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THE IVORY TOWER useful friend's perhaps supposing him a vulgar voluptuary, or at least a mere gaping maw, cynically, which amounted to say frivolously, indifferent to everything but the general fact of his windfall. Strange that it should be impossible in any particular whatever to inform or to correct Mr. Crick, who sat unapproachable in the midst of the only knowledge that concerned him.

He couldn't help feeling it conveyed in the very breath of the summer airs that played about him, to his fancy, in a spirit of frolic still lighter and quicker than they had breathed in other climes, he couldn't help almost seeing it as the spray of sea-nymphs, or hearing it as the sounded horn of tritons, emerging, to cast their spell, from the foam-flecked tides around, that he was regarded as a creature rather unnaturally "quiet" there on his averted verandahs and in his darkened halls, even at moments when quite immense things, by his own measure, were happening to him. Everything, simply, seemed to be happening, and happening all at once—as he could say to himself, for instance, by the fact of such a mere matter as his pulling up at some turn of his now renewedly ceaseless pacing to take in he could scarce have said what huge though soft collective rumble, what thick though dispersed exhalation, of the equipped and appointed life, the life that phrased itself with sufficient assurance as the multitudinous throb of Newport, borne toward 240


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146 to Wittenberg. He went to this city against the express wishes of his superiors. To satisfy them he first visited the orthodox Catholic universities of Cologne and Louvain, but the writings of Luther attracted him with irresistible power to Wittenberg, the head-quarters of the Reformation. Here, according to his epitaph, "he listened for more than a year with incredible eagerness to Luther himself" and was completely converted to the new doctrine. After his return to his own country he openly undertook the task of reformation in the very spirit of Luther. We cannot here enter into a detailed account of all the hardships he had to endure and the struggles through which he secured final victory to the cause of the Reformation in Denmark, and we must confine ourselves to mentioning that as the leader of the Protestants he made his confession of faith in their behalf at the "Herredag " (assembly of nobles and prelates) in Copenhagen in 1530, and replied to twenty-seven articles of faith by which the adherents of papacy sought to combat him. He also participated in the translation of the Bible into Danish, and the five books of Moses were translated by him from the Hebrew text (1535). Besides, he published several religious works, and among them a postil. This collection of sermons, which from cover to cover affords proof of the eminent position Hans Tausen must have occupied as a preacher, a fact which may also be inferred from the great results he achieved, gives us an interesting view of the state of the church generally during the reformation period. The author claims to have had in view, when he prepared the book, not only the needs of the laity, but also "the good and the advantage of those persons who stand in need of plain and simple instruction. * * * If they have the will, they may glean and learn so much from these sermons that, after teaching themselves during the whole week, they may afterward teach their parishioners on Sunday." As long as the struggle for ecclesiastical reform continued, he was fully occupied with the duties of his clerical office; but when the new doctrine had been established,


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THE IVORY TOWER him from vague regions, from behind and beyond his temporary blest barriers, and representing for the first time in his experience an appeal directed at him from a source not somewhat shabbily single. An impression like that was in itself an event—so repeatedly in his other existence (it was already his quite unconnectedly other) had the rumour of the world, the voice of society, the harmonies of possession, been charged, for his sensibility, with reminders which, so far from suggesting association, positively waved him off from it. Mr. Betterman's funeral, for all the rigour of simplicity imposed on it by his preliminary care, had enacted itself in a ponderous, numerous, in fact altogether swarming and resounding way; the old local cemetery on the seaward-looking hillside, as Gray seemed to identify it, had served for the final scene, and our young man's sense of the whole thing reached its finest point in an unanswered question as to whether the New York business world or the New York newspaper interest were the more copiously present. The business world broke upon him during the recent rites in large smooth tepid waves—he was conscious of a kind of generalised or, as they seemed to be calling it, standardised face, as of sharpness without edge, save when edge was unexpectedly improvised, bent upon him for a hint of what might have been better expressed could it but have been expressed humorously; while the 241


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THE IVORY TOWER interest only fed the more full, he felt even at the time, from the perfectly bare plate offered its flocking young emissaries by the most recognising eye at once and the most deprecating dumbness that he could command.

He had asked Vinty, on the morrow of Vinty's evening visit, to "act" for him in so far as this might be; upon which Vinty had said gaily—he was unexceptionally gay now—"Do you mean as your best man at your marriage to the bride who is so little like St. Francis's? much as you yourself strike me, you know, as resembling the man of Assisi." Vinty, at his great present ease, constantly put things in such wonderful ways; which were nothing, however, to the way he mostly did them during the days he was able to spare before going off again to other calls, other performances in other places, braver and breezier places on the bolder northern coast, it mostly seemed: his allusions to which excited absolutely the more curious interest in his friend, by an odd law, in proportion as he sketched them, under pressure, as probably altogether alien to the friend's sympathies. That was to be for the time, by every indication, his amusing "line"—his taking so confident and insistent a view of what it must be in Gray's nature and tradition to like or not to like that, as our young man for that matter himself assured him, he couldn't have invented a more successfully insidious way of 242


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Rh and when the Copenhagen University had again been opened (in 1537), he resumed his teaching and lectured on the Hebrew language until 1541, when he was made Bishop of Ribe. Here he continued his literary activity and also translated the whole Bible from the original text, a work which has not been published and which with other of his productions is now lost.

Besides the persons already named who strove to promote and establish the Reformation by their writings, there were, of course, many others who were of no small significance to their age, but who sink into comparative insignificance when compared with those great characters. Among their adversaries there was only one prominent individual, Povel Helgesen (Paulus Eliæ). He was born about the year 1480 at Varberg, in the present Swedish province, Halland. His father was a Dane and his mother a Swede. For some time he was a monk in the Carmelite convent of Helsingör, but later in the reign of Christian II he became a lector in the University of Copenhagen. He is known by the nickname "Vendekaabe" (Versipellis, turn-coat), because he at first enthusiastically favored the ecclesiastic reform, but when it came, he assumed an attitude of hostility toward it. He was one of the first to oppose the objectionable sale of indulgences, even anticipating Luther himself, with whom he agreed in many respects. It is also said of him that when Magister Martin Reinhard at the summons of Christian II came from Wittenberg to Copenhagen to preach the new doctrine, he served the latter, who was ignorant of the Danish language, in the capacity of interpreter of his sermons to the people; but there are no conclusive proofs of this. At all events it seemed at one time as if this man, whose learning and eloquence had deservedly given him a wide reputation, and who was regarded as one of the ornaments of the Danish university, would become one of the leading spirits of the Reformation. But it was not long before Helgesen relinquished the cause which he had so ardently supported in the beginning.


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 A WEEKLY

VOLUME XIII.

MACMILLAN AND CO

1876


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148 He declared that Luther in his attack on the Roman church went much further than he could follow him. As the fundamental principles of the Reformation developed, it became manifest that it aimed at nothing less than a complete overthrow of the existing church, and to this Povel Helgesen could not lend his support. He was in favor of a reformation on the basis of the old church by simply removing the abuses which in course of time had crept in, but he was unwilling to give up the fundamental standpoint of the Catholic church. He therefore abandoned that course of progress which he had previously entered upon, and became, generally speaking, an ardent and violent champion of Catholicism, and this in spite of the many abuses which were repulsive to him. Although he deeply sympathized with the Reformation in many respects, still he thought it was essentially a dangerous undertaking on account of its revolutionary character, and that it consequently ought to be arrested as soon as possible. With voice and pen Helgesen endeavored to stem the ever advancing tide, and on the invitation of the Catholic bishops he travelled through the country, seeking with his sermons to bring the people into the right way, but in vain. He simply made himself the object of hatred and scorn, for at this stage of the struggle his course could only be looked upon as an apostacy induced by base motives. Judged by history, however, which is independent of all party-passions, Povel Helgesen stands a highly gifted man, who throughout his whole life acted purely from honest convictions. It may be said of Povel Helgesen that, notwithstanding his great talents, he was not abreast with his times and did not comprehend what his age needed, though his course was clear and logical enough from his standpoint, and he certainly was consistent in the violent warfare in which he engaged in behalf of his principles. In his many published works we find him an equally honest and impartial warrior. The most of them deal with religious controversies, and some of them are addressed personally to some of the reformers. In con-


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THE IVORY TOWER creating an appetite than by passing under a fellow's nose every sort of whiff of the indigestible. One thing at least was clear, namely: that, let his presumption of a comrade's susceptibilities, his possible reactions, under general or particular exposure, approve itself or not, the extent to which this free interpreter was going personally to signify for the savour of the whole stretched there as a bright assurance. Thus he was all the while acting indeed—acting so that fond formulations of it could only become in the promptest way mere redundancies of reference; he acted because his approach, his look, his touch made somehow, by their simply projecting themselves, a definite difference for any question, great or small, in the least subject to them; and this, after the most extraordinary fashion, not in the least through his pressing or interfering or even so much as intending, but just as a consequence of his having a sense and an intelligence of the given affair, such as it might be, to which, once he was present at it, he was truly ashamed not to conform. That concentrated passage between the two men while the author of their situation was still unburied would of course always hover to memory's eye like a votive object in the rich gloom of a chapel; but it was now disconnected, attached to its hook once for all, its whole meaning converted with such small delay into working, playing force and multiplied tasteable fruit. 243


