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THE

NATIONAL

LADIES '

MAGAZINE.

EDITED BY

MRS. ANN S. STEPHENS AND CHARLES J. PETERSON.

VOLUME IV. FROM JULY TO DECEMBER, INCLUSIVE.

PHILADELPHIA: CHARLES J. PETERSON. 1843.


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 rited rascal who had taken such a dastardly course of vengeance.

"Dinna curse him, sir," said the old woman; "I have heard a good man say, that a curse was like a stone flung up to the heavens, and maist like to return on his head that sent it. But if ye ken Lord, Evandale, bid him look to himsel, for I hear strange words pass atween the soldiers that are lying here, and his name is often mentioned; and the tane o' them has been twice up at Tillietudlem. He's a kind of favourite wi' the Laird, though he was in former times ane o' the maist cruel oppressors ever rade through a country (out-taken Serjeant Bothwell)—they ca' him Inglis."

"I have the deepest interest in Lord Evandale's safety," said Morton, "and you may depend on my finding some mode to apprize him of these suspicious circumstances: And, in return, my good friend, will you indulge me with another ques-

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 tion? Do you know any thing of Quintin Mackell of Irongray?"

"Do I know whom?" echoed the blind woman, in a tone of great surprise and alarm.

"Quintin Mackell of Irongray," repeated Morton; "is there any thing so alarming in the sound of that name?"

"Na, na," answered the woman with hesitation," but to hear him asked after by a stranger and a soldier—Gude protect us, what mischief is to come next!"

"None by my means, I assure you," said Morton; "the subject of my enquiry has nothing to fear from me, if, as I suppose, this Quintin Mackell is the same with John Bal"

"Do not mention his name," said the widow, pressing his lips with her fingers. "I see you have his secret and his password, and I'll be free wi' you. But, fer God's sake, speak lound and low. In the name of Heaven, I trust ye seek him not to his hurt.—Ye said ye were a soldier?"


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 "I said truly; but one he has nothing to fear from. I commanded a party at Bothwell Bridge."

"Indeed?" said the woman. "And verily there is something in your voice I can trust—Ye speak prompt and readily, and like an honest man."

"I trust I am so," said Morton.

"But nae displeasure to you, sir, in thae waefu' times," continued Mrs Maclure, "the hand of brother is against brother, and he fears as mickle almaist frae this government as e'er he did frae the auld persecutors."

"Indeed?" said Morton, in a tone of enquiry; "I was not aware of that. But I am only just now returned from abroad."

"I'll tell ye," said the blind woman, first assuming an attitude of listening that shewed how effectually her powers of collecting intelligence had been transferred from the eye to the ear; for, instead of casting a glance of circumspection around, she stoop-


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 ed her face, and turned her head slowly around, in such a manner as to ensure that there was not the slightest sound stirring in the neighbourhood, and then continued. "I'll tell ye. Ye ken how he has laboured to raise up again the Covenant, burned, broken, and buried in the hard hearts and selfish devices of this stubborn people. Now when he went to Holland, far from the countenance and thanks of the great and the comfortable fellowship of the godly, both whilk he was in right to expect, the Prince of Orange wad shew him no favour, and the ministers no godly communion. This was hard to bide for ane that had suffered and done mickle—ower mickle it may be—but why suld I be a judge?—He came back to me and to the auld place o' refuge that had aften received him in his distresses, mair especially before the great day of victory at Drumclog, for I sall ne'er forget how he was bending hither of a' nights in the year on


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 anus a tare, in " The Lady's World " for March, 1843. VOL. IV.- 1

sand charms of soul and mind which were sure to win upon the heart and the affection, and strengthen


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 that e'ening after the play when young Milnwood wan the popinjay; but I warned him off for that time."

"What," exclaimed Morton, "it was you that sate in your red cloak by the high-road, and told him there was a lion in the path?"

"In the name of heaven! wha are ye?" said the old woman, breaking off his narrative in astonishment. "But be wha ye may," she continued, resuming it with tranquillity, "ye can ken naething waur o' me than that I hae been willing to save the life o friend and foe."

"I know no ill of you, Mrs Maclure, and I mean no ill by you—I only wished to show that I know so much of this person's affairs, that I might be safely entrusted with the rest. Proceed, if you, please, in your narrative."

"There is a strange command in your voice," said the blind woman, "though its tones are sweet. I have little mair to say. The Stuarts hae been dethroned,


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Fou are by Sartain a tera PturebyLaure inthe "osse.. Expressly for this.Maine.

th Cone Esq "


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 and William and Mary reign in their stead, but nae mair word o' the Covenant than if it were a dead letter. They hae taen the indulged clergy, and an Erastian General Assembly of the ance pure and triumphant Kirk of Scotland even into their very arms and bosoms. Our faithfu' champions o' the testimony agree e'en waur wi' this than wi' the open tyranny and apostacy of the persecuting times, for souls are hardened and deadened, and the mouths of fasting multitudes are crammed wi' fizenless bran instead of the sweet word in season; and mony an hungry, starving creature, when he sits down on a Sunday forenoon to get something that might warm him to the great work, has a dry clatter o' morality driven about his lugs, and—"

"In short," said Morton, desirous to stop a discussion which the good old woman, as enthusiastically attached to her religious profession as to the duties of humanity, might probably have indulged


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 longer—"In short, you are not disposed to acquiesce in this new government, and Burley is of the same opinion?"

"Many of our brethren, sir, are of belief we fought for the Covenant, and fasted, and prayed, and suffered for that grand national league, and now we are like neither to see nor hear tell of that which we suffered, and fought, and fasted, and prayed for. And anes it was thought something might be made by bringing back the auld family on a new bargain and a new bottom, as, after a', when King James went awa', I understand the great quarrel of the English against him was in behalf of seven unhallowed prelates; and sae, though ae part of our people were free to join wi' the present model, and levied an armed regiment under the Yearl of Angus, yet our honest friend, and others of purity of doctrine and freedom of conscience, were determined to hear the breath o' the Jacobites before they took part again them,


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 ven, threw himself on the bed, heard, between sleeping and waking, the trampling of the dragoon horses at the riders' return from their patrole, and then slept soundly after such painful agitation.


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 fearing to fa' to the ground like a wall built with unslacked mortar, or from sitting between twa stools."

"They chose an odd quarter," said Morton, "from which to expect freedom of conscience and purity of doctrine."

"O, dear sir! the natural day-spring rises in the east, but the spiritual day-spring may rise in the north, for what we blinded mortals ken."

"And Burley went to the north to seek it?"

"Truly ay, sir; and he saw Claver'se himsel, that they ca' Dundee now."

"The devil he did!" exclaimed Morton, "I would have sworn that meeting would have been the last of one of their lives."

"Na, na, sir; in troubled times, as I understand, there's sudden changes—Montgomery, and Ferguson, and mony ane mair that were King James's greatest facs, are, on his side now—Claver'se spake our friend fair, and sent him to consult with


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 Lord Evandale. But then there was a break off, for Lord Evandale wadna look at, hear, or speak wi' him, and now he's anes wud and aye waur, and roars for revenge again Lord Evandale, and will hear nought of ony thing but burn' and slay—and O thae starts o' passion! they unsettle his mind, and gi'e the enemy sair advantages."

"The enemy?" said Morton, "What enemy?"

"What enemy? Are ye acquainted familiarly wi' John Balfour o' Burley, and dinna ken that he has had sair and frequent combats to sustain against the Evil One? Did ye ever see him alone but the Bible was in his hand, and the drawn sword on his knee? did ye never sleep in the same room wi' him, and hear him strive in his dreams with the delusions of Satan? O, ye ken little o' him, if ye have seen him only in fair day-light, for nae man can put the face upon his doleful visits and strifes that he can do. I hae seen him after sic a


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 strife of agony tremble that an infant might hae held him, while the hair on his brow was drapping as fast as ever my puir thatched roof did in a heavy rain."

As she spoke, Morton began to recollect the appearance of Burley during his sleep in the hay-loft at Milnwood, the report of Cuddie that his senses had become impaired, and some whispers current among the Cameronians, who boasted frequently of Burley's soul-exercises, and his strifes with the foul fiend; which several circumstances led him to conclude that this man himself was a victim to those delusions, though his mind, naturally acute and forcible, not only disguised his superstition from those in whose opinion it might have discredited his judgment, but by exerting such a force as is said to be proper to those afflicted with epilepsy, could postpone the fits which it occasioned until he was either freed from superintendance, or surrounded by such as held him more highly on ac-


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 count of these visitations. It was natural to suppose, and could easily be inferred from the narrative of Mrs Maclure, that disappointed ambition, wrecked hopes, and the downfall of the party which he had served with such desperate fidelity, were likely to aggravate enthusiasm into temporary insanity. It was, indeed, no uncommon circumstance in these singular times, that men like Sir Harry Vane, Harrison, Overton, and others, themselves slaves to the wildest and most enthusiastic dreams, could, when mingling with the world, conduct themselves not only with good sense in difficulties, and courage in dangers, but with the most acute sagacity and determined valour. The subsequent part of Mrs Maclure's information confirmed Morton in these impressions.

"In the grey of the morning," she said, "my little Peggy sall shew ye the gate to him before the sodgers are up. But ye maun let his hour of danger, as he ca's it, be ower, afore ye venture on him in his


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 place of refuge. Peggy will tell ye when to venture in. She kens his ways weel, for whiles she carries him some little helps that he canna do without to sustain life."

"And in what retreat then," said Moreton, "has this unfortunate person found refuge?"

