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Constitution of Algeria/Part I

Part One General Principles Governing Algerian Society

Chapter I - Algeria
Article 1 [Democracy, Republic] Algeria is a People's Democratic Republic. It is one and indivisible.

Article 2 [State Religion] Islam is the religion of the State.

Article 3 [Language] Arabic is the national and official language.

Article 3 (2002 amendment) Tamazight is also a national language.

The State shall work on its improvement and development with all its spoken varieties used across national territory.

Article 4 [Capital] The capital of the Republic is Algiers.

Article 5 [Flag, Seal, Anthem] The national flag, the State seal and the national anthem are defined by the law.

Chapter II - The People
Article 6 [Popular Sovereignty] Article 7 [Constituent Power, Referendum] Article 8 [Institutional Objectives] The People set up institutions having as objectives: Article 9 [Institutional Prohibitions] The institutions are not allowed: Article 10 [Representation]
 * 1) The People are the source of any power.
 * 2) The national sovereignty belongs exclusively to the People.
 * 1) The constituent power belongs to the People.
 * 2) The People exercise their sovereignty through institutions they set up.
 * 3) The People exercise it by means of referendum and through the elected representatives.
 * 4) The President of the Republic may resort directly to the expression of the People's will.
 * the safeguard and consolidation of the national independence;
 * the safeguard and consolidation of the national identity and unity;
 * the protection of fundamental liberties of the citizen and the social and cultural progress of the Nation;
 * the suppression of the exploitation of man by man;
 * the protection of the national economy from any form of embezzlement or misappropriation, illegitimate monopolizing or seizure.
 * feudal, regionalist and nepotic practices;
 * setting up exploitation relationships and dependence links;
 * practices that are contrary to the Islamic ethics and to the values of the November Revolution.
 * 1) The People choose freely their representatives.
 * 2) The representation of the People has no limits except those defined by the Constitution and the electoral law.

Chapter III - The State
Article 11 [Legitimacy, Motto, Purpose] Article 12 [Sovereignty] Article 13 [Territory] In any circumstances should a part of the national territory be abandoned or alienated. Article 14 [State Principles] Article 15 [Communes] Article 16 [Decentralization] The elected assembly represents the basis of decentralization and a place of the citizens' participation in the management of public affairs. Article 17 [Public Property] Article 18 [National Properties] Article 19 [External Trade] Article 20 [Expropriation] Article 21 [Public Interest] The functions in the State institutions should neither be a source of wealth nor a means of being for the service of private interests. Article 22 [Abuse of Power] Power abuse is repressed by the law. Article 23 [Impartiality] The Administration's impartiality is guaranteed by the law. Article 24 [Security, Protection Abroad] The State is responsible for the security of persons and properties. It ensures the protection of every citizen abroad. Article 25 [Army] Article 26 [War] Article 27 [Liberation, Self-Determination] Algeria associates itself with all the peoples fighting for their political and economic liberation, for the right of self determination and against any racial discrimination. Article 28 [International Cooperation] Algeria works for the reinforcement of international cooperation and to the development of friendly relations among States, on equal basis, mutual interest and non interference in the internal affairs. It endorses the principles and objectives of the United Nations Charter.
 * 1) The State takes its legitimacy and its raison d'etre from the People's will.
 * 2) Its motto is "By the People and for the People".
 * 3) It is exclusively for the service of the People.
 * 1) The sovereignty of the State is exercised on its terrestrial space, its air space, and its waters.
 * 2) The State also exercises its sovereign right established by the international law on any of its various areas of the maritime space to which they belong.
 * 1) The State is based on the principles of democratic organization and of social justice.
 * 2) The elected Assembly is the framework in which is expressed the people's will and the control of the public authorities is exercised.
 * 1) The territorial collectivities of the State are the "Commune" and the "Wilaya".
 * 2) The "Commune" is the basic collectivity.
 * 1) Public property belongs to the national collectivity.
 * 2) It includes the underground, the mines and quarries, the natural resources of energy, the mineral, natural and living resources in the various national maritime areas, waters and forests.
 * 3) It also includes rail, maritime and air transport, the mail and telecommunications as well as other properties defined by the law.
 * 1) The national properties are defined by the law.
 * 2) They include public and private properties of the State, the "Wilaya" and the "Commune".
 * 3) The management of the national properties is carried out in accordance with the law.
 * 1) The organization of external trade is the domain of the State only.
 * 2) The law defines the conditions and control of external trade.
 * 1) Expropriation can be carried out only within the framework of the law.
 * 2) It gives right to a prior, just and fair compensation.
 * 1) The enhancement and the development of the defense capacity of the Nation are organized within the National People's Army.
 * 2) The permanent task of the National People's Army is to safeguard the national independence and to defend the national sovereignty.
 * 3) It ensures the defense of the country's unity and the territorial integrity as well as the protection of its terrestrial and air space, and the various areas of its maritime space.
 * 1) Algeria does not resort to war in order to undermine the legitimate sovereignty and the freedom of other peoples.
 * 2) It puts forth its efforts to settle international disputes through peaceful means.

