United Provinces of: Agra and Oudh we know very little. Mr. Atkinson's work on the " Economic Products of the North- West Provinces " is the only work treating of the drugs of those provinces.

The medicinal plants and drugs of the Central Provinces and Rajputana have not been properly worked out. It is highly desirable that these provinces should receive, at the hands of botanists and medical men, that amount of attention which they deserve.

Thus it will be seen that, although there are many works on the medicinal plants and drugs of different provinces of India, yet a great deal remains to be done for the drugs and medicinal plants of Cashmere, Beluchistan, Sind, Punjab, United Provinces of Agra andOudh, Behar, Orissa, Assam, Central Provinces and Rajputana. Owing to the publication of the Pharmacographiea Indiea and Watt's " Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, " there is not the same difficulty now to work out the subject which the early laborers in this field of research experienced For, not only the Flora of British India projected by Hooker has been com- pleted, but Floras of most of the provinces of India have been in recent years prepared by some of the noted Indian botanists. Thus the Bengal Plants by Sir David Prain, the


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INTRODUCTION. lxv Gangetic Flora describing plants of the United Provinces of Agra & Oudh by Mr. J. F. Duthie, Flora of Bombay by Dr. Theodore Cooke, Flora of the Central Provinces by Mr. Haines, Flora of Madras by Mr. Gamble, Pan jab Plants by Colonel Bamber, Flora Simlensis by the late General Collett, Plants of Baluchistan by Mr. Burkill, and Flora of Assam under preparation by Rai Bahadur Upendra Nath Kanjilal, will be of great help to those who are interested in the study of the medicinal plants of this country. Of the Indian States of India, the plants of Kashmir were worked out principally by Jacquemont and Royle; of Nepal by Wallich and recently by Mr. J. EL Burkill ; of Bhotan and Sikkim recently by Messrs. Burkill and Smith ; of Catch by Revd. Father Blatter ; of Mysore in the Gazetteer Volume of that principality ; and of Baroda and Kathiawad States by Mr. Jayakrishna Indrajit in Guzerati.

The outlook is not so gloomy now as it was more than twenty-five years ago, when I commenced the study of the subject. The Petit Laboratory established in Bombay was almost the first institution intended to work out the pharmacology of Indian drugs. For this purpose, the late Dr. K. N. Bahadur ji was appointed to its charge.

The Indian Medical Congress held in Calcutta in 1894 record- ed the following resolution : —

" That it be recommended to the consideration of the Government of India that an extended use of indigenous drugs is most desirable."

It was on this resolution that the Government of India appointed the Indigenous Drugs Committee which held their first meeting in Calcutta on January 3rd, 1896. In appointing this Committee, it was stated,

The points to which the Government of India desire more particularly to invite the attention of the Committee, with a view to their careful consideration, are the practicability, as well as the utility, of —

(a) encouraging the systematic cultivation of medicinal plants indigenous to India ;

(b) encouraging the increased use in Medical Depots of drugs of known therapeutic value ; and

(c) sanctioning the manufacture of stable preparations of certain drugs at the Depots.

Regarding the above the Government of India desire that the Committee


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 and as we know that there is a spiritual body, why may it not refer to that? Besides, it is stated that certain members may be cut off and perish, so that they at least will not rise. So that supposing a natural resurrection to be treated of, some are contemplated as rising and going to their final destiny, without their right eyes and right hands. But as no one can reasonably think that the actual plucking out of the one, or cutting off of the other, was intended to be taught; so it will follow that by the "whole body" is not to be understood the natural body, but rather that spiritual body from which offending thought and offending love ought to be removed.

Again, the Lord said, "Fear not them which kill the body, but are not able to kill the soul; but rather fear Him which is able to destroy both soul and body in hell." Now, if killing the body means killing the natural body on earth, then, to destroy both body and soul in hell, must mean absolutely to destroy them: but as it is certain that no such destruction is meant, it is plain that by the body referred to, as being the subject of such destruction, cannot be meant the natural body. But is it possible not to fear, those who would compass our death? Surely the Lord never intended to teach us that it was a Christian virtue not to fear the assassin who would kill us. Men may have courage to die, but it can hardly be said they should have no fear of those who would inflict a murderous death. On this, however, we need not dwell. Supposing the body mentioned in the first instance to mean the natural body, it does not follow that it is the natural body which is meant in the second instance: it certainly is not so said. Each must be taken with the signification which is given to it by its surroundings. As killing is only predicable of the


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kvi INTRODUCTION should further consider, and report their opinion as to the action which would be best calculated to give the suggested encouragement. The Com- mittee should further consider, from a practical point of view, the question of initiating, as a Government measure, experiments to test the reputed therapeutic value of indigenous drugs. The Government of India, as at present advised, are inclined to the opinion that such investigations can more profitably be left to the enterprise of private individuals.

This Committee has so far published two useful reports.