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THE IVORY TOWER Quiet as he passed for keeping himself, by the impression I have noted, how could Gray have felt more plunged in history, how could he by his own sense more have waked up to it each morning and gone to bed with it each night, sat down to it whenever he did sit down, which was never for long, whether at a meal, at a book, at a letter, or at the wasted endeavour to become, by way of a change, really aware of his consciousness, than through positively missing as he did the hint of anything in particular to do?—missing and missing it all the while and yet at no hour paying the least of the penalties that are supposed to attend the drop of responsibility and the substituted rule of fatuity. How couldn't it be agitation of a really sublime order to have it come over one that the personage in the world one must most resemble at such a pitch would be simply, at one's choice, the Kaiser or the Czar, potentates who only know their situation is carried on by attestation of the fact that push it wherever they will they never find it isn't? Thus they are referred to the existence of machinery, the working of which machinery is answered for, they may feel, whenever their eyes rest on one of those figures, ministerial or ceremonial, who may be, as it is called, in waiting. Mr. Crick was in waiting, Horton Vint was in waiting, Rosanna Gaw even, at this moment a hundred miles away, was in waiting, and so was Davey Bradham, though with but a single 244


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THE IVORY TOWER at the palace as yet to his credit. Neither Horton nor Mr. Crick, it was true, were more materially, more recurrently present than a fellow's nerves, for the wonder of it all, could bear; but what was it but just being Czar or Kaiser to keep thrilling on one's own side before the fact that this made no difference? Vulgar reassurance was the greatest of vulgarities; monarchs could still be irresponsible, thanks to their ministers' not being, and Gray repeatedly asked himself how he should ever have felt as he generally did if it hadn't been so absolutely exciting that while the scattered moments of Horton's presence and the fitful snatches of telephonic talk with him lasted the gage of protection, perfectly certain patronising protection, added a still pleasanter light to his eye and ring to his voice, casual and trivial as he clearly might have liked to keep these things. Great monarchies might be "run," but great monarchs weren't—unless of course often by the favourite or the mistress; and one hadn't a mistress yet, goodness knew, and if one was threatened with a favourite it would be but with a favourite of the people too.

History and the great life surged in upon our hero through such images as these at their fullest tide, finding him out however he might have tried to hide from them, and shaking him perhaps even with no livelier question than when it occurred to him for the first time within the week, oddly 245


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{|
 * هـ
 * ـهـ
 * ـه
 * ه
 * h
 * يـ
 * ـيـ
 * ـى
 * ى
 * y
 * }
 * y
 * }

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1. In initial position, vowels are preceded by an alif. This alif is not represented in romanization:

2. As seen in the examples above, vowel harmony, which is found in Modern Turkish, applies to Azerbaijani as well.

When romanizing vowels represented by َ or َى, ı is used rather than i or ī when required by vowel harmony.


text: The Purple Pennant

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Rh troversy he was full of fiery passion, and his pen poured forth venom and gall upon his enemies; but his position was one eminently calculated to embitter his feelings, for he fought single-handed against all, opposing Catholics as well as Protestants, as he discovered serious faults in both parties. He by no means ceased to expose those abuses in the Catholic church which at an earlier time had offended him, and he continued to denounce the avarice, pride and immorality of the upper class of the clergy, and the result was that the Catholics looked on him with suspicion, while in the eyes of the Lutherans he was merely a contemptible renegade. In the general opinion of the people he was and remained a "Vendekaabe," and so in spite of the great talents he possessed he achieved but little in the way of stemming the tide of contemporary events.

Paul Helgesen, who also took part in the ecclesiastical controversy that was raging in Sweden,—for instance, by addressing a letter to Gustav Vasa—did not confine his literary activity to religious works, and there is no doubt that the so-called Skiby Chronicle was produced by him. It continued down to 1534, and is the only historical work of importance from that time. On account of its peculiar blending of the objective enumeration of events in the form of annals with a passionately subjective criticism of persons and things, it furnishes an exceedingly interesting mirror in which are reflected the history of the age, and at the same time the different moods of the author contemplating the political and ecclesiastical events.

The influence of the Reformation on the development of poetical literature was not particularly great, though it may have been the cause of an increase in the production of poetry in the Danish tongue. By the leaders of the Reformation and by a few others a number of hymns were written partly on the basis of the psalm literature begun near the close of


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18 his pertinacious opposition yielded to the arguments of Pecquet, express joy at coming to the knowledge before he died of the two important discoveries of the circulation and the absorbent system, adding, that he looked upon these two truths, which prove one another, ‘‘as the two poles upon which all medicine for the future ought to turn .”

Surgery appears to have had no earlier representative in this country, of any note, than, of Newark, who removed to London in 1370. Dr. Freind speaks of him as ‘‘ the first man who revived the art of surgery in this nation.” He appears to have had an empirical reputation for the treatment of fistula.

, the most eminent London surgeon of the sixteenth century, had served in the army of Henry VIII. at Montreuil in 1544, and in that of king Philip at St. Quintin in 1557, and was still living in 1586. He was a considerable, if not an original writer, on practical subjects, and dwelt especially on the methodical and scientific study of the art, which he displayed a laudable anxiety to rescue from illiterate and ignorant pretenders, by whom it was then, as it has since been, degraded.

This reasonable solicitude appears to have dictated the original Charter of Incorporation of Edward IV.,

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THE HUNTERIAN ORATION. 19 in the preamble of which occurs the following passage:

"Also, how by the ignorance, negligence and unskilfulness of some such barbers, as well freemen of our aforesaid city, as of others being foreign surgeons, and not freemen of the same city, and daily resorting to the same city, and not being sufficiently skilled in the mistery of surgery; very many and almost infinite misfortunes have hitherto happened to divers of our liege people by such barbers and surgeons, through their defect of knowledge in healing and curing wounds, blows, hurts and other infirmities; by means whereof some of our liege people have gone the way of all flesh, and others, for the same cause, are so unsound and incurable as to be forsaken by all men; and it is to be feared that the like evils, or worse, may hereafter ensue in this behalf, unless some fit redress in the premises is by us speedily provided.”

, a member of the Surgeons’ Company, was elected surgeon to St. Bartholomew’s Hospital in 1612, and published, with a collection of his several works in 1639, a treatise on Gangrene and Sphacelus. He recommends amputation through the mortified in preference to the sound parts, having been first led to adopt this practice in a case without alternative, and asserts that he had since employed it in more than a hundred instances, in not one of which did

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[The Oration is printed as it was written; a few passages of detail were omitted in the delivery.]

Note A.—Accorpine to Rufus Ephesius, Herophilus marked the difference between the neura, i.e. distinguished the nerves proper from tendon and ligament, as subservient to sensation and voluntary motion, and originating partly from the brain and in part from the spinal chord. He also described, as Galen informs us, the lacteal absorbents as veins of the mesentery not passing to the liver, like its other vessels, but terminating in certain glandular bodies. He gave the name of ‘arterial vein’ to the pulmonary artery, and of ‘venous arteries’ to the pulmonary veins.

Nemesius, Columbus, Servetus, Czesalpinus, Acquapendente, and others were anticipators of the discovery of the circulation, though ignorant of it. The structure of the heart and its valves, the valves of the veins, the pulmonary circulation, and the anastomosis of arteries are accurately described by them, taken collectively; their descriptions stop short at the intercourse or communication between the arteries and veins, so that they were thrown upon the notion of an euripus, or flux and reflux.

Note B.—"Cato was a worse quack than Dr. Hill: his medical receipts, which may be found in his treatise ‘of country affairs,’ are either very simple or very dangerous; and fasting, which he exploded, is better than all his prescriptions.” Langhornes’ Plutarch, note in life of Cato the Censor.

Note C.—"Lanfranc,” says Dr. Freind, “is very much against cutting for the stone, because he had seen instances

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150 the Catholic time. A still greater number were translated from German, but in all of them the poetical element is utterly smothered by moral and dogmatic rules and statements. Little or no attention was given to the form. A spirit of exaltation was fashionable among the evangelical people of that time, and whoever happened to be in an exalted state of mind sang as best he could. Whether his hymns pleased the congregation, and whether they were to be preserved and printed, depended on altogether different circumstances than those of a more or less artistic form. It is, indeed, difficult to understand how the greater part of all these hymns were preserved from age to age, for neither in their external form nor in their contents can they be said to differ much from ordinary prose.

Of greater interest are the political poems, particularly the biting on the papacy and on Catholicism and its institutions in general. One of the best ones is Hans Tausen's allegorical song on truth and falsehood. It represents how the former is everywhere banished by the latter, and by the monks who are determined to starve truth to death, how it is kept imprisoned until freedom is, after all, at last promised to it. This poem is vastly superior to Tausen's other poetical performances, and when we consider the pithy, pregnant language in which it is written and the fidelity with which the main thought is sustained to the end, it will be found to be without a peer in Denmark's satirical literature of this period. It has evidently been composed in a moment when the religious and ethical enthusiasm turned the warrior into a true poet,—perhaps during some lull following the great storms in which the cause he fought for had suffered the most imminent peril, probably about the year 1533, when by "special grace" he had been sentenced by the bishops to resign forever his office of preacher, and when he had revenged himself by undertaking the defence of one of those


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art thou, Boy?—Heaven, heaven! the babe is playing
 * Even on the margin of the dizzy steep!