Chapter IV - Rights and Liberties
Article 29 [Equality Before the Law, No Discrimination] All citizens are equal before the law. No discrimination shall prevail because of bind, race, sex, opinion or any other personal or social condition or circumstance. Article 30 [Citizenship] Article 31 [Equality] The aim of the institutions is to ensure equality of rights and duties of all citizens, men and women, by removing the obstacles which hinder the progress of human beings and impede the effective participation of all in the political, economic, social and cultural life. Article 32 [Fundamental Rights and Liberties] The fundamental human and citizen's rights and liberties are guaranteed. They are a common heritage of all Algerians, men and women, whose duty is to transmit it from generation to another in order to preserve it and keep it inviolable. Article 33 [Protection of Rights] Individual or associative defense of the fundamental human rights and individual and collective liberties is guaranteed. Article 34 [Personal Integrity, Human Dignity] Article 35 [Repression of Infringements] Infringements committed against rights and libel ties and violations of physical or moral integrity of a human being are repressed by the law. Article 36 [Creed, Opinion] Freedom of creed and opinion is inviolable. Article 37 [Trade, Industry] Freedom of trade and industry is guaranteed, it is carried out within the framework of the law. Article 38 [Intellectual, Artistic, Scientific Innovation, Copyright] Article 39 [Privacy, Secrecy of Communication] Article 40 [Home] The State guarantees home inviolability. No thorough search can be allowed unless in pursuance of the law and in compliance with the latter. The thorough search can only be in pursuance of a search warrant emanating from the competent judicial authority. Article 41 [Expression, Association, Meeting] Freedom of expression, association and meeting are guaranteed to the citizen. Article 42 [Political Parties, Restrictions] Article 43 [Associations] Article 44 [Moving, Dwelling, Entry, Exit] Article 45 [Innocence] Any person is presumed not guilty until his culpability is established by a regular jurisdiction with all the guarantees required by the law. Article 46 [nulla poena sine lege] None is guilty unless it is in accordance with a promulgated law prior to the incriminated action. Article 47 [Rule of Law] None can be pursued, arrested or detained unless within the cases defined by the law and in accordance with the forms prescribed. Article 48 [Arrest, Custody] Article 49 [Miscarriage of Justice] Miscarriage of justice leads to compensation by the State. The law determines the conditions and modes of compensation. Article 50 [Electora Rights] Any citizen fulfilling the legal conditions can elect and be elected. Article 51 [Equal Access to Offices] Equal access to functions and positions in the State is guaranteed to all citizens without any other conditions except those defined by the law. Article 52 [Property] Article 53 [Education] Article 54 [Healthcare] Article 55 [Work] Article 56 [Unions] The trade union right is recognized to all citizens. Article 57 [Strike] Article 58 [Family] The family gains protection from the State and the society. Article 59 [Youths] The living conditions of the citizens under the age of working or those unable or can never be able to work are guaranteed. Article 60 [Duty to Obey Laws] Article 61 [Duty to Protect Independence] Article 62 [Civil Duties] Article 63 [Duty to Respect Rights] All the individual liberties are carried out within the respect of the rights of others recognized by the Constitution, in particular, the respect of the right for honour, intimacy and the protection of the family, the youth and childhood. Article 64 [Taxes] Article 65 [Parents] The law sanctions the duty of parents in the education and protection of their children as well as the duty of the children in helping and assisting their parents. Article 66 [Duty to Protect Public Property] The duty of every citizen is to protect the public property and the interests of the national community and to respect the property of others. Article 67 [Rights of Foreigners] Any foreigner being legally on the national territory enjoys the protection of his person and his properties by the law. Article 68 [Extradition] None can be extradited unless in accordance and in implementation of the extradition law. Article 69 [Political Refugees, Asylum] In no case, a political refugee having legally the right of asylum can be delivered or extradited.
 * 1) The Algerian nationality is defined by the law.
 * 2) Conditions for acquiring, keeping, losing or forfeiture of the Algerian nationality are defined by the law.
 * 1) The State guarantees the inviolability of the human entity.
 * 2) Any form of physical or moral violence or breach of dignity is forbidden.
 * 1) Freedom of intellectual, artistic and scientific innovation is guaranteed to the citizen.
 * 2) Copyrights are protected by the law.
 * 3) The seizure of any publication, recording or any other means of communication acid information can only be done in pursuance of a warrant.
 * 1) The private life and the honour of the citizen are inviolable and protected by the law.
 * 2) The secrecy of private correspondence and communication, in any form, is guaranteed.
 * 1) The right to create political parties is recognized and guaranteed.
 * 2) However, this right cannot be used to violate the fundamental liberties, the fundamental values and components of the national identity, the national unity, the security and the integrity of the national territory, the independence of the country and the People's sovereignty as well as the democratic and Republican nature of the State.
 * 3) In respect to the provisions of the present Constitution, the political parties cannot be founded on religious, linguistic, racial, sex, corporatist or regional basis. The political parties cannot resort to partisan propaganda on the elements mentioned in the previous paragraph.
 * 4) Any obedience, in any form of the political parties to foreign interests or parties is forbidden.
 * 5) No political party can resort to any form of any nature of violence or constraint.
 * 6) Other obligations and duties are prescribed by the law.
 * 1) The right to create associations is guaranteed.
 * 2) The State encourages the development of associative movement.
 * 3) The law defines the conditions and clauses of the creation of associations.
 * 1) Any citizen enjoying his civil and political rights has the right to choose freely his place of dwelling and to move on the national territory.
 * 2) The right of entry and exit from the national territory is guaranteed.
 * 1) In the field of penal investigation, custody is under judiciary control and cannot exceed forty-eight (48) hours.
 * 2) The person held in custody has the right to be immediately in contact with his family.
 * 3) The extension of the period of custody can occur, exceptionally, only within the conditions established by the law.
 * 4) At the expiry of the period of custody, it is compulsory to proceed to a medical examination of the person detained if this latter asks for it, and in any cases, this person is informed of this right.
 * 1) Private property is guaranteed.
 * 2) The right to inherit is guaranteed.
 * 3) The "Wakf" properties and the foundations are recognized; their intended purpose is protected by the law.
 * 1) The right for education is guaranteed. Education is free within the conditions defined by the law.
 * 2) Fundamental education is compulsory.
 * 3) The State organizes the educational system.
 * 4) The State ensures the equal access to education and professional training.
 * 1) All citizens have the right for the protection of their health.
 * 2) The State ensures the prevention and the fight of endemics and epidemics.
 * 1) All citizens have right for work.
 * 2) The right for protection security and hygiene at work is guaranteed by the law.
 * 3) The right to rest is guaranteed; the law defines the relevant clauses.
 * 1) The right to strike is recognized; it is carried out within the framework of the law.
 * 2) The law may forbid or limit the strike in the field of national defense and security or in any public service or activity of vital interest for the community.
 * 1) Ignorance of the law is no excuse.
 * 2) Every person should abide by the Constitution and comply with the laws of the Republic.
 * 1) The duty of every citizen is to protect and safeguard the independence of the country and the integrity of its national territory as well as all the symbols of the State.
 * 2) Treason, spying, obedience to the enemy as well as all the infringements committed against the State security are severely repressed by the law.
 * 1) Every citizen should, loyally, fulfill his obligations towards the national community.
 * 2) The commitment of every citizen towards the Mother Country and the obligation to contribute to its defense are sacred and permanent duties.
 * 3) The State guarantees the respect of the symbols of the Revolution, the memory of the "chouhada" and the dignity of their rightfuls, and the "moudjahidine".
 * 1) The citizens are equals before the taxes.
 * 2) Everyone should participate in financing the public expenses, in accordance with his contributory capacity,
 * 3) No taxes can be laid down unless in accordance with the law.
 * 4) No tax, contribution or duty of any nature can be laid down with a retrospective effect.

title: Constitution of Algeria/Part I


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PROBLEMS OF INDIAN RESEARCH 177 which the modern system of learning makes us so unduly curious.

It is already a commonplace among historians that Hinduism, together with Sanskrit learning and literature, underwent under the Guptas what is regarded as a great revival. According to Vincent Smith, most of the Puranas were during this period re-edited and brought into their present shape. Statements of this kind are at present somewhat vague, but accepting what has already been done as our basis, it will, I believe, prove possible to introduce a definiteness and precision into the history of the evolution of Hindu culture which has not hitherto been dreamed of as practicable. We shall soon be able to follow step by step, dating our progress as we go, the introduction of one idea after another into the Hindu system, building up again the world which surrounded the makers of the Puranic age.