"An awsome place," answered the blind woman, as ever living creature took refuge in. They ca' it the Black Linn of Linklater—it's a doleful place; but he loves it abune a' others, because he has sae often been in safe hiding there, and it's my belief he prefers it to a tapestried chamber and a down bed. But ye'll see't. I hae seen it mysel mony a day syne. I was a daft hempie lassie then, and little thought what was to come o't. Wad ye chuse ony thing, sir, ere ye betake yoursel to your rest, for ye maun stir wi' the first dawn o' the grey light?"

"Nothing more, my good mother," said Morton, and they parted for the evening.

Morton recommended himself to Hea-


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 somewhat moved by his remonstrances, and more by heavy charges for print and paper, which he stated to have been already incurred, I have resolved that these four volumes shall be the heralds or avant-couriers of the Tales which are yet in my possession, nothing doubting that they will be eagerly devoured, and the remainder anxiously demanded, by the unanimous voice of a discerning public. I rest, esteemed Reader, thine as thou shalt construe me,


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 192

THE ARTIST AND LADY'S WORLD.

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PAY CLOSED PLATE engreed b shi fumber in a warorat of what i thus avidad attention best to see des he has og hrathe of three distrabone 1 De B on life shell, this is paced a 120 er to the shape of the she, auch ragu legant style. For the thing matare wrentit of monde neil, while the same town super eral atte, in the interior ad by anything Monsar Qu

very beautif s Mrs. Es w tam s Fax MEZZOTINT by J. month me baghe says We have, however, pistes inh enter's beat style instruer ng prepared by this artist. Appleton has also publ THE FASHION PLATE Containe form with the above, of the authors tormen "The Women of England," and " The Daughters of three more than is usually given in magazines, and is England." The three volumes form a series which colored after the prevailing modes. With these illustrations, of the first rank in their should be in the hands of every American female. No writer has handled these subjects so well as Mrs. respective departments, we send forth the number.


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 192

THE ARTIST AND LADY'S WORLD.

BEAUTY" has inet hoon wuhli-2-11

I

form with the above, of the authors rormier wa " The Women of England," and " The Daughters of three more than is usually given in magazines, and is England." The three volumes form a series which colored after the prevailing modes. With these illustrations, of the first rank in their should be in the hands of every American female. No writer has handled these subjects so well as Mrs. respective departments, we send forth the number.


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 President, Sir H. De la Beche; Treasurer, Mr. Searles V. Wood; Secretary, Professor Morris; and Auditors, Messrs. A. G. Melville and J. Tennant. The first list contained 362 subscribers, who have since increased—notwithstanding losses, deaths, &c.—to nearly 500 at the present time, and the amount expended in Monographs during the thirty years of the Society's existence has been £21,200, The plan of publication is similar to that adopted by the Ray Society. Each subscriber of one guinea is entitled to receive a quarto volume, containing from forty to fifty quarto plates and necessary letter-press. It is not found practicable, on account of the comprehensive character of the Monographs, to issue annually one complete work at a time, and consequently as many as six parts of various Monographs have sometimes been included in the volume. These may he collected and bound together subsequently or the series nay he left in chronological order as issued, easy reference being had to any Monograph m particular from the comprehensive indices prepared by the Secretary. In the volume for 1878 there will be eight parts, including two new subjects—the Liassic Ammonites and the Fishes allied to the modern Ceratodus; the completion of an old Monograph—that on the Merostomata; and a particularly interesting treatise on the relation between the Pleistocene mammalia and those of the present historic periods together, the estimated cost being £800. The following are among the more remarkable works published by this society:— The Carboniferous and Crag Foraminifera. the Fossil Corals, the Polyzoa of the Crag, the Echinodermata of the Oolitic and Cretaceous Formations, the Mollusca of the Crag, Eocene, and Great Oolite Strata; the Fossil Brachiopoda, the Fossil Merostomata, the Trilobites, the Belemnites, the Carboniferous Fishes, the Reptilia of the Liassic and Wealden Formations, and the Mammalia of the Mesozoic System, and of the Pleistocene and Crag Formations. The Council state in their last Report that "many years must elapse and many additional writers be enrolled ere the task of figuring the whole of the fossils of the British area be completed."

It has been attempted to be shown within the compass of this necessarily brief account what thorough good work the Ray and Palæontographical Societies are doing to advance the cause of Natural History. From the figures already quoted, it will be seen that an aggregate of more than forty-three thousand pounds, or an average of £1,300 per annum, has been expended by both Societies in little over thirty years, and this, be it remembered, has been purely voluntary, and without any help whatever from Government, but frequently supplemented by considerable pecuniary assistance from the talented authors, to whom the subscribers are indebted for the works themselves. It is evident that, with larger resources, the usefulness of both Societies might be greatly extended. At present, for each guinea subscription, the issue is one volume per annum, which might be increased to two if means justified the respective Councils, and thus the publication of many additional valuable works, some of which have appeared for years in the Prospectus, and then been withdrawn, could be undertaken. It would he a graceful act if every Society in our Union, not on the lists, would subscribe, as well as each working naturalist.


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40 sanitary conditions, well housed, well fed, clean, free from fatigue (which is a poison) are, as a class, distinctly superior to the poor, physically, mentally and morally. It is among the well-to-do that gymnasia flourish and athletic clubs abound. Your all-around ath- lete is commonly in possession of a comfortable income; the hardy out-of-door sports are practiced almost exclusively by those who do not have to do manual labor. The top-hatted clubman can manhandle the hulking day- laborer with ease and accuracy. His female is larger and fitter than the other gentleman's underfed and overworked mate, and brings forth a better quality of young. All this is obvious to any but the most delinquent observation; yet wealth and its attendant luxury are prophecies and forerunners of the decay of nations.

Hard are the steps, slow-hewn in flintiest rock, States climb to power by; slippery those with gold Down which they stumble to eternal mock.

To one having knowledge of the prevalence and power of some of the primal brute passions of the human mind the reason is clear enough: riches and luxurious living provoke envy in the vast multitude to whom they are


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 tribe, the Krumen—a tribe possessing no material difference in make of mind or body from hundreds of other tribes, but which have merely been trained by white men in a different way from other tribes—that there is room for great hope in the native labour supply? And would not a very hopeful outlook for West Africa regarding the labour question be possible, if a régime of common sense were substituted for our present one?

This is of course the missionary question—a question which I feel it is hopeless to attempt to speak of without being gravely misunderstood, and which I therefore would willingly shirk mentioning, but I am convinced that


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 the future of Africa is not to be dissociated from the future of its natives by the importation of yellow races or Hindoos; and the missionary question is not to be dissociated from the future of the African natives; and so the subject must be touched on; and I preface my remarks by stating that I have a profound personal esteem for several missionaries, naturally, for it is impossible to know such men and women as Mr. and Mrs, Deunis Kemp, of the Gold Coast, Mme. and M. Jacot, and Mme. and M. Forget, and M. Gacon, and Dr. Nassau, of Gaboon, and many others without recognising at once the beauty of their natures, and the nobility of their intentions. Indeed, taken as a whole, the missionaries must be regarded as superbly brave, noble-minded men who go and risk their own lives, and often those of their wives and children, and definitely sacrifice their personal comfort and safety to do what, from their point of view, is their simple duty; but it is their methods of working that have produced in West Africa the results which all truly interested in West Africa must deplore; and one is bound to make an admission that goes against one's insular prejudice—that the Protestant English missionaries have had most to do with rendering the African useless.

The bad effects that have arisen from their teaching have come primarily from the failure of the missionary to recognise the difference between the African and themselves as being a difference not of degree but of kind. I am aware that they are supported in this idea by several eminent ethnologists; but still there are a large number of anatomical facts that point the other way, and a far larger number still relating to mental attributes, and I feel certain that a black man is no more an undeveloped white man than a rabbit is an undeveloped hare; and the mental difference between the two races is very similar to that between men and women among ourselves. A great woman, either mentally or physically, will excel an indifferent man, but no woman ever equals a really great man. The missionary to the African has done what my father found them doing to the Polynesians—"regarding the native minds as so many jugs only requiring to be emptied of the stuff which is in them and refilled with the particular form of dogma he is engaged in teaching, in order to make them the equals of the white races." This form of procedure works in very various ways. It eliminates those parts of the native fetish that were a wholesome restraint on the African. The children in the mission school are, be it granted, better than the children


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 outside it in some ways; they display great aptitude for learning anything that comes in their way—but there is a great difference between white and black children. The black child is a very solemn thing. It comes into the world in large quantities and looks upon it with its great sad eyes as if it were weighing carefully the question whether or no it is a fit place for a respectable soul to abide in. Four times in ten it decides that it is not, and dies. If, however, it decides to stay, it passes between two and three years in a grim and profound study—occasionally emitting howls which end suddenly in a sob—whine it never does. At the end of this period it takes to spoon food, walks about and makes itself handy to its mother or goes into the mission school. If it remains in the native state it has no toys of a frivolous nature, a little hoe or a little calabash are considered better training; if it goes into the school, it picks up, with astonishing rapidity, the lessons taught it there—giving rise to hopes for its future which are only too frequently disappointed in a few years' time. It is not until he reaches years of indiscretion that the African becomes joyful; but, when he attains this age he always does cheer up considerably, and then, whatever his previous training may have been, he takes to what Mr. Kipling calls "boot" with great avidity—and of this he consumes an enormous quantity. For the next sixteen years, barring accidents, he "rips"; he rips carefully, terrified by his many fetish restrictions, if he is a pagan; but if he is in that partially converted state you usually find him in when trouble has been taken with his soul—then he rips unrestrained.

