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 ally he has left your soldiers fighting hard, and all have been slain.”

52 B—The ordinary salutation. The letter is much damaged. It states that the land of Mitana had formerly fought against the King’s enemies; that the sons of the dog Abdasherah destroy the cities and the corn, and attack the governors, and had demanded fifty talents. It appears that Yankhamu has arrived, and has known the chief whom the King had established. Apparently a written letter has been sent “to the Amorite land for them to swallow.” He continues: “Behold I am a faithful servant of the King, and there was none was like me a servant, before this man lied to the King of the Land of Egypt. But they have mastered the lands of our home.” They have slain Egyptians, he continues, and have done something (the verb is lost) to the temples of the Gods of Gebal; they have carried off a chief and shed his blood. He finally mentions his son Khamu.

25 B. M., a short letter with the usual salutation. He requests soldiers to guard the lands for the rulers, which have been torn in pieces. The King sends no messages about himself to the writer or to Yankhamu. The governor’s men have gathered to fight (for the Khar or Phœnicians?).

42 B. begins with the usual salutation given in the first letter. “Having just heard the chiefs from the presence of the King it is fit that I send back a messenger (or message). Behold O Sun descending from heaven, the Sons of Abdasherah are wasting (shamefully?), as among them there is not one of the horses of the King or chariots, and the chiefs have devised evil—a rebellious race. And a chief is here with us of the Amorite country, with a written message from the allies which is with me. They have demanded what is shameful. Hereby is spoken a friendly message in the presence of the King—the Sun God. As for me I am thy faithful servant, and the news which is known, and which I hear, I send to the King my Lord. (What are they but dogs trembling?) in the presence of the Egyption soldiers (bitati) of the King—the Sun God. I sent to your father and he ‘to my servant  soldiers’  they have not marched  Abdasherah  the chiefs of this government  their faces against him. So now they have joined


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 prosecuting his studies at Rome. Thither he went accordingly; and this time he remained, diligently studying design and engraving for several years, under competent masters. On his way back to France, he was encouraged by Cosmo II. to remain at Florence, where he studied and worked for several years more. On the death of his patron he returned to his family at Nancy, where, by the use of his burin and needle, he shortly acquired both wealth and fame. When Nancy was taken by siege during the civil war, Callot was requested by Richelieu to make a design and engraving of the event, but the artist would not commemorate the disaster which had befallen his native place, and he refused point-blank. Richelieu could not shake his resolution, and threw him into prison. There Callot met with some of his old friends the gipsies, who had relieved his wants on his first journey to Rome. When Louis XIII. heard of his imprisonment, he not only released him, but offered to grant him any favour he might ask. Callot immediately requested that his old companions, the gipsies, might be set free and permitted to beg in Paris without molestation. This odd request was granted on condition that Callot should engrave their portraits, and hence his curious book of engravings entitled 'The Beggars.' Louis is said to have offered Callot a pension of 3,000 livres provided he would not leave Paris; but the artist was now too much of a Bohemian, and prized his liberty too highly to permit him to accept it; and he returned to Nancy, where he worked till his death. His industry may be inferred from the number of his engravings and etchings, of which he left not fewer than 1,600. He was 13

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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second duty of the sovereign, that of protecting, as far as possible, every member of the society from the injustice or oppression of every other member of it, or the duty of establishing an exact administration of justice, requires two very different degrees of expense in the different periods of society.

Among nations of hunters, as there is scarce any property, or at least none that exceeds the value of two or three days' labor; so there is seldom any established magistrate, or any regular administration of justice. Men who have no property can injure one another only in their persons or reputations. But when one man kills, wounds, beats, or defames another, though he to whom the injury is done suffers, he who does it receives no benefit. It is otherwise with the injuries to property. The benefit of the person who does the injury is often equal to the loss of him who suffers it. Envy, malice, or resentment are the only passions which can prompt one man to injure another in his person or reputation. But the greater part of men are not very frequently under the influence of those passions; and the very worst men are so only occasionally. As their gratification, too, how agreeable soever it may be to certain characters, is not attended with any real or permanent advantage, it is in the greater part of men commonly restrained by prudential considerations. Men may live together in society with some tolerable degree of security, though there is no civil magistrate to protect them from the injustice of those passions. But avarice and ambition


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Model Steam Locomotives a motion plate of the vStyle shown in Fig. 223. It is also convenient in some instances to provide lugs or bosses on the upper edge to carry footplates. In the casting these are left square and, if necessary, are filed one way or the other to suit the inclination of the cylinders, as indicated at c (Fig. 223).

Slide Bars.—The general practice is to carry slide bars from the rear-cylinder cover and a lug or lugs are cast on the motion plate, as shown in Fig. 214. When slide bars only measure 1/8 in. or 3/16 in. wide the fixings require modification. In 1/2-in. scale practice the arrangement shown in Fig.131, Chapter VIII, is employed, the slide bars being turned down and screwed to bolt to a flange formed on the cylinder cover. When secured in this way the only function of the motion plate is to prevent the bars spreading. This is provided for in the two designs of motion plates illustrated in Figs. 221 and 222.

Coupling Rods.— For the same reasons as applied to connecting rods, coupling rods are made in nickel silver instead of the orthodox mild steel, and in all larger models rods should be bushed with brass or bronze bushes forced into holes in the rod ends. For small engines the scheme A, Fig. 224, is quite good and saves quite a lot of work in dealing with the rod. The arrangement at B is common, but more or less of an imitation. For six- or eight-coupled engines without springs rods may be made in one piece, otherwise it is necessary to joint the rods to cater for the vertical movement of the axle boxes when the engine is standing on a surface that is out of level. The usual method is shown in Fig. 224 (c), but Figs. 225 and 226 illustrate alternatives, the first being a modification of the orthodox arrangement to suit the smaller models. The “Atlantic,” “Pacific,” 4—-6—0 and other types of 188


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 Indeed, his works have the impress of genius so clearly stamped upon them, that they could never have been designed by one person and executed by another. The humblest article—a buckle for a lady's girdle, a seal, a locket, a brooch, a ring, or a button—became in his hands a beautiful work of art.

Cellini was remarkable for his readiness and dexterity in handicraft. One day a surgeon entered the shop of Raffaello del Moro, the goldsmith, to perform an operation on his daughter's hand. On looking at the surgeon's instruments, Cellini, who was present, found them rude and clumsy, as they usually were in those days, and he asked the surgeon to proceed no further with the operation for a quarter of an hour. He then ran to his shop, and taking a piece of the finest steel, wrought out of it a beautifully finished knife, with which the operation was successfully performed.

Among the statues executed by Cellini, the most important are the silver figure of Jupiter, executed at Paris for Francis I., and the Perseus, executed in bronze for the Grand Duke Cosmo of Florence. He also executed statues in marble of Apollo, Hyacinthus, Narcissus, and Neptune. The extraordinary incidents connected with the casting of the Perseus were peculiarly illustrative of the remarkable character of the man.

The Grand Duke having expressed a decided opinion that the model, when shown to him in wax, could not possibly be cast in bronze, Cellini was immediately stimulated by the predicted impossibility, not only to attempt, but to do it. He first made the clay model, baked it, and covered it with wax, which he shaped into the perfect form of a


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RV 445 (ANSWER.])


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 statue. Then coating the wax with a sort of earth, he baked the second covering, during which the wax dissolved and escaped, leaving the space between the two layers for the reception of the metal. To avoid disturbance, the latter process was conducted in a pit dug immediately under the furnace, from which the liquid metal was to be introduced by pipes and apertures into the mould prepared for it.

Cellini had purchased and laid in several loads of pine-wood, in anticipation of the process of casting, which now began. The furnace was filled with pieces of brass and bronze, and the fire was lit. The resinous pine-wood was soon in such a furious blaze, that the shop took fire, and part of the roof was burnt; while at the same time the wind blowing and the rain falling on the furnace kept down the heat, and prevented the metals from melting. For hours Cellini struggled to keep up the heat, continually throwing in more wood, until at length he became so exhausted and ill, that he feared he should die before the statue could be cast. He was forced to leave to his assistants the pouring in of the metal when melted, and betook himself to his bed. While those about him were condoling with him in his distress, a workman suddenly entered the room, lamenting that "poor Benvenuto's work was irretrievably spoiled!" On hearing this, Cellini immediately sprang from his bed and rushed to the workshop, where he found the fire so much gone down that the metal had again become hard.

Sending across to a neighbour for a load of young oak which had been more than a year in drying, he soon had the fire blazing again and


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ECONOMY OF MARINE TURBINES 37 The improvement in efficiency resulting from the successive modifications and im- provements in the proportions of turbines, and also arising from the increase in the size is shown by the particulars given in the Table opposite. Table II on this page gives corresponding data in regard to marine turbines.

TABLE II.Performance of Notable Ships of Different Epochs with Parsons' Turbines.

Many warships are now being fitted with installations with double and treble turbines in series on the steam and exceeding the


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Rh is eternal life; love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all soul, and with all your mind, and your neigbor as yourself. This is the first and greatest commandment.

gone from him (or her), unclean spirit, and give way to the Holy Spirit, the Paraclete.

Accept this sign of God the Father almighty, on the forehead ✠ as well as on the heart, ✠ so that you may fulfill well his precepts and commandments.

Rh


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Page:The Necromancer, or, The Tale of the Black Forest Vol. 2.djvu/213

 of motion. My doom was fixed, the time of repentance past, and the murder I had committed was towering behind me like a mountain shutting up for ever my return to the path of virtue."