Haste—hush! a breath, my agony betraying,
 * And he is gone!—beneath him rolls the deep!

Could I but keep the bursting cry suppress'd, And win him back in silence to my breast!

Thou'rt safe!—Thou com'st, with smiles my fond arms meeting,
 * Blest, fearless child!—I, I have tasted death!

Nearer! that I may feel thy warm heart beating!
 * And see thy bright hair floating in my breath!

Nearer! to still my bosom's yearning pain,— I clasp thee now, mine own! thou'rt here again!


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34 submerged ; and, by frequent allusion to the many thousand years which must have elapsed while the earth was the theatre of these changes, he seems to have fully appreciated the necessity of an ample allowance of past time to account philosophically for the changes in question. Mr. Clift, who transcribed the manuscript of this paper, informs me, that it was originally dictated, not "many thousand years,” but "many thousand centuries," and he preserves the copy of the letter of the friend of Hunter, who advised the change of expression in conformity with the popular notion of the world’s age. Geologists now know that the latter expression is nearer the truth. I will only further remark, that, of three hypotheses which he suggests for the occurrence of the countless bony remains in the Gailenreuth caverns, he inclines to that which has been adopted by the distinguished Professor Buckland for the analogous collection in the caves of Kirkdale, viz. that the caves were the habitual retreat of the extinct species while living; that there they brought the carcases of their prey, and fed; and that there they came and died.

This interesting paper, if candidly perused, must, I think, be considered as the dawning of that glorious daylight with which fossil anatomy, the hand-maid of geology, has since overspread the summits and penetrated the depths, and thus illumined the

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Rh in obscurity; and so striking was the contrast which this period presented to that of the succeeding reign, that they have not inappositely been termed the iron and the golden age of surgery.

"At this period,” says the Editor of the Memoirs of the Count de Brienne, "the sciences were far from responding as they now do to the patronage of the administration. Surgery was less advanced than medicine; an absurd prejudice impeded the only department of the healing art which has since made great progress. As late as 1668 the surgeons were under the jurisdiction of the first barber of the king. , who at a later period operated on Louis XIV. for fistula, represented to his Majesty the great inconvenience of this arrangement, and procured its reform. The writers of his time inform us, that for two months before the operation on Louis, he continually rehearsed it in the hospitals of Paris. The simplest operations of surgery were in fact dangerous: the most celebrated surgeons were not sure of a successful venesection : this is confirmed by the privilege granted to the king’s surgeon to dismiss any one he pleased from the presence when bleeding the King, or any member of the royal family. Felix, celebrated as he was, always availed himself of the privilege, while Dinois, surgeon to the Queen and children of France, piqued himself on never having claimed it .”

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22 Of this same Felix, the predecessor of Mareschal, the friend as well as surgeon of Louis XIV., Madame de Sevigné relates that, being called upon to bleed a courtier who had fallen and bruised himself in the King’s apartment, he so wounded the artery that a great operation was on the instant required. "I know not,” says the accomplished writer, "which was most to be pitied, the unfortunate subject of such an operation, or the first surgeon of his Majesty who opened the artery in bleeding .”

In the eighteenth century surgery assumed a more elevated rank than it had ever held in the civilized world. In France, and  laid the foundation of the French Academy; and the contributions of Prrir, its first director and president,, and a host of emulative and ardent men, associated by the humanizing spirit of practical science, excited the admiration of surrounding nations, and secured for themselves and their labours the gratitude of posterity.

The value of the French Memoirs, commenced in 1743, consists in the copious assemblage of original cases, and the practical illustration of them by comparison and induction. All that regards historical matter of fact is excellent, and this is their principal and peculiar merit. Their defects are those of the

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Rh time, resulting from an imperfect knowledge of the laws of life, and the darkness which enveloped those of disease. The lamp of Chemistry was not yet lighted, and the absurd crudities still prevailing of the humoral pathology inspired false notions of the doctrine of inflammation, and rendered all theoretical explanation of its phenomena mystical and unprofitable.

, a native of Paris, the second renovator of surgery in France, was initiated in anatomy by the celebrated De Littre, his father’s friend and inmate, while yet a boy. So indefatigable was his ardour in the pursuit of professional knowledge, that he was often found by Mareschal the surgeon-major, asleep on the steps of La Charité, at the dawn of day, while awaiting the opening of the doors.

Petit followed the army hospitals in Louis XIVth’s Flemish campaigns, towards the close of the seventeenth century, demonstrating anatomy during successive seasons at Lisle, Mons, and Cambray. He was admitted master in surgery at Paris in the year 1700. There he delivered public courses on anatomy and the operations of surgery, and eventually became Provost of the College. He was specially appointed by Louis XV. Director of the Royal Academy of Surgery, on its establishment in 1731. Petit was uneducated; so much so, that at the age of fifty he commenced the study of the Latin language. He died in

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24 the middle of the century, in his seventy-seventh year. Haller says of him, "Ingenio vir valuit, deinde usit.”

That he was a man of great natural endowments, of quick and penetrating genius, as well as mature observation, his papers read before the Academies of Sciences and of Surgery abundantly prove. His Treatise on the Diseases of the Bones, which was among his earliest labours, still retains the character of a standard authority, especially as regards fractures and morbid changes, and discovers a grand design in its conception as well as talent in its performance.

His was the first account of the mollities ossium. Petit’s screw tourniquet was no unimportant contribution to operative surgery, and beyond a doubt has saved many lives. His papers on the division of the frenum lingue in infants, on the ruptured tendoachillis, on the fistula lacrymalis, and on various practical subjects and details, discover the simple and profound views peculiar to a master-mind; but most especially his memoirs, illustrated by experiment, on the means employed by nature for the suppression of hemorrhage, and on aneurism,—subjects on which our countrymen have since enlightened the world.

The glory of the revival of surgery was not however exclusively due to the French nation; we cannot overlook the Dutch school and the just claims of, a contemporary of Petit, the pupil of Ruysch and Rau of Amsterdam, and subse-

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wave the Oak for ever o'er thy rest! Thou that beneath its crowning foliage sleepest, And, in the stillness of thy Country's breast, Thy place of memory, as an altar, keepest! Brightly thy spirit o'er her hills was poured,
 * Thou of the Lyre and Sword!


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Rh quently Professor of Anatomy and Surgery in the University of Altorf and Nuremberg.

, born in 1688, was of a Leicestershire family. A pupil of Cowper, he lectured on anatomy in London for twenty years, and was for a similar period one of the Surgeons of St. Thomas’s Hospital. His success and reputation as a lithotomist were unparalleled, and rendered his name famous throughout Europe. A deputy from the French Academy was sent expressly to witness his operation, and he had the honour to be enrolled the first on the list of its foreign members. Cheselden’s was the first operation for the congenital cataract, and his interesting observations on the accession of sight to a boy fourteen years of age are recorded in the Transactions of the Royal Society, of which he was early a distinguished member. He died at the age of sixty-four, of apoplexy; having enjoyed among other distinctions the intimacy of Alexander Pope:

 * “Weak though I am of limb and short of sight,
 * Far from a lynx, and not a giant quite,
 * I'11 do what Mead and Cheselden advise,
 * To keep these limbs and to preserve these eyes .”

Cheselden was a man of enviable simplicity and integrity of character, and of sterling sense, which his publications and his life equally exemplify.

, born in London in 1713, was the

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26 last and most illustrious representative in this country of the surgery of the eighteenth century. He was a pupil of Mr. Nourse, one of the Surgeons of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, and served that noble institution, man and boy, as he used to say, for nearly fifty years. A gentleman by birth, education and habits, Pott was systematically opposed to the coarse and harsh modes of treatment, and the yet frequent use of the actual cautery, which prevailed at the time of his entering the profession, and he introduced more rational as well as more lenient methods. At the age of forty-three he had the misfortune to meet with a bad compound fracture of his leg, and by the admirable presence of mind with which he summoned his experience to his aid, succeeded in saving the limb. It was to this accident, or rather the confinement which it occasioned, that we are indebted for the stores of information upon the most important subjects which his works contain; for the reception given to the ‘Treatise on Ruptures,’ composed during that period, probably first discovered to himself the powers which he possessed, and doubtless operated as an incentive to his many subsequent publications.

The works of Pott are so well appreciated, form so essential a part of every surgeon’s library, and, indeed, were so long the text-book of the profession, that it would be as needless to recapitulate them as to discuss their general and singular merits. The highest

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Rest, Bard! rest, Soldier!—By the Father's hand, Here shall the Child of after-years be led, With his wreath-offering silently to stand In the hushed presence of the glorious dead. Soldier and Bard!—For thou thy path hast trod
 * With Freedom and with God!