In Vincent Smith's pages we can see the great tradition of Gupta learning beginning in the person of the gifted and accomplished Samudra Gupta (A.D. 326 to A.D. 375), father of Vikramaditya, and a sovereign of such military ability as to be described as "an Indian Napoleon," while he himself had the fine ambition to be remembered rather for his love of music and poetry than for his success in war. In the reign of such a king, and in the personal influence of such a father, must have lain the seed of more achievements and events which

were to make his son Vikramaditya the hero of

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178 FOOTFALLS OF INDIAN HISTORY Indian tradition through subsequent ages. It takes many lives sometimes to carry out a single great task, and we can only guess whether or not Samudra Gupta began the undertakings whose completion was to make his son illustrious.

In my own opinion, the very head and front of these must have been the final recension of the Mahabharata at some time within the famous reign, say at about the year A.D. 400. It is difficult to resist the conclusion that certain of the Puranas, notably the Vishnu and Bhagavata, were edited, exactly as the Bhagavata claims, immediately after the Mahabharata by scholars who found cause for regret in the fact that work had not given them the scope required for all the details they were eager to give regarding the life of the Lord. I do not remember even to have seen any note on the social functions of the Puranas. But the Vishnu Purana strongly suggests a state curriculum of education. In the ages before printing, literature must for the mass of people in all countries have tended to take the form of a single volume —witness the name biblos or Bible, the book—containing elements of history and geography, a certain amount of general information, some current fiction, and above all an authoritative rendering of theology and morals in combination. History of course would be reduced to little more than an indication of the origin of the reigning dynasty, or a sketch of the epoch regarded at the time of writing as "modern." Geography would consist of an


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Rh it follows that from it also they have their substance. But if it be into this very [earth], it is manifest that it was also from it that man's frame was created; as also the Lord clearly showed, when from this very substance He formed eyes for the man [to whom He gave sight]. And thus was the hand of God plainly shown forth, by which Adam was fashioned, and we too have been formed; and since there is one and the same Father, whose voice from the beginning even to the end is present with His handiwork, and the substance from which we were formed is plainly declared through the Gospel, we should therefore not seek after another Father besides Him, nor [look for] another substance from which we have been formed, besides what was mentioned beforehand, and shown forth by the Lord; nor another hand of God besides that which, from the beginning even to the end, forms us and prepares us for life, and is present with His handiwork, and perfects it after the image and likeness of God.

2. And then, again, this Word was manifested when the Word of God was made man, assimilating Himself to man, and man to Himself, so that by means of his resemblance to the Son, man might become precious to the Father. For in times long past, it was said that man was created after the image of God, but it was not [actually] shown; for the Word was as yet invisible, after whose image man was created. Wherefore also he did easily lose the similitude. When, however, the Word of God became flesh, He confirmed both these: for He both showed forth the image truly, since He became Himself what was His image; and He re-established the similitude after a sure manner, by assimilating man to the invisible Father through means of the visible Word.

3. And not by the aforesaid things alone has the Lord manifested Himself, but [He has done this] also by means of His passion. For doing away with [the effects of] that disobedience of man which had taken place at the beginning by the occasion of a tree, "He became obedient unto death, even the death of the cross;" rectifying that disobedience


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PROBLEMS OF INDIAN RESEARCH 179 account of the chief pilgrimages and sacred rivers. And in the Vishnu Purana, in the stories of Dhruva and Prahlada, when compared with the infinitely superior popular versions, we have a key to the treatment which fiction and folklore would receive. As the theological exposition proceeds, one can almost see the Brahman teaching at the temple-door while the shades of evening gather, and ignoring every other consideration in his desire to put the highest philosophy into the mouth of Prahlad, or to pin a religious meaning to the astronomical picture of the child Dhruva pointed onwards by the Seven Rishis.

It would be clearly impossible for every village in the Gupta Empire to possess either a scholar learned in, or a copy of, the Mahabharata. But the scheme of culture comprised in the knowledge of the work known as the Vishnu Purana was not equally unattainable; and it is difficult to resist the conclusion that the book was planned or edited as a standard of common culture. If there be anything in this suggestion, a new importance will be conceded to the question of the province or district in which each separate Purana was produced. A single touch in the Vishnu Purana is sufficient to indicate its composition in the neighbourhood of an imperial capital, such as Pataliputra must have been. This is found in the story of Hiranyakasipu taking his little son on his .knee, when he had been under tuition for some time, and putting him through his catechism. One of the questions in


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i8o FOOTFALLS OF INDIAN HISTORY this catechism is extremely suggestive. "How should one deal with an enemy by whom one is vastly outnumbered?" asks the father. "Divide and attack them one by one," answers the son, evidently from his book. In Hindu literature there is no second work which can be called "national" in the same sense as the Mahabharata. The foreign reader, taking it up as sympathetic reader merely and not as scholar, is at once struck by two features; in the first place, its unity in complexity; and in the second, its constant effort to impress on its hearers the idea of a single centralised India with an heroic tradition of her own as formative and uniting impulse. It is in good sooth a monarch's dream of an imperial race. The Gupta Emperor of Pataliputra who commissioned the last recension of the great work was as conscious as Asoka before him or Akbar after of making to his people the magic statement, "India is one."

As regards the unity of the work itself, this in the case of the Mahabharata is extraordinary. That a composition so ancient in subject-matter, and so evidently complex in its derivation, should be handed down to us as one single undisputed whole, is historical evidence of the highest importance for its original promulgation in this form by some central power with ability and prestige to give it authoritative publication. The origins of the poem are hoary with antiquity. Its sources are of an infinite variety. But the Mahabharata was certainly wrought to its present shape in the


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 above the original. While Taylor's first version was underrated by Southey, his translation of another of Bürger's poems was extravagantly praised. Taylor's later version of Lenore was highly regarded by Southey, and was thought of by him for Lewis's Tales of Wonder, possibly mentioned to Lewis himself. At least the two versions of Taylor led to correspondence, and the eventual meeting of Southey and the Norwich translator.

Neither Southey nor Wordsworth was to be directly influenced in his poetry by the Bürger translations. Southey was perhaps already too full of his own plans. Yet he was to pay tribute to Sayers, the friend of Taylor, for his meter of Thalaba, and he visited the two at Norwich in 1798. On the other hand, Wordsworth was too much of a realist, and too much occupied with his own theories of poetry, to be likely to follow Bürger in his gruesome use of the supernatural. Such subjects were wholly at variance with his conceptions of the poetic realm.

Not so with Coleridge, however. We do not know the latter's response to Lamb's enthusiastic letter. But his keen appreciation of Taylor's Lenora is evident from his letters to the translator while he and the Wordsworths were in Germany. In these years, too, Coleridge was particularly susceptible to external influences. Reading Bowles as a schoolboy had made him a poet and a sonneteer. He had imitated Ossian in prose and verse. The influence of Southey and Lamb and Wordsworth and Godwin is clear from his early poems. Now he was to be more profoundly affected by Taylor's translation than has yet been pointed out.