"My leader reappeared the same moment, bidding me descend into the cavern. I had now no other choice left but to submit to necessity, and climbed down. Having advanced a few steps under the excavated rock, our passage grew larger, and I beheld some huts at a distance, and as I approached nearer, a round spot covered with grass appeared to my view. About twenty people were sitting round a blazing fire. 'Here,' my leader exclaimed, 'here I bring you a new member of our society, whose name is not unknown to you, rise and welcome the celebrated Wolf, of A."

"Wolf, they all exclaimed with one voice, starting up and forming a circle around me, men, women and children:


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Model Steam Locomotives railways. A typicnil design is illustrated in Fig. 217. Its only merit is that it makes gland packing a little easier and less troublesome. All types of slide bars, single, two-bar and four-bar, are often modelled by employing round rods, the crossheads being drilled to suit them, after the manner shown in Fig. 218. The tubular slide bar may also be employed where the cylinders have cylindrical stuffing boxes and no other provision for fixing the bars. In such cases a separate socket is often made to hold the bars, and then, complete with the bars, pushed on to the cylindrical stuffing box as shown in Fig. 219. For small models Figs. 218 and 220 show two simple modifications of the orthodox pattern. In the first the crosshead is drilled for the slide bars, which are two rods projecting from the cylinder cover. The other is provided with a slotted slide bar. The holes for the crosshead, Fig. 218, need to be carefully jig-drilled to ensure align- ment with the tapped holes in the cylinder. Motion Plates.-The illustrations (Figs. 221 and 222) are typical of those employed for inside- and outside cylinder engines respectively. They, in all cases, need modification to suit the disposition and dimensions of the particular form of valve gear and motion adopted. In the normal engine with a leading bogie it will be found necessary to allow plenty of clearance for the bogie wheels and frames at the points marked a on the two drawings. The special pattern of outside bracket is necessiiry in some forms of six- and eight-coupled engines, and is sometimes made up of plate material as a pierced or “spectacle” plate. The forked pattern of bracket is perhaps the best, but in some cases the characteristics of the prototype require 186


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 Their joy was unfeigned and cordial; confidence and even respect was marked in their looks; one squeezed my hand, the other clapt me on the shoulder, in a confidential manner; all seemed sincerely rejoiced at seeing me, and the scene was not unlike the meeting again of an old beloved acquaintance."

"My arrival had interrupted their dinner, they retook their seats and pressed me to partake of their inviting meal, which consisted of venison of all kind and stewed fruits. The goblet filled with delicious wine wandered from hand to hand, and spread merriment and joviality around; plenty and concord seemed to reign in that little society, and every one strove to manifest his joy at my presence."

"I was seated between two females which was the place of honor at table, and having expected to meet with the refuse of their sex, how great was my astonishment


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194

, old and steadfast,

In his mind was thus reflecting:

“Now the time has come for music,

Time to give ourselves to pleasure,

In our dwelling newly chosen,

In our homestead now so charming,

But the kantele is sunken,

And my joy has gone for ever

To the dwelling-place of fishes,

To the rock-caves of the salmon,

Where it may enchant the lake-pike,

Likewise Vellamo’s attendants;

But they never will return it,

Ahto will no more return it.

“O thou smith, O Ilmarinen,

Yestreen and before thou workedst,

Work to-day with equal vigour.

Forge me now a rake of iron,

Let the teeth be close together,

Close the teeth, and long the handle

That I rake among the billows,

And may rake the waves together,

And may rake among the lake-reeds,

With the rake rake all the margins,

And my instrument recover,

And the kantele recover,

From the devious paths of fishes,

From the rocky caves of salmon.”

Thereupon smith Ilmarinen,

He the great primeval craftsman,

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 when I found amid this gang of robbers the most beautiful female figures my eyes ever beheld. Margaret, the eldest and handsomest of the two, was called Miss, and could not be much above eighteen; her language was very licentious, and her looks still more so. Maria, the youngest, was married, but had run away from a husband who had treated her ill; her form was superior to that of my other neighbour, however she was pale and of a delicate constitution, and in the whole less striking at first sight than the lively Margaret. They seemed to rival who first should kindle my desires; the beautiful Margaret strove to dispel my timidity by wanton jokes, however I soon conceived an invincible dislike to that woman, and the modest Maria fettered my heart for ever."

"You see, brother,' said the man who had been my conductor to that place, 'you see how we live here, and every day passes like the present: Is it not true, comrades?'


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8 THE PRINCIPLE OF THE essential if the turbine motor was to receive general acceptance as a prime mover. I therefore decided to split up the fall in pressure of the steam into small fractional expansions over a large number of turbines in series, so that the velocity of the steam nowhere should be great. Consequently, as we shall see later, a moderate speed of turbine suffices for the highest economy. This principle of compounding turbines in series is now universally used in all except very small engines, where economy in steam is of secondary importance. The arrangement of small falls in pressure at each turbine also appeared to me to be surer to give a high efficiency, because the steam flowed practically in a non-expansive manner through each individual turbine, and consequently in an analogous way to water in hydraulic turbines whose high efficiency at that date had been proved by accurate tests. I was also anxious to avoid the wellknown cutting action on metal of steam at high velocity.


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Boiler Mountings and Fittings be double cased, the outer ornamental covering being made from a stamping or spinning or turned up from a casting. In modern engines the dome is usually much more squat than those on older locomotives, due to the restrictions of the loading gauge and the use of high pitched boilers. The diagram (Fig. 276) illustrates typical shapes, their relative dimensions being obtainable from the appended scale. Chimneys.—The scientific importance of the locomo

tive funnel has already been discussed in Chapter IV, In this country the engineer generally attempts to give the funnel an ornate character, and some of the distinctive shapes are illustrated in the diagram. Where a free- lance design of model is being built, a proportion in which the smallest diameter of the stalk is in a ratio of 1 to 3 3/4 to that of the smokebox on which the chimney rests will be found to give a good appearance. Builtup chimneys are usually distinguished by the joint lines across them, cast-iron ones usually being quite plain; and

Bronse Ball

adjusting screiw

Pad piece with cup shaped under surface

Boiler surface

Goi/er she ft American type of casing

Fig. 274.-“ Ball Safety Valve with Internal Springs.

Fig. 275.—Ball Safety Valve with External Spring. 225


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 "Yes, every day passes like the present,' the whole gang exclaimed."

"If therefore you think you can accustom yourself to our manner of life, then stay with us and be our captain: Do you consent to it, comrades?"

"An unanimous yes rent the air."

"My imagination was fired with wine and loose desires, my reason fettered, and my blood heated: Human society had banished me—and there I found brotherly affection, good living and honor. Whatever might have been my choice, I could not escape the hand of punishing justice; however, in a situation like that which was offered me, I could at least sell my life dear: Voluptuousness was my ruling passion, and I had 'till then always been treated with scorn and contempt by the other sex, but here I could expect to satisfy my


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Model Steam Locomotives seating, and (4) that the spring spindle is quite separate and not a part of the valve except where the valve is of spherical shape. A direct-loaded twin valve for a large model is shown in Fig. 273. Bronze balls may be used as safety valves. Two methods are illustrated on page 225. In the first (Fig. 274) the ball is screwed and soldered on to a spindle, the bronze wire spring being inside the boiler. This is per- haps the only satisfactory type of internal spring safety valve, a variety which is sometimes necessary in a smallscale model. In the other valve (Fig. 275) the ball is pressed down on to a knife-edged seating by a spring pillar having a rounded undersurface. This makes a very good valve. In both cases the seating is trued up by hammer- ing on it a steel ball of the same diameter as the bronze ball. Grinding in cannot be resorted to. To obtain steam tightness with the ordinary V-seated valve grinding in must be carefully done. Emery should not be used with brass valves; grindstone-mud is much to be preferred. Further, the part of the seating in con- tact with the valve should never be much more than .01 in. wide in model locomotives of small size. Domes.— Domes are used in actual engines to provide for the extraction of the steam from a point high up above water level. While their efficacy in real prac- tice is doubted by many engineers, model-makers will find them very useful in preventing “priming.” As a rule, in large engines the regulator is fitted inside the dome. This is not practicable in a small model, and therefore the dome simply houses the end of the pipe leading to the regulator valve, and further provides a ready means of filling the boiler. Domes should always 224


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 desires, and to be received with pleasure: My resolution cost me but very little, and I exclaimed, after a moment's consideration, I will stay with you, comrades, if you will cede to me my beautiful neighbour."

"All of them agreed to content to my request, and I became unexpectedly the avowed possessor of a we, and the chief of a gang of robbers!"

"To be revenged on the prince, in whose dominions I had suffered so much disgrace, was the chief desire of my heart, and to effect that purpose the first use I made of my new acquired authority. Our gang consisted in eight stout fellows besides myself, the rest was composed of women and children: My new associates had contented themselves 'till I was joined to their society, with clandestine depredations in the pantries and cellars of the rich peasants, and game-stealing, and never had recourse


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Runo XLIV]

Forged for him a rake of iron,

Furnished with a copper handle,

Teeth in length a hundred fathoms,

And the handle full five hundred.

Then the aged Väinämöinen

Took the mighty rake of iron,

And a little way he wandered,

Made a very little journey,

Till he reached the quay, steel-fitted,

And the landing-stage of copper.

There he found a boat, found two boats,

Both the boats were waiting ready

On the quay, with steel all fitted,

On the landing-stage of copper,

And the first boat was a new one,

And the second was an old one.

Said the aged Väinämöinen,

To the new boat firstly speaking:

“Go, thou boat, into the water,

To the waves, O vessel, rush thou,

Even though no arm should turn thee,

Even though no thumbs should touch thee.”

Sped the boat into the water,

Rushed amid the waves the vessel.

Old and steadfast Väinämöinen,

In the stern made haste to seat him,

And he went to sweep the water,

And to sweep among the billows.