The Oak waved proudly o'er thy burial-rite On thy crowned bier to slumber warriors bore thee And with true hearts, thy brethren of the fight Wept as they veiled their drooping banners o'er thee, And the deep guns with rolling peals gave token,
 * That Lyre and Sword were broken!

Thou hast a hero's tomb!—A lowlier bed Is hers, the gentle girl, beside thee lying, The gentle girl, that bowed her fair young head, When thou wert gone, in silent sorrow dying. Brother! true friend! the tender and the brave!
 * She pined to share thy grove.


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Rh same bishops against the infuriated mob that threatened the prelate's life. The prose satire, "Ain klegliche Botschaft dem Bapst zukommen," written in 1528, by the Swiss, Niklas Manuel, one of the most witty and striking polemical works of that age, is with a great deal of humor reproduced in Danish verse, and so exquisitely is it localized for the benefit of the Danish reader that, did we not know the original, we should hardly take it to be a translation or adaptation. There is another work which seems to be of a purely Danish origin: "A dialogue between Peder the smith and Adser the the peasant," a work which raises its voice "against all such errors as have for many years been practiced in the Pope's church." The latter is decidedly one of the best literary productions from the time of the Reformation. There is also a Danish versification of a legend, which, during the Middle Ages, was widely circulated throughout Europe, though it probably originally came from Denmark, about the devil who becomes a servant in a convent, and encourages the monks in their godless conduct, so that each and all of them are at length on the point of being precipitated into hell, until they finally discover whom they have admitted into their midst, are converted and repent. It cannot be definitely ascertained when this poem about "Brother Rus" came to Denmark, but it was probably at the time when people became aware of the excesses perpetrated by the monks; that is to say, about the beginning of the sixteenth century. The Danish adaptation is based on a Low German version, but it has been rendered with great freedom and greatly surpasses its model both in its humor and graphic style. Accordingly it continued to maintain itself as a favorite book of the people long after it had lost its real sting, simply on account of the pleasant and amusing manner in which the legend was treated.

The poetry we have from the reformation period, besides


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me admit, as I start to write, that the whole thing is my own fault. I should never have come. I knew better. I have known better for years. I have known that it is sheer madnes to go and pay visits in other people’s houses.

Yet in a moment of insanity I have let myself in for it and here I am. There is no hope, no outlet now till the first of September when my visit is to terminate. Either that or death. I do not greatly care which.

I write this, where no human eye can see me, down by the pond—they call it the lake—at the foot of Beverly-Jones’s estate. It is six o’clock in the morning. No one is up. For a brief hour or so there is peace. But presently Miss Larkspur—the jolly English girl who arrived last week—will throw open her casement window and call across the lawn, “Hullo everybody! What a ripping morning!” And young Poppleton will call back in a Swiss yodel from somewhere in the shrubbery, and Beverly-Jones will appear on

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Rh tribute to their intrinsic excellence is the estimation which they enjoy and the influence which they exercise at this day upon the practice of surgery. As an author, Pott is pre-eminent for the vigour, perspicuity, and elegance of his style.

In another and distinct category, did the limits of this Discourse permit, I should here mention the beneficial influence on the progress of surgery derived from the anatomical schools of Ruysch, Winslow, Albinus, Morgagni, the illustrious Haller, the first Monro, and William Hunter. Many of the disciples of these distinguished men were afterwards eminent for their surgical attainments in various countries of Europe. But I content myself with observing, that the correspondence of anatomy and scientific surgery, in their rate of proficiency, is not less uniform than remarkable.

We have now arrived, Sir, at that crisis of our history which ushers upon the stage; but the Hunterian zra, the most memorable in the annals of our science, dates little earlier than the commencement of the present century. Shakspeare’s Mare Antony says,

 * "The evil that men do lives after them,
 * The good is oft interred with their bones.”

If to Hunter any evil could be imputed it was buried with him; his great achievements in the cause

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Fame was thy gift from others—but for her To whom the wide earth held that only spot— —She loved thee!—lovely in your lives ye were, And in your early deaths divided not! Thou hast thine Oak—thy trophy—what hath she?
 * Her own blest place by thee.

It was thy spirit, Brother! which had made The bright world glorious to her thoughtful eye, Since first in childhood 'midst the vines ye played, And sent glad singing through the free blue sky! Ye were but two!—and when that spirit passed,
 * Woe for the one, the last!

Woe, yet not long!—She lingered but to trace Thine image from the image in her breast; Once, once again to see that buried face But smile upon her ere she went to rest! Too sad a smile!—its living light was o'er,
 * It answered hers no more!

The Earth grew silent when thy voice departed, The Home too lonely whence thy step had fled; What then was left for her, the faithful-hearted? Death, death, to still the yearning for the dead! Softly she perished—be the Flower deplored
 * Here, with the Lyre and Sword!


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28 of our science, the proudest trophies of his fame, are posthumous. For with the solitary but splendid exception of the operation for the cure of the popliteal aneurism, how imperfect a title would the most elaborate recital of his merits as a surgeon prove, to the admiration and gratitude associated with his name!

No, it is to his discoveries as an observer, sagacious, comprehensive and profound, of the animal machine and its ceconomy, in health and in disease,—his development of the phenomena which characterise inflammation in all textures, in its several aspects, stages and processes, of the signs by which they are indicated, the laws by which they are governed, the consequences to which they lead, and the modes of treatment by which they are influenced and regulated to subserve nature’s and our purposes,—it is to these that we point with a national and honest pride, as to the column upon which are engraved in imperishable characters the surgical triumphs of John Hunter.

He was not remarkable either for his skill as an operator, or his facility of communicating knowledge as a teacher. He was not a scholar; and neither the arrangement of his thoughts, nor the language in which they are clothed, is free from many and obvious exceptions. But the habitual character of his mind, which in the largest sense imparted itself to his works, was acutely observant, profoundly contemplative, capable of large and comprehensive views of na-

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Rh tural phenomena, and endowed with a microscopic faculty of seizing and analysing their constituent parts and bearings. Grant that his inductions did not always bear him out, that his combinations were sometimes inaccurately formed, and his announcement of general laws sometimes premature; yet where in the calendar of time shall we look for an equal in the compass, the variety, or the depth of his researches into the mysteries of animal life, or for consequences such as those that have resulted from his labours to universal pathology?

When I claim him as the father of modern surgery, I am far from meaning to imply that our brethren the physicians have no part or lot in him. It is not in my province to point out the steps by which they have risen to their justly merited eminence. "Pardon me,” says one of the most enlightened of their body, “if I hold that Hunter was only nominally a surgeon : he belonged to no isolated district of our profession, and he is at this moment rendering a peculiar aid to the labours of physicians .”

The great improvement in our science derived from this source during the present century will be an enviable theme for future orators, when the lapse of a few years shall have rendered the generation that adorns it the legitimate property of the historian.

It will then appear that the progress of surgery in

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THE HUNTERIAN ORATION. 91 dence I appeal to those most competent to decide,—have been neither more nor less than the carrying out and applying the principles of John Hunter? It will not be the least of their honours who have been engaged in the development of those principles, that they have been eager to look at nature with his eyes, and to appreciate and confirm the truth and simplicity of his views.

Some of these, to whom the profession lies under deep obligations, have already left us, and live in our fresh memories, and the entire dramatis personae will ere long have wrapped their mantles around them and become the Oracles of future ages.

Alas! a month has scarcely elapsed since a member of the Council of this College was almost suddenly taken from us in the prime of life, and health, and usefulness. He was my friend; and in a brief notice of the event I must excuse myself from the performance of a duty, which in ordinary circumstances would fall to my lot, but which a calamity so recent and so unexpected would render unsupportably painful. I am sure that in this audience many hearts throb in unison with mine when I pronounce the death of Henry Earle a public calamity. His knowledge was sound and practical; his zeal was tempered with discretion; he was a skilful surgeon. Of a robust frame and active temperament, he possessed the unspeakable charm of a cheerful temper, and the invaluable qualities of a

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92 THE HUNTERIAN ORATION. benevolent heart; and in all the relations of life he was conspicuous for honesty of purpose and sincerity of conduct.

Years are required for the formation and development of so valuable a character, and for the reparation of its loss to society; and such events, ere the crisis of worth and fame is attained, are among the most astounding of those mysteries of which it is the will of the Almighty that we should remain in ignorance.

If to have lived in advance of the time be, as has been said, the truest test of genius, let Hunter be tried by this standard. We have enumerated the more obvious only of his anticipations of the march of knowledge in the department of surgical pathology and therapeutics; but it would be difficult to name any subject of universal medicine which has not received elucidation from the influence of his doctrines. The phenomena of life, organization, and instinct in all classes of animals, in their several varieties, and in all phases of their formation and existence, his genius brought to the illustration of the ceconomy of man. He stood alone in the wilderness, and under his hand it assumed the beautiful form and order of a garden. I need not say how successfully it has since been cultivated and enriched by the erudite labours of Blumenbach, and how immeasurably extended beyond its pristine confines by the extraordinary sagacity

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THE HUNTERIAN ORATION. 33 and skill, the indefatigable ardour and diligence of the illustrious, may I not add immortal Cuvier.