Professor Brandl, in first referring to this influence, called attention to several matters in Coleridge's poems of 1797 to 1799. He notes the line of Kubla Khan.

the sinking of the ship in the Ancient Mariner, like the disappearance of the horse under Lenore at the grave of William; the general likeness of Christabel, and the breaking off of the Dark Ladie from its perceived resemblance, he thinks, to the ballad of Bürger. In his later Life of Coleridge, Brandl has also connected parts of the Ode on the Departing Year with the Bürger influence, and asso-


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PROBLEMS OF INDIAN RESEARCH i8i shadow of a throne, and that imperial. So much is clear on the face of it to one who meets with the book for the first time in mature life.

One would naturally expect it to have existed in fragments, or at best to be current in many different versions. Indeed it is clear enough on the reading, that it has at some far past time so existed. Every here and there the end of one chapter or canto will tell a tale in one way, and the beginning of the next repeat it, or some part of it, from an utterly different point of view, as might rival narrators of a single incident. But the work of collating and examining, of assigning their definite values to each separate story, and weaving all into a single co-ordinated whole, has been done by some one great mind, some mighty hand, that went over the ground long long ago, and made the path that we of to-diy must follow still. The minute differences of reading between the Bombay and Benares texts only serve to emphasize this single and uncontested character of one immortal rendering of the great work. All through Maharashtra and the Punjab, and Bengal and Dravida-desh, the Mahabharata is the same. In every part of India and even amongst the Mohammedans in Bengal it plays one part—social, educational, man- making, and nation-building. No great man could be made in India without its influence upon his childhood. And the hero-making poem is one throughout every province of the land.

Socially the first point that strikes one, as one


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 Carry, good little sport, leaned more and more heavily upon my supporting arm. Her high-heeled pumps (chosen for motor¬ ing, not for that scrambling, hasty flight over rough, rugged trails) continually tripped her; she turned her slender ankles more than once, with faint ejaculations of impatient dismay. That she was at the point of exhaustion I intuitively sensed, but I dared not let her realize my awareness of her condition; instead, I managed to jerk out occasional words of encouragement that would lead her to believe I thought her capable of far greater effort than yet remained in her fragile body. That we must continue on our arduous, struggling way, Carry realized as well as I. Night in that thick, unfriendly wood was not to be contemplated save as the ulti¬ mate alternative. Yet we two, breathing in thick panting gasps as we willed our ”—and silence reigned where had been utterly frightful sounds!" muscles to repeat, time and time again, the same expansions and contractions that re¬ sulted in our slow forward movement, were facing the fact that night had come on apace under cover of those thunderous and gloomy canopies of darkness which an ap¬ proaching storm was hanging across the lowering sky. Go back we could not if we would, for by now I knew that I could not have found my way back to where we had abandoned the car, when it refused to travel farther. Yet I would have been glad to have felt it possible to return; with plate glass win¬ dows properly fastened up, we would have had the semblance of a refuge about us, whereas now we knew not how long we must stumble forward in the fast-gathering 63


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 Contents

Preface

Today, with their interests and security intertwined, people across the world are becoming members of a community with a shared future. China is at a critical stage of completing the building of a moderately prosperous society in all respects and embarking on the new journey of building a modernized socialist country in an all-round way. Socialism with Chinese characteristics has entered a new era.


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 The Chinese government is issuing China's National Defense in the New Era to expound on China's defensive national defense policy and explain the practice, purposes and significance of China's efforts to build a fortified national defense and a strong military, with a view to helping the international community better understand China's national defense.

I. International Security Situation

The world today is undergoing profound changes unseen in a century. As economic globalization, the information society, and cultural diversification develop in an increasingly multi-polar world, peace, development and win-win cooperation remain the irreversible trends of the times. Nonetheless, there are prominent destabilizing factors and uncertainties in international security. The world is not yet a tranquil place.

The International Strategic Landscape Is Going Through Profound Changes

As the realignment of international powers accelerates and the strength of emerging markets and developing countries keeps growing, the configuration of strategic power is becoming more balanced. The pursuit of peace, stability and development has become a universal aspiration of the international community with forces for peace predominating over elements of war. However, international security system and order are undermined by growing hegemonism, power politics, unilateralism and constant regional conflicts and wars.

International strategic competition is on the rise. The US has adjusted its national security and defense strategies, and adopted unilateral policies. It has provoked and intensified competition among major countries, significantly increased its defense expenditure, pushed for additional capacity in nuclear, outer space, cyber and missile defense, and undermined global strategic stability. NATO has continued its enlargement, stepped up military deployment in Central and Eastern Europe, and conducted frequent military exercises. Russia is strengthening its nuclear and non-nuclear capabilities for strategic containment, and striving to safeguard its strategic security space and interests. The European Union (EU) is accelerating its security and defense integration to be more independent in its own security.

Global and regional security issues are on the increase. International arms control and disarmament efforts have suffered setbacks, with growing signs of arms races. The non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction remains problematic. The


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 international non-proliferation regime is compromised by pragmatism and double standards, and hence faces new challenges. Extremism and terrorism keep spreading. Non-traditional security threats involving cyber security, bio-security and piracy are becoming more pronounced. The Iranian nuclear issue has taken an unexpected turn, and there is no easy political solution to the Syrian issue. The security of individual countries is becoming increasingly intertwined, interlinked and interactive. No country can respond alone or stand aloof.

The Asia-Pacific Security Situation Remains Generally Stable

Asia-Pacific countries are increasingly aware that they are members of a community with shared destiny. Addressing differences and disputes through dialogue and consultation has become a preferred policy option for regional countries, making the region a stable part of the global landscape. The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) is forging a constructive partnership of non-alliance and non-confrontation that targets no third party, expanding security and defense cooperation and creating a new model for regional security cooperation. The China-ASEAN Defense Ministers' Informal Meeting and the ASEAN Defense Ministers' Meeting Plus (ADMM-Plus) play positive roles in enhancing trust among regional countries through military exchanges and cooperation. The situation of the South China Sea is generally stable and improving as regional countries are properly managing risks and differences. Steady progress has been made in building a coordinated counter-terrorism mechanism among the militaries of the regional countries. A balanced, stable, open and inclusive Asian security architecture continues to develop.

As the world economic and strategic center continues to shift towards the Asia-Pacific, the region has become a focus of major country competition, bringing uncertainties to regional security. The US is strengthening its Asia-Pacific military alliances and reinforcing military deployment and intervention, adding complexity to regional security. The deployment of the Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) system in the Republic of Korea (ROK) by the US has severely undermined the regional strategic balance and the strategic security interests of regional countries. In an attempt to circumvent the post-war mechanism, Japan has adjusted its military and security policies and increased input accordingly, thus becoming more outward-looking in its military endeavors. Australia continues to strengthen its military alliance with the US and its military engagement in the Asia-Pacific, seeking a bigger role in security affairs.

Regional hotspots and disputes are yet to be resolved. Despite positive progress, the Korean Peninsula still faces uncertainty. South Asia is generally stable while conflicts between India and Pakistan flare up from time to time. Political


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 reconciliation and reconstruction in Afghanistan is making progress in the face of difficulties. Problems still exist among regional countries, including disputes over territorial and maritime rights and interests, as well as discord for ethnic and religious reasons. Security hotspots rise from time to time in the region.