Scattered leaves of water-lilies,

Raked he up among the shore-drift,

All the rubbish raked together,

All the rubbish, bits of rushes,

Every scrap he raked together,

All the shoals with care raked over,

But he found not, nor discovered,

Where his pike-bone harp was hidden,

And this joy was gone for ever,

With the kantele was sunken.

Väinämöinen, old and steadfast,

Then returned unto his dwelling,

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196

Head bowed down, and sadly grieving,

And his cap awry adjusted,

And he said the words which follow:

“Unto me is lost for ever

Pleasure from the harp of pike-teeth,

From the harp I made of fish-bone.”

As he wandered through the country,

On the borders of the woodlands,

There he heard a birch-tree weeping,

And a speckled tree lamenting,

And in that direction hastened,

Walking till he reached the birch-tree.

Thereupon he spoke and asked it,

“Wherefore weep’st thou, beauteous birch-tree,

Shedding tears, O green-leaved birch-tree,

By thy belt of white conspicuous?

To the war thou art not taken,

Longest not for battle-struggle.”

Answer made the leaning birch-tree,

And the green-leaved tree responded:

“There is much that I could speak of,

Many things I might reflect on,

How I best might live in pleasure,

And I might rejoice for pleasure.

I am wretched in my sorrow,

And can but rejoice in trouble,

Living with my life o’erclouded,

And lamenting in my sorrow.

“And I weep my utter weakness,

And my worthlessness lament for,

I am poor, and all unaided,

Wholly wretched, void of succour,

Here in such an evil station,

On a plain among the willows.

“Perfect happiness and pleasure

Others always are expecting,

When arrives the beauteous summer,

In the warm days of the summer.

But my fate is different, wretched,

Nought but wretchedness awaits me;

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Page:NBS Circular 553.djvu/9

 The ISCC-NBS method of designating colors was published in the Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards 23, 355 (1939) RP1239. The Inter-Society Color Council approved the refinement of this method and encouraged the Bureau to compile the dictionary; most of the data upon which the translation of the individual color names into ISCC-NBS equivalents is based were supplied by its individual members who also helped to check the voluminous tables. The particular contributions of these and other individuals are acknowledged at appropriate places in the text. The Bureau is glad indeed of this opportunity to point out the cooperative nature of this project.

, Director. VI

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Page:NBS Circular 553.djvu/8

 Preface Ever since the language of man began to develop, words or expressions have been used first to indicate and then to describe colors. Some of these have per- sisted throughout the centuries and are those which refer to the simple colors or ranges such as red or yellow. As the language developed, more and more color names were invented to describe the colors used by art and industry and in late years in the rapidly expanding field of sales promotion. Some of these refer to the pigment. or dye used, as Ochre Red or Cochineal, or a geographical location of its source such as Naples Yellow or Byzantium. Later when it became clear that most colors are bought by or for women, many color names indicative of the beauties and wiles of the fair sex were introduced, as French Nude, Heart's Desire, Intimate Mood, or Vamp. Fanciful color names came into vogue such as Dream Fluff, Happy Day, Pearly Gates, and Wafted Feather. Do not suppose that these names are without economic importance; for a dark reddish gray hat for Milady might be a best seller if advertised as Mauve Wine whereas it probably would not if the color were called Paris Mud. Some color names, such as Blue Turquoise or Golden Poppy, are at the same time self-explanatory and also suited to the promotion of the sales of fabrics. Other color names are not what they seem, for how would one know that African Green is in reality a blue or that blue Fox will turn out to be a reddish gray? Liter- ature is indeed richer because of such color names as Cold Morn, Folly, Kitten's Ear, Languid Lavender, Risigal, Teen Age Pink, and Zedoary Wash, and their precise meanings deserve to be systematically listed. The purpose of this dictionary is to assist the scientist, businessman, and lay- man to understand the different color vocabularies used in the many fields of art, science, and industry. Some of these vocabularies are very similar, in fact they bor- row from one another, while others are nearly or completely unintelligible to workers in another field. The dictionary will serve not only as a record of the meanings of the 7,500 individual color names listed but it will also enable anyone to translate from one color vocabulary to another. As an example, what is the meaning of Griseo- Viridis? This dictionary shows that Griseo-Viridis (biology) -Serpentine (fashion) = Mint Green (mass market), or in ordinary language, a light green. The terms by which this dictionary defines color names are those of a refinement of the method of designating colors outlined by the Inter-Society Color Council and developed at the National Bureau of Standards. The Inter-Society Color Council (ISCC) consists of delegates from 20 societies of national scope interested in color, and of individual members. The present member bodies of the ISCC are:

Rh
 * American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists
 * American Ceramic Society
 * American Institute of Architects
 * American Institute of Decorators
 * American Oil Chemists' Society
 * American Psychological Association
 * American Society for Testing Materials
 * Federation of Paint and Varnish Production Clubs
 * Gravure Technical Association, Inc.
 * Illuminating Engineering Society
 * Industrial Designer's Institute
 * National Association of Printing Ink Makers
 * Optical Society of America
 * Packaging Institute
 * Society of Industrial Designers
 * Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers
 * Tanners' Council of America
 * Technical Association for the Graphic Arts
 * Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry
 * Textile Color Card Association of the United States, Inc.

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Runo XLIV]

And my bark is peeling from me,

Down are hewed my leafy branches.

“Often unto me defenceless

Oft to me, unhappy creature,

In the short spring come the children,

Quickly to the spot they hurry,

And with sharpened knives they score me,

Draw my sap from out my body,

And in summer wicked herdsmen,

Strip from me my white bark-girdle,

Cups and plates therefrom constructing,

Baskets too, for holding berries.

“Often unto me defenceless,

Oft to me, unhappy creature,

Come the girls beneath my branches,

Come beneath, and dance around me.

From my crown they cut the branches,

And they bind them into besoms.

“Often too, am I, defenceless,

Oft am I, unhappy creature,

Hewed away to make a clearing,

Cut to pieces into faggots.

Thrice already in this summer,

In the warm days of the summer,

Unto me have come the woodmen,

And have hewed me with their axes,

Hewed the crown from me unhappy,

And my weak life has departed.

“This has been my joy in summer,

In the warm days of the summer,

But no better was the winter,

Nor the time of snow more pleasant.

“And in former times already,

Has my face been changed by trouble,

And my head has drooped with sadness,

And my cheeks have paled with sorrow,

Thinking o’er the days of evil,

Pondering o’er the times of evil.

“And the wind brought ills upon me,

And the frost brought bitter sorrows.

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 The ISCC-NBS Method of Designating Colors and a Dictionary of Color Names

[Seal Omitted]

U. S. Department of Commerce

National Bureau of Standards

Circular 553

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Rh

Tore the wind my green cloak from me,

Frost my pretty dress from off me.

Thus am I of all the poorest,

And a most unhappy birch-tree,

Standing stripped of all my clothing,

As a naked trunk I stand here,

And in cold I shake and tremble,

And in frost I stand lamenting.”

Said the aged Väinämöinen,

“Weep no more, O verdant birch-tree!

Leafy sapling, weep no longer,

Thou, equipped with whitest girdle,

For a pleasant future waits thee,

New and charming joys await thee.

Soon shall thou with joy be weeping,

Shortly shalt thou sing for pleasure.”

Then the aged Väinämöinen

Carved into a harp the birch-tree,

On a summer day he carved it,

To a kantele he shaped it,

At the end of cloudy headland,

And upon the shady island,

And the harp-frame he constructed,

From the trunk he formed new pleasure,

And the frame of toughest birchwood;

From the mottled trunk he formed it.

Said the aged Väinämöinen

In the very words which follow:

“Now the frame I have constructed,

From the trunk for lasting pleasure.

Whence shall now the screws be fashioned,

Whence shall come the pegs to suit me?”

In the yard there grew an oak-tree,

By the farmyard it was standing,

’Twas an oak with equal branches,

And on every branch an acorn,

In the acorns golden kernels,

On each kernel sat a cuckoo.

When the cuckoos all were calling,

In the call five tones were sounding,

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 Clark, Bakelite Company. The five transparent polystyrene' samples were omitted.

In 1948 Gladys and Gustave Plochere published in Los Angeles, California, a book entitled Plochere Color System, A Guide to Color and Color Har- mony [52]. Associated with the book are 1,248 cards, 3 by 5 inches, each illustrating a different color made by admixing one or more of nine basic pigments with black and white. Each color is as- signed a number, a code designation indicative of the color, the paint formula, and a color name. W. E. Knowles Middleton of the National Research Laboratories of Canada has determined the Munsell notations [34] of these 1,248 colored samples and from these the corresponding ISCC-NBS color desig- nations were obtained. These designations were checked by Mr. Plochere.

Robert Ridgway, an eminent ornithologist, pub- lished in Washington, D. C. in 1912 a book of Color Standards and Color Nomenclature [56], and stated that “the motive of this work is The Standardi- zation of Colors and Color Names.” It con- tains 53 colored plates and 1,115 named colors and was developed after many years study for the use of biologists, botanists, entomologists, geologists, min- eralogists, ornithologists, pathologists, and zoologists for the proper and lasting specification of the colors of natural objects. D. H. Handy, formerly of the Department of Botany of the University of Toronto, Canada, determined the Munsell notations of these colors [14, 15] and from these the corresponding ISCC-NBS color designations were obtained. These designations were checked by Professor Handy.

In 1948 the National Research Council issued a Rock-Color Chart [40] developed by a committee whose chairman was E. N. Goddard, representing the U. S. Geological Survey, the Geological Society of America, the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, the Society of Economic Geologists, and the Association of American State Geologists. The color terms used in the Rock-Color Chart were based on the revised ISCC-NBS color designations in so far as the revision had progressed by 1948 with minor modifications to adapt the names to rock colors. Dr. Goddard supplied the ISCC-NBS designations for each color term used in the Rock- Color Chart for inclusion in the present dictionary. It will be noted that the two sets of color designa- tions are very similar, the chief difference being that the boundaries between moderate and grayish colors have been shifted to somewhat lower Munsell cliromas to accord with the meanings of the color names in geology.