Even of that sublime science of these our days, which connects the history of our planet with that of its extinct races, which has based their classification on the anatomical correspondence and uniformity of design, manifest in the organic remains of periods remotely antecedent to the creation of man and the existing types of mortality, it is indisputable that Hunter had a prophetic vision. For proof of this I may refer not only to his rich fossil collection, including at his decease about 1050 specimens, but to his interesting posthumous paper in the Philosophical Transactions for 1794, on the Fossil Bones found in the Caverns of the Principality of Bayreuth. In this paper he compares these specimens with their recent analogues, and shows that they differ both from them and among themselves.

He alludes to the different climates and localities of the globe to which animals are more or less confined, or their geographical distribution, which, considered in relation to fossil remains, elucidates by implication the changes of temperature to which different parts of the earth have been subject at different periods.

With more distinctness and detail he points out the evidence which fossils afford of the alteration of the condition of the earth’s surface, as dry land or

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152 the psalms and satires is of slight importance, when we of course except the linguistic and historical interest which attaches to all old productions. Worthy of special mention is however the translation from the Low German, the animal fable, Reineke Fuchs, by the Copenhagen counsellor,. This "elegant and amusing book about the fox" appeared in 1555, and is a very successful adaptation of the original. It long remained a favorite and had to be republished several times.

The allegory of the "Dance of Death," so popular in Europe during the middle ages, also came to Denmark, and from the manner in which the Catholics are represented in it, its introduction there must have occurred after the beginning of the Reformation, but before its complete establishment, in other words about 1530.

The first efforts in Denmark in the field of also belong to the reformation period. All of them belong to the so-called, which maintained their position until after the beginning of the eighteenth century, and which during this long epoch constituted the only dramatic productions in Denmark. We therefore think it best to say at once all that we have to say on this topic, though in so doing we go far beyond the limits of this chapter.

The school-comedies derive their names from the fact that they were particularly connected with the schools and partly also with the university. There they were produced, that is to say in most cases translated from Latin or German or adapted from foreign originals. The most of these pieces went by the name of "moralities," by which term the people of this age understood spiritual plays, which were intended by dramatic representation to illustrate some moral principle and to appeal to the feelings of the listener. Then there were mysteries or representations of scenes from sacred history. On the other hand "Fasnachtspiele " (carnival plays),


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Have ye not met ere now?—So let those trust, That meet for moments but to part for years, That weep, watch, pray, to hold back dust from dust, That love where love is but a fount of tears! Brother! sweet Sister!—peace around ye dwell!
 * Lyre, Sword, and Flower, farewell!


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 PAGE 18

''J. W. Hyatt, Picton, Ont. Note the strong nose and chin, and the width of the head at the ears, all indications of physical strength, energy, and endurance. The forehead, prominent at the base, and the rather deep-set eyes show the keen observer who says little.''

''P. O. Vansickle; a graduate of the Ontario Agricultural College. Mr. Vansickle has made a success of Dairy Farming. The dark hair, forehead, full back head and general refinement form a splendid example of the farmer who specilizes in one branch of farming.''

''The late Hon. J. S. Duff, an excellent type of farmer. Note the strong nose, long head, and especially the fullnes behind the ears; indicating love of animals. The hifh forehead shows tact, sympathy, and generosity.''

''This a composite picture mad from the photgfraphs of four very succesful farmers. We intented to secure a picture of the ideal farmer, but what we did get is a picture of a succesful business man.''

''E. C. Drury is the dark type: note the width between the ears showing energy and love of the soil; width of temples give inventive ability. Fullnes and breadth at lower part of the forehead indicates a philsophical bent of mind.''

T no time in the history of the world has such an impetus been given to the "Back-to-the-land" movement—an impetus so great, so urgent, that we have entirely lost sight of the old cry in the vital necessity, the world-wide need of increased production.

"Back-to-the-land" once meant back to the farms that are idle, or run down and going to waste for want of sufficient workers but this, needful as it was, is swallowed up in the absolute necessity for more and yet more production without which the Empire must suffer hunger and famine: increased loss of men and a lengthened war followed by famine more terrible than the War itself.

The stream that has for years been from the farm to the city must now turn backward and carry its thousands of workers to the soil to wrest from it, not a living, but life.

Many causes were, each in part, responsible for the general migration of the farmers' sons and daughters to the town and city, The ambition of the mother was one. How few mothers on the farm really desire, down in their hearts, that their children should stay at home and work as they and their fathers have? Is it not true that when the boy shows signs of unusual ability the mother hopes and works that he may have advantages, and do better than his father did? A mother sees her children as she wants them to be, not as they are, and the number who give promise of being able to "do something" is large. The three dollars a week that Tommy earns clerking look big—they are real, hard dollars that can be converted into store clothes and amusement. Dollars are tangible things, their value is easily seen; but wi the farm and the children lose is not so easily calculated and the day of reckoning is put off.

Perhaps Thomas is sent to college; Thomas is clever and one of the professions is none too good for him. But that a first-class farmer is spoilt in the making of a tenth-rate doctor or lawyer never dawns on his fond mother's mind, although Thomas may have an inkling that such is the case. The novelty of the different life appeals to him and he hates to disappoint the "Mater"—he once said "Ma." The suspicion that he is a misfit is pressed home to him in later years when he ekes out a bare living as do so many professional men.

HE first colleges and universities were founded with the simple intention of preparing men for the professions, for the ministry, for medicine, and for law; and our whole educational system was built up to prepare boys for the college and the university. Consequently the whole tendency of education was to take the sons of ambitious mothers, the very best product of the farm, and direct them into professional life.

It was natural, therefore, that the exodus should have been viewed with alarm, and as a counteraction to the movement from the land, the agricultural college was established. At first it was regarded with suspicion by practical, hard-headed farmers. Conservative people are always shy of new ideas and institutions, and from the very nature of his work the farmer is compelled to be conservative and to adopt new ideas slowly. He cannot afford to make mistakes or to experiment rashly.

Then, too, many of the earlier students at the Agricultural Colleges felt that their education placed them above the need to do the rough work of the farm, they thought themselves prepared to teach agriculture, but far too educated to practise it.

By degrees, however, the Agricultural College came to be an accepted institution. The students soon discovered that the best place in the world to apply scientific knowledge of agriculture is on the farm, and, with the development of the Continuation Schools in the rural districts came the opportunity for the boys trained in the Agricultural Colleges to exercise their attainments, in the spread of modern ideas and methods.

CHOOLS and colleges were not all to blame, however, for taking boys from the farms. There were other conditions.

One, a cause which, to my mind, has been overrated, was the introduction of machinery. While modern equipment tended to reduce the number of people on the farms, it has been cause for wonder that it has not enabled a family to make as good a living from fifty acres as the family could formerly make from one hundred acres. This, coupled with closer and better markets, has tended to decrease the number of people gaining a livelihood from the farms, for when we come near to the borders of the great cities, instead of a remarkably thrifty and prosperous farm population, such as one should expect in proximity to a splendid home market, we find hundreds and, in fact, thousands of acres lying idle. and growing weed-seed to hamper the efforts of farmers farther away, as though, in some strange way, the presence of the city cast a blight on the surrounding country.

Many farmers, finding that the land they purchased ten years ago had doubled in value, apart from the value of any improvements they have made on it, feel that the right place to put their savings is in the purchase of more land, with the result that they came to measure their prosperity by the number of acres owned rather than by the amount of crops raised or the number of hands profitably employed. This leads to extensive rather than intensive cultivation and a thinning out of the rural population making still more difficult of solution the problems of education and social life, the lack of which have been a serious obstacle to happy country living.

Further, the amount of capital needed for the purchase of land to start the farmer's son on a farm of his own is twice or more than twice what it was ten or twenty years ago. As a consequence, the young man is forced either to go to the far borders of civilization where free or cheap land is still available, and where he must face the hardships of the ploncer, or become the resident of some city or town.

The higher price of land does not increase the value of crops; it does not enable the farmer to pay higher wages to his help; but it does increase the capital involved in his business, and increases the opportunities for those who have acquired large holdings to retire and lease or sell their holdings, thus placing on the shoulders of others the financial burdens involved in the increased land price. It encourages the holding of idle land. So long as taxes penalize farm buildings and improvements, and enable a man to hold unused or half-used land with little or no taxes, just so long will this tendency continue to force the boys away from the farms; increase the amount of unused or half-used farm land, promote extensive rather than intensive farming, increase the proportion of tenant farmers, and reduce the rural population and intensify all the social problems that involve.

ET, let it not be forgotten, that if economic forces are working to make farm life difficult, the real rewards of labour on the farm can never be far below the rewards of equal labour in the cities.

IF the farmer work longer hours than the city man, the work of the city man is far less varied. If the farmer must use his muscles, fresh air and muscular exercise are far better for the health than confinement in shop, factory, or office. If the farmer sees fewer real dollars in year, his land produces most of the necessities of life which in the city cost more dollars in a year than many a farmer really needs. If the city man can enjoy more opportunities for recreation and education, the farmer enjoys a far greater degree of independence, and the long winter evenings afford him, too, an opportunity of the improvement of his mind.