It is most unfair to describe Africans in this state as "converted," either in missionary reports or in attacks on them. They are not converted in the least. A really converted African is a very beautiful form of Christian; but those Africans who are the chief mainstay of missionary reports and who afford such material for the scoffer thereat, have merely had the restraint of fear removed from their minds in the mission schools without the greater restraint of love being put in its place.

The missionary-made man is the curse of the Coast, and you find him in European clothes and without, all the way down from Sierra Leone to Loanda. The pagans despise him, the whites hate him, still he thinks enough of himself to keep him comfortable. His conceit is marvellous, nothing equals it except perhaps that of the individual rife among us which the Saturday Review once aptly described as "the suburban agnostic"; and the missionary man is very much like


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 the suburban agnostic in his religious method. After a period of mission-school life he returns to his country-fashion, and deals with the fetish connected with it very much in the same way as the suburban agnostic deals with his religion, i.e., he removes from it all the inconvenient portions. "Shouldn't wonder if there might be something in the idea of the immortality of the soul, and a future Heaven, you know—but as for Hell, my dear sir, that's rank superstition, no one believes in it now, and as for Sabbath-keeping and food-restrictions—what utter rubbish for enlightened people!" So the backsliding African deals with his country-fashion ideas: he eliminates from them the idea of immediate retribution, &c., and keeps the polygamy and the dances, and all the lazy, hazy-minded native ways. The education he has received at the mission school in reading and writing fits him for a commercial career, and as every African is a born trader he embarks on it, and there are pretty goings on! On the West Coast he frequently sets up in business for himself; on the South West Coast he usually becomes a sub-trader to one of the great English, French, or German firms, On both Coasts he gets himself disliked, and brings down opprobrium on all black traders, expressed in language more powerful than select. This wholesale denunciation of black traders is unfair, because there are many perfectly straight trading natives; still the majority are recruited from missionary school failures, and are utterly bad.

"Post hoc non propter hoc" is an excellent maxim, but one that never seems to enter the missionary head down here. Highly disgusted and pained at his pupils' goings-on, but absolutely convinced of the excellence of his own methods of instruction, and the spiritual equality, irrespective of colour, of Christians; the missionary rises up, and says things one can understand him saying about the bad influence of the white traders; stating that they lure the pupils from the fold to destruction. These things are nevertheless not true. Then the white trader hears them, and gets his back up and says things about the effect of missionary training on the African, which are true, but harsh, because it is not the missionaries' intent to turn out skilful forgers, and unmitigated liars, although they practically do so. My share when I drop in on this state of mutual recrimination is to get myself into hot water with both parties. The missionary thinks me misguided for regarding the African's goings-on as part of the make of the man, and the trader regards me as a soft-headed idiot when I state that it is not the missionary's individual blame that a lamb recently acquired from the fold has gone down the primrose path with


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 the trust, or the rum. Shade of Sir John Falstaff! what a life this is!

The two things to which the missionary himself ascribes his want of success are polygamy, and the liquor traffic. Now polygamy is, like most other subjects, a difficult thing to form a just opinion on, if before forming the opinion you make a careful study of the facts bearing on the case. It is therefore advisable, if you wish to produce an opinion generally acceptable in civilised circles, to follow the usual recipe for making opinions—just take a prejudice of your own, and fix it up with the so-called opinion of that class of people who go in for that sort of prejudice too. I have got myself so entangled with facts that I cannot follow this plan, and therefore am compelled to think polygamy for the African is not an unmixed evil; and that at the present culture-level of the African it is not to be eradicated. This arises from two reasons; the first is that it is perfectly impossible for one African woman to do the work of the house, prepare the food, fetch water, cultivate the plantations, and look after the children attributive to one man. She might do it if she had the work in her of an English or Irish charwoman, but she has not, and a whole villageful of African women do not do the work in a week that one of these will do in a day. Then, too, the African lady is quite indifferent as to what extent her good man may flirt with other ladies so long only as he does not go and give them more cloth and beads than he gives her; and the second reason for polygamy lies in the custom well-known to ethnologists, and so widely diffused that one might say it was constant throughout all African tribes, only there are so many of them whose domestic relationships have not been carefully observed.

As regards the drink traffic—no one seems inclined to speak the truth about it in West Africa; and what I say I must be understood to say only about West Africa, because I do not like to form opinions without having had opportunities for personal observation, and the only part of Africa I have had these opportunities in has been from Sierra Leone to Angola; and the reports from South Africa show that an entirely different, and a most unhealthy state of affairs exist there from its invasion by mixed European nationalities, with individuals of a low type, greedy for wealth. West African conditions are no more like South African conditions than they are like Indian. The missionary party on the whole have gravely exaggerated both the evil and the extent of the liquor traffic in West Africa. I make


text: The Incas of Peru/Appendix C

title: The Incas of Peru/Appendix C


text:
Author:John Henry Clarke

Works

 * Ars Medici (1884)
 * Iodide of Arsenic in Organic Disease of the Heart (1884)
 * The Prescriber (1885)
 * The Revolution in Medicine (1886)
 * Indigestion, Its Cause and Cure (1888)
 * A Dictionary of Domestic Medicine (1890)
 * Rheumatism and Sciatica (1892)
 * Therapeutics of the Serpent Poisons (1893)
 * Homeopath: All About It (1894)
 * Dictionary of Practical Materia Medica (1900)
 * A Lecture on Homeopathy (1902)
 * A Clinical Repertory to the Dictionary of Materia Medica (1904)
 * Life and Work of James Compton Burnett (1904)
 * Homeopathy Explained (1905)
 * The Enthusiasm of Homeopathy (1907)
 * Vital Economy (1909)
 * What Do You Know about Homeopathy? (1909)
 * Gunpowder as a War Remedy (1915)
 * The Sword (1917)
 * England Under the Heel of the Jew (1918)
 * Hahnemann and Paracelsus (1923)
 * William Blake on the Lord's Prayer (1927)
 * From Copernicus to William Blake (1928)
 * What is Man? (1928)
 * The God of Shelley and Blake (1930)

title: Author:John Henry Clarke


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the fourth day she stayed at Zeisenmauer. The while the dust upon the highway never came to rest, but rose on every side, as if it were burning, where King Etzel’s liegemen rode through Austria. Then the king was told aright how royally Kriemhild fared through the lands; at thought of this his sorrows vanished. He hasted to where he found the lovely Kriemhild. Men saw ride before King Etzel on the road many bold knights of many tongues and many mighty troops of Christians and of paynims. When they met the lady, they rode along in lordly wise. Of the Russians and the Greeks there rode there many a man. The right good steeds of the Poles and Wallachians were seen to gallop swiftly, as they rode with might and main. Each did show the customs of his land. From the land of Kiev there rode many a warrior and the savage Petschenegers. With the bow they often shot at the birds which flew there; to the very head they drew the arrows on the bows.

By the Danube there lieth in the Austrian land a town that men call Tulna. There she became acquaint with many a foreign custom, the which size had never seen afore. She greeted there enow who later came through her to grief. Before Etzel there rode a retinue, merry and noble, courtly and lusty, full four and twenty princes, mighty and of lofty birth. They would fain be-


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Rh Zeisenmauer (M. H. G. Zeizenmûre). All the MSS. but C and D have this reading. The latter have Treysenmoure and treisem moure, which corresponds better to the modern name, as Zeiselmauer lies between Tulln and Vienna. It is possible, however, that the town on the Traisem was originally called Zeiselmauer, as the road leading from Traismauer to Tulln still bears the name of Zeiselstrasse. See Lachmann, Anmerkungen, 1272, and Piper,, 289, note to str. 1333.

Kiev (M. H. G. Kiew) is now a government in the southwestern part of Russia. Its capital of the same name, situated on the Dnieper, is the oldest of the better known cities of Russia, and in the later Middle Ages was an important station of the Hanseatic league.

Petschenegere, a Turkish tribe originally dwelling to the north of the Caspian. By conquest they acquired a kingdom extending from the Don to Transylvania. They were feared for their ferociousness and because they continually invaded the surrounding countries, especially Kiev.

Tulna (M. H. G. Tulne) is the modern Tulln, a walled town of Lower Austria, seventeen miles northwest of Vienna on the Danube.

Ramung and Gibeck (M. H. G. Gibeche) appear only in our poem, nothing else is known of them.

Hornbog is frequently mentioned in the Thidreksaga, but nothing otherwise is known of him.

Hawart is perhaps identical with the Saxon duke Hadugot, who is reputed to have played an important part in the conquest of Thuringia. He evidently comes from the Low German version.

Iring is considered by Wilmanns to have been originally an ancient deity, as the Milky Way is called Iringe strâze or Iringi. He occurs in a legend of the fall of the Thuringian kingdom, where he played such a prominent rôle that the Milky Way was named after him. See W. Grimm, Heldensage, p. 394, who thinks, however, that the connection of Iring with the Milky Way is the result of a confusion.

Irnfried is considered to be Hermanfrid of Thuringia, who was overthrown and killed in 535 by Theuderich with the aid of the Saxons. See Felix Dahn, Urgeschichte,, 73-79. He, too, comes from the Low German tradition.


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 .,„,. M KW,.U.1- KHi;

f- ^-'^-it*f fr» E W#4].T L<**ft^«i

ULACXII A iON. GLASCOK. SDIXBURfiS * LOKUOS.


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Rh hold their lady and craved naught more. Duke Ramung of Wallachia, with seven hundred vassals, galloped up before her; like flying birds men saw them ride. Then came Prince Gibeck with lordly bands. The doughty Hornbog, with full a thousand men, wheeled from the king away towards the queen. Loudly they shouted after the custom of their land. Madly too rode the kinsmen of the Huns. Then came brave Hawart of Denmark and the doughty Iring, free of guile was he, and Irnfried of Thuringia, a stately man. With twelve hundred vassals, whom they had in their band, they greeted Kriemhild, so that she had therefrom great worship. Then came Sir Bloedel, King Etzel’s brother, from the Hunnish land, with three thousand men. In lordly wise he rode to where he found the queen. Then King Etzel came and Sir Dietrich, too, with all his fellowship. There stood many worshipful knights, noble, worthy, and good. At this Dame Kriemhild’s spirits rose.

