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Page:CTRL0000034605 - Transcribed Interview of Angela McCallum, (December 8, 2021).pdf/68

68 chairs?

I don't remember.

Okay.

And—let's see. Okay. And do you recall, did you do other type of, you know, outreach to other people similar to this, where you were asking if they had a good relationship with commissioners maybe in other counties?

Nick's—Nicholas Ivory's rale on the campaign, as an elected officials outreach manager, he handled relationships with county commissioners. So the only reason I was asking Nick is because he had been contacting various county commissioners over numerous States for months at this point.

Okay.

So, to the best of your understanding, these hearing dates that are referenced on the second page—and I apologize, the Bates is very small. It's how it was produced to us. I believe it's 1574.

Uh-huh.

The hearing dates, those did not concern alleged election fraud or alleged voter fraud? It was just provisional ballot review?

To my knowledge, this was about provisional ballot review hearings.

Okay. Great.

Yeah, just one question. On this document, your colleague Mr. Ivory says that his last day on staff is basically tomorrow, which would've been around November 13th. Do you know, did he leave the campaign, as anticipated, right after that?

The I assume. I don't remember any conversations I had with him after this.


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Page:The International Socialist Review (1900-1918), Vol. 1, Issue 1.pdf/38

 definite and universal protection would defeat the object sought; fourth, being thus universally salable, and its production being in the hands of private individuals, each working for his own private interest regardless of what others are doing and regardless of the public requirements, its production is always carried on at a maximum, just as banks of issue, when free to do so, issue their notes to the utmost limits. Yet in spite of these striking features, which distinguish gold under free coinage from all other articles, Marx implies that gold miners regulate their output to correspond with the volume of commodities, so as to maintain a stable price level; that if they do keep on mining beyond the requirements of a stable price level, they are mining for use and not for profit. It is not because the production of gold can to a slight extent be controlled by individuals that makes it usable as money; it is rather in spite of that fact.

This is superficially true; but essentially it is utterly false and misleading. In every country a certain amount of gold is needed for the arts, for plate, ornaments and jewelry; some is also kept as hoards and reserves; all the rest circulates as money, and this money volume can in no way be increased, except within very narrow limits out of hoards and reserves, but by no means to correspond with the increase of commodities. So that it is perfectly correct, speaking broadly, to say, that substantially all the gold in a country enters into circulation, and this would be true in principle even though a much larger proportion were used in the arts than now. Just as there is a minimum standard of living at any one time and place, but not always and everywhere the same, which determines the value of labor power, so there is in every country a minimum quantity of gold needed for non-monetary purposes, out of which no increase of the circulating medium can be derived. The relative amount of such hoards differs in different countries. It is greater in India than in France, and greater in France than in England.

Gold metal stands in the same relation to gold money that products do to commodities. To say, therefore, that all the gold in a country does not circulate as money is analogous to saying that all the products of a country do not circulate as commodities. This is superficially true. But in substance it is false. A certain minimum of the products are consumed by the producers as utilities without ever becoming commodities, but everything above that, in short, the vast bulk of the products is thrown upon the market as commodities. No one demonstrates this so clearly as Marx. All his economic writings go to show that the prevailing system of production to-day is the production of com-

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Page:The International Socialist Review (1900-1918), Vol. 1, Issue 1.pdf/39

 modities not utilities. But when he comes to gold he falls down, whether out of reverence, or fear, or ignorance, we know not which. With him gold is an exception. It is produced for use, not for exchange. It is a utility, not a commodity. Although gold is mined for profit, and not for use, yet he implies that it is not thrown upon the market. Money is the chief form which gold takes when it is thrown upon the market. It is either a utility, or it takes the form of money instead of becoming a commodity. It is apparent, then, at a glance how absurd it is to claim, as Marx does, that only a certain modicum of gold can be put upon the market as money, and that all above that is produced for use and not for exchange.

That is, if more commodities are sold they will call forth more money, so that the price level will remain the same.

This statement appears to us to rest upon some contradictory and impossible assumptions. Marx first assumes that the price level is and remains stable. This implies that there is a given quantity of money and a given quantity of commodities. He next assumes that more commodities are sold. But this is an impossibility. With a given amount of money and a fixed price level more commodities cannot be sold. If sold, they would have to be sold at a lower price level, which is contrary to the first supposition. The increased sale of commodities, therefore, cannot be the cause of an increase in the quantity of money. It cannot precede the increase in money, but must be simultaneous with it. One cannot be the cause of the other. Commodity producers do not regulate their activity by that of money producers. They act privately, each individual according to his own supposed interest. Money producers do not regulate their activity by that of commodity producers. They act privately, each individual according to his own supposed interest, regardless of the effect of his activity when combined with that of other individuals on the world's market as a whole.

To suppose that money and commodities increase simultaneuslysimultaneously [sic], so as to maintain a stable price level is to assume that there is a planful and concerted action between commodity producers and money producers according to some previous agreement. Such assumptions belong in the land of dreams. They are Utopian.

The assertion that to manufacture commodities is to manufacture additional money, or that to manufacture money is to manufacture additional commodities, only needs to be plainly put before the mind to appear in all its naked absurdity. But the assertion that to manufacture more commodities lowers the price


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 level, or that to manufacture more money raises the price level, is a self-evident truth to every one who is not glued to the idea that nothing, not even money, can have exchange value unless it has utility in addition to its function as a medium of exchange.

They do perhaps to a limited extent, but by no means to the extent of supplying the amount of currency needed in proportion to the commodities, as Marx claims. Just as gold is mined entirely to suit the interest of the individual mine owner and regardless of whether the volume of commodities is increasing or diminishing, so hoards are accumulated and paid out to suit the interest of the individual owner regardless of the volume of commodities; and so also where banks are allowed to issue notes, they are issued entirely to suit the interest of the particular bank regardless of the public requirements. If hoards accomplished what Marx claims for them, there would never be any rise or fall of the price level. If the government should maintain a large reserve and expand or contract it in the interest of the public solely for the purpose of keeping the price level stable it might do some good. We have recently had a fine example of how our officials manage such things. In November, 1899, at a time when the price level was rising, and had been rising for months, and when, therefore, money instead of being issued should rather have been hoarded, Secretary Gage, regardless of the public welfare, and solely in the interest of a small clique of stock exchange speculators issued from the reserve $25,000,000 by buying bonds, so far as offered, thereby expanding the currency. He did for his friends exactly what a bank does for itself when it issues bank notes for its own profit regardless of the state of the currency, and exactly what a gold miner does when he works a rich mine to the utmost in his own interest, even though the public welfare requires that it be shut down. If the government owned the gold mines, the private hoards and the banks of issue, and operated them with reference to maintaining a stable price level, something might be accomplished. But to claim, as Marx does, that private mines and private hoards are now managed so as to have that effect is to claim something which can be supposed or assumed, but it is not in accordance with the actual facts.

The same principle would, of course, apply to the use of light weight coins, bank bills, credit and bimetallic money; it also implies that if gold were entirely demonetized, its value would remain the same.

Marx complains bitterly that Ricardo and James Mill set out


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 of the provincial court or municipal court, as the case may be, who is not part of the panel in charge of the case file has proposed an opinion that this should be done.

In the event that the most senior Vice President of the Supreme Court of Justice, Vice President of the Court of Appeal, Vice President of the Regional Court of Appeal, deputy chief judge of the court of first instance, or judge of the provincial court or municipal court, as the case may be, is unable to serve or has become part of the panel in charge of the case file to be recalled or transferred, the Vice President of the Supreme Court of Justice, Vice President of the Court of Appeal, Vice President of the Regional Court of Appeal, deputy chief judge of the court of first instance, or judge of that court who is next in line of seniority shall have the power to propose the opinion instead. In the event that there is only one Vice President of the Supreme Court of Justice, Vice President of the Court of Appeal, Vice President of the Regional Court of Appeal, or deputy chief judge of the court of first instance, or there are many but all of them are unable to serve or have become part of the panel in charge of the case file to be recalled or transferred, the most senior judge of that court shall then become the person who has the power to propose the opinion."


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Page:NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE SURVEY 18; CZECHOSLOVAKIA; TRANSPORTATION AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS CIA-RDP01-00707R000200110013-9.pdf/7

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A. Appraisal (S)

Czechoslovakia has well-developed transportation and telecommunication (telecom) networks, and all the state-operated systems are adequate for current economic needs. The transportation and telecom networks carry large amounts of traffic; there are good rail, highway, airline, and waterway connections to adjacent countries.

The western part of Czechoslovakia is heavily populated and industrialized; Prague and seven surrounding regions (the Czech lands) account for more than two-thirds of the total population. The eastern part is mountainous, sparsely populated, and relatively inaccessible. Reflecting these factors, transportation facilities in western Czechoslovakia are far more extensive than those in the east. Except for the high-capacity heavily trafficked Cierna nad Tisou-Prague rail line, east-west transportation facilities are limited.

Rail is the most significant mode of transportation. Highways serve mainly as a short-haul supplement to the railroads. Statistics for 1972 show that of the three principal means of surface transport, rail accounted for about 80%, highways for some 15%, and waterways for about 5% of the total 51.8 billion ton-miles. In the same year, railroads carried about 24%, highways slightly more than 75%, and waterways less than 1% of the total tonnage moved. The contribution of waterways to the national transport system, although significant, is small, largely because of the sparsity of routes and their lack of interconnection. An extensive system of pipelines for moving oil and gas provides an important complement to the surface transport facilities; of major importance is the CEMA (Friendship) international pipeline.