If the young man in the city has before him many opportunities for advancement, that advancement comes only to the man who has the vision to see his opportunities and the industry to improve them, while in the country every acre, every variety of soil and plant and animal is an opportunity, and no man yet has exhausted the productive possibilities of a single acre.

The man who would advance in the city must be a student, a constant student of the work in which he is eugaged, and likewise to the moan, who loves his work on the farm and who studies the science behind his work and applies his knowledge with judgment and industry, the opportunites for independence and comfort, and ever for compatative wealth are as greatv as in the city. With proper training, with the aid of machinery and scientific methods, the farmer can cut down his working hours, increase his profits, and make the onditions of living as good, or better, than those of the city.

N the matter of education, the farm boy is, usually, thought to be at a disadvantage, for he can go to school for a limited time only, because of distance, weather, and work. But the coming remedies for this are the consolidated schools and improved methods of transportation.

eside school learning, there is an education which the boy on the farm gets, of far more value than anything he can learn from books—a foundation knowledge which makes more available and useful all that he learns in later life. The boy on the farm does not meet so many people as the city boy meets but he sees more of the people he does know and comes to know them better.

The greatest asset any man can have in the business world is an understanding of people, and it is because of his early opportunities that the boy from the farm so often excels in the world of business.

Another opportunity the farm boy has is to observe animals.

(Continued on page 36)

''This boy is neat, orderly, practical, and shows first-class ability to handle figures and money, but does not love hard work. He will make a better office man than former.''

''J. M. Gardhouse, Weston, Ont., a suceessful cattle breeder. Note the wide head, prominent features, long upper lip. A good example of the man who will succeed in trading as well as in raising cattle.''

Excellent type for farm—low broad forehead, wide head at the ears, long upper lip—should be especially successful in grain growing.

''A splendid type for farming; energetic, thorough, practical, and with a love for getting at the cause of things. He would make a really scientific farmer.''

''M. L. Haley; dexterous, ingeniou, with love of machinery; kindness and generosity. A good type for farming; dark enough to sland any amount of sunshine and to spend his life in one place.''

''If this boy grew on the farm, he would slay there. He has energy and self-reliance, but he would stickto the old methods and be rather slow in adopting new ideas.''


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Rh which were so popular in Germany, were seldom seen in Denmark, and only one comedy of this kind has been preserved. Of greater dramatic works, such as were played in other countries for the benefit of the people, there is not the slightest trace in Denmark.

The school-comedies on account of the epic and allegorical element so prominent in them, are essentially different from the later dramatic literature. There is no effort to preserve unity of action, of time, or of place, nor do they concern themselves about any motive for the action. They were partly intended for edification, this applying to representations of Bible stories; partly for instruction, this applying to the moral allegories, which furnished examples to be shunned or imitated; and partly, finally, for the amusement of the spectators. In the last class the low comical element predominated.) So frequently are the didactic and amusing elements united that the designation "amusing and useful comedies," would apply to the majority of them.

The first Danish plays of this kind, of which we have any record, are the three so-called, preserved in a manuscript from 1531. The faithless wife, a burlesque, very amusing carnival drama, is, as it seems, borrowed from the German, though no German original is to be found. It is the only comedy of this kind extant in Denmark. The "Judgment of Paris" is a short, allegorical, mythological "morality," of very slight value, and the "Dorothea comedy" is the translation of a Latin "Saints' play" written by the knight Chilian of Wellerstadt in the beginning of the sixteenth century. The epilogue is, however, original Danish. These works have been attributed to the above named Christian Pedersen, who was at one time rector of the Odinse Latin school; but the proofs are insufficient. All that is certain is that he was the author of the epilogue to the "Saints' play."

A mystery-play from the period of the Reformation is the drama on the national saint, Knud Lavard, "Ludus de


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 However, vowels represented by َ alone without a following  وare always romanized as u.

3. The letter  ىin final position may represent the long vowel romanized á, in addition to the vowels romanized ī and ı. This occurs in Arabic names, such as:

4. Vowel points are used sparingly in Azerbaijani publications, and additional diacritics used to differentiate between some vowels may vary or be omitted. For romanization, they must be supplied from a dictionary.

RULES OF APPLICATION

Letters Which May Be Romanized in Different Ways Depending on Their Context

1. ء (hamzah)
 * (a) When initial,  ءis not represented in romanization.

 * (b) When medial or final in words of Perso-Arabic origin,  ءis romanized as ’ (alif), except when it represents the phonetic sound e (as in men), in which case it is romanized by e.

2. [not available by itself] (maddah)

 * (a) Initial  آis romanized ā.

 * (b) Medial آ, when it represents the phonetic combination ’ā, is so romanized.

3. َ (shaddah or tashdīd) is represented by doubling the letter or digraph concerned.  Note the exceptional case where َ is written over  وand  ىto represent the combination of long vowel plus consonants.


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Page:History of the Literature of the Scandinavian North.djvu/172

154 sancto Kanuto duce." In spite of its Latin title it is written in Danish verse and is probably an adaptation of the Latin legend in regard to the life of Duke Knud, who played a principal part in the church festivals celebrated in the Catholic time in commemoration of that saint. In this "mystery" less prominence is, however, given to Knud as a saint than to his historical character. This is the only attempt in the old Danish literature at writing a national drama, and it is consequently of very great interest, though it has no important intrinsic merits.

The first author of dramas after the period of the Reformation was, who in the latter half of the sixteenth century wrote his moral allegorical play, "Kortvending" (the change of fortune), the basis of which is manifestly taken from the above-mentioned allegory, "The Dance of Death." (1542-1614), rector in Ribe, wrote a "comicotragedia," called "Susanna," chiefly based on a Latin original. From (1539-1607), without comparison the most interesting of all these old playwrights, we have the dramas "Kong Salomons Hylding" (the crowning of King Salomon); "Samsons Fængsel" (Salomon's Prison); "Karrig Niding" (Miser and Nithing). Both the first are very remarkable on account of the lyric passages they contain. This is particularly noticeable in "Samsons Fængsel;" it has, not improperly, been styled the first Danish opera. The songs interwoven vary in style and contents, some being moral, others merry, and a few of them are simply exquisite, full of freshness and life and thoroughly popular in style. The author's renowned "Fuglevise" (bird-song), the only poem we know him to have written outside of his plays, is an allegorical comparison between different kinds of men and birds, and it, too, is graphic and humorous. Hieronymus Justesen's best work is, however, of a totally different kind. It is "Karrig Niding," a popular burlesque which long enjoyed great popularity, and which contains many passages marked by a fresh, though somewhat bold, humor,


text:
Page:Azerbaijani romanization table.pdf/4

 4. Tanvīn, (written َ, َ, َ, ا َ), which occurs chiefly in Arabic words, is romanized un, in, an, and an, respectively.

5. The consonant letter  ةat the end of Arabic words in the genitive construction (iz̤āfah) is romanized by t.

Grammatical Structure as It Affects Romanization

6. Iz̤āfah. When two Persian words are used in an Azerbaijani context in a relationship known as iz̤āfah, the first word (the muz̤āf) is followed by an additional letter or syllable in romanization. This is added according to the following rules:

 * (a) When the muz̤āf bears no special mark of iz̤āfah, it is followed by -i.

 * (b) When the muz̤āf is marked by the addition of ء, it is followed by -’i.

 * (c) When the muz̤āf is marked by the addition of ى, it is followed by -yi.

 * (d) Iz̤āfah is represented in romanization of personal names when implied in the Perso-Arabic script.

Affixes and Compounds

7. Affixes.

 * (a) When the affix and the word with which it is connected grammatically are written separately in Azerbaijani, the two are separated in romanization by a single prime ( ʹ ).

 * (b) The Arabic article al is separated by a hyphen, in romanization, from the word to which it is prefixed.


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Page:History of the Literature of the Scandinavian North.djvu/173

Rh and in which the author's faculty of giving his characters individual traits reaches its climax. Upon the whole this contemporary of Shakespeare was unquestionably a poetic and especially a dramatic talent, who under favorable circumstances would have accomplished important results, and even that which he did produce in the heavy style of the age may still be read with pleasure by all who possess sufficient culture to appreciate an utterly obsolete form of art. He was not a genius who was able to reject the traditional form and create a new one, but he managed to get more from the old materials than any one else had succeeded in producing from them before him, and in certain directions he even added something new. Of other old comedies still extant we shall here only mention the play "De Mundo et Paupere," because there occur in it certain passages that have some resemblance to passages in Holberg.


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{|style="width:100%"
 * style="width:25%"| ||style="width:25%"|
 * style="width:25%"| ||style="width:25%"|
 * ‘Abd al-Karīm
 * ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻜﺮﻳﻢ
 * }
 * }

8. Compounds. When the elements of a compound (except a compound personal name) are written separately in Azerbaijani, they are separated in romanization by a single prime ( ʹ ).

Orthography of Azerbaijani in Romanization

9. Capitalization.

 * (a) Rules for the capitalization of English are followed, except that the Arabic article al is lowercased in all positions.