For many years the late Wm. H. Beck of Baltimore had worked for a simplification and standardization of the color names used in the Scott Stamp Catalog to describe the colors of stamps. Toward this end,

he had prepared a number of very extensive exhibits showing the large ranges of color covered by some of these color names. One of these exhibits was a reproduction of the Munsell Book of Color in stamps in which there were mounted about 4,000 stamps selected by him from those in the Scott Stamp Catalog to exemplify the color names which he judged to be of the most importance in the field of philately. Mr. Beck supplied both the Munsell notations of the stamps and their color names read from the Scott Stamp Catalog, and the latter have been checked by O. L. Harvey of Washington, D. C. The ISCC-NBS designations were read and checked by us. Only those color names were included in this dictionary whose meaning was exemplified by at least two of the 4,000-stamp collection. The color names listed are defined by the color of the stamp as a whole, but some of the names are apparently intended to refer to a solid printing of the ink used because the ISCC-NBS names indicate much lighter colors than would ordinarily be meant (for example, the stamp-color name black is applied to light gray stamps).

Ever since the early 1920’s, the problem of color names descriptive of the many soil colors under wet and dry conditions has plagued the soil scientist. Finally the Munsell notations were determined for 250 selected soil samples and ISCC-NBS color designations were applied to them [47], A consider- able study was made of these names resulting in a paper by Rice, Nickerson, O’Neal and Thorp [55] including a set of color charts with 56 named color chips [37]. The color designations used were much the same as the ISCC-NBS except that they were applied to more restricted and somewhat different hue ranges. Red soils, for instance, would be called reddish brown or brown according to the color terminology used in other fields. It was soon learned that the 56 color chips were not enough and that some changes would have to be made in the color names. The next revision contained 202 Munsell samples [38] and the present form has 240 [39, 51], Further changes were made in the original color names to make them accord more closely with usage in the field. The ISCC-NBS designations were taken from a table supplied by Edward H. Templin, chairman of the Soil Color Committee of the U. S. Soil Survey, and are based on Munsell notations. The ISCC- NBS designations were checked by Dorothy Nicker- son, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and Blanche R. Bellamy, Munsell Color Company.

Helen D. Taylor, Lucille Ivnoche, and Walter C. Granville published in 1950 the booklet Descriptive  Color Names Dictionary [59] as a supplement to the third edition of the Color Harmony Manual [23], 1948. The booklet is intended to fill the “need for a systematized listing and color specification of the  words commonly used to describe the color of general  merchandise for the mass market”. The colorimetric coordinates of the samples of the Color Harmony Manual, both matte and glossy sides, were deter- 12

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 I would not give a half-penny to know, said my uncle Toby.

Only, an' please your honour, it makes a story look the better in the face

—'Tis thy own, Trim, so ornament it after thy own fashion; and take any date, continued my uncle Toby, looking pleasantly upon him—take any date in the whole world thou choosest, and put it to—thou art heartily welcome

The corporal bowed; for of every century, and of every year of that century, from the first creation of the world down to Noah's flood; and from Noah's


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Runo XLIV]

Gold from out their mouths was flowing,

Silver too they scattered round them,

On a hill the gold was flowing,

On the ground there flowed the silver,

And from this he made the harp-screws,

And the pegs from that provided.

Said the aged Väinämöinen

In the very words which follow:

“Now the harp-screws are constructed,

And the harp-pegs are provided.

Something even now is wanting,

And five strings as yet are needed.

How shall I provide the harp-strings,

Which shall yield the notes in playing?”

Then he went to seek for harp-strings,

And along the heath he wandered.

On the heath there sat a maiden,

Sat a damsel in the valley,

And the maiden was not weeping,

Neither was she very joyful.

To herself she sang full softly,

Sang, that soon might come the evening,

Hoping for her lover’s coming,

For the dear one she had chosen.

Väinämöinen, old and steadfast,

Crept without his shoes towards her,

Sprang to her without his stockings,

And as soon as he approached her,

He besought her hair to give him,

And he spoke the words which follow:

“Give thy hair to me, O maiden,

Give me of thy hair, O fair one,

Give me hair to form my harp-strings,

For the tones of lasting pleasure.”

Then her hair the maiden gave him,

From her soft locks hair she gave him,

And she gave him five and six hairs,

Seven the hairs she gave unto him,

That he thus might form his harp-strings,

For the tones of lasting pleasure.

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 the agency is given in parentheses after the color name. An explanation of these abbreviations is given on pages 36 and 84.

A short description of each of these color-name systems follows with such points of its development or use as are necessary to make clear its part in the dictionary.

In 1947 E. I. Stearns, Chairman, Committee on Color of the AATCC, and F. T. Simon prepared a table specifying the 1939 ISCC-NBS equivalents of the 88 color names to be used in the forthcoming second edition of the British Colour Index [58]. The ISCC-NBS equivalents on the present revised system were derived from this table and were checked by Dr. Stearns. Since there is a Colour Index color name for each part of the color solid, many of these 88 names necessarily refer to large ranges of color.

In the past, various writers such as Wharton [61], Saccardo [57], and Ridgway [56] had tried to develop a system of color terminology for use by biologists. Ridgway’s outstanding early work has been considably used. H. A. Dade of The Imperial Mycological Institute [7] has made a further attempt to bring order to this field by using Ridgway’s colored samples and notations and applying to them a much smaller set of color terms. To do this, he laid out a color space according to Ridgway’s notation and indicated the color range of each color term by marking off the corresponding Ridgway block. The color terms are all hi Latin. In order to get the ISCC-NBS equivalents, it was first necessary to translate the Ridgway notations into Munsell notations using the work of D. H. Hamly, University of Toronto [15], and thence obtain the ISCC-NBS color designations.

As early as 1920, E. F. Hickson, later Chief of the Paint Section at the National Bureau of Standards, envisioned a federal color card which would show samples of all of the many colors of paints used by the Federal services and thus facilitate their procurement. Many years of effort by Mr. Hickson culminated in the promulgation in 1950 of Federal Specification TT-C-595, Colors; (for) Ready-Mixed Paints [9], a joint project of the National Bureau of Standards and the Federal Supply Service of the General Services Administration. The Munsell notations of the 187 colors in TT-C-595 were determined by us by visual comparison of the colors with the scales of the Munsell Book of Color under the recommended conditions of lighting and viewing.

Recognizing the need for an up-to-date chart of named colors for use in describing the colors of flowers, Robert F. Wilson, Secretary of the British Colour Council, developed in 1938 the Horticultural Colour Chart which has been issued in two volumes by The British Colour Council in collaboration with The Royal Horticultural Society [4],

The color system is based on a hue circle of 64 saturated colors, supplemented by tints (admixtures of more white pigment), shades (admixtures of less white pigment), and tones (produced by adding gray pigment) making 200 named colors. All of these full colors, tints, shades, and tones are shown in the Horticultural Colour Chart not only printed solid but also in three dilutions with the white of the paper by screen-plate printing. The ISCC-NBS designations corresponding to these names were found from Munsell notations of the solid printings. These Munsell notations were supplied by Dorothy Nickerson, U. S. Department of Agriculture, some found by her by visual comparison with the Munsell scales, others based on spectrophotometric curves supplied through the courtesy of W. E. Knowles Middleton, National Research Council of Canada.

No introduction is needed for the Maerz and Paul Dictionary of Color [32]; this monumental work has become a by-word in the field of color. The Munsell notations of the colored samples on the first twenty of the 56 color charts were published by Dorothy Nickerson in 1947 [44], The Munsell notations of the named samples in the remaining 36 charts were determined by us by visual comparison of the colors with the scales of the Munsell Book of Color under the recommended conditions of lighting and viewing. Although the second edition had been published by the time this work was started, it was decided to use only the first edition because the extensive research on color names was expressed originally in terms of the color plates of the first edition, the colors of which are only approximately reproduced in the second edition. A considerable study was necessary to list all of the different color names both from the charts in the front of the book and also from the lengthy index.

Many of the color names listed in Maerz and Paul consist of a specific name followed by a generic name given in brackets, thus: Canary [Yellow], In our listing of these names we have copied the brackets as well as the names. There are a number of interesting color names in the index which are not assigned colored samples. This is due, according to the authors, either to the lack of a definite description of the associated color in the literature or to the fact that the color name describes a range of color. These color names are necessarily omitted from the present dictionary.

The equivalent ISCC-NBS color designations for the color names of the 17 molded urea plastics and for the 12 polystyrene plastics were taken directly from the two publications of the Department of Commerce based on measurements of these samples at the National Bureau of Standards; Colors for Molded Urea Plastics [5] and Colors for Polystyrene Plastics [6], The names are based on Munsell renotations, and have been checked by Fred G. Rh

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 flood to the birth of Abraham; through all the pilgrimages of the patriarchs, to the departure of the Israelites out of Egypt—and throughout all the Dynasties, Olympiads, Urbecondita's, and other memorable epochas of the different nations of the world, down to the coming of Christ, and from thence to the very moment in which the corporal was telling his story—had my uncle Toby subjected this vast empire of time and all its abysses at his feet; but as scarce touches with a finger what  offers her with both hands open—the corporal contented himself with the very worst year of the whole bunch; which, to prevent your honours of the Majority and Minority from tearing the very flesh off your bones


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 in contestation, 'Whether that year is not always the last cast-year of the last cast-almanack;—I tell you plainly it was; but from a different reason than you wot of

It was the year next himwhich being the year of our Lord seventeen hundred and twelve, when the duke of Ormond was playing the devil in Flandersthe corporal took it, and set out with it afresh on his expedition to Bohemia.