The rail, highway, and airline systems serve all the important economic centers of the country. Although the railroads have a freight-car shortage that prevents them from meeting peak demands, the lines are rated among the most efficient of those of the Eastern European Communist nations, and the highways, although inferior to those of most Western European countries, compare favorably with those of other European Communist countries. Domestic air-carrier services move only a small portion of the total passenger and cargo traffic, but the government is making every effort to encourage public use of air-transport services.

Direct exchange of rail equipment of the standard-gage (4'8½") Czechoslovak network is made with all adjacent countries except the Soviet Union, which has a 5'0" broad-gage system. The most important facilities for translating freight from Soviet to Czechoslovak rolling stock are located at Cierna nad Tisou, and supplementary facilities are at Vel'ke Kapusany. A significant development in recent years is the 57-mile extension of a Soviet broad-gage line to Kosice. Numerous highway connections are made with East Germany, Poland, the U.S.S.R., Hungary, Austria, and West Germany. International connections via inland waterways provide economical means of transport for cargo moving between Czechoslovakia and ports on the North, Baltic, and Black Seas.

The international air-route network of Czechoslovakia is, among Communist air carriers and in terms of points served and number of flights, second only to the international air-route network of the U.S.S.R. The Czechoslovak air carrier—CSA—links Prague with key cities in Europe, West Africa, the Middle East, South and Southeast Asia, Cuba, and North America (Montreal and New York).

The government owns all transportation modes and telecommunications. Control is vested in the Ministry of Transportation. Railroads are operated by the Czechoslovak State Railways. All highway-transport services are nationalized and are carried out from motor-transport centers in major cities. The Czechoslovak Elbe-Oder Navigation Co. and the Czechoslovak Danube Navigation Co. control all inland-waterway operations. The ministry exercises control of air transport and air work services through the Civil Aviation Administration.

Telecom facilities are among the best of the Communist countries and include modern telephone, telegraph, telex (teleprinter subscriber exchange), facsimile, radiobroadcast, and TV services.

Czechoslovakia, although landlocked, transports a significant amount of its foreign trade by sea, principally through foreign ports on the Baltic, North,

1

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Page:CTRL0000034605 - Transcribed Interview of Angela McCallum, (December 8, 2021).pdf/69

69 Okay. Thanks. That's all I had.

 * BY

We'll turn to another document. If you want to turn to the document behind tab 3, it's just a one-page text communication, with the Bates—I think it's 604.

And you can take a minute, you and Mr. Brothers, to review the document.

Okay.

You've both reviewed it?

Uh-huh.

Okay. So this communication is dated November 28, 2020. Is that right?

Correct.

And this is with Mr. Brown and Mr.—excuse me, Ms. Crawley?

Yes, "Madi" being short for Madison.

And we don't have the exact timestamp. That wasn't provided. So I'm not sure what time this was. But if you look at the fourth message down, Mr. Brown asks, "Can you pull all the donors to PA House Speaker Jake Cutler and cross reference them with DJT?"

Do you see that?

I do.

Okay. Do you remember receiving this request?

Vaguely.

Okay. Can you tell us what you remember about what he was asking for?

He said that he needed myself and Madison to pull the donors, meaning people who donated to Pennsylvania House Speaker Jake Cutler and people who donated to DJT, standing for Donald Trump's campaign, and, you know, seeing what names matched up.


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RULERS OF INDIA

Lord Clive

By COLONEL G.[eorge] B.[ruce] MALLESON, C.S.I.

Oxford

AT THE CLARENDON PRESS: 1893

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Page:CTRL0000034605 - Transcribed Interview of Angela McCallum, (December 8, 2021).pdf/70

70 And do you know why Mr. Brown wanted you and Ms. Crawley to see if any of the names matched up between donors of the House speaker and President Trump?

He didn't specify in this message or in person that I remember.

So, as far as his request to pull all donors, it was limited to this communication, and you don't remember him providing any further details as to why he needed that information?

Can have a minute to—

Yes.

[Discussion off the record.]

The The only other thing I remember about this conversation in regards to, you know, why he might have wanted it: Somewhere else in my document production there was another message after this chain that says something to the effect of, "We want to put pressure on him tonight," and—or tomorrow, or referencing some time in the near future. And I don't know what that's referring to. I just thought that that would be helpful context.

 * BY

Thank you for that context.

Uh-huh.

So you recall after this chain—and it's possible it was out of order, and I apologize we don't have it here.

I think so.

Mr. I can try to find you, when we take a break, the Bates number. The text she is referring to |am almost certain is in the production. I would think it would come next, but I must admit I don't have the Bates numbers all memorized chronologically in my head.


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Page:พรบ แก้ไขเพิ่มเติม ธศย (๓) ๒๕๕๑.pdf/1

Phra Bat Somdet Phra Paramin Maha Bhumibol Adulyadej gives a great royal command by which He orders with His pleasure that it be announced as follows:

Whereas it is appropriate to amend the Charter of the Courts of Justice;

Therefore, by and with the advice and consent of the National Legislative Assembly, He orders with His gracious pleasure that the following Act be enacted:

This Act is called the "Charter of the Courts of Justice Amendment Act (No. 3), 2550 BE".

This Act shall come into force from the day following the day of its publication in the Royal Gazette onwards.

The stipulations of section 5 of the Charter of the Courts of Justice shall be repealed and replaced by the following stipulations:


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Page:พรบ แก้ไขเพิ่มเติม ธศย (๓) ๒๕๕๑.pdf/2

 "The President of the Supreme Court of Justice shall have the duty to lay down rules for the judicial service of the courts of justice, in order that the business of the courts of justice shall proceed in an orderly and uniform manner. In addition, the President of the Supreme Court of Justice shall have the power to provide advice to judges in order that they shall correctly observe the rules and procedures designated by the law or by other means."

The stipulations of (1) of section 11 of the Charter of the Courts of Justice shall be repealed and replaced by the following stipulations:

"to participate in sittings to try and adjudicate upon cases of such court or, after having inspected the file of any case, to express a dissenting opinion".

The stipulations of paragraph 1 of section 23 of the Charter of the Courts of Justice shall be repealed and replaced by the following stipulations:

"The Supreme Court of Justice has the power to try and adjudicate upon cases which the Constitution or law permits to be brought directly to it and cases in which appeals or final appeals are lodged against judgments or orders of the courts of first instance, Court of Appeal, or Regional Courts of Appeal as prescribed by the law. However, in the event that the Supreme Court of Justice finds a point of law or point of fact grounding an appeal or final appeal to be frivolous and not deserving its consideration, the Supreme Court of Justice has the power to refuse to accept the case for trial and adjudication. This shall be subject to the rules designated by a general meeting of the Supreme Court of Justice by means of publication in the Royal Gazette."


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Rh to the king and told him that the robber had not been. But another apple was missing!

The next night Prince Peter went, sat down under the apple-tree, and likewise found himself in dreamland. When noon came he went to his father, saying that the robber was not to be seen. Yet another apple was gone!

On the third night Prince John went into the garden and sat under the apple-tree watching for the robber. He looked all round him, and took care to keep wide awake. When midnight came he saw the garden begin to shine as if with lightning. Rapidly from the east came flying a golden cassowary like a fiery star burning in the heavens, making the night as clear as day.

Prince John crept nearer and nearer to the apple-tree, he hardly dared to breathe, but waited to see what would happen next.

The golden cassowary alighted upon the apple-tree, and began its work plucking off the apples.

Prince John got up gently from the grass and seized the cassowary by the tail, but the bird would not be caught so easily; it dropped the apples on the ground, tore itself out of the prince's hands, and flew away, only leaving one of its feathers behind, and, when the prince held it up, the whole garden shone like fire.

As soon it was day the prince went to the king, his father, telling him that the robber had been discovered at last, and that it was a bird and not a man, as was first supposed, and to prove the truth of his story he showed the king the feather. His


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172 father was delighted, and kissed him for joy! And from that time forth no one stole the king's apples.

King Dymion became himself again; he could eat, drink, and sleep as of old.

But after a time the king became disagreeable once more, and had a strong wish to possess this wonderful cassowary, so he despatched his two eldest sons in search of the extraordinary creature. When they had departed Prince John begged his father to let him go too; but the king was loath to do so, in case some harm should befall the young prince, who was his favourite son. However, after a great deal of begging, Prince John obtained his father's consent and rode off.

He rode and rode until he came to a place where the road branched off into three, and in the middle stood a finger-post, on which was this inscription,—

"Whosoever goes straight on will be cold and hungry. He who goes to the left will live, but his horse will die. He who goes to the right will die, but his horse will live."

"To the left!" said the prince to himself, as he turned his horse in that direction.

He had not gone far before a grey wolf sprang out and threw himself with ferocity on the horse, and before the prince had time to save the animal the wolf had eaten it and was off.

Prince John continued his journey very sorrowfully on foot; suddenly the same grey wolf came up to him and said,—

I am sorry, Prince John, that I ate up your good horse, but of course you saw what was written on the


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Rh finger-post? therefore it could not be avoided. Now forget your sorrow and sit down on my back; I like the look of you, and believe you to be a good man, and will serve you from this day forth. But now tell me whither I have to carry you, and why!"

Prince John explained, and told him all that had happened with respect to the apples.

"All right," said the wolf; "I know where to find the golden cassowary, so sit down on my back, prince, and let us be off!"

They were off indeed, for the grey wolf ran faster than any bird could fly.

"Here we are, prince," said he, as they stopped in front of a stone wall. "But listen to me, the cassowary is in a golden cage hanging against the wall; take the bird but leave the cage, or else you will get into trouble."