Then Sir Rüdeger spake to the queen: “Lady, here will I receive the high-born king; whomso I bid you kiss, that must ye do. Forsooth ye may not greet alike King Etzel’s men.“

From the palfrey they helped the royal queen alight. Etzel, the mighty, bode no more, but dismounted from his steed with many a valiant man. Joyfully men saw them go towards Kriemhild. Two mighty princes, as we are told, walked by the lady and bore her train, when King Etzel went to meet her, where she greeted the noble lording with a kiss in gracious wise. She raised her veil and from out the gold beamed forth her rosy hue. Many a man stood there who vowed


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320

The Inca roads and bridges are well described by Zarate and Cieza de Leon, p. 153, a passage which is quoted at length by the Inca Garcilasso (I. lib. ix. cap. 13). See also Velasco, 'Historia de Quito,' I. p. 59.

The ceramic and metallurgic art of the Incas is best seen in the collections of the Señora Centeno and of Dr. Caparo Muñiz, both once at Cuzco. The Centeno collection is now at Berlin. After the conquest of the coast the Incas brought a number of the Chimu potters and metal workers to Cuzco, and careful study in the museums might perhaps lead to discrimination between the purely Inca work, and the work after an infusion of the Chimu element.

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 COMPREHENSIVE

HISTORY OF INDIA

INTRODUCTION.

dONG after the name of India had become famiHar in the Ancient

uieas of In- earliest seats of civilization in the Mediterranean, little more '•'»» seo-

was known of the country designated by it, than that it was a region of vast extent situated in the far East, near the outermost verge of the known world. From the in- ^a habitants themselves no satisfactory information could be obtained. Accustomed to veil everything in mystery, they divided the terrestrial globe into seven deeps or islands, each ii>^ ' encompassed by its own peculiar oce.an ; and placing the habitation lifjr^-'" of the human race in Jummoodeep, which is nearest the centre, and Hmdooidea •^1^ (.-onsists partly of Meru, a mountain of gold of enormous height, reaching r as far beneath as above the surface, appropriated to themselves one of its most hiy-hly favoured localities.' The notions of the Greeks, tliouffh disfirrured Greek no- and obscvu-ed by fable, were of a more definite description. Instead of allowing his fancy to run riot, Herodotus diligently consulted the few sources of know- leilge within his reach, and honestly communicated the result. According to him, India was, as its name implies, the country drained by the Indus, and consisted of two great divisions — a western, which was included in the Per.sian empire, and formed the largest, as well as the most productive of the twenty siitrapies or provinces into which that empire was then divided; and an eastern, which, stretching beyond the limits supposed to be habitable, terminated in a sandy desert.-' Crude as these ideas are, so httle was done to correct or enlarge them, that when Alexander, dm-ing his celebrated expedition, first reached the Alexanders Indus, he mistook it for the Nile. Fortunately he took the most effectual means to undeceive himself, by fitting out a fleet, and giving the command of it to Nearchus, who, after descending the river to its mouth in the ocean, con- tinued his coui-se westwards along the shores of the Arabian Sea, and finally

' Gladwin's Aycen Akhery, vol. iii. p. 23, et scq., with its curious map, illustrative of Hindoo geography. » Herodotus, book iii. 97-106. --Vol. I. 1


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182 that Lady Helca could not have been more fair than she. Close by stood also Bloedel, the brother of the king. Him Rüdeger, the mighty margrave, bade her kiss and King Gibeck, too. There also stood Sir Dietrich. Twelve of the warriors the king’s bride kissed. She greeted many knights in other ways.

All the while that Etzel stood at Kriemhild’s side, the youthful warriors did as people still are wont to do. One saw them riding many a royal joust. This Christian champions did and paynim, too, according to their custom. In what right knightly wise the men of Dietrich made truncheons from the shafts fly through the air, high above the shields, from the hands of doughty knights! Many a buckler’s edge was pierced through and through by the German strangers. Great crashing of breaking shafts was heard. All the warriors from the land were come and the king’s guests, too, many a noble man.

Then the mighty king betook him hence with Lady Kriemhild. Hard by them a royal tent was seen to stand; around about the plain was filled with booths, where they should rest them after their toils. Many a comely maid was shown to her place thereunder by the knights, where she then sate with the queen on richly covered chairs. The margrave had so well purveyed the seats for Kriemhild, that all found them passing good; at this King Etzel grew blithe of mood. What the king there spake, I know not. In his right lay her snow-white hand; thus they sate in lover’s wise, since Rüdeger would not let the king make love to Kriemhild secretly.

Then one bade the tourney cease on every side; in


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 INTRODUCTION. o

verted into the side of a square.' It is not difficult to account for this serious blunder, which, indeed, is only one of the many wliicii it was impossible to avoid, so long as the only accounts of the country were derived from travellers who reached it by journeying across inhospitable deserts, or navigators who, in the infiincy of their art, effected a long and perilous passage by following the windino-s of the intervening shores A great advance was made when the Portuguese doubled the Cape of Good Hope. From that time, the Indian coast became accessible in all directions, and its outline was easily traced. To map out the interior was a work of greater difficulty — a work in which little progress covdd be made while tlie struggle for supremacy in the East remained undecided. No sooner, however, were the foundations of oiu- Indian empu-e securely laid,

Portuguese di»tx)vei'ie».

India, ACCORDir^o to Ppolemt.

than the necessity of obtaining a tliorough knowledge of its surfiice was Mo.iem geo

.... . . gniphj'.

urgently felt. Accordingly, in addition to district sm-veys, one embracing the coimtry in all its length and breadth has been undertaken at the instance of government, and carried on with all the aids which tlie refinements of modern science supply. In this way, most of the blanks in Indian geogra])hy have been filled up, and a map, not unworthy of the vast and magnificent coimtry which it delineate.s, is advancing to completion.

In tlie course of the following work, the important })urposes to which the valuable materials accumulated by these surveys are applicable will often be-

' Forbiger's Ilandhuch dcr alien Geographic, particularly the illustrative majis in vol. i


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 HISTORY OF INDIA. come apparent; but in the meantime it seems impossible to employ them to better account than in furnishing the groundwork of a brief sketch, which, in exhibiting the leading features of the geography of India, will be at once an appropriate introduction and a useful guide to the study of its history. India: its ex- India, taken in its widest sense as a common name for all the contiguous boundaries, territories in Asia, which are directly or indirectly subject to British rule, lies tent and between 8° and 37° north latitude, and 66° and 99 east longitude. Within these limits, which extend north and south from the Himalaya to Cape Comorin, and west and east from Afghanistan and Beloochistan to the Burman empire, it covers an area of a million and a half of square miles, and contains one hundred and eighty millions of inhabitants. As these enormous numbers are not easily comprehended, a more definite idea may be formed, by considering that the space is about twelve times, and the population six times greater than those of the British Islands. The portion of these vast dominions lying east of the Bay of Bengal, consisting chiefly of acquisitions from the Burmese, are only politically associated with India; and, having few features in common with it, may for the present be left out of view. The other and far larger portion, to which the name of India is more properly applied, forms one compact whole, and is, for the most part, well defined by natural boundaries. According to a division of ancient date, it consists of Hindoostan and the Deccan-the former designation meaning the Land of the Hindoo, and the latter the Land of the South. The line of demarcation between the divisions is marked by the Vindhya Mountains, which stretch irregularly across the country from sea to sea, between the mouths of the Indus and the Ganges. Divisions. Hindoostan, thus defined, includes the whole of India which lies contiguous to other parts of the Asiatic continent, and consists almost entirely of two great river basins-that of the Indus in the west, and that of the Ganges in the east. Both basins have a common and magnificent boundary in the north, where the Himalaya, by far the loftiest mountain system in the world, with snowy summits which, measured from the level of the sea, have more than five miles of vertical height, diverges as from a central nucleus in opposite directions -on the one hand, sloping north-west, and giving its waters chiefly to the Basin of the Indus, and on the other, curving round toward the east, and supplying innu- merable feeders to the Ganges. The basin of the Indus has its greatest length from north to south, and, with exception of the beautiful valley of Cashmere and of the Punjab, is remarkable for a barrenness, which, in its lower part, becomes so great that cultivation is confined to the breadth of a few miles on either side of the river, while the adjacent country is converted into a desert. This desert, stretching away to the east and north-east for several hundred miles, has its occasional oases, but is, for the most part, a sandy waste, mono- tonous and dreary in the extreme. Indus. On entering the basin of the Ganges, a striking contrast is presented. On


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 INTRODUCTION. 5

the north side, the Himalaya, descending by a series of magnificent terraces Basin of the with parallel or intersecting valleys, approaches the edge of an immense plain of sm-passing beauty and fertility, sl[)ing gently from west to east, and tra- versed near its centre by a majestic river. On ])oth sides, chiefly from the Himalaya, but partly also from the Vindhya range, it is joined by numerous tributaries, which so augment its volume that it becomes in a manner encum- bei'ed with its spoils, and unable to carry them along in one amdivided channel. Accordingly, in the lower part of its course, it throws off numerous branches, which form a kind of network across its delta. A little lower down it com- municates with the Brahmapootra, coming from the east, and carrying a volume of water little if at all inferior to its own. The difficulty of discharge is thus greatly increased, and can only be met by an additional number of outlet.s. In the dry season, these flow witliin their banks, and have the appearance of independent streams ; but when the waters rise, a sudden overflow takes place, and the whole country is covered for many miles around with one vast inunda- tion. A similar result is produced on the lower flats of the Indus; and one consequence is, that both rivers become far less available for navigation than might be supposed from the volumes of water which they carry. The channels becoming shallow and attenuated in proportion to their number, it is difficult to find any single one which large vessels can safely use.