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200

Now the harp at last was finished,

And the aged Väinämöinen

On a rock his seat selected,

Near the steps, upon a stone bench.

In his hands the harp then taking,

Very near he felt his pleasure,

And the frame he turned to heaven,

On his knees the knob then propping,

All the strings he put in order,

Fit to make melodious music.

When he had the strings adjusted,

Then the instrument was ready;

Underneath his hands he placed it,

And across his knees he laid it,

With his ten nails did he play it,

And he let five active fingers

Draw the tunes from out the harp-strings,

Making most delightful music.

When the aged Väinämöinen

Thus upon his harp was playing,

Fine his hands, his fingers tender,

And his fingers curving outwards,

Then rang out the wood so speckled,

Sang the sapling green full loudly,

Loudly called the golden cuckoo,

And rejoiced the hair of maiden.

Thus played Väinämöinen’s fingers,

And the harp-strings loud resounded,

Mountains shook and plains resounded,

All the rocky hills resounded,

In the waves the stones were rocking,

In the water moved the gravel,

And the pine-trees were rejoicing,

On the heath the stumps were skipping.

All of Kaleva’s step-daughters,

All the fair ones flocked together,

And in streams they rushed together,

Like a river in its flowing.

Merry laughed the younger women,

And the mothers all were joyful,

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 on the microscope table and a suitable reflectance standard such as an N 9.6/ Munsell paper, a magnesium oxide reflectance standard, or a magnesium carbonate block under the open end of the ocular or camera lucida. Move the slide so that the sample is out of the field of view, adjust the substage condenser, the substage iris diaphragm, or both, of the microscope until the brightness of the slide-liquid-coverglass image on the one side matches that of the image of the reflectance standard on the other. This adjustment should be repeated for each mount studied.

Now move the slide until the sample image touches the dividing line in the middle of the field (fig. 12). Place the appropriate Munsell charts on the table in place of the reflectance standard, and make the comparison for hue as in section 6.1.3 except that when the camera lucida is used, the inner edge of the chart must be slipped under the outer edge of the black cloth. The camera lucida has the advantage over the comparison ocular in that it does not invert the image of the Munsell chart, and also it is less expensive.

6.4.4. The Color Designation. Since the value and chroma vary greatly with the thickness of the sample or with the amount of dye absorbed by it, it is sufficient to determine only the hue of the sample. Estimate the hue to the nearest half-step but judge the value and chroma only accurately enough to determine into which part of the color-name chart the point representing the sample will fall. For example, if the Munsell hue of the sample is 5G, the sample will receive the color name green regardless of the value or chroma; but if the Munsell hue were found to be 3R, samples whose values are above 6.5 would receive the color name pink, but others whose values are below 5.5 would receive the color name red. If the whole color name is desired, proceed as in section 6.1.3.

Color designations may be obtained from chromaticity coordinates (x,y), daylight reflectance Y, derived from spectrophotometric or colorimetric measurements by plotting the (x, y) values on the value chart or charts of the set of Munsell renotation—(x,y) charts [42] corresponding to reflectance Y', and reading the corresponding Munsell renotation. The color designation is then derived in the usual manner from the color-name charts.

The different branches of science, technology, and commerce make use of more or less different color vocabularies some of whose color names (such as Testaceous, Samurai, and Araby) are confusing, or even unknown, to persons in another branch or to the layman on the street. Actually, Testaceous, Samurai, and Araby all refer to grayish reddish orange colors; and, in a similar way, the meanings of all the color names in these vocabularies may be indicatedindidicated [sic] more conveniently and precisely than has hitherto been possible simply by giving for each the ISCC-NBS color designation. As stated by E. N. Gathercoal, these designations are intended to be “sufficiently commonplace to be understood, at least in a general way, by the whole public.” From this basis sprang the idea of including, with the description of the ISCC-NBS method, a Dictionary of Color Names which owes to this method its unique descriptive quality.

This dictionary of color names is comprised of two parts: section 14 is a correlation of all of the color names studied with the ISCC-NBS color designations, and section 15, the dictionary proper, is an alphabetical list of these color names with their corresponding ISCC-NBS color designations. From the former, the color names corresponding to an ISCC-NBS color designation or approximately to each other may be found within the limits of the block-type structure of the ISCC-NBS system. From the latter, the meaning of any one of these color names may be found in terms of the ISCC-NBS system.

Section 14 is a correlation of all of the different color names found in 14 recognized systems of color nomenclature with the 267 ISCC-NBS color designations, each of which has been assigned a serial number to facilitate cross referencing. In other words, each color name listed under an ISCC-NBS color designation is described by a colored sample whose Munsell notation or renotation would fall in the same ISCC-NBS color-name block. Any two color names under one ISCC-NBS designation are approximately equivalent. Other color names nearly equivalent to a given name may be found listed under the ISCC-NBS color designations of adjacent blocks. After each color name in section 14 are given the code numbers or letters identifying the sample by means of which the name is defined, or, if several samples of similar colors are used in the definition, the identification of only one of them is given. The color names in Federal Specification TT-C-595 were collected from a number of federal agencies; so, for identification purposes, the abbreviation of Rh

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Runo XLIV]

As they heard the music playing,

And they wondered at their pleasure.

Likewise many men were present,

In their hands their caps all holding,

All the old dames in the party

To their sides their hands were holding,

And the maidens’ eyes shed tear-drops,

On the ground the boys were kneeling,

To the kantele all listening,

And they wondered at their pleasure.

With one voice they all were singing,

With one tongue they all repeated:

“Never have we heard aforetime,

Heard before such charming music,

In the course of all our lifetime,

When the brilliant moon was shining.”

Far was heard the charming music,

In six villages they heard it,

There was not a single creature

But it hurried forth to listen,

And to hear the charming music

From the kantele resounding.

All the wild beasts of the forest

Upright on their claws were resting

To the kantele to listen,

And they wondered at their pleasure.

All the birds in air then flying,

Perched upon the neighbouring branches,

All the fish that swam the waters,

To the margin hastened quickly,

And the worms in earth then creeping,

Up above the ground then hastened,

And they turned themselves and listened,

Listened to the charming music,

In the kantele rejoicing,

And in Väinämöinen’s singing.

Then the aged Väinämöinen

Played in his most charming manner,

Most melodiously resounding;

And he played one day, a second,

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 6.3.5. Fluorescent Solids or Liquids. The color of the fluorescence of a solid or liquid is determined by holding it or the test tube or vial directly in front of a  vertical black velvet cloth so that the sample is illuminated by natural or artificial daylight chiefly in directions perpendicular to the line of sight. Any light incident upon the sample from the back should be avoided because it will produce a mixture of fluorescence and body colors in unknown proportions. The fluorescence color will appear the strongest on the side toward the light source. The Munsell charts should receive light from the same source and should be held slightly tilted beside the sample to facilitate the comparison. The hue notation is sufficient.

6.4.1. Mounting. Unless otherwise specified, the sample whether powdered or sectional is to be mounted in a colorless medium such as water.

6.4.2. Lighting. A frosted Mazda lamp is used for illumination and is placed above and to one side of the microscope base where it will illuminate both the substage mirror of the microscope and the Munsell charts (figs. 9 and 10). The proper daylight filter (blue glass) for the light-source used must be placed in the eyepiece of the comparison ocular or the Abbé-type camera lucida, whichever is used.

6.4.3. Determination of Munsell Notation. When using a comparison ocular (fig. 9), place one end over the ocular of the microscope and support the other end by a condenser clamp. If an Abbe-type camera lucida is used (fig. 10), it must be modified somewhat to give a split field. To do this, cut out of a circular piece of tin foil just large enough to slip into the ocular tube of the microscope, a semicircle as shown in the accompanying diagram (fig. 11). This shield is placed on top of the ocular micrometer with the cut edge extending from back to front and constituting the dividing line. Next, place a piece of black velvet or cloth on the table beneath the reflecting mirror of the camera lucida so that its outer edge coincides with the vertical edge of the shield in the ocular tube. This cloth must cover everything on the table visible in the upper half of the reflecting mirror. Slip an envelope of black paper or cloth down over the top half of the reflecting mirror until its lower edge also coincides with the dividing line.

Now place a mount consisting of a slide, a sample (for instance a thin section), a coverglass and liquid Rh

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 6.2.6. Metallic Surfaces. The characteristic color of a metallic surface is obtained from the specularly reflected light. Proceed, therefore, as in 1 and 2 above, but obtain, in addition, the hue name for the specularly reflected light. These two names may possibly yield a useful designation of the color of the metallic surface, but they will not correspond well with common usage which involves color terms that apply characteristically to metallic appearance, such as silver, brass, gold, copper and so on.

6.3.1. Opaque Solids and Liquids. The color designation of a precipitate can be obtained in the test tube if the liquid in which it is suspended is itself not strongly colored, otherwise on a filter paper; the hue notation is usually sufficient. Opaque liquids should be placed in a clear glass vial, test-tube, or bottle, and the Munsell notation of the color obtained by holding it above the charts as for opaque solids (section 6.2.1).

6.3.2. Clear Liquids. To obtain the Munsell notation of the color of a clear liquid, put it in a clear glass vial with a flat bottom to a depth of ] cm (bottom of the meniscus) ; place the vial in the holder (figs. 5 and 7) which has a rectangular opening in the bot tom and hold it about 8 inches above the white shield illuminated by natural or artificial daylight. Look down through the liquid at the rectangular opening (fig. 8) and compare this color with those of the proper Munsell charts under the shield. By moving the shield around and exposing successive pairs of Munsell standards, the comparisons required in section 6.1.3 for obtaining the Munsell notation are made. The color designation is obtained from the color-name charts as before.