China's Security Risks and Challenges Should Not Be Overlooked

China continues to enjoy political stability, ethnic unity and social stability. There has been a notable increase in China's overall national strength, global influence, and resilience to risks. China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development. Nevertheless, it also faces diverse and complex security threats and challenges.

The fight against separatists is becoming more acute. The Taiwan authorities, led by the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), stubbornly stick to "Taiwan independence" and refuse to recognize the 1992 Consensus, which embodies the one-China principle. They have gone further down the path of separatism by stepping up efforts to sever the connection with the mainland in favor of gradual independence, pushing for de jure independence, intensifying hostility and confrontation, and borrowing the strength of foreign influence. The "Taiwan independence" separatist forces and their actions remain the gravest immediate threat to peace and stability in the Taiwan Strait and the biggest barrier hindering the peaceful reunification of the country. External separatist forces for "Tibet independence" and the creation of "East Turkistan" launch frequent actions, posing threats to China's national security and social stability.

China's homeland security still faces threats. Land territorial disputes are yet to be completely resolved. Disputes still exist over the territorial sovereignty of some islands and reefs, as well as maritime demarcation. Countries from outside the region conduct frequent close-in reconnaissance on China by air and sea, and illegally enter China's territorial waters and the waters and airspace near China's islands and reefs, undermining China's national security.

China's overseas interests are endangered by immediate threats such as international and regional turmoil, terrorism, and piracy. Chinese diplomatic missions, enterprises and personnel around the world have been attacked on multiple occasions. Threats to outer space and cyber security loom large and the threat of non-traditional security issues posed by natural disasters and major epidemics is on the rise.

Global Military Competition Is Intensifying

Major countries around the world are readjusting their security and military strategies and military organizational structures. They are developing new types of combat forces to seize the strategic commanding heights in military competition. The


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 US is engaging in technological and institutional innovation in pursuit of absolute military superiority. Russia is advancing its New Look military reform. Meanwhile, the UK, France, Germany, Japan and India are rebalancing and optimizing the structure of their military forces.

Driven by the new round of technological and industrial revolution, the application of cutting-edge technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), quantum information, big data, cloud computing and the Internet of Things is gathering pace in the military field. International military competition is undergoing historic changes. New and high-tech military technologies based on IT are developing rapidly. There is a prevailing trend to develop long-range precision, intelligent, stealthy or unmanned weaponry and equipment. War is evolving in form towards informationized warfare, and intelligent warfare is on the horizon.

Great progress has been made in the Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA) with Chinese characteristics. However, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) has yet to complete the task of mechanization, and is in urgent need of improving its informationization. China's military security is confronted by risks from technology surprise and growing technological generation gap. Greater efforts have to be invested in military modernization to meet national security demands. The PLA still lags far behind the world's leading militaries.

II. China's Defensive National Defense Policy in the New Era

The socialist system of China, the strategic decision to follow the path of peaceful development, the independent foreign policy of peace, and the best of cultural traditions – considering peace and harmony as fundamentals – determine that China will pursue a national defense policy that is defensive in nature.

Resolutely Safeguarding China's Sovereignty, Security and Development Interests

This is the fundamental goal of China's national defense in the new era.

China's national defense aims:

 * to deter and resist aggression;
 * to safeguard national political security, the people's security and social stability;
 * to oppose and contain "Taiwan independence";


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 * to crack down on proponents of separatist movements such as "Tibet independence" and the creation of "East Turkistan";
 * to safeguard national sovereignty, unity, territorial integrity and security;
 * to safeguard China's maritime rights and interests;
 * to safeguard China's security interests in outer space, electromagnetic space and cyberspace;
 * to safeguard China's overseas interests; and
 * to support the sustainable development of the country.

China resolutely safeguards its national sovereignty and territorial integrity. The South China Sea islands and Diaoyu Islands are inalienable parts of the Chinese territory. China exercises its national sovereignty to build infrastructure and deploy necessary defensive capabilities on the islands and reefs in the South China Sea, and to conduct patrols in the waters of Diaoyu Islands in the East China Sea. China is committed to resolving related disputes through negotiations with those states directly involved on the basis of respecting historical facts and international law. China continues to work with regional countries to jointly maintain peace and stability. It firmly upholds freedom of navigation and overflight by all countries in accordance with international law and safeguards the security of sea lines of communication (SLOCs).

To solve the Taiwan question and achieve complete reunification of the country is in the fundamental interests of the Chinese nation and essential to realizing national rejuvenation. China adheres to the principles of "peaceful reunification", and "one country, two systems", promotes peaceful development of cross-Strait relations, and advances peaceful reunification of the country. Meanwhile, China resolutely opposes any attempts or actions to split the country and any foreign interference to this end. China must be and will be reunited. China has the firm resolve and the ability to safeguard national sovereignty and territorial integrity, and will never allow the secession of any part of its territory by anyone, any organization or any political party by any means at any time. We make no promise to renounce the use of force, and reserve the option of taking all necessary measures. This is by no means targeted at our compatriots in Taiwan, but at the interference of external forces and the very small number of "Taiwan independence" separatists and their activities. The PLA will resolutely defeat anyone attempting to separate Taiwan from China and safeguard national unity at all costs.

Never Seeking Hegemony, Expansion or Spheres of Influence

This is the distinctive feature of China's national defense in the new era.

Though a country may become strong, bellicosity will lead to its ruin. The Chinese nation has always loved peace. Since the beginning of modern times, the


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 Chinese people have suffered from aggressions and wars, and have learned the value of peace and the pressing need for development. Therefore, China will never inflict such sufferings on any other country. Since its founding 70 years ago, the People's Republic of China (PRC) has never started any war or conflict. Since the introduction of reform and opening-up, China has been committed to promoting world peace, and has voluntarily downsized the PLA by over 4 million troops. China has grown from a poor and weak country to be the world's second largest economy neither by receiving handouts from others nor by engaging in military expansion or colonial plunder. Instead, it has developed through its people's hard work and its efforts to maintain peace. China has made every effort to create favorable conditions for its development through maintaining world peace, and has equally endeavored to promote world peace through its own development. China sincerely hopes that all countries will choose the path of peaceful development and jointly prevent conflicts and wars.

China is committed to developing friendly cooperation with all countries on the basis of the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence. It respects the rights of all peoples to independently choose their own development path, and stands for the settlement of international disputes through equal dialogue, negotiation and consultation. China is opposed to interference in the internal affairs of others, abuse of the weak by the strong, and any attempt to impose one's will on others. China advocates partnerships rather than alliances and does not join any military bloc. It stands against aggression and expansion, and opposes arbitrary use or threat of arms. The development of China's national defense aims to meet its rightful security needs and contribute to the growth of the world's peaceful forces. History proves and will continue to prove that China will never follow the beaten track of big powers in seeking hegemony. No matter how it might develop, China will never threaten any other country or seek any sphere of influence.