The two great basins now described do not completely exhaust the whole central

. ludia.

area included within the Himalaya and the Vindhya range; and therefore it is necessary to mention, that the ramifications of the range cover a considerable tract of great beauty and fertility, which i^elongs to what has been called Central India, and is drained by the independent basins of the Nerbudda and the Taptee, which carry its waters west to the Gulf of Cambay.

The Deccan, the other great division of India, is washed by the ocean on The oeccin. all sides but one, and is hence, though not with strict accuracy, usually described as a peninsula. It is in the form of an immense triangle, which rests on the Vindhya range as its base, and terminates in Cape Comorin as its vertex. Of its two sides, one running S.S.E. in an almost unbroken line, faces the Arabian Sea, the other, whose continuity is more broken, lies south-west, and faces the Bay of Bengal. Names so common as not to be imworthy of notice serve to distinguish the lower halves of the sides — that on the west being usually designated as the Malabar, and that on the east as the Coromandel coast.

The structm-e of the Deccan is very simple. Not far from the opposite extremities of the Vindhya range, whose greatest height is not supposed to exceed 3000 feet, two mountain chains proceed, and stretch southward in direc- tions nearly parallel to the coasts. That on the west, called the Western westem Ghauts, is continued to Cape Comorin. Its loftiest summits, which are situated between lat. 10' and 15°, rise to about 6000 feet. Towards the sea., from which it seldom recedes more than forty miles, it is very precipitous; towards the


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 - IIISTOTIY OF INDIA.

arrived in tli(! Persian Gulf. AlexaTuler, ulio had acconipanicd .Nearclius in his de-scent, afterwarrlH acconiplisliod the rest of the rliHtance overland suaoa"" '^'^^'^ o^'^'^t routes to India had thu« been simultaneously explored An a

latHZIItg

itDeO.liJt..

 * f ST-

tASI

Map of the JrMMOODEEP.'

natural consequence, regular intercom-se with it rapidly increased, and both its figure and dimensions began to be better understood. Ample evidence of this is furnished by the works of Strabo and Ptolemy, and yet it cannot be denied, that with all their industry and sagacity, they have ratlier distorted than de- lineated India. The maritime portion, in particular, is miserably cm-tailed, and its characteristic projection, instead of forming the vertex of a triangle, is' con-

' This map though sufficiently curious, could scarcely be made more intelligible by any amount of explanation. It is fanciful throughout, and all the attempts which have been made to find fixed localities for Its cardinal points, and its ranges of mountains, have failed. The ocean surrounding Jummoodeep is tlie only one which looks like reality, because it is said to consist of salt water. The other six oceai.s beyond it consist m succession of milk, milk curds, ghee or clarified butter, sugar-cane juice, wine, and iresh water. j >.


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 upper part of the Western Ghauts, and the adjoining ramifications of the Vindhya range. Here basaltic trap, in its various forms of prismatic, columnar, globular, tabular, porphyritic, and amygdaloid, spreads out as an overlying rock, to an extent unequalled, it is believed, in any other part of the world. A very large portion of the table-land of the Deccan is entirely covered by it. Not unfrequently both the trap and the granite pierce the surface abruptly, and rise in precipitous isolated masses of considerable height. Many of these standing out prominently from the surrounding plains and crowned with hill-forts, form the most remarkable features in the landscape.

The more regular strata of the secondary and tertiary periods are largely developed on the lower sides of the Himalaya, and occupy considerable tracts in various other localities. Many of the sandstones and shales of the former period belong to the coal measures; and coal has not only been found at several places, but is actually worked, particularly in the valley of the Damooda in the district of Burdwan, where a coal field with a main seam 9 feet in thickness has been carefully explored, and found to extend over a large area. The proximity of this field to the capital, from which it is about 150 miles north-west, and the facility of carriage by water, and now also by rail, have brought it early into notice; but there cannot be a doubt that there are many other fields equally promising, and, at all events, productive enough to supply the demand about to be created by the establishment of an extensive system of railways. The tertiary formation appears to obtain its greatest breadth in the north-west, towards Seinde and the Punjab, from which, and the mountains of adjacent districts, fossil remains of singular forms and gigantic dimensions have recently been brought to enrich our museums.

It must be admitted that, as a mineral country, India has not yet proved its title to a prominent place. Though in ancient times gold was so abundant, that the Indian was the only one of the Persian satrapies which paid its tribute in that precious metal, it has now only a few washings, which are by no means productive. Its diamond mines also, once so famous, have long been exhausted. Besides the coal already mentioned, the only mineral products of much economical value are copper, of which several mines are worked; iron, from which steel of the finest quality is manufactured; nitre, so abundant as to form an important article of export; and salt, said to exist in beds which are inexhaustible.

Of the 28° of north latitude over which India extends, 15½° are within the tropical, and 12½° within the temperate zone. Taking this fact only into view, it might be easy to give the theory of its climate; but it would merely be to show how widely in this case, as in many others, theory differs from reality. The position of a country relatively to the equator, simply shows how long and how intensely the sun during its annual revolution will shine upon it, but gives no information as to the modifying causes by which, often far more than by degrees of latitude, its climate is determined. In regard to India


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 Modifying Clauses.

Heat

these causes are so numerous, and operate so differently in different localities, that it may be truly .said to have not one, but many climates. Northwards a few degrees from the tropic, it has a region in which snow and ice are never wanting; westwards, it has a desert with the parched plain and scorching heats of the African Sahara; eastwards, it has a deep alluvial basin overcharged with moisture; and southwards, while the isothermal line, indicating the greatest quantity of mean annual heat on the surface of the globe, crosses it obliquely from the Coromandel to the Malabar coast, the Neilgherry Hills, situated nearly in the same latitude, enjoy the climate of the finest part of the temperate zone. Where so many anomalies exist, it would obviously be impossible to give an adequate description, without entering into numerous as complicated details; and therefore the utmost which can here be done is to point out a few features which, though much diversified by circumstances, may be considered characteristic of the climate of India.

The most prominent of these features are heat and humidity—heat produced chiefly by the direct action of the sun's rays, but intensified in many districts by alow level, a natm-ally arid soil, and sultry winds from other countries; and humidity, not derived, as in Europe, from moderate showers occurring more or less at all seasons, but the result of rains which occur regularly at stated periods, and are so copious and incessant as often to pour down more water in a month than falls in any part of England in a year. In London, the mean annual temperature is 49.35°; in Calcutta it is 79 37°; in Bombay, 8.19°; in Madras, 84.4° In order to perceive the full effect of these differences, it is necessary to attend to the annual range of temperature, or the number of degrees between the greatest mean heat and the greatest mean cold. In London, this range amounts to no less than 40.3° whereas in the above three cities it amounts respectively to no more than to 11.9°. 10°, and 72°. In other words, heat is far more equally diffused in India than in our own island ; and the complete cessation of vegetation which takes place in the latter during the rigour of winter, is totally unknown in the former. An equally striking contrast appears in the degrees of humidity. The average annual fall of rain in England is 32 inches. In Bombay, as large a quantity has been known to fall in twelve days, while the average of the year is about 85 inches. On the Malabar coast and many parts of the Western Ghauts, even this quantity is largely exceeded, and the average has been estimated at 136 inches. This, however, is only a local extreme. In Calcutta, the range of the fall is from 50 to 85 inches; and on the Coromandel coast, in the neighbourhood of Madras, the annual average of England is supposed not to be exceeded.

The great agents in reguating; the climate of India and fixing its character, are the periodical winds known by the name of monsoons. With the interval of about a month, they divide the year between them—the one blowing regularly from the north-east from October to March, and the other from the south-west from April to September. The north-east monsoon is, strictly speaking identical


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 with the north-east trade-wind, and would accordingly blow without interruption throughout the year, were it not brought under the influence of a great counteracting cause. This is found on the central plains of Asia, which, becoming immoderately heated while the sun is north of the equator, rarify the surounding air, and thereby disturb the atmospherical equilibrium. To restore it, a current of colder air begins to rush in from the Indian Ocean. A kind of struggle takes place—the north-east monsoon endeavouring to maintain its direction, while the new current endeavours to establish its ascendency. In the struggle, the north-east monsoon is placed at great disadvantage, for at the very time when it is engaged with its opponent, part of its own forces are diverted,

and drawn off to the regions where the equilibrium has been disturbed. After a month of warfare, in which all the elements seem to mingle, and thunderstorms and hurricanes rage with the greatest fury, the new current prevails, and becomes established as the south-west monsoon. After blowing for nearly half a year, a new state of the atmosphere is superinduced. The overheated Asiatic plains are cooled down by the sun's departure for the south, the aerial struggle, with its accompanying thunder and hurricanes, is renewed, and in about a month the north-east monsoon, recovering its superiority, begins again to blow.