If only the hue name of the liquid is desired, it may be determined by holding the test tube, beaker or vial containing the liquid above the white shield as in 6.2.1 above. Certain changes must be made in the regular color names to adapt them to the description of the colors of nonopaque media. These consist of making the substitutions shown in table 2.

6.3.3. Clear Solids (Crystals, Glasses, Resins). The color designations of clear solids may be obtained if the faces of the sample are nearly parallel, smooth, and free from dust or scum. Estimate the hue notation of the color of the sample when held over the white shield as in section 6.3.2. If the size of the crystals is less than 1 mm, proceed as for an opaque powder as in 6.1. If the full color designation is desired, it may be obtained as in 6.3.2.

6.3.4. Cloudy Solids or Liquids. Sometimes the color designations of cloudy samples, that is, samples which both transmit some light and reflect some, can lie obtained by transmitted light (6.3.3) but usually they are more easily specified by reflected light like opaque samples as in 6.2. 8

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 51(5 CATALOGUE OF COPYRIGHT ENTRIES

pt. i, n. s., v. 4

Fischer-Dueckelmann, Anna.

... The wife as the family physician; a practical work of reference for the family in health and sickness, with special attention to diseases of women and children, mar- ried life, sexual hygiene, child-birth, care of children, family hygiene, etc. With 440 original text-illustrations and 27 full-page original color-plates and art-prints. By Anna Fischer-Dueckelmann ..: tr. and adapted with the collaboration of a staff of eminent physicians. Milwau- kee, The International medical book co. ; [etc., etc.] 190S.

8-7900

viii, 870 p. front, (port.) illus., plates (partly col.) 2Si cm.

COPYRIGHT by Albert Binder, Milwaukee, Wis. Class A, XXc, no. 13594, Aug. 5, 1907. 2 copies rec'd Feb. 28, 1908. 7493

Fish, Daniel W.

Robinson's new table book and first lessons in arith- metic. Oral and written. By Daniel W. Fish ... New York, Cincinnati [etc.] American book company [1908]

8-8144

96 p. illus. 17 cm.

COPYRIGHT by Emeline M. Tvison, New York, N. Y., in renewal for 14 years from Feh" 21, 1908. Class A, XXc, no. 198441, Feb. 5, 1908. 2 copies rec'd Mar. 2, 1908. 7494

Forsythe, Robert.

The blast furnace and the- manufacture of pig iron ; an elementary treatise for the use of the metallurgical stu- dent and the furnaceman. By Robert Forsythe. New York, D. Williams company, 1908.

8-8484

6 p. 1., 15-368 p. illus., diagrs. 24 cm.

COPYRIGHT by David Williams co., New York, N. Y. Class A, XXc, no. 197033, Jan. 18, 1908. 2 copies rec'd Mar. 7. 1908. 7495

Foster, Robert Frederick, 1853-

Foster's bridge manual; a complete system of instruc- tion in the game, to which is added dummy bridge and duplicate bridge, with the complete text of the American laws of bridge, reprinted by permission of the Whist club of New York, by R. F. Foster ... New ed., rev. and enl. New York, Brentano's, 1908.

8-8134 3 p. 1., ivj-xvii, 216 p. illus. 17 cm.

COPYRIGHT by Brentano's. New York, N. Y. Class A, XXc, no. 200520, Mar. 2, 1908. 2 copies rec'd Mar. 2, 1908. 7496

The Four-pools mystery. New York, The (Viitury co.,

1908.

8-8103 vi, 336 p. front. 20 cm.

COPYRIGHT by Century co., New York, N. Y. Class A, XXc, no. 201524, Mar. 5, 1908. 2 copies rec'd Mar. 5, 1908. 7497


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Page:NBS Circular 553.djvu/18

 closer to 4 than 6, and is estimated as 4.6. Now compare the sample with the two Munsell 7/4 standards. Suppose that its hue is seen to be nearer to that of the 10YR chart than the 7.5YR chart, say 4/5 of the hue difference between the charts or 2 hue steps from the 7.5YR and one-half hue step from the 10YR chart, or at 9.5YR. Now inter- change the positions of the charts and check the Munsell notation. If these are found to be un- changed, the final notation is 9.5YR 7. 2/4. 6. If for greater accuracy the Munsell renotation is desired, it may be found by the method outlined in 6.1.3 above.

The color name corresponding to the Munsell notation is found by selecting from the color -name charts the one that contains 9.5YR (page 21, see hue designation 8YR-1Y near the upper right-hand corner). Plot 7.2 value and 4.6 chroma on this chart. It falls in the block named light yellowish brown (see point ⊙ plotted on chart 8YR-1Y, p. 21); so this is the color designation of the sample. The Munsell renotation corresponding to this notation is 9.3YR 7. 4/4. 5 and the color designation is the same.

6.2. Opaque Solids

6.2.1. Comparison with Munsell Color Standards. Hold the sample in the fingers, or in tweezers if the sample is small, a short distance above the chart or charts and move it about for comparison with the Munsell color standards. Care should be taken not to cast a shadow on the standard with which the sample is being compared (see fig. 6). The amount of handling required for the comparison, and consequent soil and wear on the standards, will be diminished if the charts are arranged in hue sequence on the table or desk. If the sample is large and flat., it will facilitate the comparison if a small neutral gray shield with the usual sized rectangular opening is placed over the surface.

6.2.2. Lighting and Viewing Conditions. The sam- ples are to be illuminated at 45° by daylight (see section 6.1.2) and viewed along the perpendicular to the surface. Since the samples are held above the plane of the color standards, it is important that the illumination on the two horizontal planes be as nearly the same in amount and quality as possible. Care should be taken to hold the surface of the sample in the horizontal plane and close to the plane of the standards; errors in Munsell value by as much as a whole step are possible through inadvertent tilting or raising of the sample surface. If a source of artificial daylight such as in figure 4 is used giving a diffused even illumination over a large area from above, or if the comparison is made out of doors by diffuse light from a large part of the sky, the position of the sample with respect to the light source is less critical.

For minimizing the troubles due to uneven illumi- nation on samples such as rods (pencils, twigs, roots) having approximately cylindrical surfaces, it is recommended that the axis of the cylinder be held horizontal and pointed in the direction of the light source so that neither side of the sample is shaded.

For samples having glossy surfaces the use of a black canopy or curtain will be required as described in section 6.1.2.

The color of such a sample may be designated either by giving the average color found for the sample or by giving the color names corresponding to the complete color range. This range may be in hue, lightness, or saturation, or a combination of two or all of these. Color ranges involving chiefly variations in lightness and saturation can often be conveniently indicated by the unmodified name, such as orange, by which is meant the color range covered by the designations light orange, brilliant orange, moderate orange, strong orange, vivid orange, and deep orange (see charts covering Mun- sell hues 2YR to 7YR).

6.2.3. Nonmetallic Samples With Matte Surfaces. Proceed as in 1 and 2 above. The recommended angles of illumination and viewing need not be as strictly followed, because the appearance of a matte surface does not change importantly with small variations in these angular conditions.

6.2.4. Glossy Surfaces Having No Regular Detailed Structure. Samples of vitreous enamel and smooth paint films are often found with glossy surfaces having no regular detailed structure. Proceed as in 1 and 2 above, giving particular attention to the prescribed angles of illumination and viewing. The characteristic color of the sample is obtained only when specularly reflected light is prevented from reaching the eye of the observer.

6.2.5. Glossy Surfaces Made Up of Cylindrical Elements. Samples of satin-finish textiles and glossy brush-marked paint films may be considered as made up of cylindrical elements. Proceed as in 1 and 2 above. It is not always possible to prevent light from being specularly reflected from such glossy surfaces into the eye of the observer; but by so orienting the sample in its own plane that the specular component is reduced to a minimum, the most characteristic color of the sample is usually obtained. Some textiles require more than one angle of view or illumination to bring out the characteristic color or colors; changeable silks are extreme examples of such textiles.

Rh

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202

Playing on, without cessation,

Every morning after breakfast,

Girded with the selfsame girdle,

And the same shirt always wearing.

When he in his house was playing,

In his house of fir constructed,

All the roofs resounded loudly,

And the boards resounded likewise,

Ceilings sang, the doors were creaking,

All the windows were rejoicing,

And the hearthstones all were moving,

Birchwood columns sang in answer.

When he walked among the pinewoods,

And he wandered through the firwoods,

All the pines bowed down before him,

To the very ground the fir-trees;

On the grass the cones rolled round him,

On the roots the needles scattered.

When he hurried through the greenwood,

Or across the heath was hastening,

All the leaves called gaily to him,

And the heath was all rejoicing,

And the flowers breathed fragrance round him,

And the young shoots bowed before him.

, Pohjola’s old Mistress,

In her ears received the tidings

That in Väinölä it prospered,

And that Kalevala had flourished,

Through the fragments of the Sampo,

Fragments of the pictured cover.

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text: Kalevala (Kirby 1907)/Runo 44

title: Kalevala (Kirby 1907)/Runo 44


text:
Page:Model engine construction, with practical instructions to artificers and amateurs (IA modelengineconst00alex).pdf/256

MODEL ENGINE CONSTRUCTION.

232 imitations and not real tanks for holding water: both are made of tin. Each consists of an outer plate, which by means of angles is bolted to the side frames; the ends (the front one fits the con- vexity of the boiler) and the top are soldered to the outer plate, the inner edges rest against the boiler barrel. An inside plate only extends from

Fig. 54.

the hind end up to the fire-box on the foot-plate at both sides. The sides of the cab are soldered to the top of the tanks, fitting over the saddle- plate in front.