Prince John climbed over into a most beautiful garden, wonderfully illuminated as if by the sun, but as it was midnight this was hardly likely to be the case, and on looking round the prince saw that the light came from a rich golden cage, hanging on the wall at the opposite side of the garden, in which sat the cassowary asleep. He was about to take the bird out, when suddenly he thought,—

"How on earth am I to carry the cassowary?"

And forgetting what the grey wolf had said, he began to take down the golden cage. But, alas! under it many musical instruments were arranged, from which came a great sound, which woke the guards, who ran into the garden, seized Prince John, and took him before their king.


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174 The king, who was the owner of the luminous cassowary, agreed to pardon Prince John, and to give him the wonderful bird to boot, on condition of his obtaining for him a certain horse of pure gold, belonging to King Alphonso, who ruled over a kingdom at the World's End.

Prince John promised to do so, and went to the place where he had left the grey wolf.

"You had better have listened to me," said the wolf as he came to meet him; "but you will be wiser next time. Now let us go to King Alphonso at the World's End."

When they at last arrived at King Alphonso's kingdom the grey wolf stopped at the stables where the golden horse was kept.

"Now, prince, listen to me," said the wolf; "go into the stables, you will find the grooms fast asleep, take the golden horse away gently, but on no account attempt to take away the bridle or you will again get into difficulties."

Into the royal stables went Prince John, and was just about to take the beautiful horse from its place, when, as ill-luck would have it, he saw the golden bridle, and no sooner had he taken it up than the grooms awoke, took him prisoner, and in the morning brought him before King Alphonso.

King Alphonso was also good enough to forgive the prince, and agreed to give him the golden horse if he would get him the Princess Helen, the fair daughter of King Cassimir, in exchange.

Prince John hung down his head, and after promising to do his best, went to the place where


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Rh he had left the grey-wolf, half afraid that his friend had gone. But no, the good creature was still waiting for him.

"Oh, prince!" said the wolf, "if I did not love you I should not have been here; but never mind, we have not a moment to lose, sit on my back and let us fly to King Cassimir."

As soon as they arrived at their destination the grey wolf turned to the prince, and said,—

"Alight, my prince; not far from here is the king's garden, I shall go myself this time while you wait for me under this green tree."

The wolf went his way, and climbing over the garden wall, hid himself among the bushes.

Princess Helen was walking in the garden, surrounded by her maidens and nurses, and by her side walked the queen, her mother. The grey wolf noticed everything and kept his eye on her all the time. Suddenly, just as the fair princess was passing the bushes where he lay, he sprang up from behind them, and seizing the princess, threw her on to his back, and was off like the wind. A dreadful cry arose from the maidens and the nurses and the queen; in another moment the whole court came running in great alarm; ministers, grand chamberlains of the court, generals, and a great many more, who looked frightfully scared, wondering what had happened. When King Cassimir heard how a wolf had carried off his beloved daughter, he called his hunters together and let all his dogs loose; but in vain, for the grey wolf was far away with the prince and princess. The


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176 latter lay senseless in the prince's arms, the grey wolf having sadly frightened her. At last she began to recover and moved a little, her beautiful eyes opened, and when she raised them to the princess face she blushed like a rose,—and I am sorry to say the prince followed her example and blushed also. In that moment they fell so desperately in love with each other that it would be impossible to describe it in this story.

But after a time Prince John fell into profound silence and grief; he could not bear the thought of parting with Princess Helen and giving her to King Alphonso, neither did she like the idea when the prince had told her all about it.

The grey wolf, seeing their sorrow, exclaimed,—

"Do not grieve my good friends; I will help you."

At last they arrived at King Alphonso's palace.

"Now, prince," cried the wolf, "here we must act with caution and tact. I shall take the form of the princess, who must remain hidden in that forest yonder, while you take me to King Alphonso and receive the golden horse in exchange; you must then mount it and ride back to the forest for the princess, and wait for me. I shall not be very long, though I intend to have a little fun. Good-bye."

With these words the wolf struck himself three times with his tail, and was immediately changed into the likeness of Princess Helen. Prince John, greatly surprised at the sudden change, took the wolf and delivered him over into the hands of King Alphonso as Princess Helen, receiving in exchange the golden


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North Dakota Law Review/Volume 1/Number 8

 * /A Challenge to the Legal Profession/
 * /Lawyers and Legal Procedure/
 * /Review of Important Decisions/
 * /U.S. Supreme Court Decisions/
 * /Report of H. C. Young/
 * /Attention, Committee Chairmen!/
 * /Lest Ye Forget/
 * /On Convention Program/
 * /Powers of Appointment/


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Page:The Chronicle of Clemendy.pdf/249

 him; and Laura degli Cavalcante bade her go still abroad, and when she was at home, to keep her chamber "for so" said she, "my lord will feel the lack of you." But a girl named Agnes, who lay apart upon the ground, and had a face full of maliciousness and wit plainly told her mistress that there was only one cure for the duke's sickness; "and this," she said, "is for you to choose some young gallant from among the gentlemen of your court, and openly to show your kindness for him by pleasant words and by acceptance of his service; the which I warrant me will open my lord's eyes, and show him along what manner of road he is posting. This is a medicine I have known operate most marvellously, and unless I am much mistaken it will teach your husband that there is more wit in women than in Cicero, or any man at all, dead or alive." At this hardy speech Constance looked down and was thought to blush but ever so little, and the ladies agreed that though Agnes was young there was some tincture of sense in what she said, and that if my lady furnished her husband with a pair of horns he would have no right to be angry, since he had of his own acts and deeds (or rather the want of them) forfeited all his claims and privileges. But an old dame with white hair, who had seen a good deal of life, and knew that such remedies as these now and then turn out worse than the sickness itself and bring on bad complaints, advised Constance not to be hasty in the matter, but to send for some learned physician, and consult with him, and open up all her grief "since" (quoth the old

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 the Presbyterian hymnal edited by Drs. Nevius and Mateer, used in North Shantung, a hymn which was the composition of Charles Wesley. While not begrudging our Presbyterian brethren the use of a good old shouting Methodist hymn, like this one, I wondered how such a ranting hymn had found its way into the staid Presbyterian book. On further search I found the same hymn in the American Board Peking Hymnal, the work of Drs. Blodget and Goodrich. Here again I was puzzled, and remained so until I came to Fukien province, when I found the hymn in question in both the Methodist and American Board collections. The hymn is a translation of Charles Wesley's "O how happy are they who the Saviour obey, And have laid up their treasure above." What has evidently happened is that this hymn was translated by one of the early Methodist missionaries to Foochow, adopted by the American Board Mission and then used in North China, first in the American Board Mission by some missionary who had seen the Foochow version of the same, from whence it was taken for use by the Presbyterians. As I have said before I do not begrudge the other churches the use of a Methodist hymn, but do wish that it had been inserted into some of the Methodist collections in North China. The old Negro song has the lines, "If there is one thing I like the best, It is the shouting Methodist," and then goes on to say: "I do believe, without one doubt, That a Christian has the right to shout." I by no means claim for the Methodists the sole right to shout if they feel good, and am glad to see that the Congregationalists and the Presbyterians have got so well worked up that they enjoy singing this fine old hymn. There is no doubt about the shouting of this hymn as we get it in our churches in Foochow. Our people always enjoy singing it. The hymn and the melody to which it is sung I give herewith. The melody is a fine Pentatonic one, but rather hard at times to sing, on account of the wide compass from D to F.

主旨意要順憑 積錢財在天庭 日暝守我天父其命令 得享主其寵愛 共教會齊崇拜 者𠆧歡喜歡喜講賣盡 我信主其道理 得不盡其歡喜 倚藉主其寶血得平安 當彼時心隻信 蒙救主常照應 甘願捨葉通世間 得救主做模樣 雖在地如天上 衆天使也不過者福氣 齊崇拜主耶穌 蒙伊贖我罪辜 滿塊揚傳揚傳主旨意 我日日心歡喜 着時常大讚美 願世間萬萬國齊得聽 主成全大功德 替我罪流寶血 永遠讚美讚美盡大聲 實心藉主寶血 天堂福總得 我歡喜大感謝連崇拜 常憑主其命令 福氣眞講賣盡 天父賜我賜我大仁愛


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Here again a few more explanations of characters are necessary. is a word used to express the meaning of "can," "does." It is pronounced "ââ̤ [sic]", or rather a better idea of its sound would be given by the combination of English letters "a-er" spoken in the Foochow seventh tone, which is a tone of an exceedingly curly nature. 毛 is used to express the same meaning as 無 "has not." 煞 means "end, finish." 務 is the most commonly used word meaning "to have." It is used in Foochow colloquial, where 有 is used in Mandarin. 厝 is the commonly used word for house. 葯葤 [sic] deu takes the place of the Mandarin 住. 伊 i is the third personal pronoun. 奴 is frequently used for the first personal pronoun, while 汝 is the second personal pronoun.

In a recent number of the The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal Rev. J. E. Walker, of Shao-wu, printed the melody of a tune of his, which is one of the most popular hymns of the church in Fukien. This tune is a splendid example of what a Pentatonic tune should be. It is very fine to hear a big congregation singing this tune, even if they do now and then sing it in a way of their own. If I could succeed in making a tune that is so popular as this I should be proud. The hymn to which it is set I give here:—

讚美讚美上帝 活命福氣其主宰 我是天父創造 肉體靈魂伊賜我 我蒙上帝保護 自出世日至仱 上帝日暝照顧 身心都得平安 讚美讚美上帝 活命福氣其主宰 天父獨生愛子 捨去本身欲救我 耶穌甘願流血 替我獻祭贖罪 我罪伊洗他格 心裏無量安慰 讚美讚美上帝 活命福氣其主宰 聖神卽保惠師 天父應許賞賜我 聖神由天降臨 光照心裏黑暗 創造我心重新 應該大大稱讚 讚美讚美上帝 活命福氣其主宰 天父救主聖神 三位一體毛離我 天下萬國萬民 男女老幼大細 該常協力同心 讚美三一上帝

I have given samples of a few well-known hymns used in Foochow, and had I the space at my disposal I could give several other good hymns here.