The effects of the monsoons in determining the climate of India are very remarkable. The south-west monsoon, in blowing over the Indian Ocean, becomes surcharged with vapour, which, being suddenly condensed on the heights of the Western Ghauts, is discharged in torrents. Thus deprived of its contents as fast as it anives on the Malabar coast, it blows across the country, and arrives at the Coromandel coast cis a dry wind. This cotist, accordingly, and the eastern part of the Deccan, generally at this time receive no direct supplies of rain, and become in consequence so parched, that the culture of the ground would become impossible, were it not that most of the rivers, having their sources in the Western Ghauts, become filled to overflowing, and thus furnish the means of carrying on an extensive system of irrigation. Beyond the limits of the Western Ghauts, the low plains near the mouths of the Indus, and the sandy desert to the east and north, are unable to attract any moisture from the monsoon, which now arrives well charged with water on the heights of the Himalaya. Being here deflected, it descends into the basin of the Ganges, and floods the lower plains of Bengal. The south-west monsoon having nm its course, the north-east monsoon repeats the process, though on a somewhat minor scale, because the Bay of Bengal, from which the moisture is derived, is of less extent, and therefore unable to supply it so copiously.

The course of the seasons in India will now be easily understood. In the seasons. British Islands, and in the temperate zone generally, winter, spring, summer, and autumn succeed each other, and the year performs its round of grateful vicissitudes. In India an entirely different arrangement takes place; and the Vol. I.


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 only seasons which can be properly recognized are the rainy, the cool, and the hot. The boundaries between them are not very exactly defined, because the rains, which may be considered as the commencement of the year, do not begin, even on the same side of the continent, at the same period. On the Malabar coast, for instance, they are retarded in proceeding northwards, and have copiously flooded some districts at least a month before they begin to fall in others. As India lies wholly on tin! north side of the equator, the cool and the hot seasons should correspond nearly with our own winter and summer; but without entering too much into detail, and specifying the peculiarities of different districts, it is almost impossible to make any statement, in general terms, which would not mislead. The best mode of illustrating the seasons will therefore be to select a particular locality, and give a short description of its year. Calcutta being adopted for this purpose, the cycle will be as follows. After nearly a month of storms, connected with the setting in of the monsoon, the rains commence about the beginning of June, and continue, with occasional short intervals, till the middle of October. A brief stormy period ensues, and then, in November, the air having previously cleared up, the cool season begins. At first the weather is fair and pleasant, and the sky, generally free from clouds, is of a deep blue. In December, fogs become frequent towards evening, and continue unbroken till the morning sun disperses them Both in this month and in January, the thermometer ranges from 47° to 78°, but the air feels colder than the lower of these numbers might be expected to indicate. Cold but bracing winds from the north and west doubtless contribute to this result. In February, the thermometer begins to rise, and generally before it closes the hot season has commenced. During the three following months the heat continues to increase, but is greatly relieved by winds and storms till May, when an oppressive stillness prevails, at once unnerving the body and depressing the mind With this disagreeable month the season closes, and the annual cycle again begins.

In heat and humidity, India possesses the two main agents of luxuriant vegetation. On its lower plains the most valuable plants of the tropics are indigenous or acclimatized, and on its loftier heights forests of the noblest trees, several of them of a peculiar type, furnish inexhaustible supplies of the finest timber, including the teak, which covers the rugged terraces of the Western Ghauts. Equally deserving of notice are the magnificent woody amphitheatres which rise successively on the Himalaya, till the limits of the vegetable kingdom are approached. Among the plants winch belong exclusively to India, or, while possessed in common with other countries, are so widely diffused over it as to form a leading feature in its botany, are the bamboo, which, though truly a grass, shoots up in one season to the height of 60 feet, and in another becomes so consolidated in its texture as to supply most of the ordinary, and some of the ornamental purposes to which timber is applied; palms in almost endless variety, including the cocoa-nut palm—the most useful of its class—the sago.


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the areca, and tlu; great fan-palm — a majestic tree, with a leaf of such extra- vegetaUou. ordinary dimensions that a dozen men could take shelter under it ; the babal tree, one of the most beautiful and useful of acacias ; the sandal-wood tree, valued in the East for the perfume, and in Europe for the dye which it fields; spice- bearing plants and trees, including among others the pepper- vine, which entwines among the cocoas and other palms of the Malabar coast, and forms a consider- able article of export ; the bread-fruit tree, the banana, and above all the mango, at once the finest and the most widely diffused of all the fruit-trees of which India can boast. Among the cultivated plants which are important as staple articles of food, are rice, maize, wheat, millet, barley, varieties of pulse, yams, sweet potatoes, &c. Among those most deserving of notice, from furnishing the raw materials of manufacture and export, are cotton, flax, hemp, indigo, and various dyes ; cardamoms and other spices, sugar-cane, tobacco, and opium.

The zoology of India is no less rich and varied than its botany. Among zuoiogy. quadrupeds the first place is imquestionably due to the ele})hant, which, besides living wild in herds, has from time immemorial been domesticated, and is usually (>mployed in all labours in which strength and singular sagacity are required. The buffalo and yak have also been domesticated ; and the camel is reared in considerable numbers in the west, particularly on the borders of the desert, which it is employed to traverse. Among the animals which have not been subjected to the dominion of man, the most remarkable for size and strength is the one- horned rhinoceros; for ferocity, the tiger, lion, leopard, panther, hyena, and jackal ; for forms often humbling to human pride, numerous species of monkeys ; and for swiftness, or some other property which singles them out for the chase, the argali, or wild sheep, the wild goat, the wild ass, the bear, the wild boar and wild hog, the chickara, or four-horned antelope, the great rusa stag, nearly as large as a horse, the saumer, or black rusa of Bengal, the hog-deer, the Nepal stag, and many other varieties of the cervine tribe. The birds include several species of the vidture and eagle, wild peacocks, pheasants, and in great profusion cockatoos, parrots, and paroquets, of gorgeous plumage or singular articulating powers. Though not a permanent resident anywhere, the gigantic stork makes its appearance in large flocks during the rains, and renders essential service by destroying snakes and other noxious reptiles, and by plying the trade of scavenger, for which nature evidently intended it. On passing to the lower orders of the animal kingdom, the transition is disagreeable, for it brings us to the hideous alligators, abundant in most streams, and more especially in those of the Indus and Ganges, and to large and venomous snakes which infest both the land and the water, and are so numerous that forty-three varieties, including the deadly cobra de rapello, have been described as of common occurrence. Hastening from these to the fishes, both the coasts and the rivers present us with numerous varieties, often in unlimited abundance and excellent for food. As particularly distinguished in the latter respect, it may suffice to notice the leopard


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DRAWN E FERER

A. TRZIN


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 12

HISTORY OK INDIA.

IiiliabitaiiU.

Political geograpliy.

Kuropean rulei's in India.

inaitki'icl ;unl the, iimn^o fish, the one rnwusuring 3 fi;et, Jirid tlic otlier oc<:ii«ional)y 4 feet in length. Both frequently finfl a place on the tallies of Euroy)ean residentH.

Tlu! inhabitants of India would next claim attention ; but a« a full accrjunt of them will necessarily be interwoven in the course of the work, it may liere suffice to mention that they consist mainly of two great classes — Mahometans and Hindoos. The former, amounting only to about a tenth of the whole population, are far more influential than their numbers imply, because, having been the dominant race before European ascendency was established, they have never entirely lost the wealth and power which this position gave them, and in most native states are under the government of princes of their own faith. The Hindoos, though classed under a common name, by no meaas represent a single race, but exhibit numerous varieties, even in physical form ; and, instead of all speaking the same language, have dialects, founded indeed, for the most part, on the Sanscrit, which is no longer spoken, but differing as much from each other as those languages of Europe which have the Latin for their common basis.

In the preceding sketch, attention has been drawn only to the physical geo- graphy of India, or to the features which natiu-e herself has indeliVjly impressed upon it, and the most remarkable objects presented by its mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms. As yet nothing has been said of another department of geography — that which treats of the artificial divisions introduced for adminis- trative purposes, or in consequence of political changes. These, though they necessarily partake of the instability which attaches to all human arrangements, serve many important piu-poses, and, in fact, furnish the vocabulary which mu.st be used when particular localities are referred to, or the events of which they have been the theatre are described. A thorough knowledge of this vocabulary is only to be obtained by a diligent study of the map ; but for ordinary purposes , a more ciu^sory knowledge may suffice, at least so far as to prevent the per- plexity which might be caused by the frequent use of names of which no previ- ous information had been given. With the aew of fm-nishing such a knowledge, and guarding against thLs perplexity, a summary of the political geography of India, in accordance with actually subsisting arrangements, and compressed within the narrowest possible compass, is here subjoined.

At present, not much more than the half of India is in the undi^'ided posses- sion of Great Britain. Two European nations still linger at a few insignificant spots — the Portuguese at Goa on the west coast and at Diu on the north-west between the Gulfs of Cutch and Cambay; and the French at Pondicherry and Carricall, on the east coast, at Mahe, on the south-west coast, and at Chander- M nagore on the Hooghl3^ above Calcutta. Two native states — Bhotan and Nepal, situated on the southern slopes of the Himalaya — are nominally inde- M pendent. All the other native states are under a British protectorate oi greater or less stringency. Of these states in the upper and inland portion of India, the most extensive are Scindia's dominions, capital Gwalior, stretching fi'om the J

i


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 Taptee north to the banks of the Chmnbul; Holkars dominions, capital Indore, much intersected by those of Scindia, which bound them on the north; and Rajpootana, consisting of a great number of states, which, though individually small, have a large aggregate area, and reach from Scindia's dominions west to the frontiers of Scinde. In the south-west of the same portion of the country, are the Guicowar's territories, capital Baroda, and the rajahship of Cutch, capital Bhooj. In the Deccan, or soutliern and maritime portion of India, the most extensive native states are — the Nizam's dominions, capital Hyderabad, area 95,337 square miles, by for the largest territory imder any single native chief, consisting of a compact and central portion of the peninsular plateau, bounded north by the Vindhya range, south by the Krishna, east and north-east by the Godavery, and west by an indefinite line near the last slopes of the Western Ghauts; Mysore, the country of the famous Hyder Ali and Tippoo Saib, capital Seringa patam, area 30,886 square miles, consisting of a lofty table-land within the angle which is formed by the junction of the Eastern and Western Ghauts; and Travancore, capital Trivandrum, area 4722 square miles, forming the south-west portion of the extremity of the peninsula.