The lamp is made of tin, and this slides along a groove underneath the coal-bunker and foot-plate, between the wheel frames; the neck, which passes


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 C recommended by the CIE [53] as representative of average daylight is to be used.

6.1.3. Determination of a Munsell Notation or Renotation. Select the two adjacent Munsell constant-hue charts between which the hue of the sample falls. Place these on each side of the sample and cover each with a small neutral gray shield, or if using the large triple-aperture shield (shown in fig. 5), place them under the holes in the side flaps and the sample under the central opening. The Munsell hue, value, and chroma notations for a sample are found by interpolation or extrapolation among the standards of the Munsell charts; most operators prefer to estimate first the value, then the chroma., and finally the hue. Tins is done as follows: look at the three colored rectangles (1 sample and two standards) and see whether the sample is lighter or darker than the standards. Move the chart whose hue is nearer to that of the sample up and down from one value level to another and find the two values between which that of the sample falls. Next esti- mate to the nearest tenth of a value step the value of the sample relative to these two levels. Record this number in front of a shilling mark as, for example, 3.0/ or 6.2/.

Then move the charts sideways so as to present successively colors of the same Munsell hue and value but of different chroma, and by similar inter- polation determine the Munsell chroma of the color. In this comparison pay chief attention to the Munsell standards having values nearest that of the sample, and secondary attention to those next nearest. Although all Munsell samples of the same chroma notation are intended to yield in daylight color perceptions of the same saturation, sometimes a slightly different estimate of chroma will be obtained by comparison with the standards of the next nearest value. In such an instance, report an average nota- tion for chroma. Note that there are two chroma

steps between each two adjacent columns of Munsell samples. Estimate the chroma to the nearest fifth step and record this number after the value notation and the shilling mark, as, for example, 3. 0/6.0 or 6. 2/4. 6.

Now with the corresponding Munsell standards of value and chroma closest to those of the sample showing through the apertures of the shield, estimate the hue of the sample relative to that of the two Munsell charts. Remember that each two adjacent charts are two and a half hue steps apart. Record the hue estimated by this interpolation to the nearest one-half step in front of the value/chroma designation and separated from it by a space; for example, 7Y 3. 0/6.0 or 9.5YR 6. 2/4. 6. If the value and chroma of the sample do not correspond very closely to those of any of the Munsell standards, it is advisable to repeat the interpolation for hue with the next closest pair of standards and take an average nota- tion for the hue.

Check the Munsell notation, particularly hue and value, with the charts interchanged.

For most color descriptions, the ISCC-NBS color names derived from the Munsell book notations as determined above are sufficiently applicable. If greater accuracy is demanded, determine the chroma- ticity coordinates, x, y and daylight reflectance Y corresponding to this Munsell notation from figures 2 to 8 in the paper by Kelly, Gibson, and Nickerson [30]. From these values, determine the Munsell renotation from figures 1 to 9 of the paper by New- ha.ll, Nickerson, and Judd [42],

6.1.4. The Color Designation. After the Munsell notation for the sample has been determined, select the color-name chart referring to the Munsell hue of the sample (see Munsell hue designation near the upper right hand corner of the color-name chart). Plot the value and chroma of the sample on this chart and record the name of the block in which this point falls as the color designation of the sample. If, however, the point falls on a hue, value, or chroma boundary, the names of all of the blocks touching the point apply to the sample. Any one, two or all of the names may be used as the designation of the sample depending on the type of name desired.

Different degrees of precision of designation are possible under this system. For more precise designa- tion than is possible by color names alone, specifica- tion by the Munsell notation itself can be used. For the colors of solids, powders and some colored liquids or glasses, the complete color designations (hue name and modifiers) defined herein should be used. For the colors of microscopic structures, most liquids and most chemical tests, the hue names alone are sufficient. Where two or more hue names are used, they should be arranged in sequence according to the Munsell hue sequence (red-yellow-green-blue-purple-red).

6.1.5. An Example. Suppose that the hue of the sample falls between the 7.5YR and 10YR charts and that its value falls between the 7 and 8 value levels, but nearer the 7, and is estimated as 7.2. Suppose further that its chroma is found to be 6

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 These constant-value charts show at a glance for all Munsell chromas what ranges of Munsell hue are referred to by the various hue names of this system; this information is of course obtainable, though less conveniently, from the color-name charts themselves.

6. Color Designations From the Munsell Book of Color for Diverse Types of Specimens

The procedure for comparing a specimen with the Munsell Book of Color depends importantly on specimen type, whether the specimen is solid or liquid, opaque or transparent, large or small, flat or of irregular shape, and so on.

6.1. Dry Opaque Powders (Grain Size Less Than 1 mm)

6.1.1. Preparation of Sample. The sample is placed slightly heaped up in a clean holder (see fig. 3) at least 2 mm deep. Over this is placed a clear- colorless cover-glass about 1 mm in thickness which is pressed down with a rotary motion and held hr place by friction between the holder and the cover- glass mount.

For very fine powders, the pressure exerted upon the sample by the holder becomes critical and may require that a special holder be designed. In the measurement of the colors of cosmetic powders, for instance, color changes many times greater than the allowable tolerances may result from inadvertent pressure on the sample.

6.1.2. Lighting and Viewing Conditions. Since the color designations conform to usage only for specimens viewed in daylight, this source is to be used in the color-comparison work. A table placed by a window so that light reaches the table top from the operator’s left or right chiefly from the sky and chiefly at angles centering on 45° from the horizontal is recommended. A north window is best because no special precautions are usually required to elimi- nate direct sunlight. A canopy of black cloth, preferably black velvet, should be hung above the sample on the side opposite the operator hi such a position as to be imaged in the mirror surface of the cover glass; such an arrangement eliminates errors from unwanted admixture of ceiling light reflected from the cover glass. The sample and standard placed on the table top are viewed nearly along the perpendicular to the surfaces, that is, just enough off perpendicular to avoid having the operator’s face mirrored in the cover glass. Illumination at 45° and perpendicular viewing are recommended by the CIE [53]. A skylight or source of artificial daylight (fig. 4) located above the sample may also be used, but in such an arrangement the angle of view should be approximately at 45° from the horizontal, and the black cloth should be hung vertically beside the sample opposite the observer. Perpendicular illu- mination with viewing at 45° gives results equivalent to the recommended CIE method.

It is important that the illumination of sample and working standards be closely the same both in amount and quality; otherwise different Munsell notations will be found by interchanging them. Even with closely uniform illumination it is good practice to make this interchange as a check during the comparison.

In any computations involving the spectral energy distribution of the source, that of standard source

title: Page:NBS Circular 553.djvu/16


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 two-word name making five additional Munsell hues: yellow-red, green-yellow, blue-green, purple-blue, and red-purple. These ten are called the major hues and to each one is assigned, consecutively on the equator of the solid, ten divisions numbered from one to ten (see pages 31 to 34), giving a 100-point hue scale with each major Munsell hue placed at the middle of its 10-point spread, or at division 5, as 5R, 5YR, 5Y, 5GY, and so forth. In this way, there are 10 steps between each major hue indicating- graduated steps of hue around the hue circuit. Ten secondary Munsell hues are included in the system, namely: 10R, 10YR, 10Y and so on, one between each adjacent pair of major hues. These secondary hues fall on the number ten positions of each set of ten hue divisions. Therefore, each major Munsell hue is understood to be at division five whereas each secondary hue is understood to be at division ten of the preceding major hue. The Munsell Color Com- pany has now produced similar charts that come at 2.5 and 7.5 or midway between each pair of adjacent primary and secondary charts [13]. Each of these charts consists of colored rectangles all of the same Munsell hue arranged in rows and columns, light colors near the top of the chart, dark near the bottom, grayish colors to the left and strong to the right.

The Munsell scale of value exhibits 10 visually equal steps ranging between black (represented by the notation N 0/) and white (N 10/), the intermedi- ate chips being dark to light grays. The Munsell value of a color is the same as that of the gray sample in the same row of the constant-hue charts, and is recorded in front of a shilling mark, thus 6 value is written 6/.

Munsell chroma is the degree of difference of a color from a gray of the same value and is indicated by steps numbered outward from the neutral axis. Therefore all samples in any vertical column of the constant-hue charts have the same Munsell chroma. Munsell chroma notations follow the shilling mark, thus 2 chroma is written /2. Colors of one Munsell hue are therefore represented in the solid by points falling in a single one of the vertical planes inter- secting at the black-white axis. Colors of one value are represented by points in any one horizontal plane; and colors of one chroma are represented by points in any one of the series of right circular cylin- ders concentric about the black-white axis.

The complete notation is written in the order: Hue Value/Chroma or H V/C with a space between the H and the V/C; for example, 5R 6/3 means a red of value 6 and chroma 3, and 6YR 6. 8/6. 6 means a yellow-red (orange) of value 6.8 and chroma 6.6 whose hue departs from the 5YR chart toward the 7.5YR chart by two-fifths of the hue difference between those charts.

4.2. Basic Plan of Forming the Designations

The hue name of the color designation is intended to indicate a range of hue represented by an angle around the neutral axis in the color solid, and other words in the designation are to indicate ranges of value and chroma for this hue range. The system of modifiers is indicated in figure 2 together with the

CD

white

-C

5

J c

T

very pale

very light

>

O

cp >.

>*

a

CP >

(v. p.)

(v.l.)

brilliant

£ — o>

light -i

(1. — i si

pale

(p.)

light

(brill.)

>

o

CP

e>

a >

5.^

light grayish (1. gy.)

(1.)

mediurr

(med

-ish

(-ish

grayish

m ode rate

stron g

gray

Gy.)

sh gray

h Gy.)

(gy.)

(m.)

(s.)

dark

(d.

dark -i:

(d.-is

dark grayish (d. gy.)

dark

(d.)

deep

black (Bl.)