One of the three hymnals in use suffers from bad editing. After my critical study of many hymnals I am sure that Foochow has not a monopoly of this trouble. Many hymnals have suffered in this way. In this particular book there are, for


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 Aug$t$/90 All the children had the chickex pox.

Winter 92 do Hooping Cough.

27$th$ Oct/94 French conversat$n$ lessons

Easter/95 All children had measles

Winter 94-5 All children had influezna (Margery about 3 times)

July/95 Kathleen Ralph & Margery had German Measles

Autumn/95 Nora & Kathleen commenced violin lessons

1898 All the children had mumps

1907 All the children vaccinated

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At age 2 when picking blackberries complained that the bushes bit him.

19$th$ Sept 1894 — Went to Mrs school,,. Daily boarder.

20$th$ Sept/95 Ralph went to Rev$d$ Walter school,.

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 together with the seed from which the body is formed does it receive its existence, but, by the will of the Creator, it appears in the body soon after its formation.” (p. 440.)

When this formation of the body takes place it does not say. For the purpose of elucidation the following is said:

“At the time when the body is formed it becomes capable of receiving the soul.”

If that does not explain the matter, what follows explains whence and from what the soul is created by God. Here we again have a controversy. Some have said that the soul originated by itself from the souls of the parents, while others have said that it came from nothing, directly from the seed. All are wrong:

“God creates the human souls, just as he creates the bodies, by force of the same blessing, to be fruitful and multiply, which he gave to our forefathers in the beginning,—he creates them not out of nothing, but out of the souls of the parents. For, according to the teaching of the church, although the souls of men receive their existence through creation, the stigma of the ancestral sin passes to them from the parents,—and this could not be, if God created them from nothing.” (pp. 441 and 442.)

80. The composition of man. Man consists of two parts, of the soul and the body, and not of three parts. As usual, there comes after that a dispute and confirmations from Holy Scripture. The dispute is directed against those who assert that man consists of three parts, of body, soul, and spirit. That is not so,—he consists only of body and soul.

81. The properties of the human soul are the following: “(1) It is an independent essence, separate from the body, (2) immaterial, simple (spirit), (3) free, and (4) immortal.” (pp. 449-453.)

There follow proofs from Holy Scripture. But what is


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Hamlet

ALAY superstitions are the survival of a time to the advent of the gospel of Islam, and their strong hold on the people is only another proof of the conservative tendencies of the race. What was the Faith of Malâya seven hundred years ago it is hard to say, but there is a certain amount of evidence to lead to the belief that it was a form of Brahmanism and that no doubt had succeeded the original Spirit Worship.

I do not propose to attempt to enumerate all the various forms of superstition, their name is legion, but only to describe a few that are both curious and interesting.

I have already referred to what is known as běrhantu, the practice of a kind of witchcraft for the

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 healing of the sick; it reminds one of "casting out devils in the name of Beelzebub the Prince of the devils"–and I might here give some of the incantations commonly spoken by the exorcist, but one will suffice. Here is the translation of a most potent exorcism believed to be efficacious against the malevolent attacks of a thousand lesser demons:

Heigh! thou Spirit whose name is Jin Pari of the Jin Âruah; Rabiah Jâmil was thy mother's, Imam Jâmil thy father's name; thou art the grandchild of Hakim Baisuri, the great-grandchild of Mâlim of the Forest. Thou Spirit of the path Lôrin, Spirit of the rising ground Sri Permâtang, Spirit of the ant-hill known as "Piebald Horse." Heigh! you white ants Sekutânai, why do you, Sekutâpa, flying up stream make me think you are on your way down, and flying down stream give the impression that you are going to the interior?

I know your origin, spawn of Hell's spouting flame; do not any longer torment this person.

If you disobey, I will curse you by the name of the Most High, saying, "By the Grace of God, by the Grace of God, by the Grace of God."

The final threat to drive out the demon by using the name of the Almighty is curious as showing Rh

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 how the exorcist seeks by a judicious blending of tradition with his latter-day Faith to get the better of the tormentor.

A very widespread superstition is that certain persons have familiar spirits who will, at the instance of their owners, enter into and plague any one whom it may be desired to injure. These evil spirits are known as Bâjang, Pôlong, Pělsit, and Langsúior, the last being a female spirit. They are either inherited or acquired by the practice of witchcraft, and the way in which their possession is brought home to any member of the community is as little reasonable as the " proof" of the exercise of similar powers in the Western witch not so many centuries ago.

Some one in a village falls ill of a complaint, the symptoms of which are unusual; there may be convulsions, unconsciousness, or delirium, possibly for some days together or with intervals between the attacks. The relatives will call in a native doctor, and at her (she is usually an ancient female) suggestion, or without it, an impression will arise that the patient is the victim of a bâjang. Such an impression quickly develops into certainty and any trifle will suggest the owner of the evil spirit. One method of verifying this suspicion is to wait till the

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Author:Henry Mulford Tichenor

Works

 * A Wave of Horror (1912)
 * The Evils of Capitalism (1912)
 * Woman under Capitalism (1912)
 * Rip-Saw Mother Goose (1912)
 * The Roman Religion (1913)
 * Barnhill-Tichenor Debate on Socialism (1914)
 * Rhymes of the Revolution (1914)
 * The Life and Exploits of Jehovah (1915)
 * The Creed of Constantine (1916)
 * Sorceries and Scandals of Satan (1917)
 * Tales of Theology (1918)
 * Mythologies: A Materialistic Interpretation (1919)
 * The Age of Reason (1920)
 * Primitive Beliefs (1921)
 * Sun Worship and Later Beliefs (1921)
 * Olympian Gods (1921)
 * Voices from the Past (1921)
 * Theory of Reincarnation (1922)
 * Constantine and the Beginnings of Christianity (1922)
 * The Republic of Plato (1922)
 * Irish Fairy Tales (1923)
 * Irish Folk Songs and Tales (1923)
 * A Guide to Emerson (1923)
 * The Buddhist Philosophy of Life (1924)

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 of the disputants is disputing for the sake of solving the scientific question, but each because a certain solution is needed by him. This confirms their tradition.

The Theology adduces proofs that God could have counted days, when there was no sun, by saying that he shook the matter; but to prove that all men originated in one man, we read on p. 437:

“Nowadays the best linguists, after prolonged labours, have come to the conclusion that all languages and all dialects of man are to be referred to three chief classes, the Indo-European, the Semitic, and the Malay, and come down from one root, which they find in the Hebrew language, while others do not define it.” (p. 437.)

The Theology says that it knows all about it in this matter. And these ignorant words pass unnoticed in the world of science; but let us imagine that the composer of the Theology, which is quite possible, will turn out to be a father of the church in three hundred years; then his words will serve as a confirmation of the dogma. In another five hundred years God himself who shakes matter may become a dogma. Only such reflection gives an explanation to those strange, wild utterances, which now are taken as dogmas.

79. The origin of each man and, in particular, the origin of the soul. All men originated from Adam, “still, none the less, God is the Creator of each man. The difference is this, that Adam and Eve he created directly, while all their descendants he creates indirectly, by the power of his blessing, which he gave to our first fathers soon after the creation of the world, saying: Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth.” (p. 439.)

Then follow texts of Holy Scripture, and then a minute determination by the church when the soul of man is created:

“The holy church, believing in the divine Scripture, teaches that the soul is created with the body, but not


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 patient is in a state of delirium and then to question him or her as to who is the author of the trouble. This should be done by some independent person of authority who is supposed to be able to ascertain the truth.

A further and convincing proof is then to call in a "Pawang" skilled in dealing with wizards (in Malay countries they are usually men), and if he knows his business his power is such that he will place the sorcerer in one room, and, while he in another scrapes an iron vessel with a razor, the culprit's hair will fall off as though the razor had been applied to his head instead of to the vessel! That is supposing he is the culprit; if not, of course he will pass through the ordeal without damage.

I have been assured that the shaving process is so efficacious that, as the vessel represents the head of the person standing his trial, wherever it is scraped, the wizard's hair will fall off in a corresponding spot. It might be supposed that under these circumstances the accused is reasonably safe, but this test of guilt is not always employed. What more commonly happens is that when several cases of unexplained sickness have occurred in a village, with possibly one or two deaths, the people

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 instance, three versions of Watts' hymn, "Alas! and did my Saviour bleed!" In one case this hymn is indexed as "We are worthless mortals!" There are two versions of "A charge to keep I have;" one of them being indexed as "My soul be on thy guard."

The indexing of this book leaves much to be desired. There is no proper Chinese index going by the number of strokes in the first character, and in the English index the first lines of some well known hymns have been printed in a misleading way. For instance "Lo! He comes with clouds descending," appears in the index as "See He cometh!" "O for heart to praise my God" appears as "Awake my soul to praise my God." "For ever here my rest shall be," is indexed as "The Saviour shed His precious blood." The editor could not have possessed a very profound acquaintance with English and American hymnology who allowed such mistakes as these to pass.

In many hymns printed in Foochow Hymnals there appears some sad mangling of accents and rhythms. For instance, in the book spoken of above in the hymn "There is a wideness in God's mercy," a hymn with trochaic rhythm, the possessive particle "gi" (其), answering to the Mandarin particle 的, comes on a strong accent 救主其恩廣闊無邊.