The whole of the native states and the Portuguese and French possessions have an area of 631,470 square miles, and a population of 49,074,527. The whole of the remainder—area 824,232 square miles, population 130,897,195—is British territory, which has the seat of its government at Calcutta, the capital of all India, and is comprehended in the presidencies of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay.

The presidency of Bengal—area 517,839 miles, population 38,883,337—includes all the British territories witiiin the basins of the Indus and Ganges, with exception of Scinde. It also includes Assam and the annexed territories of the Burmese, and the province of Cuttack, extending south to Ganjam, on the east coast of the Deccan, where it bounds with what are called the Northern Circars, belonging to Madras. Being by far the largest and most populous of the three, the presidency of Bengal is subdivided into Bengal proper and the North-western Provinces, each having its own lieutenant-governor. The line of demarcation between them is nearly in the direction of the meridian of 84°, the whole of the presidency east of that line belonging to the one, and all west of it to the other. Strictly speaking, the North-western Provinces include only the six great divisions of Benares, Allahabad, Agra, Rohilcund, Meerut, and Delhi. The Punjab and Oude are thus left out, because, though they are doubtless destined to be formally incorporated with this subdivision, they are still, in consequence of their recent acquisition, under a separate administration.

The presidency of Madras—area 132,090 square miles, population 22,437,297—bounds with that of Bengal, near lat 18° and continues south, along the east and south-east coast of the peninsula to Cape Comorin, with no interruption, except from the interposed French districts of Pondicherry and Carricall. At Cape Comorin, it is cut off from the sea by the interjected native states of


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 14

HISTORY OF INDIA.

M;ulnui protiidency.

Bombay prosidency.

Distinct periods of ludiau his- tory.

Travancore and Coohin; hut beyoMd tliern it again becomes maritime, and continues north along the coast of Malabar, till it meets the presidency of Bombay, near the di.strict of Uoa. It has a very irregular shape. At first, wiien it commences with the Northern Circars, it is so hemmed in between the Bay of Bengal and the east frontiers of the Nizam's dominions, that it consists only of a comparatively narrow belt. The same thing happens in the west, where it is similarly hemmed in Vjetween the Arabian Gulf and the west frontiers of Mysore. Near the middle, between the mouths of the Krishna and the Pennar, it widens out and stretches so far west between these two native states as to approach the Western Ghauts. Further south, between the city of Madi-as and Palk's Strait, it extends across the whole peninsula, from sea t^j sea. The presidency of Bombay — area 120,065 square mile.s, population 14,109,067 — is, from similar causes, as irregular in shape as the presidency of Ma/lras. Beginning near Goa, it continues northwards in a long and narrow strip, and then widening out, becomes so intermingled with the native states as to make it almost impossible to define its boundaries. Scinde, which has recently been added to it, and forms the three collectorates of Sliikarpoor, Hyderabad, and Kurrachee, is by far its most compact province.

The above sketch of the physical and political geography of India seemed necessary in order to furnish information which some might not possess, and remove the indistinct, if not erroneous impressions which it is difficult to avoid, in endeavouring to form an acquaintance with a country so remote, so vast, and so extraordinary. By exhibiting it on a scale so reduced that the )nind is neither overpowered by the magnitiide, nor perplexed by the variety and singularity of its features, a kind of imity is given to it, and it assumes the appearance of a stage on which great actors are to appear, and wonderful achievements are to be performed. In this way, the history acquires a sim- plicity which it might not otherwise possess, a deeper interest is felt in the narrative, and the important lessons drawn from it become at once more obvious, intelligible, and impressive.

The History of India embraces tliree distinct periods — an ancient, a medieval, and a modern. The ancient period, beginning with the earliest authentic accounts, extends to the establishment of a ^Mahometan dTiasty. The medieval period terminates with the doubling of the Cape of Good Hope, and the consequent discovery of a continuovis oceanic route to the East. The modern period, commencing with the great changes introduced by this dis- covery, is continued down to the present time. The last of these periods, forming the proper subject of the present history, will be treated with a ful- ness proportioned to its intrinsic importance, and the interest it derives from its intimate connection with British history. The other two could not be omitted without leaving the work incomplete, but being only subordinate, will not occupy more than a few preliminary chapters.

I


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 BOOK I.

FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE YEAR 1600,

WIIKN THE FIRST CROWN CHARTER INCORPORATING

AN EAST INDIA COMPANY WAS GRANTED.

CHAPTER I.

Ancient India — Tiie pre-historic period — Native sources oi intormation — Other accounts — Invasion of India by Sesostris, Serairamis, Darius Hystaspes, Alexander the Great — Subsequent statu of India.

)N tracing the early history of a country, tlie natural course is to No proper apply to the sources of information which tlie country itself may toryofin- be able to furnish. In this respect India might be presumed to be rich. Long before the nations of Western Europe had begun to emerge from barbarism, it was in possession of a language remarkable for the completeness of its grammatical forms, fcjr copiousness, and for the number and variety of the works which had been written in it. Several of these works were of a scientific and metaphysical character, requiring talent of a higher order than would have been neces.sary for historical compilation ; and yet, strange to say, while the more difficult intellectual effoit was successfully made, the less difficult, the more useful, and, as one would have imagined, the more attrac- tive, was so entirely neglected, that with the exception of a work on Cashmere of no very ancient date, the literature of India has failed to furnish a single production to which the name of history can in any proper sense of the term be applied. In dealing with the past, ages are heaped upon ages till the years amount to millions; and endless details are given of gods and demigods, children of the sun and moon, and creatures still more monstrous, combining divine, human, and bestial forms — but men as they really hved; and the events pro- duced by their agency are entirely overlot)ked, or treated as if they were unfit to be recorded until they had been moulded into some fantastic shape. In short, the Brahmins, the only depositories of learning, abusing their trust, have made everything subser ent to an extravagant mHhology, obviou-sly designed, and in many respects skilfully framed, to secure their own aggrandizement.

In the absence of direct information from historical records in India, it is sources of proper before abandoning the search there as hopeless, to in<|uire whether it may tion. not be possible to discover other native som'ces from which some amount of


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 16 TTTSTORY OF TXDIA. [Book I.

DC. — authentic information may he ohtaincd indirectly hy meariH ol" cautioiw and legi-

timate deduction. In ancient W(jrkH, not jjroperly hiHt^jrical, the state of wK'iety, and con.se(|uent degree of civilization at the period when they were written, are often exhihited, not lens accurately, and perhaps far more vividly, than if they had been composed for that special purpose; and hence, provided their date can be fixed with any degree of certainty, much informati<jn of an hist^jriwil nature may be easily and safely extracted from them. Of the writings which thas tend to elucidate the primitive history of India, the most valuable are the wjllectioas The vudaa. of aucicnt liymus and prayers, known by the name of Vedas, and the kind of commentary upon them contained in a compilation, which the translation of Sir William Jones has made familiar to English readers under the title of the Institutes of Menu. The Vedas, four in number, prove by diversities both of style and contents, that they are the productions of different periods, between which a considerable interval mvLst have elapsed. According to the Hindoos, they are a little more than 3000 years older than our era, but though this age is short compared with that which figures generally in their chronology, it is doubtless an exaggeration. Mr. Colebrooke, by a very ingenious and convincing process,' has cut off sixteen centuries from the Hindoo date. Founding on a calendar of antique form by which tlie Vedas regulate the times of devotional service, he was able to ascertain the exact position of the solstitial points in accordance with which the calendar was regtdated ; and assuming, as he well might, that the position was not hypothetical, he had only to compare it with the position at present, and calculate how many years must have elapsed in order to produce the difference. The annual precession of the equinoxes is an invariable quantity; and by counting backwards and deducting this quantity successively till the whole amount of difference is exhausted, the true date appears. In this way the completion of the Vedas has been fixed in the fifteenth centm-y before the Chris- institutes tian era. The Institutes of Menu, referring to the Vedas as productions venera-

of Menu.

ble even then for antiquity, must be much more recent. How much, is the im- portant question ; and unfortunately a question which does not admit of a very definite answer. The Institutes themselves give no dates, and any conclusion which can be founded on internal evidence is little better than conjecture. Still, however, though a large margin must be allowed' as a kind of debatable ground on which the sticklers for an earlier and a later period may carry on their wordy warfare, there is enough, both in the comparatively pure and primitive form of the religion inculcated, in the sanction of usages which are known to have become obsolete some centuries before the Cluistian era, and in the omission of religious sects and controversies which would certainly have been mentioned if they had then been in existence, to support the conclusion that the Institutes of Menu must have appeared not later than the fifth, and probably as early as the ninth century B.C. Either period would carry us back to a remote antiquity ;

' Asiatic Researches, vol. viii.


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 Chap. I.]

KOCK-CUT TEMPLES.