The Ayurvedic practitioners are holding conferences every year in different cities of this country, in which medicinal plants and drugs are exhibited. This will greatly advance the cause of the more extensive use of indigenous drugs. The chemistry of Indian medicinal plants is being investigated by several chemists in different laboratories of India, as is evident from their reports published from time to time in journals of Chemical Societies and of other learned institutions. The quarterly journal, named " Food and Drugs," of Calcutta, now defunct, published several interesting papers on indigenous drugs. There are also a few workers in Tata's Research Institute, Bangalore, investigating this subject. Fifty thousand rupees have been donated to the Tropical School of Medicine recently established in Calcutta, by His Highness the Maharaja of Durbhanga, and ear-marked for the investigation of the properties and uses of indigenous drugs.

But at present there is no Pharmaceutical Society or School of Pharmacy in this country to carefully study and investigate the subject of indigenous drugs. The establishment of such an institution is highly desirable ; so also of farms of medicinal plants. Regarding the growing of medicinal plants, Mr. F. A. Miller writes in the Journal " American Pharmaceutical Association III, pp. 34-38 " that the time has arrived to reduce the work of drug cultivation to an exact science and to determine the commercial possibilities of the most promising forms, in the same manner as has been done in agricultural and other economic farms."*

The present war, as mentioned before, emphasises the

 * [Chemical Abstracts for February 20th, 1914, p. 786.]

Mr. R. P. Craford writing in Scientific American Supplement, September 8, 1917 on " Reducing drug plant cultivation to a science," says, " that drug plant cultivation is far from easy and the institution that works out these


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INTRODUCTION. lxvii necessity of extensively growing medicinal plants especially in India where, with, little difficulty, economic plants of all lands can be cultivated.*

The establishment of medicinal farms in well selected locali- ties* will exercise scientific control over the cultivation of medicinal herbs and plants. Regarding the advantages of conducting a farm of this nature Messrs. Burroughs Wellcome and Co., who have established such a one, write : —

" 1. A drug may be treated or worked up immediately it has been collected.

" 2. Herbs may be dried, if necessary, directly they are cut, before fermentation and other deteriorative changes have set in.

" 3. Freedom is ensured from caprice on the part of collec- tors, who, in gathering wild herbs, are very difficult to control in the matter of adulteration, both accidental and intentional.

" 4. Opportunity is provided to select and cultivate that particular strain of a plant which has been found by chemical and physiological tests to be the most active, and which gives the most satisfactory preparations."

We know there are many plants mentioned by Hindu medical authors which are not procurable now. We have to refer to such names as those of Kakoli, Ksira kakoli, Medha, Maha Medha, Jivaka, Risabha &c. Perhaps this extinction of valuable medicinal plants of ancient India is well explained by what Mr. J. L. Stingel writes in the American Journal of Pharmacy for 1912 (pp. 299 et seq) regarding Hydrastis that with the progress of civilisation the plant has diminished. He says that " the scarcity of this valuable drug cannot be entirely attributed to lack of plants

problems in connection with several score different plants has a difficult task ahead, but one which may pave the way toward American independence in drug science."

Scientific cultivation of drug plants in this country will make India independent in drug science.

to have said before the Indian Industry Commission, that " most of the drugs imported into India were absolute refuse, and considering that one-half of the drugs in the British pharmacopoeia are indigenous to India and that most of the rest could be cultivated there is clearly an opportunity of developing an industry that has been almost neglected, and if India is to grow its own drugs it must take care that it gets them unadulterated."
 * Lieuteuant-Colonel Sir Leonard Rogers, M. D., F. R. C. P., K. C. I. E. I. M. S., the founder of the Calcutta Tropical School of Medicine is reported


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lxviii INTRODUCTION or to extinction, but to other conditions, which tend to prevent identification at the time of collection." This shows also the necessity of rational cultivation, and hence of medicinal farms.*

Many have been disappointed from the use of indigenous drugs for which the cause is not far to seek. A writer in the Calcutta Review for 1869 (p : 199) said : —

" The distrust of bazar medicines is, we are convinced, well warranted by facts. In many cases bazar medicines are simple trash. Let any one only look at the system of storage followed in a paiisaris shop, and one very evident reason of this will be apparent. His wares are of all degrees of staleness, the stock of many of them inherited from his father or grandfather and long ago inert. Stoppered bottles are things unknown, and all substances are alike stowed in bags or earthen vessels, exposed to every variation of the atmosphere in respect of heat and moisture, and to the attack of every kind of insect. * * * Many are adulterated, and as a matter of course, none are labelled."

The above also shows the necessity of medicinal farms and the establishment of depots for the supply of reliable preparations of indigenous drugs.

It is the bounden duty of educated Indians to do all that lies in their power for the proper study of Indian medicinal plants and drugs. In 1879, the Calcutta Review wrote : —

1 The resuscitation of Indian medical science is a noble and useful work which ought to be performed by educated Hin- doos. * * It is perfectly true that Indian drugs ought to be largely studied and used by medical practitioners in this country. European medical men fully admit this truth and some of them have labored earnestly and assiduously to accomplish this object. But it is easy to understand that the efforts of foreigners must be necessarily imperfect and unproductive of adequate results. Upon educated Indian members of the pro- fession, therefore, devolves this great and solemn duty, for it is they alone who can discharge it adequately and well. * * In India the foreign and the indigenous systems ought to be read together if full benefit is to be derived from either." B. D. BASIL

 * A few enterprising Ayurvedic practitioners of Calcutta have established such farms in the neighbourhood of that city. But these are on small scale.