In a translation of a favorite hymn largely used in America, "Leaning on the Everlasting Arms," in the third stanza the two characters 平安 occur. They are actually allowed to be divided by the caesures in the middle of the line. One is reminded of the little girl who said it was wicked to cut off dogs' tails, because what God had joined no man should put asunder.

In a hymnal recently published in Foochow among several very excellent translations the following example of painful literalness appears. The original is the well-known hymn from Sacred Songs and Solos ("Lord, I care not for riches, Neither silver nor gold.") The translation runs 主奴毛看重錢財, which equals the historic translation of the line "Go, bury thy sorrow" 去埋你的憂愁.

One is also reminded of the peroration of the great sermon of the minister of Pittendreigh, which closed with the words, "Am I a goat? Amen!"

It is possible to produce excellent idiomatic hymns in Foochow colloquial. This has been done in some cases. The Anglican Hymnal in Foochow possesses some excellent


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Hayne J Bell J

of this Court had extended or overtaken the principle. They said that there need be no acquisition of "property", or of a benefit or advantage of a proprietary nature, to engage s 51(xxxi). But that submission must run aground on the bedrock that has been identified. A liberal construction of s 51(xxxi) cannot set the provision free from its text or the principle that the text establishes. A liberal construction cannot and does not go as far as the tobacco companies asserted, which would treat any benefit or advantage as a sufficient definition of the constitutional reference to "property".

Something more must be said about the decisions to which the tobacco companies referred in support of their arguments. Particular emphasis was given to statements made in The Commonwealth v Tasmania (The Tasmanian Dam Case) and Mutual Pools & Staff Pty Ltd v The Commonwealth.

In The Tasmanian Dam Case Deane J made two statements of present relevance. First, he said that where the Commonwealth or another obtains "an identifiable and measurable advantage … it is possible that an acquisition for the purposes of s 51(xxxi) is involved". Second, he decided, albeit with some hesitation, that the absence of a material benefit of a proprietary nature did not conclude whether there had been an acquisition of property in that case. The latter opinion was a dissenting view. It is a proposition that has not since been adopted or applied. The proposition does not accord with the constitutional text or with accepted principle. It should not be adopted. And having regard to what has been earlier identified as the bedrock for consideration of s 51(xxxi), the reference made by Deane J to "an identifiable and measurable advantage" must be understood as an advantage of a proprietary nature.

Likewise, the observations made by Deane and Gaudron JJ in Mutual Pools, that a person must obtain "at least some identifiable benefit or advantage relating to the ownership or use of property" (emphasis added) and that there must be "some identifiable and measurable countervailing benefit or advantage", must be understood in the same way. None of these statements from either case sweeps away the requirement that there be an acquisition of property.


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 colloquial hymns, and in the Methodist Hymnals there is also some fine work. On the whole the hymns of earlier days are better translated and written than those of later date.

I conclude with a fine hymn found in the Methodist Hymnal. I wish that some other tune than Migdol had been set to this hymn, as the constantly changing accents of this tune are impossible for the Chinese to render correctly. The hymn resembles in form Miss Havergal's "Lord, speak to me that I may speak."

願主開我蒙昧其心 先救自己後救他人 仔細思想主其恩情 我也的着替主傳名 願主時刻共我齊行 助我傳道各鄕各城 駛我嘴像號筒其聲 破魔鬼堅固其營 願主助我信德更深 置基磐上永遠安寗 孽海滔滔何處立身 衆將陷溺實在可憐 願主由天大降聖神 駛我務力講說聖經 助我言語都分明 有如箭矢直貫中心 願主賜我意外平安 駛我贏過許艱難 所有亡羊離散滿山 我着去討引伊歸欄 願主賜我一片熱腸 滿心流出活水如川 殷勤請客梨就婚筵 不顧身命跑走各鄕 願主用我微賤其身 自始至終善佈福音 等至將來主再降臨 歡欣鼓舞不盡顯榮

 Conference Notes.

ECENT meetings of the Executive Committee have been mainly occupied with the organization of the Programme Committees, with correspondence and other details. Arrangements are progressing, as will be seen from the following notes from the minute books:—

 The programme has met with very general approval and the work of the Committees is well advanced. Some of the papers are already drafted. Each chairman, however, has to submit his paper to the members of his Committee before it will be printed and ready for circulation. It is hoped that all the papers will be in the printer's hands early in February. Delegates who desire to have copies of these papers should send in their names, so that the papers may be posted to them as soon as they are ready. A charge sufficient to cover printing and postage will be made for each paper.

 Further details of the programme have now been filled in. The Conference is to commence Thursday, April 25th, and the proceedings each day will begin with a devotional service from 8.30 to 9.15 a.m. Visiting ministers are to be invited to give the addresses. The Conference sessions will be from 9.30 to 12 and 2 to 4.30.

 A series of meetings will be held in the evenings in the Town Hall, and to these meetings the non-missionary public will be


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4

HARVEY AND GALEN The objects to which Harvey himself desired the lecturer on the foundation to direct his discourse, namely, to commemorate the benefactors of the College, to exhort our Fellows and Members to search out the secrets of Nature by way of experiment, and to continue in mutual love and affection among ourselves, will never grow old. Let us never allow them to be forgotten.

The list of benefactors of our College has been enlarged during the past year by one name, of which I must now speak. Captain Edward Wilmot Williams, as the representative of our late venerable Fellow, Dr. Bisset Hawkins, has generously made over to our College the sum of one thousand pounds for the purpose of perpetuating the memory of Dr. Bisset Hawkins in connexion with the College. Nor must I omit to add that it was through the good offices and wise counsel of our friend Dr. Theodore Williams that this valuable benefaction accrued to the College. To him therefore, as well as to the generous donor, our best thanks are and will be always due, and have indeed already received formal expression in a vote of the College. The precise method in which the intentions of the donor are to be carried out is still under consideration.

The second Harveian injunction, to study Nature by way of experiment, is, I hope, not forgotten at the present day, and I feel that the breath of a Harveian orator can add little to the great forces which sustain the restless energy of modern science. But I have hoped that by bringing before you the strictly experimental researches of a great man of past times, whose services to science are not always duly acknowledged, I may by his brilliant example add some new force to the noble exhortation of Harvey.

The third injunction, to live in harmony among ourselves, needs, I hope, few words. For the harmony of our College is, and promises to continue, so unbroken that we need not emphasize, while we take to heart, the lesson which Harvey’s gentle nature desired to teach us.

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May I ask you to elaborate? Fish bowl (talk) 05:25, 10 October 2023 (UTC)

 * On the page the chinese language text is a continuous block across the page, In the version currently it's in blocks down the page.
 * If this was the only way to do this however.
 * ShakespeareFan00 (talk) 07:26, 10 October 2023 (UTC)

 * It can be done by applying to, but I didn't think it was a great priority, as modern Chinese text is left-to-right (Westernized), and site CSS for   has margin specifications that translate poorly to  (which is why attributes like margin-block-start were devised). Fish bowl (talk) 19:55, 10 October 2023 (UTC)
 * (Unrelated, but I am heavily judging the printers' decision to resize the text to fit the page, such that the stroke-dense Chinese is of a smaller font size than the English text, and the resulting scan is relatively smudged. Fish bowl (talk) 20:04, 10 October 2023 (UTC))


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 THE HARVEIAN ORATION

ON THE RELATION OF HARVEY TO HIS PREDECESSORS AND ESPECIALLY TO GALEN

Mr. President, Fellows, and Guests,

Before entering on the immediate subject of this oration, I am reminded that the President who entrusted me with this honourable duty is no longer among us. It was Sir Russell Reynolds who, with all fyis graceful courtesy, offered me the post of Harveian orator, and it was to him that I looked forward to submitting the result of my endeavour to prove worthy of his choice; but it was not to be. As this is not the first public occasion on which the College has met since we lost our late President, this is not the opportunity to commemorate formally or at any length his great public services. In Sir Russell Reynolds we knew one who, by hereditary disposition and by his own personal qualities, was, as a cultivated and scientific physician, a representative Fellow of our College. During his tenure of office he was the loyal and kindly friend of all of us, and among the distinguished Presidents of the College of Physicians his name will not be forgotten. And to you, Sir, who occupy the chair of Reynolds, I will only venture in your presence to say that you occupy the same place in our loyalty and affection ; and that I, in this position, hold myself fortunate that I have to submit my attempt towards the commemoration of Harvey to no less kind and competent a judge.

The task of composing the Harveian Oration, founded 240 years ago, becomes every year more difficult.

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 APPENDIX

The references to Galen’s works given above are made to the only edition available to modern students, that of Kuhn, in Greek and Latin (Leipzig, 1821-33). Some of his more important works were translated into French by Daremberg (2 vols. Paris, 1854-6). A third volume, containing an Introduction and Dissertations, was to have been published, but has never appeared. There are no English translations worth mentioning, but the following sources of information may be consulted : — -

Dr. W. A. Greenhill’s article on Galen in Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, which has been the foundation of some later works. — Dr. J. Kidd’s Analysis of the Works of Galen on Anatomy and Physiology in the Transactions of the Provincial Medical and Surgical Association, vol. vi. 1837, p. 299. — Dr. R. Gasquet : ‘ The Practical Medicine of Claudius Galenus and his Time,’ British and Foreign Medico- Chirurgical Review, vol. xl. 1867.— I would draw particular attention to Dr. James Finlayson’s admirable account of Galen, with copious extracts, in his ‘Bibliographical Demonstrations,’ the first of which was published in the British Medical Journal, 1892, i. p. 573, &c. It is reprinted with a second lecture as Galen : Tivo Bibliographical Demonstrations, Glasgow, 1895. The second of these publications was not before me when I wrote this oration. — A good account of Galen’s doctrines on the nervous system is given in Galen's Lehre vom gesunden und kranken Nervensysteme, by Dr. Friedreich Falk (Leipzig, 1871). — The above-named writers make, however, little reference to the work from which I have chiefly quoted, De Placitis Hippocratis et Platonis, which is rich in personal details as well as in physiological statements. A full account of Galen’s position in relation to modern physiology is still a desideratum.