 * (b) Diacritics are used with both upper and lower case letters in romanization.

10. Foreign words. Foreign words in an Azerbaijani context, including Persian and Arabic words, are romanized according to the rules for Azerbaijani. For short vowels not indicated in the script, the Azerbaijani vowels nearest the original pronunciation of the word are supplied in romanization.


text: Page:The Lady's Realm v 6 1899.pdf/7

title: Page:The Lady's Realm v 6 1899.pdf/7


text: History of the Literature of the Scandinavian North/Part 2/Chapter 2


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title: Page:The Lady's Realm v 6 1899.pdf/8


text:
Author:Stephen S. Trott

Works

 * Data East USA, Inc. v. Epyx, Inc. (1988)

title: Author:Stephen S. Trott


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Page:Everywoman's World, Volume 7, Number 7.djvu/14

 PAGE 12

''The Old Gage Homestead on the Stoney Creek Battlefield, near Hamilton, used as Military Headquarters in the War of 1812–1814 when the British and Canadian Militia drove back the United States force. The property is now a Government Park, and the Gage Homestead is preserved as an example of early Canadian architecture, and is open to the public as an historical museum. An obelisk commemorating the Battle of Stoney Creek stands in the Park.''

OW did our grandmothers live in pre-Confederation days?

What kind of a country was Canada away back in the fifties and sixties? What features marked the national, community, home, and domestic life? And and what are the outstanding differences between then and now?

It is a fitting time to ask and to attempt to answer such questions in this year that closes a half-century in the life of Canada, a half-century since she became a Dominion under the Confederation of 1867. It is, moreover, worth while recalling those earlier formative years and bringing back to mind the worthy members of a generation that has passed away, to honour their memory for the life they lived, the part they played, and the contribution they made their native or adopted land. The further opportunity is also presented of comparing the two periods and the span between and to take note of the progress made in all departments of human life and activity. These were, in truth, the good old days; but there are, in equal truth, the better new days bringing in their train larger privileges and opportunities and a more advanced and highly developed civilisation.

One effective way of describing those middle years of the nineteenth century is by recalling the improvements since then and inventions our grandparents had, perforce, to do without. Just bring to mind the long list of things that have come into existence since Confederation; the telephone, both wire and wireless; electricity applied and unapplied; phonographs and gramophones ("What's the difference between them? "Grandmother would have asked); fireless cookers and gas ranges; apartment houses and "flats" therein; patent breakfast foods and other pre-digested articles of diet ("I'll do my own digesting, thank you," Grandmother would have asserted)

And Grandfather would be mightily interested in scores of inventions: motor cars and boats; traction and gasolene engines; electric street cars; typewriters; departmental stores; aeroplanes—fill out the list yourself.

Instead of "Posty" bringing the letters, as in these days of the Rural Delivery, and depositing them in the little tin post-office dangling at the end of a pole right in front of the farm gate, Grandfather and Grandmother welcomed the excuse to hitch up old Bess and drive to the Corners, and to have a visit with the neighbour folk at the same time. The Rural Delivery is not very neighbourly when you come to think of it, but it is mighty convenient!

Think, too, of what Grandmother missed in parlour and kitchen! There were, at that time, oil lamps and candles; but gas and electricity were as yet unadvertised! However did she curl her hair, in her girlhood days without modern electric curling tongs? Well, she did the curling all right; for evidence look at the very curls themselves showing in the dear old daguerreotype that is your most precious possession. No wonder Granddaddy lost his heart and his head to hear, when he went acourting Miss Lavinia Thompson in the long, long ago.

No fireless cookers or electric stoves occupied a place in the kitchen with the painted floor, but the old stove did fairly well at the business when a wood fire crackled under the four black lids and showed its flames through the door frames and front grate.

How Grandfather would have laughed at a sulky plow—riding lazily at his work, the very idea! And if a modern tractor had suddenly appeared on the townline road, he would have taken to the woods in sheer fright.

When he and Grandmother drove to town on market-day they were happily content with horse and top buggy as their transportation system. What the skittish man would have thought of a modern automobile making twenty miles an hour or a panting, puffy motor-cycle, is difficult to imagine. But our travellers of long ago would, undoubtedly, have taken to a modern express train, a trolley car, or a limousine, with keen delight.

When they reached the county seat each transacted business and shopping in ways that, since the dawn of time, have differentiated the sons of Adam and the daughters of Eve. Shopping was done leisurely; buying groceries in a grocery store; medicine in a drug store; linen in a dry goods store, and a treat of oysters or oranges in the fruit store 'round the corner. Had they been told that, some day in the then future, all their shopping could be done in one store and under one roof, their surprise would have shown some incredulity.

If, in addition, we could place the road they traveled over in 1867, say, with a modern "good roads" highway, even the faithful old family horse would welcome the improvement and wish he were living now when the task of drawing his load would be greatly lessened.

But let us come a little closer, and in a more positive way, to the dear old folk in the dear old homestead. Let us draw back the curtain of time and peer in, without offensive intrusion, as they sit in the living room on, say, a winter night. How "comfy" the place is; how homy the homespun carpet; how clean table spreads and curtains and linen. Why, it represents the original "Spotless Town"!

The stove is singing a song in tune with the kettle, for they have ever been fast and warm, indeed at times, hot friends.

The chores are done (milking ten cows; feeding and bedding four horses; giving supper to fourteen squealing pigs, a score of less blatant sheep, and a flock of chattering hens); supper is over, lamps or candles are lighted; Grandmother, and Mother too, have their knitting; Grandfather is reading the one weekly paper, which is his political and almost his spiritual guide, though nothing takes the place of family prayers. And who shall estimate their value or their importance in the quiet and yet well-ordered economy of their life? We, of more modern days, have little time or place for this old-fashioned custom. We praise them for observing it while, at the same time, we disregard it—who is right?

If you peep into this rural home on another night, it is alive and alight, even the spare-room and the parlour are lighted and filled up, as is every other apartment. (Continued on page 28)

''Belles and Beaux of fifty years ago. The position of the hands is to steady the sitters, as the time exposure for a good daguerreotype was three or four minutes.''

These Modern Belles are out for a good time, giving more thought to the health and enjoyment resulting therefrom than to finery of appearance.


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 Rh the piazza with big towels round his neck and shout, “Who’s coming for an early dip?” And so the day’s fun and jollity—heaven help me—will begin again.

Presently they will all come trooping in to breakfast, in coloured blazers and fancy blouses, laughing and grabbing at the food with mimic rudeness and bursts of hilarity. And to think that I might have been breakfasting at my club with the morning paper propped against the coffee-pot, in a silent room in the quiet of the city.

I repeat that it is my own fault that I am here.

For many years it had been a principle of my life to visit nobody. I had long since learned that visiting only brings misery. If I got a card or telegram that said, “Won’t you run up to the Adirondacks and spend the weekend with us?” I sent back word: “No, not unless the Adirondacks can run faster than I can,” or words to that effect. If the owner of a country house wrote to me: “Our man will meet you with a trap any afternoon that you care to name,” I answered, in spirit at least: “No, he won’t, not unless he has a bear-trap or one of those traps in which they catch wild antelope.” If any fashionable lady friend wrote to me in the peculiar jargon that they use: “Can you give us from July the

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 Rh twelfth at half-after-three till the fourteenth at four?” I replied: “Madam, take the whole month, take a year, but leave me in peace.”

Such at least was the spirit of my answers to invitations. In practice I used to find it sufficient to send a telegram that read: “Crushed with work impossible to get away,” and then stroll back into the reading-room of the club and fall asleep again.

But my coming here was my own fault. It resulted from one of those unhappy moments of expansiveness such as occur, I imagine, to everybody—moments when one appears to be something quite different from what one really is, when one feels oneself a thorough good fellow, sociable, merry, appreciative, and finds the people around one the same. Such moods are known to all of us. Some people say that it is the super-self asserting itself. Others say it is from drinking. But let it pass. That at any rate was the kind of mood that I was in when I met Beverly-Jones and when he asked me here.

It was in the afternoon, at the club. As I recall it, we were drinking cocktails and I was thinking what a bright, genial fellow Beverly-Jones was, and how completely I had mistaken him. For myself—I admit it—I am a brighter, better man after drinking two

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text:
Page:Azerbaijani romanization table.pdf/6

 Cyrillic script


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Page:Azerbaijani romanization table.pdf/7

{| The letters Ј, ј replaced Й, й in 1959.
 * Ш||Sh||ш||sh
 * Щ||Shch||щ||shch
 * Ъ||ʺ (hard sign)||ъ||ʺ (hard sign)
 * Ы||Y||ы||y
 * Ь||ʹ (soft sign)||ь||ʹ (soft sign)
 * Э||Ė||э||ė
 * Ю||I͡U||ю||i͡u
 * Я||I͡A||я||i͡a
 * ’||’ (apostrophe)||’||’ (apostrophe)
 * }
 * Э||Ė||э||ė
 * Ю||I͡U||ю||i͡u
 * Я||I͡A||я||i͡a
 * ’||’ (apostrophe)||’||’ (apostrophe)
 * }
 * Я||I͡A||я||i͡a
 * ’||’ (apostrophe)||’||’ (apostrophe)
 * }
 * }

Roman script

When transcribing roman-script Azerbaijani, the letter ә is represented by ä.