Implementing the Military Strategic Guideline for a New Era

This is the strategic guidance for China's national defense in the new era.

The military strategic guideline for a new era adheres to the principles of defense, self-defense and post-strike response, and adopts active defense. It keeps to the stance that "we will not attack unless we are attacked, but we will surely counterattack if attacked", places emphasis on both containing and winning wars, and underscores the unity of strategic defense and offense at operational and tactical levels.

Implementing the military strategic guideline for a new era, China's armed forces strive to keep in alignment with and contribute to the general strategies of the Communist Party of China (CPC) and the country, adopt a holistic approach to national security, strengthen the awareness of potential dangers, crises and wars, and actively adapt to the new landscape of strategic competition, the new demands of


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 national security, and new developments in modern warfare, so as to effectively fulfill their tasks and missions in the new era.

To respond to the security threats facing the country, China's armed forces take solid steps to strengthen military preparedness and comprehensively enhance combat capabilities for the new era. Efforts have been made to build the military strategy into a balanced and stable one for the new era, which focuses on defense and coordinates multiple domains. Based on the idea that China's national defense is the responsibility of all Chinese people, China's armed forces give full play to the overall power of the people's war by innovating in its strategies, tactics and measures.

China is always committed to a nuclear policy of no first use of nuclear weapons at any time and under any circumstances, and not using or threatening to use nuclear weapons against non-nuclear-weapon states or nuclear-weapon-free zones unconditionally. China advocates the ultimate complete prohibition and thorough destruction of nuclear weapons. China does not engage in any nuclear arms race with any other country and keeps its nuclear capabilities at the minimum level required for national security. China pursues a nuclear strategy of self-defense, the goal of which is to maintain national strategic security by deterring other countries from using or threatening to use nuclear weapons against China.

Continuing to Strengthen the Military in the Chinese Way

This is the path forward for China's national defense in the new era.

Building a fortified national defense and a strong military commensurate with the country's international standing and its security and development interests is a strategic task for China's socialist modernization. Drawing lessons from history, China strengthens its national defense and military to provide security guarantee for its peaceful development.

To strengthen China's national defense and military in the new era, it is imperative to comprehensively implement Xi Jinping's thinking on strengthening the military, thoroughly deliver on Xi Jinping's thinking on military strategy, continue to enhance the political loyalty of the armed forces, strengthen them through reform and technology, run them in accordance with the law, and focus on the capabilities to fight and win. Efforts will be made to advance the integrated development of mechanization and informationization, speed up the development of intelligent military, create a modernized military force structure with Chinese characteristics, improve and develop socialist military institutions with Chinese features, and constantly enhance the capabilities to fulfill the missions and tasks in the new era.

The strategic goals for the development of China's national defense and military in the new era are:


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 * to generally achieve mechanization by the year 2020 with significantly enhanced informationization and greatly improved strategic capabilities;
 * to comprehensively advance the modernization of military theory, organizational structure, military personnel, and weaponry and equipment in step with the modernization of the country and basically complete the modernization of national defense and the military by 2035; and
 * to fully transform the people’s armed forces into world-class forces by the mid-21st century.

In the Service of Building of a Community with a Shared Future for Mankind

This is the global significance of China's national defense in the new era.

The dream of the Chinese people is closely connected with the dreams of peoples around the world. Peace, stability and prosperity in China present opportunities and benefits to the rest of the world. A strong military of China is a staunch force for world peace, stability and the building of a community with a shared future for mankind.

China's armed forces advocate common, comprehensive, cooperative and sustainable security, uphold justice while pursuing shared interests, and actively participate in the reform of global security governance system. Efforts are made to deepen bilateral and multilateral security cooperation, promote a coordinated, inclusive and complementary cooperation among security mechanisms, and contribute to a security architecture featuring equality, mutual trust, fairness, justice, joint contribution and shared benefits.

Committed to the principle of win-win cooperation, China's armed forces will fulfill their international responsibilities and obligations, and provide more public security goods to the international community to the best of their capacity. They actively participate in the UN peacekeeping operations (UNPKOs), vessel protection operations, and international efforts in humanitarian assistance and disaster relief (HADR), strengthen international cooperation in arms control and non-proliferation, play a constructive role in the political settlement of hotspot issues, jointly maintain the security of international passages, and make concerted efforts to respond to global challenges such as terrorism, cyber security and major natural disasters, thus making a positive contribution to building a community with a shared future for mankind.

III. Fulfilling the Missions and Tasks of China’s Armed Forces in the New Era


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 In the new era, to meet the strategic demands of national security and development, China's armed forces firmly implement the missions and tasks entrusted by the CPC and the people. They endeavor to provide strategic support for consolidating the leadership of the CPC and the socialist system, safeguarding national sovereignty, unity and territorial integrity, protecting China's overseas interests, and promoting world peace and development.

Safeguarding National Territorial Sovereignty and Maritime Rights and Interests

China has a land border of more than 22,000 km and a coastline of over 18,000 km, China surpasses most of countries in the number of neighboring countries, the length of land border, and the complexity of maritime security. Therefore, it is a daunting task for China to safeguard its territorial sovereignty, maritime rights and interests, and national unity.

China's armed forces maintain a rigorous guard against encroachment, infiltration, sabotage or harassment so as to safeguard border security and stability. China has signed border cooperation agreements with 9 neighboring countries and set up border meeting mechanisms with 12 countries. China's armed forces have established mechanisms for exchanges with neighboring countries at three levels: national defense ministry, Theater Commands (TCs), and border troops. They conduct regular friendly mutual visits, working meetings, joint patrols and joint exercises targeting transnational crime with their foreign counterparts. They work together with Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan to implement the border disarmament treaty. They strive to promote stability and security along the border with India, and take effective measures to create favorable conditions for the peaceful resolution of the Donglang (Doklam) standoff. They enhance control along the border with Afghanistan to guard against the infiltration of terrorists. They strengthen security management along the border with Myanmar, so as to secure stability and public safety in the border areas. Since 2012, China's border troops have completed over 3,300 joint patrols and conducted over 8,100 border meetings with their foreign counterparts. They have cleared mines from 58 square kilometers of land, closed 25 square kilometers of landmine area, and disposed of 170,000 explosive devices such as landmines along the borders with Vietnam and Myanmar.

China's armed forces defend important waters, islands and reefs in the East China Sea, the South China Sea and the Yellow Sea, acquire full situation awareness of adjacent waters, conduct joint rights protection and law enforcement operations, properly handle maritime and air situations, and resolutely respond to security threats, infringements and provocations on the sea. Since 2012, China's armed forces have


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 deployed vessels on over 4,600 maritime security patrols and 72,000 rights protection and law enforcement operations, and safeguarded maritime peace, stability and order.

China's armed forces conduct air defense, reconnaissance and early warning, monitor China's territorial air and peripheral air space, carry out alert patrols and combat takeoff, and effectively respond to emergencies and threats to maintain order and security in the air.