The standard histories of Medicine treat, of course, largely of Galen. Sprengel’s well-known Geschichte der Arzneikunde is perhaps the most copious on this theme, but is not altogether satisfactory. In the eighteenth century, it seems to me, the backward state of physiology made a correct appreciation of Galen’s experimental work impossible. He is really more in sympathy with the anatomical and physiological medicine of the nine- teenth century, which represents the ideal towards which he strove. Had Galen been able to make post-mortem examinations and known how to ascertain the condition of the organs during life by Physical Diagnosis, his immediate aspirations would have been satisfied.

Hence the account of Galen in Daremberg’s Histoire des Sciences Medicates, vol. i. (Paris, 1870), is more instructive than earlier expositions, though blame is freely mingled with praise. There is an earlier dissertation by Daremberg, Exposition des Connaissances de Galien sur Vanatomie, la physiologie et la pathologie du Systeme Nerveux (Paris, 1841), which I have not been able to obtain.

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It has always been the tradition, with which one would not willingly break, that Harvey himself and his great dis- covery should be specially commemorated on this occasion. A long series of eminent men have so ably treated of the discovery of the circulation, and its consequences, that it would be difficult to add anything to what they have given us. But still I find that the genesis of Harvey’s idea, and more especially its historical connexion with the labours of the great men of antiquity who laid the foundations of anatomy and physiology, have not received the same degree of attention. Antecedents, however, no less than consequences, have to be taken into account in giving its true value to any scientific discovery.

It is generally admitted, though perhaps not always borne in mind, that no kind of knowledge has ever sprung into being without an antecedent, but is inseparably con- nected with what was known before. In this respect science is only like all other kinds of natural phenomena. The present aspect of the world, geologists tell us, is a necessary consequence of previous conditions and changes. The present races of animals and plants are the descendants of a long series whose origin we cannot trace. Modern civilization is the outcome of the efforts of man in all past ages to construct a social fabric. So even our modern science, which we sometimes speak of as though it were altogether a new thing, is only the final resultant of all the endeavours of men in past times to penetrate the secrets of nature. When we look back upon those strivings they often seem perverse and contradictory ; men at certain periods seem to have gone backward rather than forward ; we are struck less by the few grains of truth than by the great mass of what we call errors. But let us speak gently of these errors and call them rather imperfect truths, for, in science at least, the truth of to-day is error to-morrow. They are parts of a continuous evolution, in which the so-called truth and the so-called error are inseparably mingled.

Again, it seems to be sometimes thought that great original thinkers and discoverers make an exception to this

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law of continuous evolution. We imagine that such men as Aristotle, Galileo* Harvey, and Newton were indepen- dent of their predecessors, that, in fact, their great work was to demolish the errors — that is, to destroy the work — of those predecessors and to start afresh. But in reality no man, even the greatest, was ever thus independent. The investigator is indebted to those who went before him, not only for the instruments of research which they per- fected, but for the conclusions which they arrived at. These conclusions* whether he admits or rejects them, serve for his help and guidance. It is easy to see how a discoverer profits by the ascertained discoveries of his forerunners. It is not so easily seen that the so-called errors of those men are also of great value to him. How many false solutions of a problem are required before the true solution is arrived at ! HoW many are, indeed, neces- sary elements in this final solution ! I know that there are various kinds of errors, and that* while some are stepping-stones, others are stumbling-blocks ; but still there is much truth in the general proposition that error is a stage in the development of truth. A certain novelist has sketched the character of a philosopher who devoted his life to writing the History of Human Error. Were such a work ever honestly written it would be the History of Human Progress. I ask your indulgence for entering on these abstract topics, because they will be found to bear immediately upon my subject, which is The Relation of Harvey to his Predecessors, and especially to Galen.

It will be found, I think, that after tracing the services of Harvey’s own generation and that immediately preceding it in providing him with the indispensable methods and instruments of research we are led back to Aristotle and Galen as the real predecessors of Harvey in his work concerning the heart. It was by the labours of the great school of Greek anatomists, of whom Galen was the final representative (not forgetting their successors in the six- teenth century), that the problem, though unsolved, was put in such a shape that the genius of Harvey was enabled

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to solve it. Harvey’s debt to Aristotle was warmly ac- knowledged by himself, and has been frequently insisted upon, so that it is less necessary to enlarge upon that theme. But his relations to Galen and the Greek anatomists Harvey himself, for reasons which I shall presently state, was unavoidably led to put forward less prominently, and in modern times they have been greatly undervalued, or even misunderstood. It is therefore to Galen and Greek anatomy in general that I propose chiefly to confine myself. We need not fear that the result will be to lessen our admiration for Harvey or for his momentous discovery. The very contrary will be the case.

One sometimes wishes history could be written back- wards ; — that we could show how the state of affairs to-day is the consequence of that which existed yesterday or the year before, and so on. The practical difficulties of such a method would probably be too great, but in the present case I should like to trace the circumstances which in- fluenced Harvey through the two generations preceding his own, more especially as that will give me the oppor- tunity of obeying the Harveian precept by commemorating two great benefactors of our College — Thomas Linacre, our honoured founder, and John Caius. We shall see that there was a real link of connexion between these three gene- rations of English physicians. The relation of Harvey’s work to that of his predecessors may not be immediately obvious ; but nevertheless he owed much to them, and to the schools which they represent In fact their labours were an essential preliminary to his own great discovery.

Harvey, as we all know, was a student first at Cambridge, in the great college which owed its second foundation to Caius. He never knew Caius, who died five years before Harvey was bom, but he worked under the posthumous influence of that eminent physician, and the example of a man so distinguished, and standing in such a relation to the young scholar, must have had weight in determining the aspirations and the course of study of the greatest alumnus of his college. Beyond the fact that Harvey followed

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Caius’s example in studying in the schools of Italy, I will only now draw attention to two of Caius’s intellectual characteristics. He was an enthusiastic student of Greek medicine, and more especially of Galen, spending much time in revising and publishing some of his writings. Besides, or rather in consequence of, this bent he was keenly interested in anatomy, and founded a lectureship in his own college to promote its study. I need hardly point out how directly these facts bear upon Harvey’s career as a student.

Caius stood as to time much in the same relation to Linacre as Harvey did to himself, being about four years old when Linacre died, but in spirit the earlier pair were much more intimately connected. Caius cannot have known the older physician, but he made him in most respects the model of his life, and was in the truest sense his intellectual heir. Indeed, it was in a filial spirit that he repaired the neglect of others by erecting a monument to Linacre in St. Paul’s Cathedral with its well-known affec- tionate inscription.

We are led back, then, to Linacre, our founder, as in a sense the intellectual grandfather of Harvey, and we ask, What share had he in moulding the mind and influencing the life of the most famous of his progeny? How far did he contribute to lay the foundation on which Harvey’s great work was built ? The answer is that, though neither Linacre nor Caius, even through their writings, may have had any direct influence on Harvey, they represent not only the two preceding generations of English physicians, but also represent two successive stages in a great intel- lectual movement which was the indispensable preliminary to Harvey’s work, and of which his great discovery may be called the culmination. This was the movement generally called the Renaissance, or the revival of learning, but which, for our present purpose, might be more closely defined as the ‘ revival of Greek thought.’ Every one knows that the most important factor in the revival of learning (so far as it took place in the fifteenth century, though doubtless it began much earlier) was, beside the invention of printing,

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 THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING

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the revival of Greek learning and the study of Greek writers in the original. This was largely influenced by the migration of Greek scholars to Italy after the fall of Constantinople, bringing with them the ‘ brown Greek manuscripts ’ which it was thought worth a journey to Italy to read and transcribe. From this arose a new Science, along with a new Literature, and, as some think, a new Theology. Mr. Goldwin Smith has finely said that at this time ‘Greece rose from the dead, the New Testament in her hand.’ He might have added that in the other hand was the Book of Science. It is right to give prominence to the name of Linacre because among the Hellenists or scholars concerned in the Greek revival he occupied a high and honourable place. Not less was he known as a humanist, being an elegant Latin scholar, and as such ac- quired a reputation which lasted far into the next century. On his public services as the founder of our College it is needless to dwell, except as a passing tribute of grateful remembrance ; but a few facts from his life will help us to understand his position. Linacre was born about 1460, seven years after the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, and a few years after the first book was issued from a European printing-press — cardinal dates, as we know, in the history of learning. After studying at Oxford he set the example, followed by Caius and Harvey, of travel- ling to Italy to bring home the treasures of the new learn- ing. The records of his Italian journey show the romantic interest with which such a journey at that time might be invested. He carried introductions to the greatest scholars, such as Chalcondylas and Poliziano ; he heard at Florence the lectures given by these scholars to the princes of the house of Medici; and after moving among the Italian humanists, ‘himself not least, but honoured of them all/ bore off the highest laurels of Padua Returning to his

1 This is not a mere flourish. years after Linacre), picked up a

Richard Pace, Secretary of State to tradition of Linacre’s brilliant exer-

Henry VIII, who visited Italy and cise for his doctor’s degree. In his studied at Padua (probably some little book, De Fructu qui ex doctrina