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Page:Calcutta Review Vol. II (Oct. - Dec. 1844).pdf/346

Rh been an unnaturally forced growth, Mr. Adam very justly remarks, that “some of the considerations by which Persian is recommended might be brought with much more force in favour of English if it would be made more accessible,”—and that “it would not be difficult not merely to substitute English for it, but to make English much more popular.”

The Persian teachers, Mr. Adam was led to regard as “intellectually of a higher grade than the teachers of Bengali schools, although that grade is not high, compared with what is to be desired, and is attainable. Morally, they appear to have as little notion as Bengali teachers of the salutary influence they might exercise on the dispositions and character of their pupils.” Their remuneration arises, as in the case of the vernacular teachers, from wages, fees, presents, and a variety of other sources. Their average monthly gain varies “from rs. 8-14 in Moorshedabad to rs. 3 in Tirhoot, the medium rates being rs. 6-6-1 in Beerbhoom, 6-10-8 in Burdwan, and 5-2 in South Behar”. The difference between the highest and the lowest rates Mr. Adam explains by a reference to various causes:—

"“One cause will be found in the average number of scholars taught by each master, the highest average being 9-3 in Burdwan, the lowest 2-5 in Tirhoot, and the medium average being 6-7 in Beerbhoom, 5-7 in Moorshedabad, and 5-1 in South Behar. The lowest rate of monthly gain, and the smallest average number of scholars, are found in Tirhoot. Further, the persons acquainted with Persian, and seeking employment, are numerous; the general standard of living is very low, and both the number of those who receive, and the poverty of those who give employment of this kind, combine to establish a very low rate of remuneration. In Behar, too, and especially in Tirhoot, parents do not, nearly to the same extent as in the Bengal districts, unite with each other to support a teacher for the benefit of their children; and thus each teacher is very much isolated, seldom extending his instructions beyond the children of four or three families, and often limiting them to two and even one. The effects are waste of power, and degradation of character, to teachers and taught.”"

Of the nature of the instruction given in the Persian schools, Mr. Adam gives the following sketch:—

“Although printed books are unknown, yet manuscript works are in constant use. The general course of instruction has no very marked stages or gradations into which it is divided. Like the Hindus, however, the Musalmans formally initiate their children into the study of letters. When a child, whether a boy or a girl, is four years, four months, and four days old, the friends of the family assemble, and the child is dressed in his best clothes, brought into the company, and seated on a cushion in the presence of all. The alphabet, the form of letters used for computation, the introduction to the Koran, some verses of Chapter, and the whole of Chapter are placed before him, and he is taught to pronounce them in succession. If the child is self-willed, and refuses to read, he is made to pronounce the Bismillah, which answers every purpose, and from that day his education is deemed


text: Azerbaijani romanization table

title: Azerbaijani romanization table


text:
Author:Edward Eyre Hunt

Works

 * Sir Orfeo, Adapted From the Middle English

title: Author:Edward Eyre Hunt


text: Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan/Series 1/Volume 3/Part 2/Constructive Art in Japan


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Before beginning a short account of an excursion I made in connection with the survey of this part of the coast, I should like, considering the little that is known about the east side of the provinces of Kii, Yamato, and Isé, to draw a slight sketch of the whole coast-line from Oosima, in the extreme south, to Toba in the North.

Oosima, in Lat. 34 27 N., Long. 135.52′ E. with its two excellent lights, one on the East point of the Island, the other on Siwo misaki, the extreme south, and turning point of the Kii peninsula, is now well known to Europeans who have travelled between Yokohama and Kobe. Vessels also coming from Hongkong, or the ports of China, very frequently make Oosima, either by day or night, thanks to the two good lights mentioned.

From Oosima the coast trends N. E. for about 10 miles, to Arundel point, just inside and to the southward of which is an excellent anchorage for small vessels, called Urakami; again immediately round and to the north of the point is another equally good but small harbour, named Katsura. The famed waterfall Natchi no

title: Page:TASJ-1-3.djvu/257


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 taki, 275 feet high, is only 4$1⁄2$ miles from here, and strong hot sulphur springs are found close to the village, and within the bay. So strong and effectual are the waters, that seven days bathing is professedly ample time to cure the worst form of scabies; and fourteen for other diseases more serious than ordinary cutaneous affections.

The waterfalls—for there are three—follow at a short distance from each other, in the following order. The lowest is 275 feet high and has a clean drop, coming over a mass of rock which forms the back of an amphitheatre-shaped mountain. It falls into a deep pool, then rushing amongst great boulders for some distance, finds the more level valley further on, and reaches the sea just behind Katsura. On following the stream for 300 yards or so from the top of this fall, the second is reached. This, like the first, falls over a slab of rock seventy feet or so in height, into a beautiful clear pool, which is shut in all round; and so near do the trees approach overhead, growing out and almost hanging from the rocks, that at first sight they almost appear to touch. The only outlet to this extraordinary place for a river to find its way to, is its own course, as it flows, or to the great fall. Above the second fall there is another about fifty feet in height. They are all very beautiful, but the second is as wonderful as it is beautiful.

Near the lowest fail is a cluster of temples, with a grand old avenue leading up to them. One of the sugi trees, which had been cut down, I made out to be 283 years old; which agreed within a few years of the date given by the Japanese. Here the head of all the Shinto priests resides and the principal temple is built.

A short way north of Katsura, the previously broken and rugged coast line gives place to a long straight stretch of sand and pebbled beach, which runs N. E. without a break for 15 miles, butting up against a steep promontory, the beginning again of a wild, broken line of coast, which, still keeping the same N. E. direction, continues 70 miles to Toba, at the entrance of the Owari Gulf. Harbours and bays with water too deep for

title: Page:TASJ-1-3.djvu/258


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Page:The life and opinions of Tristram Shandy (Volume 7).pdf/93

a tract of country have I run!—how many degrees nearer to the warm sun am I advanced, and how many fair and goodly cities have I seen, during the time you have been reading, and reflecting, Madam, upon this story! There's, and , and , and , and the capital of Burgundy, and , and Mâcon the capital of the Mâconese, and a score more upon the road to and now I have run them overI might as well talk to you of so many market-towns in the moon, as tell you one word about them: it will be this chapter at the least, if not both this


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, are found all along this 70 miles of wonderfully beautiful coast.

Singo, a town eight miles north of Katsura, is the only place of any importance whatever, and this mainly from its trade in wood, which is brought down by means of no less than twelve rivers, which joining in one, near Singo, form a short way above the town a fine stream of water, with ample depth for large junks, which, however, can only cross the bur during calm and favorable weather. The population of Singo is about 4,000.

A few ri up the river there is a coal-mine, the coal is brought to Katsura in boats, stored in large quantities, and shipped off to Yedo and other places. I took in 50 tons for trial, excellent in appearance, but it simply refused to burn; when mixed, and so assisted, with some different kind I had on board, it did fairly well. It is very hard and heavy, and free from dust.

None of these provinces grow sufficient rice for their own consumption, but this is not surprising considering that the only rice cultivation of any extent is near to Singo, where a plain of some square miles extends back from the beach to the foot of the mountains.

There is one other place worthy of note, more for the employment of its people than for its extent or importance. This is Kozaura, five miles W. of Oosima, at the mouth of a viver called Koza Gawa. Wood and whale’s flesh are the two articles of export, and as the mode of catching this leviathan of the deep may not be without interest, I will try and describe the novel method which is pursued. I believe the species of cetacea, which finds its way into the open deep bays, and in the different eddies, near points, caused by the great Kuro Siwo, rushing past the coast, to be the Balena Mysticetus, but this I cannot with any certainty affirm; it is not unlikely that other smaller kinds are often caught. In passing I may mention that in the east of Yeso I have seen on numerous occasions, the little known and rare species the high-finned cachalot (Physeter Tursio). As soon as whales are seen, basking about the surface, or lazily

title: Page:TASJ-1-3.djvu/259


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 and the next entirely lost, do what I will

—Why, 'tis a strange story! Tristram.

Alas! Madam, had it been upon some melancholy lecture of the cross—the peace of meekness, or the contentment of resignation—I had not been incommoded: or had I thought of writing it upon the purer abstractions of the soul, and that food of wisdom, and holiness, and contemplation, upon which the spirit of man (when separated from the body) is to subsist for ever—You would have come with a better appetite from it

I wish I never had wrote it: but as I never blot any thing outlet us


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Page:On the Influence of Carbonic Acid in the Air upon the Temperature of the Ground.pdf/31

266


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 use some honest means to get it out of our heads directly.

Pray reach me my fool's capI fear you sit upon it, Madam—'tis under the cushionI'll put it on

Bless me! you have had it upon your head this half hour.There then let it stay, with a

And now, Madam, we may venture, I hope, a little to go on.


text: The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman/Volume 7/Chapter 26