IT

for it is always to be remembered, that the laws and manners which the work b c. — details, and the coiTesponding state of society which it implies, did not begin to exist at the time when it was wiitten, but must have preceded it by several ages. Every page of the Institutes, therefore, must be held to furnish indubit- able evidence that about 3000 years ago India was nearly as far advanced in civilization as in the present day, containing a dense population, not merely scattered over the country in rural villages, but collected into large towns and cities, extensively engaged in manufactures and trade, and forming a number of independent states. These, under the government of rulers whose despotism was gi-eatly modified by customs and laws, raised large revenues by a compli- cated system of taxation, brought into the field powerful armies, and executed many stupendous and magnificent works. Among these works are the tem])les nock of Elephanta, Salsette, Adjunta, and EUora, whose testimony, as imperishable as the rocks out of which they have been hewn,' tells of an age, which, though far short of that which was at one time extravagantly assigned, must still in the most ancient be not less than 2000 years.

Another testimony to the antiquity of Indian civilization has been found in niiuioo

mi ... n -I p aatrouorav.

its astronomy. This testnnony, m consequence oi the perverse attem})ts of some philosophers of the French revolutionary school to confront it with the Sacred

temples.

LvTERioR OK THE Cave OF Elephanta.— Froiii Griiidlays Scenery of India.

Records, for the purpose of bringing them into discredit, was justly subjected to a very rigorous examination, and did not come out of it unscathed. The astro-

' As tlie celebrated works mentioned in the text as a collateral evidence of ancient civilization, will afterwards be referred to, along with other works of a similar nature, under the head of Indian architec- ture, it is sufficient to observe here that they belong to two distinct classes, both hewn out of the solid rock, but differin- essentially in this respect— that the one dass consists of pillared and sculptured caverns, of which only the entrance is visible externally; whi'e

Vol. I.

the other consists of rock temples, properly so called, because standing visible in the open air, and com- posed of masses of solid rock, which, fixed ininiove- ably in their original site, have been hewn down into the form of temples (see view of the Kylas Tenijile at EUora, on engraved title of vol. i.), covered over with sculptures and inscriptions, and accompanied w itli numerous statues, often of fantastic shapes and colossal dimensions.

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 18

insToj'.y ov ixdfa.

[Boc

B.C. —

nomical tahles, because fouiidcil on calcidationH which haxl been airried bi ward to a very remote period, were erroneously atwumed to exliibit the rt

Exterior of Great Chaitya Cave, Salsette. — From Ferguseon's Rock-cut Temples of Indin.

Hindoo of actual observations, and it was gravely maintained that the Hindoo a.«

astronomy :. . .,.

nomer must have been sittmg m his observator', surrounded by his instrum and patiently committing the results of his obsei'vations to writing, nearly 1

Exterior of the Chaitya Cave, Abjtjkta. — From Fergusson's Rock-cut Temples of ludia.

years before Noah entered the ark. As usual in cases of similar extravaga

a reactionary feeling was produced, and many, running to the opposite extre

Siiidtobe ijxsisted that Indian astronomy had no independent existence, and was at be

borroweil.

rude plagiarism from the Chaldeans and the Greeks. More moderate views now entertained on both sides- and those best quahfied to judge, agree in hole


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 I

Uhap. I.]

INDIAN ASTRONOMY.

19

that, while recorded actual observations by the astronomers of India cannot be bc. carried farther back than the sixth century A.D., their science had prol)ably made some progress 200 years before there was any mention of astronomy in Greece.

Indian

Interior of the Bisma Kurm, Elloua.— From Elliott's Views in In^^- systems — a coincidence which, while it proves that they must have had ii common origin, cannot be ex- plained without admitting that the Intlian system has the better title to be regarded as the original.

While there is thus abundant evidence to show that India must have received its first inhabitants at no distant period after the dis- I)ersion of the human race, and be- ^ come one of the first cradles of civilization, no distinct dates are ob- tained; and consequently the history of the country cannot be said to be- gin tiU we qiut its own soil, and apply for information to the WTiters of the West, who for the most pait follow some sort of chronological order, and Foreign

_eyen when they indulge in fable, have generally some foundation in fact. The informa- tion.

^ Figa. 1-12 are the signs of the Zodiac, a, The node. ?', Dragon's Tail, or descending node. Thecentre Sun. 6, The Moon, r, Mars. (/.Mercury, e, Jupiter. is the earth, surrounded by the sea, marked with the /.Venus. £/, Saturn. A, Dragon's Head, or ascending four carilinal i>oints, E. (w), W. (x). N. (y), S. (z).

6 ^^i^:^ K,^?-*^^ ^ Oriental Zodiac. — Maurice's Historvof Hindostan.'


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 writers.

of Sesostris.

20 HISTORY OF INDIA. [BrjoK I.

n.c. 1500? first Greek writers who throw ,'iiiy li^ht on tlio history of India are Herodotiw, the father of liistory, wliose immortal work, written in the fifth century B.c,, still

firook exists; and Ctesias, wlio, though lie may have been for a short time c^^ntemfK^rary with Herodotus, properly belongs to the immefliately succeeding century. Among other historical work.s, he wrote one expressly on India. His opfioitunities for obtaining materials were considerable. Having been taken prisoner, or been in some other way carried to the Persian capital, he gained the favour of Artar xerxes by his skill as a phy.sician, and Uved at liLs court during the seventeen years preceding B.C. 398. Unfortunately, his work as a whole has perished, but many fragments of it have been preserved, paiticularly by Diodorus Siculus in his Bihliotheca, which was written in the first years of the Christian era, but possesses far more value as an autliority than its date might seem to give it, because it is a compilation, and in many cases apparently an exact tran- script, of more ancient writers, whose -works are lost. The earliest accounts of India, drawn from the materials furnished by these writers, and especially by the last, are presented with aU the gravity of history — a gravity, however, which, when the nature of the details is considered, occasionally becomes ludicrous. Expedition An Egjq^tian king, whom Diodorus calls Sesoosis and most other writers

Sesostris, and who is now generally believed to be identical with Rameses, who belonged to the nineteenth djTiasty, came into the world about 1500 B.C., after happy omens which foretold his future greatness. To prepare him for it, his father caused all the male children bom in Egj-pt on the same day to be brought to court and educated along with him. As they grew up they were trained in all manly exercises, and formed a chosen band, bound to their j'oung prince by the strongest ties of affection, and prepared to follow with unflinching com-age and fidelity wherever he might lead. During his father's lifetime he began his military campaigns, and proceeding first into Arabia and then west- ward into Libya, subdued both. His ambition having been thus inflamed, he had no sooner succeeded to the throne than he resolved on the subjugation of the world. His first step was to conciliate the affections of his subjects — his next to collect an army adequate to the contemplated enterprise. It consisted of 600,000 infantry, 24,000 cavalry, and 27,000 war-chariots. The chief commands were given to the youths who had been brought up with him. The Ethiopians were the first who were made to feel his power. Their country was adjacent to Egypt, and could be reached by a land force, but on turning to the east the necessity of a fleet became apparent. Hitherto the Egj^^tians had been averse to maritime enterprise, but everji^hing pelded to the energy of Sesostris, who built the first ships of war which Egj^t possessed, and ere long had a fleet of 400 sail. He did not allow it to remain idle ; but setting out, proceeded down the Ai'abian Gulf into the main ocean, which then bore the name of the Eryth- raean Sea, and then coasting along the shores continued his voyage as far as


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 Chap. I.] EXPEDITION OF SESOSTRIS. 21

India. He returned, but it was only to recommence his victorious career, and b.c. imo? lead a mighty army eastward, not only to the frontiers of India, but beyond the Ganges, and still on till he traversed the whole country and reached a new ocean. On his return, he caused pillars to be erected in various places, with inscri})tion3 attestinij his victories, and at the same time lauthncj the courajje or stiifmatizinof the cowardice of those who had encountered him.

The above narrative, which Diodorus admits to be only the most probable Narrative of of several contradictory accounts circulated in Egypt, can'ies some extravagances on the face of it. One of the most palatable of these is the number of the youths who are said to have been born on the same day with Sesostris. When tiiat monarch set out on his Eastern expedition, he must have been on the borders of forty, and yet even then more than 1700 persons born on the same day were still sm*viving. Assuming that they were subject to the ordinary law of mortality, their number at forty years of age could not be more than a third of what it was at fii'st. In other words, the number of male children born in Egy])t on the same day with Sesostris must have been 5000, and, consequently, adding female children, the whole number of births must have been 10,000. At the usual rate of increase, this would give Egypt a population bordering upon 40,000,000 — a population so enormous as to be utterly incredible. Founding on this discrepancy, and some other objections, which, besides being somewhat hypercritical, are stated more strongly than facts seem to justify, Dr. Robertson, in the first note to his Historical Disquisi- tion concerning Ancient India, labours to prove that the whole account of the expedition of Sesostris to India is fabulous. It ought to be observed, however, that, in this instance, Diodorus does not stand alone. Herodotas, whom Dr. Testimony of Robertson not very fairly quotes against him, bears strong testimony in his favour, and in fact confirms his statement in all that is essential to it. He distinctly refers both to the maritime and the land expeditions of Se.sostris, and though he does not expressly use the word India, he says that in the one Sesostris continued sailing eastward till he came to a sea so shallow a.s to be no longer navigable, and that in the other he subdued every nation that came in his way, and built pillars of the very kind and for the very piu'pose mentioned by Diodorus. To reject a statement thus supported, because some Haws may be picked in particular parts of it, is to strike at the foundation of luunan testimony, and countenance the captious quibbling process under which all ancient history, sacred as well as profane, runs some risk of being converted into a mji,h. The fair conclusion concerning the Indian expeditions of Sesostris seems to be that they really took place, but that in the accounts given of them, both the means which he emj^loyed and the extent of country which he subdued or traversed are exasrcerated.

Of another Indian expedition, also mentioned by Diodorus Siculus on the Expedition authority of Ctesias, gi-eater doubt may reasonably be entertained, notwith- amis.