Aiming at safeguarding national unity, China's armed forces strengthen military preparedness with emphasis on the sea. By sailing ships and flying aircraft around Taiwan, the armed forces send a stern warning to the "Taiwan independence" separatist forces.

Maintaining Combat Readiness

Maintaining combat readiness is an important assurance of effective response to security threats and fulfillment of tasks. The Central Military Commission (CMC) and the TCs' joint operations commands perform combat readiness duties strictly, and conduct regular inspections and drills to ensure combat readiness at all times. Consistent efforts are made to improve the capabilities of joint operations command to exercise reliable and efficient command over emergency responses, and to effectively accomplish urgent, tough and dangerous tasks. In 2018, the CMC conducted surprise inspections throughout the armed forces and organized readiness drills for the units, covering 21 provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central government, and parts of the East China Sea and South China Sea.

The PLA and the People's Armed Police Force (PAP) give greater priority to combat readiness. Efforts are made to strictly act on relevant regulations and procedures, fulfill readiness duties, conduct targeted exercises and training, and maintain standardized order, with a view to staying ready to act when required and effectively carrying out readiness (combat) duties.

Carrying Out Military Training in Real Combat Conditions

Military training is the basic practice of the armed forces in peacetime. China's armed forces put military training in an important position and take combat effectiveness as the sole and fundamental criterion. In order to enhance realistic training, they optimize the policy framework and criteria in this respect, establish and improve the relevant supervision system, conduct supervision on military training for emergencies and combat across the services, implement the responsibility system for training and readiness, and organize extensive contests and competitions to encourage officers and soldiers to step up military training.

Military training in real combat conditions across the armed forces is in full swing. Since 2012, China's armed forces have carried out extensive mission-oriented


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 training tailored to the specific needs of different strategic directions and exercises of all services and arms, including 80 joint exercises at and above brigade/division level.

The TCs have strengthened their leading role in joint training and organized serial joint exercises codenamed the East, the South, the West, the North and the Central, to improve joint combat capabilities.

The PLA Army (PLAA) has organized training competitions and conducted live exercises codenamed Stride and Firepower. The PLA Navy (PLAN) has extended training to the far seas and deployed the aircraft carrier task group for its first far seas combat exercise in the West Pacific. It has organized naval parades in the South China Sea and the waters and airspace near Qingdao, and conducted a series of live force-on-force exercises codenamed Mobility and systematic all-elements exercises. The PLA Air Force (PLAAF) has strengthened systematic and all-airspace training based on operational plans. It has conducted combat patrols in the South China Sea and security patrols in the East China Sea, and operated in the West Pacific. It has completed a series of regular system-vs.-system exercises such as Red Sword. The PLA Rocket Force (PLARF) has organized force-on-force evaluation-oriented training and training based on operational plans at brigade and regiment levels, strengthened training for joint strikes, and completed regular exercises such as Heavenly Sword. The PLA Strategic Support Force (PLASSF) has made active efforts to integrate into the joint operations systems. It has carried out confrontational training in new domains and trained for emergencies and combats. The PLA Joint Logistic Support Force (PLAJLSF) has striven to align itself with the joint operations systems, and conducted exercises such as Joint Logistics Mission 2018. The PAP has developed to meet the requirements of nationwide coverage, effective connectivity, all-area response and integrated functions, and conducted a series of exercises including Guard.

Safeguarding Interests in Major Security Fields

Nuclear capability is the strategic cornerstone to safeguarding national sovereignty and security. China's armed forces strengthen the safety management of nuclear weapons and facilities, maintain the appropriate level of readiness and enhance strategic deterrence capability to protect national strategic security and maintain international strategic stability.

Outer space is a critical domain in international strategic competition. Outer space security provides strategic assurance for national and social development. In the interest of the peaceful use of outer space, China actively participates in international space cooperation, develops relevant technologies and capabilities, advances holistic management of space-based information resources, strengthens space situation awareness, safeguards space assets, and enhances the capacity to safely enter, exit and openly use outer space.


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 Cyberspace is a key area for national security, economic growth and social development. Cyber security remains a global challenge and poses a severe threat to China. China's armed forces accelerate the building of their cyberspace capabilities, develop cyber security and defense means, and build cyber defense capabilities consistent with China's international standing and its status as a major cyber country. They reinforce national cyber border defense, and promptly detect and counter network intrusions. They safeguard information and cyber security, and resolutely maintain national cyber sovereignty, information security and social stability.

Countering Terrorism and Maintaining Stability

China firmly opposes all forms of terrorism and extremism. As mandated by law, China's armed forces participate in operations for maintaining social order, prevent and combat violence and terrorism, safeguard political security and social stability, and secure the public's right to live and work in peace.

The PAP fulfills missions such as guarding key targets, on-site security protection, setting check points on key passages, and armed urban patrols. In accordance with the law, the PAP supports civil authorities in law enforcement operations to combat criminal gangs and terrorist activities, actively participates in the maintenance of public order, and prevents and responds to potential threats to China's political security and social order, thus making a significant contribution to the Peaceful China initiative. Since 2012, the PAP has deployed large numbers of troops annually in security duties, counter-terrorism, emergency response, and maritime rights protection and law enforcement. It has completed around 10,000 security assignments during major events such as the G20 Summit, the APEC Economic Leaders' Meeting, the Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, the BRICS Leaders Meeting, and the SCO Qingdao Summit, and participated in the response to 671 hostage situations, incidents of severe violence, and terrorist attacks. Since 2014, the PAP has assisted the government of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region in taking out 1,588 violent terrorist gangs and capturing 12,995 terrorists.

The PLA supports the civil authorities in maintaining social stability, provides security for major events, and responds to emergencies in accordance with the law. It is mainly tasked with missions such as counter-terrorism, NBCE detection and test, medical relief, and transport support. It disposes of potential safety hazards in the waters and protects security in the air over and around major event venues.

Protecting China's Overseas Interests

Overseas interests are a crucial part of China's national interests. One of the missions of China's armed forces is to effectively protect the security and legitimate rights and interests of overseas Chinese people, organizations and institutions.


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 The PLA actively promotes international security and military cooperation and refines relevant mechanisms for protecting China's overseas interests. To address deficiencies in overseas operations and support, it builds far seas forces, develops overseas logistical facilities, and enhances capabilities in accomplishing diversified military tasks. The PLA conducts vessel protection operations, maintains the security of strategic SLOCs, and carries out overseas evacuation and maritime rights protection operations.

In August 2017, the PLA Djibouti Support Base entered service. The base has provided equipment for the maintenance of four escort task groups, offered medical services for over 100 officers and sailors on board, conducted joint medical exercises with foreign militaries, and donated over 600 teaching aids to local schools.

When the security situation in Yemen deteriorated in March 2015, a PLAN escort task group sailed to the Gulf of Aden, berthed for the first time directly in an engagement area, and evacuated 621 Chinese citizens and 279 foreign citizens from 15 countries including Pakistan, Ethiopia, Singapore, Italy, Poland, Germany, Canada, the UK, India and Japan.