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native land, Linacre occupied a unique position in his pro- fession, for he was probably the only physician in England who had read the Greek medical fathers in their original tongue. Many honours and dignities, as we know, fell to his lot. He was physician to the King, to Wolsey, and to all the great prelates, while he directed the studies of Prince Arthur and the Princess Mary. But, more significant and honourable than these dignities* it is to be remembered that such men as Sir Thomas More, Colet, and even the great Erasmus, were in a sense his pupils as they were also his patients, for they profited by the store of Greek learning and scholarship which he had brought back from Italy. Late in life he exchanged medical practice for the priest- hood, and, thus enjoying comparative leisure, crowded all his important work into the last seven years of his life. The year before his death he published a translation from Galen, which he says was accomplished with difficulty in the intervals of the painful disease calculus. Almost on his deathbed he must have been correcting the proofs of his last work, an elaborate treatise on Latin composition, which was published shortly after his death

percipitur (Basel, 1517), he introduces a dispute between Grammar and Rhetoric as to which could claim Linacre for her own. Rhetoric admits that he cultivated grammar in his spare hours, and says his friends wondered that he, who was born for the highest things, some- times condescended to the lowest, and disputed with some grammarian about the vocative case ; but he gained a more brilliant victory at Padua. ‘ Contendit turn ille feliciter quia vicit ; sed mallem victoriam fuisse illustriorem, et similem illi quam Patavii olim reportavit. Nam quum in gymnasio Patavino pro- fession^ artis medicae ei (ut nunc moris est) darentur insignia, publice non sine summa laude disputavit, et seniorum medicorum adversaria argumenta acutissime refellit. Turn

iuvenis quidam perquam eruditus, coepit contra argumentari. Sed Aquila, Tace, inquit, O bone iuvenis ! vides ne et consyderas hunc nos seniores te longo intervallo procul a se reliquisse, et in disputando superasse ? ’

Aquila was an eminent and vener- able physician, who attained the ‘ Galenical ’ age of nearly a hundred, and, as we see, finding that he and his equals were unable to hold their ground against the learning of Linacre, rebuked the temerity of the young man who ventured to enter the lists against so formidable a dis- putant.

1 De emendata strudura Latini sermonis. London, 1524. The first pages of this work treat of the Parts of Speech, and thus supply the clue to the quotation which follows.

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 THE IDEALIST SCHOLAR

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L inacre has left us the example of a noble life ; he was possessed from his youth till his death by the enthusiasm of learning. He was an idealist, devoted to objects which the world thought of little use. His devotion to learning even in the arid form of grammar was hit off by his friend Erasmus in a piece of good-natured banter, which, I fancy, caught the eye of a modern poet, Robert Browning, who in his fine poem, ‘The Grammarian’s Funeral,’ has given us the picture of an Idealist Scholar in a way which fits Linacre precisely, even if it was not meant for him. I think probably it did refer to him* as may be seen on referring to the original passage of Erasmus 1 : —

‘ Yes, this in him was the peculiar grace,

Still before living he’d learn how to live —

No end to learning.

Earn the means first — God surely will contrive Use for our earning.

1 No one knew Linacre better than his cherished friend Erasmus, who, besides many warm and sincere eulogiums, has left in his Praise of Folly an anonymous sketch, evidently meant for Linacre, which, being written in Erasrtius’s favourite style of banter, has misled persons without a sense of humour into supposing it to be meant as an ill-natured satire. It must have been seen by Linacre, and was certainly not intended to disturb the harmony of the two friends.

Folly is supposed to be speaking of the idle aims which men pursue, and says, ‘ One man I know, skilled in many arts ; a Grecian, Latinist, Mathematician, Philosopher, Phy- sician, and in all these supreme, now sixty years old, who for more than twenty years has tortured him- self in the study of grammar, think- ing himself fortunate if he should live long enough to define properly the eight parts of speech, which no Greek or Latin has yet satisfactorily distinguished.’

1 Novi quendam iroAwrtxt'OTa.Tov

Graecum, Latinum, Mathematicum, philosophum, medicum /cat ravra ( 3 a- <nitc 6 v iam sexagenarium qui caeteris rebus omissis annis plus viginti se torquet et discruciat in Grammatica, prorsus felieem sefore ratus si tamdiu licet vivere, donee certo statuat quo- modo distinguendae sint octo partes orationis quod hactenus nemo Grae- corum aut Latinorum ad plenum praestare valuit. Proinde quasi res sit bello quoque vindicanda, si quis coniunctionem faciat dictionem ad adverbiorum ius pertinentem ’ ( Eras - mi Roterodami Moriae Encomium, Basileae, Froben. 1521, p. 251). This is the character, not of a mere pedant, but of an idealist seen from the humorous side. The reference to ‘ parts of speech ’ seems to show that the passage caught the eye of Mr. Browning, who expanded it, as we may conjecture, into the poem above quoted. Whether the refer- ence to ‘ calculus,' the disease from which Linacre actually suffered, was merely accidental or derived from some other account of Linacre’s life, must remain uncertain.

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‘ Back to his book then ; deeper drooped his head ;

Calculus racked him.

Leaden before, his eyes grew dross of lead :

Tussis attacked him.

“ Now, Master, take a little rest ” — not he !

Not a whit troubled,

Back to his studies fresher than at first,

Fierce as a dragon.

‘ So, with the throttling hands of Death at strife,

Ground he at grammar;

Still, through the rattle, parts of speech were rife.

While he could stammer

He settled Hoti’s business — let it be!

Properly based Oun ;

Gave us the doctrine of the enclitic De,

Dead from the waist down.’

To anticipate for a moment, we see that the three great English physicians of successive generations all visited Italy, and each, doubtless, owed much to that Holy Land of the northern student. But they brought back different treasures. Linacre brought a knowledge of Greek and an enthusiasm for the new learning ; Caius also much Greek and Latin, with a zeal for anatomy and training in clinical medicine; Harvey, again, a profound knowledge of anatomy, some experimental methods, and also a great enthusiasm for Aristotle, extending not only to his natural history, but to his physics and metaphysics, as we see in the Treatise on Generation *

1 The relations of Harvey to Aristotle would be an interesting study. Harvey had evidently studied the works of the contemporary Peripatetic school in Italy, especially Cesalpino, the great Aristotelian, and Caesar Cremonini (who is referred to later on), and was probably some- what influenced by them. In his great work anything speculative or metaphysical is so rigidly excluded that we can trace the influence of Aristotle’s theoretical side in one passage only, where he assents to the philosopher’s doctrine of the sovereignty of the heart, which

rules over all like a king ; and also affirms that the heart contains within itself blood, life, sensation, and motion (De Motu Cordis, cap. 17, Willis’s translation, p. 83). In his earlier MS. lectures there is much more that is distinctly Aristotelian. He speaks of the heart as ‘ caloris arx et domicilium ’ ( Prelectiones, fol. 73), and of the brain as bloodless, moist, and cold — ‘■frigidum ut contem- peraret spiritus a corde ne inflammen- tur ’ (fol. 93) — and adopts Aristotle’s dictum that man has the largest brain because he is the hottest of all animals. In the Treatise on

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Hayne J Bell J

Cases like Minister of State for the Army v Dalziel, and those which have followed, show that in considering whether there has been an acquisition of property within s 51(xxxi) the focus of attention must fall upon identification of a legal interest in, or legal relation with, some subject matter. In Dalziel the impugned provisions gave the Commonwealth possession of land to the exclusion of a weekly tenant. In Bank of NSW v The Commonwealth the impugned provisions gave the Commonwealth control of a banking company to the exclusion of its shareholders by giving the Commonwealth control over the bank's board of directors. In Georgiadis v Australian and Overseas Telecommunications Corporation a right of action (a property right) was taken away and, as a result, the party otherwise liable to action obtained a defence to the claim akin to a release from liability. In Newcrest Mining (WA) Ltd v The Commonwealth a right to mine minerals from land vested in the Commonwealth was extinguished and, as a result, the Commonwealth's interest in the land was freed from the previously existing right to mine.

It may not be possible, and it is certainly not appropriate, to attempt to chart the boundaries of what is meant in s 51(xxxi) by "property". It is important, however, to notice that it has long been recognised that "property" is used sometimes to indicate the tangible or intangible object to which legal rights or privileges relate, and sometimes to denote the legal interest, or aggregate of legal relations, pertaining to that object. The way in which the tobacco companies formulated their arguments – by focusing upon what was said to be the "use" or "control" of retail packaging by the Commonwealth to convey its health messages – directs attention to whether the Commonwealth, by reason of the TPP Act, acquires any legal interest in or legal relation with the packaging that is an interest or relation the law would label as "property".


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To return to Linacre. His greatest object in life, which he pursued through many difficulties, was to make the works of Aristotle and Galen accessible by means of translations to scholars in general. He formed a sort of Aristotle society or club with his friends Grocyn and Latimer for the study and translation of the philosopher, and Erasmus tells us some versions of Aristotle were lying in Linacre’s desk which he hoped would be profitable to future scholars ; but they never appeared. Of Galen’s works he translated several, some of them long and important 1. In medicine he wrote

Generation he is still more strikingly Aristotelian. Several times he refers to and adopts the doctrine that ‘ innate heat ’ and the seminal principle of generation are of celestial origin and analogous to the essence of the stars. In one passage where, as Dr. Church has ably remarked (in the Harveian Oration, 1895^, he no longer ascribes (with Aristotle) the innate heat to the heart, but refers it to the blood, he still only extends the Aristotelian doctrine by affirming that in the blood itself there is a nature or soul superior to the forces of the elements and analogous to the essence of the stars ( respondens elemento stellarum), a phrase used also by Cesalpino. A little further on, he compares the influence of the blood on the parts of the body to that of the superior heavenly bodies, especially the sun and moon, on the inferior. It seems as if Harvey, in spite of Copernicus and Galileo, was Still living under an Aristotelian heaven and remained till the close of his life a staunch Peripatetic. This, I suspect, was the main reason for his want of sympathy with Bacon, which has often been remarked. For it was Bacon’s avowed aim to destroy the supremacy of Aristotle ; and nothing could have been more repugnant to Harvey than this.