-ish black (-ish Bl.)

blackish

(bl.)

very dark (v.d.)

very deep (v. deep)

Soturotion (Munsell Chroma)

Figure 2. Scheme of the hue modifiers, the “-ish” grays and the neutrals with their modifiers.

Abbreviations are given in parentheses.

approved abbreviations. Deviations from the mod- erate range in value are indicated by the terms light and dark; deviations in chroma by the terms grayish, strong and vivid; and deviations in both by the terms light grayish or pale, dark grayish, black- ish, brilliant and deep The whole color designa- tion, hue name and modifiers, therefore defines a block of the color solid bounded by vertical planes of constant hue, horizontal planes of constant value, and cylindrical surfaces of constant chroma. The color solid is divided into 262 such blocks including the grays and “-isli” grays with 5 cylindrical blocks for black, grays, and white making 267 color-name blocks in all.

4.3. Divisions of the Hue Circle

The 1933 recommendations by I. H. Godlove in- cluded a 20-point division of the hue circle for colors of moderate saturation, a 10-point division for weak colors and a 5-point division for very weak colors. These recommendations were followed closely at first with the thought that each color designation should refer to about the same fraction of the Mun- sell hue circuit. However, it was soon evident that deviations from this plan were necessary to make the designations accord with usage at that time in the National Formulary and the United States Pharmacopoeia, and more recently with usage in the textile industries and by the general public. Most of these improvements were achieved by intro- ducing the terms pink, orange, brown, and olive

302160—55 2

3

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 and the elimination of the double terms blue-green, purple-blue, and red-purple. Unlike the terms green and blue, which are hue names applying to all lightnesses and saturations, the term yellow is commonly used to designate not only a certain hue range but also a high lightness range within this hue range. Dark colors of the same hue as yellow are commonly called olive or olive brown. Common usage limits the term orange even more strictly; it is taken to refer not simply to a range of yellow-red hues but also to a medium- lightness range and a high saturation range. Colors of the same hue but of lower lightness and saturation than the orange range are called browns. To follow common usage in this respect, there is included a series of hue names applicable to dark colors only, as follows: reddish brown, brown, yellow- ish brown, olive brown, olive, and olive green. As a further concession to common usage, there is also included the following series of hue names appli- cable to very light colors only: purplish pink, pink and yellowish pink. The chief series of hue names to which these two subsidiary series have been fitted follows closely the 20-point division recommended by I. H. Godlove but now consists of 17 hue ranges resulting from the changes recommended by the present committee. The terms brownish pink and brownish orange have been added. The chief series now includes the names red, reddish orange, orange, orange yellow, yellow, greenish yellow, yellow green, yellowish green, green, bluish green, greenish blue, blue, purplish blue, violet, purple, reddish purple, and purplish red. The total number of designations has been reduced from 319 in 1939 to 267 in the present revision. 4.4. Some Unavoidable Disadvantages A frequent objection to this system of color desig- nations is that each designation refers to a group of distinguishable colors rather than to a single color. Since there are about ten million surface colors dis- tinguishable in daylight by the trained human eye and less than 300 color designations in this system, it is obvious that the average color range denoted by a single designation must contain nearly 40,000 distinguishable colors. If it is important to make distinctions among some of these thousands of colors bearing by this system identical designations, resort must be had to one of the many numerical systems of color specification available. Preeminent among these is the colorimetric coordinate system recom- mended in 1931 by the International Commission on Illumination (CIE) [16, 24, 53]. A corollary to this objection is that there are many pairs of easily distinguishable colors which receive by this system the same designation, while there are also many pairs that can scarcely be distinguished which receive different designations. This property is, of course, an unavoidable result of dividing the color solid into an arbitrary number of blocks, one for each of the 267 designations. Analogous dis- advantages result from identifying the time of events according to date; two events occurring on the same 4 other hand two scarcely separable midnight events may have to be assigned different dates. Just as identifying the time of an event by giving the date has proved to be useful, so it is with a system of color designations such as this. 5. Definition of the Color Ranges The definitions of the boundaries of the 267 color name blocks or ranges have been carried out by the subcommittee of the Inter-Society Color Council in terms of the Munsell renotations [41, 42] which approximate more closely the ideal psychological color system than does the 1929 edition of the Munsell Book of Color. The subcommittee checked the color boundaries by observation of all of the color standards obtain- able for which Munsell renotations were available. These included the chips of the Munsell Book of Dictionary of Color [44], the ninth edition of the Color [42], some of the chips of the Maerz and Paul Standard Color Card of America published by the Textile Color Card Association of the United States Inc. [54], and the Color Harmony Manual [11]. The boundaries for the color-name blocks found by the subcommittee to accord with common usage are given in 31 color-name charts (pages 16 to 31). They are more complicated than those of the original ISCC-NBS system and differ impor- tantly from one level of Munsell value to another. The changes of the boundaries with Munsell value are shown in seven constant-value charts (pages 31 to 34) on which the Munsell hue is indicated in the 100-point scale. The chart for value 4.75 refers to colors of medium lightness and shows 17 hue ranges, the other constant-value charts refer to lighter or darker colors than the first chart as in- dicated by their respective value notations. The value levels of these charts were picked so that every different hue or chroma boundary in the 31 color- name charts would show on one of them. The hues are indicated on these constant-value charts by the abbreviations shown in table 1. TABLE 1.-Abbreviations for the hue names used in the ISCC- NBS system Name red reddish orange. orange_ orange yellow_ yellow. greenish yellow. yellow green. yellowish green. green. bluish green. greenish blue_ blue_ purplish blue. violet. Abbre- viation R ro 0 OY Y gY YG yG G bG gB pB Name purple_ reddish purple. purplish red purplish pink. pink. yellowish pink. brownish pink. brownish orange_ reddish brown_ brown__ yellowish brown_ olive brown_. olive- olive green. Abbre- viation rP PR pPk Pk y Pk brPk bro rBr Br y Br OlBr ΟΙ OIG
 * date may be separated by many hours, but on the

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 as “the ordinary observing conditions”. Under these conditions the ISCC-NBS color names agree well with common usage. Use of other light sources (such as incandescent-lamp light or light from the mercury arc) will yield object colors not correctly described by these names.

In contradistinction to the color-name charts pub- lished in RP1239 [27] which were based on Munsell book notations, the charts in this revision are based on Munsell renotations. However, the color names resulting from the use of these charts with Munsell book notations will be sufficiently appropriate for all usual purposes. If the precise designation is desired, the conversion from notation to renotation may be read from Final Report of the OSA Subcommittee on the Spacing of the Munsell Colors as in section 6.1.3 [42] and the color name obtained in the usual way.

3. Applications

Aside from the use of the ISCC-NBS system of color names in the National Formulary and the United States Pharmacopoeia for which they were originally developed [29], they are finding increasing use in fields where extreme accuracy or sales appeal are not needed but where a simple, definite, easily understood color designation is desired. Publica- tions in the fields of ceramics [45], chemistry [33, 50], dermatology [2], dyestuffs [46], lights [28], mica [17], interior and exterior painting [3], paper [26], plastics [5, 6], rocks [40], soils [43, 47, 51, 55], stone [31], tex- tiles [54], and general description [1, 18, 25], will give some idea of the type of applications for which these names are used.

4. Logic of Designations

To fulfill the requirements of the problem stated by E. N. Gathercoal, especially comprehension by the public, it was decided to use the simplest color desig- nations possible but to define the individual color ranges so designated as accurately as possible. The hue names were chosen for simplicity and descriptive- ness: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, purple, pink, brown, and olive. Adjectival forms of these hue names are used in the compound designations such as reddish orange, greenish yellow, purplish red. These hue names are preceded by appropriate mod- ifiers (light, dark, pale, deep and so on) also chosen for simplicity and easy understanding. Therefore, the designations for all but very grayish colors consist of a hue name preceded by appropriate modifiers. The designations for very grayish colors consist of a noun (white, gray, or black) with modifiers appropri- ate to the lightness and hue of the colors, such as dark reddish gray or yelloAvish white.

4.1. The Color Solid

In order to understand the color-name blocks used in this system, it will be best to visualize the psy- chological color solid as shown in figure 1. Imagine a grapefruit set on the table so its pithy core is verti- cal. Imagine also that the top of this core is white

WHITE

Figure 1. Dimensions of the color solid.

and that the bottom is black with the intermediate grays in between. Next imagine the spectrum hues stretched around the equator of this grapefruit with the nonspectrum violet to red region filled in with the proper purple colors. Then fill this solid with all colors that a surface may have, thinking of each surface color as a point, with the light colors near the top of the solid and dark ones near the bottom. Grayish colors will naturally be near the core with the more saturated colors near the peel. In such a solid, lightness will be measured up from the base plane of the table, or black, to the top of the core, or white. Saturation will be measured outward from the core with the strongest colors on the peel, and hue will be measured by angle around the core. Fur- ther imagine that all colors falling on one of the vertical planes intersecting in the black-white axis will be of the same hue, all samples falling in one of the horizontal planes through the solid will be of the same lightness, and all colors falling on concentric cylinders about the black-white axis will be of the same saturation.

A. H. Munsell envisioned a system of color stand- ards [10, 13, 30, 35, 36, 48, 49] embracing all colors organized on this plan. Under ordinary observing conditions, the “Munsell value” of a sample corre- lates closely with the lightness of the color perceived to belong to the sample, while the “Munsell chroma” correlates well with the saturation of the color per- ceived to belong to the sample [19, page 47].

Now imagine this Munsell color solid with the primary hues evenly spaced around the equator giv- ing the closed series red, yellow, green, blue, purple and red, with their intermediates. The hue half-way between each two of these primary hues is given a

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