Participating in Disaster Rescue and Relief

Participating in national development and protecting the public's rights to work in peace are the responsibilities of China's armed forces mandated by the Constitution of the PRC. As stipulated in the Regulations on Participation in Emergency Rescue and Disaster Relief by China's Armed Forces, China's armed forces are mainly tasked with rescuing, transferring and evacuating trapped populations; ensuring the security of important targets; salvaging and transporting important materials; conducting specialized operations such as restoration of transport facilities including roads, bridges and tunnels, maritime search and rescue, NBC rescue, epidemic control and medical relief; eliminating or controlling other major threats, dangerous situations and disasters; and supporting civil authorities in post-disaster reconstruction.

Since 2012, the PLA and the PAP have deployed 950,000 soldiers, 1.41 million militia, 190,000 vehicles and items of equipment, and sortied 26,000 vessels and 820 aircraft in emergency response and disaster relief. They have participated in rescue and relief efforts such as the earthquake in Ludian County of Yunnan Province, the rainstorm and flood in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, and the removal of the barrier lake in the Yarlung Zangbo River. They have assisted local governments to rescue and transfer over 5 million people, treated over 210,000 patients, transported over 360,000 tons of goods, and reinforced over 3,600 km of levees. In 2017, the PLA Macao Garrison sent 2,631 soldiers and over 160 vehicles to assist the government of Macao Special Administrative Region in its relief efforts in the wake of Typhoon Hato.


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 IV. Reform in China’s National Defense and Armed Forces

The history of the people's armed forces is a history of reform and innovation. In the new era, China is advancing defense and military modernization across the board and deepening reform in national defense and armed forces in all respects, with a focus on removing institutional barriers and solving structural and policy-related problems to adapt to the trends of worldwide RMA and the demands of national security. Historic strides have been made in strengthening the armed forces.

Reforming the Leadership and Command System

The reform in the leadership and command system is a significant measure in response to the call of a modern and specialized military capable of fighting and winning wars in the information age, aiming to improve the operational effectiveness and development efficiency of the military. Adhering to the general principle of "the CMC exercising overall leadership, the TCs responsible for military operations and the services focusing on developing capabilities", the PLA endeavors to enhance the CMC's centralized and unified leadership and its functions of strategic command and strategic management. The PLA has dismantled the long-established systems of general departments, military area commands (MAC) and the force composition with a dominating land force, and established new leadership, management and operational command systems.

Reorganizing and establishing new CMC functional organs. To optimize the functional and institutional setup of the CMC organs, the former General Staff Headquarters, General Political Department, General Logistics Department and General Armaments Department have been reshuffled into 15 organs under the centralized CMC leadership to advise, execute and serve. Thus, the chains of command, development, management and supervision are more streamlined, and the responsibilities of decision-making, planning, execution and assessment are more properly delegated.

Improving the leadership and management system for services and arms. The PLA has:

 * Established the PLAA leading organs by integrating the functions of the former general departments concerning the development of the land force;


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 * Established the PLASSF by combining strategic support forces across the services and CMC organs;
 * Renamed the Second Artillery Force the PLARF; and
 * Established the PLAJLSF by integrating strategic and campaign level forces mainly for general-purpose support.

Thus, a CMC-Services-Troops leadership and management system has been put in place.

Establishing and improving the joint operations command system. By improving the joint operations command organ of the CMC and setting up those at the theater level, the PLA has established a lean and efficient joint operations command system composed of permanent and specialized commanding establishments for both peacetime and wartime operations. The former Shenyang, Beijing, Lanzhou, Jinan, Nanjing, Guangzhou and Chengdu MACs have been reorganized into 5 TCs: Eastern Theater Command (ETC), Southern Theater Command (STC), Western Theater Command (WTC), Northern Theater Command (NTC), and Central Theater Command (CTC). Thus, a CMC-TCs-Troops operations command system has been established.


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Building and improving the law-based supervision system. The Chinese military has established the CMC Discipline Inspection Commission (CMCDIC, also the CMC Supervision Commission, CMCSC) under the direct leadership of the CMC, and dispatched disciplinary inspection teams to the CMC functional organs and all TCs. It has set up the CMC Politics and Law Commission (CMCPLC) and established regional military courts and procuratorates. It has put into place the CMC Audit Office (CMCAO), reformed the audit-based oversight system, and implemented PLA-wide resident auditing. Thus, power is exercised in a way that decision-making, execution and supervision check each other and function in coordination.

Optimizing Size, Structure and Force Composition

Reform in size, structure and force composition is a pivotal step to optimizing military organizational structure and establishing a modern military force structure with Chinese characteristics. Following the instruction to optimize structures, develop new-type forces, adjust proportions and reduce sizes, the PLA is striving to transform from a quantity-and-scale model to that of quality and efficiency, as well as from being personnel-intensive to one that is S&T-intensive.

Adjusting scale and proportion, and restructuring force composition. 300,000 personnel have been cut to keep the total active force at 2 million. Reform measures have been taken to transfer more officer positions to non-commissioned officers and civilian staff, downsize the leading organs at all levels by reducing their subordinate sections, leadership hierarchies and staff, and streamline the institutions and personnel in arts, sports, press, publication, logistical support, medical facilities, depots, and educational and research institutes. Thus, the number of personnel in the leading organs at and above regiment level has been cut by about 25%, and that of non-combat units by almost 50%. The PLA has significantly downsized the active force of the PLAA, maintained that of the PLAAF at a steady number, moderately


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Rh and the strong position of the city; there was the unwarlike character of the citizens, which rendered a civic tumult rare and easily repressed; there was every day present a swarm of courtiers eager to profess loyalty; there were the vast revenues, which enabled a prodigal emperor to purchase the fidelity of thousands; and there was that unbounded magnificence of the court, which because it was so splendid seemed so safe from danger. Perhaps, too, the thoughts of the despot would turn with satisfaction to the vast armies which in Europe and Asia guarded his frontiers. These constituted, it is true, his chief danger. When an emperor failed in war, when the soldiers of Europe or Asia conceived a prejudice against his orthodoxy, his parsimony, or his weakness, there were plenty of precedents for the proclamation of their own general as emperor, and for a march, quite likely to be successful, on the capital.

First, as to the revenue of the empire. So great was it, that Theodora saved for her son the sum of 109,000 pounds weight of gold, and 300,000 pounds weight of silver; while Basil II., who maintained and paid enormous armies, accumulated no less than 200,000 pounds of gold. And Benjamin of Tudela declares that Constantinople alone brought in a revenue derived from custom duties of 20,000 pieces of gold every day. It must be remembered that everything went directly into the imperial treasury, that from every province, every city of the empire, a perennial rivulet of gold and silver flowed into those rapacious coffers; and though this revenue did not increase, as in a prosperous empire it


text: Index:The North Star-Vol1-No3.djvu

title: Index:The North Star-Vol1-No3.djvu