1 That Linacre had no superior and hardly an equal as a translator of Galen and Aristotle is evident from the numerous tributes paid him by the most eminent scholars of his time. Erasmus says that in Linacre’s lost versions of Aristotle the language is so good that the original hardly equals it in grace (‘ ut Aristoteles vix in suo sermone parem habeat gratiam ’), and that Galen, in Linacre’s translation, speaks better Latin than he had before spoken Greek. Aldus Manutius, the great Venetian printer, pays Linacre high compliments, wishing that the Italian physicians would learn to write Latin with the same classical elegance. Bude (Budaeus), the first Greek scholar in France, ventures to prophesy that, from Linacre’s versions of Galen, Britain will become as famous as was, of old, Galen’s own birthplace, Pergamus. He contrasts Linacre’s classical severity of style with the careless licence of contemporary (Latin) writing.

This last remark touches the only complaint made against Linacre’s style : that it was too severe as com- pared with the current Latin of physicians and scholars, and so too difficult. But a judgement passed on Linacre after his death, and therefore free from the suspicion of

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nothing original, and the above constitutes the life’s work of this ardent and indefatigable scholar. We need not ask what the value of his positive achievement was, for it was curtailed by external circumstances and also by his fastidious accuracy, which made it difficult for him ever to think any work perfect enough to be published. But it may be asked, Was the aim which Linacre and his fellow-humanists set before them sufficiently important ? Was it anything more than a matter of philological interest to revive and translate the Greek medical and philosophical classics ? I think it was a worthy aim, and was justified by the event, for out of this work of the scholars grew the scientific movement, and out of this movement, in anatomy and botany more especially, was developed the first possibility of a scientific medicine. To show how these things happened would take a long time; I can only give a brief sketch of the position of the Greek fathers of medicine in Europe during the Middle Ages.

During what are called the Dark Ages the tradition of ancient medicine and science had been in the Western Empire completely broken. Galen and Hippocrates may have been known by name, but were quite inaccessible to physicians, as Greek had been forgotten even as a learned language, and Latin versions, if such had existed, were quite lost. When the medical classics came back to Europe it was by a circuitous route and through the medium of

being influenced by private friendship or a spirit of flattery, by a very competent scholar, Leonhart Fuchs, disposes of this criticism. Fuchs, in bringing out a new edition of Linacre’s translation of Galen De Sanitate (Tubingen, 1541), refers to the warm eulogium passed on Linacre’s grammatical works by a still greater scholar, Melanchthon, and says to add more in his praise would be only bringing water to the ocean. He places Linacre for his

knowledge, both of Latin and of Greek, above all the other translators : — ‘ Hoc dixisse satis est, Lina - crurn diligentia et orationis puritate omnes post se reliquisse interpretes Many other testimonies might be quoted. I have given the above to show that Linacre is placed in the front rank of the ‘Medical Humanists,’ not only on the strength of our collegiate loyalty or patriotic senti- ment, but by the verdict of European scholarship.

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especially in Mohammedan Spain, by a band of scholars gathered from various countries of Europe.

Gradually a large part of Greek science and medicine, with the Arabic comments and compilations, was put into Latin, and a knowledge of it became diffused through Europe. It is well known that a great stimulus was thus given to European thought. To this was due the first scientific revival, associated to us with the names of such men as Roger Bacon and Albert the Great. And in our own subject the Arabic version of Greek medicine thus presented was the foundation of all medical knowledge through, the Middle Ages. But among all these writers two names were always conspicuous, Aristotle and Galen, both of whom the Arabs honoured almost to adoration, and who, largely for this reason, took a corresponding position in the mediaeval world. It has often been said that, while Aristotle reigned supreme over the schools, Galen was the autocrat of medicine, rulers whose authority it was almost impiety to question. Hippocrates would be named as the master of Galen, but was certainly little read. A great crowd of Arabian and modern writers formed the court and retinue of the monarch Galen, and, as may happen in actual life, had in many cases more influence than the titular sovereign. Chaucer has given us in his portrait of the Doctor of Physic a good notion of the library of a mediaeval physician, in which, as we see, the Greeks, the Arabians, and the moderns, or Neoteric s, were all represented : —

‘ Well knew he the old Aesculapius And Dioscorides, and eke Rufus;

Old Hippocras, Hali, and Galien,

Serapion, Rasis, and Avicen;

Averroes, Damascene, and Constantin,

Bernard, and Gatisden, and Gilbertin 1 .’

1 Canterbury Tales, The Prologue. — In this remarkable list the writings assigned to Aesculapius may safely be dismissed as mythical. The name Asclepius appears, how- ever, as that of the author of some

mediaeval MSS., perhaps confounded with Asclepiades. Dioscorides, the great botanist, whose work on Materia Medica was the standard for centuries, need only be mentioned. Rufus of Ephesus was a Greek physician

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Rh

The tobacco companies expressed their arguments in several different ways. The largest submission was that s 51(xxxi) could be, and here was, engaged even though no "property" was acquired.

JT International SA expressly adopted this position, submitting that the achievement of any or all of the evident purposes of the TPP Act (reducing expenditure on health care, improving the effectiveness of health warnings, and meeting international obligations) was sufficient to engage s 51(xxxi). The submissions of the other tobacco companies may well be understood as embracing this argument. For the fundamental reasons already given, the argument must be rejected.

All the tobacco companies further submitted, however, that the benefit or advantage that the Commonwealth obtains from the tobacco companies' compliance with the TPP Act falls within what this Court's decisions recognise to be "property" for the purposes of s 51(xxxi). All these arguments sought to assert, in one way or another, that the TPP Act takes the tobacco companies' intellectual property and gives the Commonwealth an "identifiable and measurable countervailing benefit or advantage". The "benefit or advantage" was described in various ways: "use" or "control" of the (surface of) tobacco packaging; free advertising space; "control" over what appears on retail packaging and thus "control" over the "exploitation" of that packaging; the removal from packaging of what the Commonwealth wanted removed and its replacement by what the Commonwealth wanted put there. Though variously expressed, the different formulations had common ground. They identified the object in which the Commonwealth was said to have property as the physical packaging in which the tobacco companies sell their products, and each form of the submissions hinged on the notions of "the Commonwealth" obtaining the "use" of, or "control" over, that packaging.

These submissions must be considered against the fundamental principles explained earlier. Does the Commonwealth obtain a benefit or advantage that is proprietary in nature?

The tobacco companies' submissions direct attention to the relationship between the Commonwealth, as the putative acquirer, and the object, in these cases the tangible object, in which it is said that the Commonwealth has obtained a proprietary interest. It is therefore necessary to examine in more detail how it was said that the Commonwealth gained the "use" of, or "control" over, the packaging in which tobacco products are sold.


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another language — the Arabic. The Arabian Mussulmans, when they possessed themselves of the old Greek settlements in Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt, assimilated the learning and science of the Greeks with extraordinary intellectual ardour and perseverance. With the help of the Armenians and Syrian Christians, among whom the traditions of Greek science still survived, the chief Greek scientific writers, Aristotle, Galen, Hippocrates, with many more, were translated into Arabic, and thus were laid the foundations of the brilliant civilization and literature of the Arabs to which Europe afterwards owed so much. It had been said in old times that conquered Greece took her Roman conquerors captive, and now for the second time the Greek genius asserted itself and became supreme over the warlike races whose arms it was unable to resist. The Arabian scientific literature was thus founded mainly on the Greek. It was of enormous extent; what now survives is but a fragment. The philosophy and physics of Aristotle, the geometry of Euclid, the astronomy of Ptolemy, the medicine of Galen and Hippocrates, were all there, along with the writings of Arabic authors, Avicenna, Rases, Serapion, and many a lesser name, whose works were mainly founded on those of the Greeks, but with certain important additions. In mathematics, as is well known, the Arabs surpassed their teachers ; in medicine, especially in pharmacy and in the recognition of new diseases, they added much that was new ; though in anatomy they went backward rather than forward.

In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, through causes which need not now be traced, this great treasury of science became available for the European world by the translation of the Arabic literature into Latin. The first of the school of translators who performed this great service to medical science, Constantine, called the African, says expressly, in the preface to one of his versions of Galen from the Arabic, that he undertook it because no work of Galen’s existed in the Latin language. The task was continued more

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 to expect them to be punctuated with roars of popular applause. It is possible to conceive of a mob shouting any central and simple sentiment, good or bad, but it is impossible to think of a mob shouting a distinction in terms. In the matter of eloquence, the whole question is one of the immediate effect of greatness, such as is produced even by fine bombast. It is absurd to call it merely superficial; here there is no question of superficiality; we might as well call a stone that strikes us between the eyes merely superficial. The very word "superficial" is founded on a fundamental mistake about life, the idea that second thoughts are best. The superficial impression of the world is by far the deepest. What we really feel, naturally and casually, about the look of skies and trees and the face of friends, that and that alone will almost certainly remain our vital philosophy to our dying day.

Scott's bombast, therefore, will always be stirring to anyone who approaches it, as he should approach all literature, as a little child. We could easily excuse

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