text:
Page:The story of the flute (IA storyofflute1914fitz).djvu/54

 earlier pictures, being of various sizes (a new feature) and at various distances. It has some ornamentation of the woodwork at either end. Mersenne also gives a table of the fingering of nineteen notes, from low D up to the top A♮ which last note is produced by closing all the holes except the G hole. The only accidentals given are F♯ (which is the same in all three octaves) and the C♯ (all open in the first octave; the D and E holes closed in the second octave). It was therefore probably used solely as a diatonic instrument, and was very imperfect even as such; the holes, as in all these early flutes, being placed solely to suit the lie of the fingers, and therefore not in their proper acoustical positions. Mersenne suggested additional holes for other semitones, however. We learn from Salomon de Caus' Institution Harmonique (Frankfort, 1615) that semitones were produced by partial opening or closing of the holes, an unsatisfactory system which prevailed at a very much later date. Mersenne also treats of music suitable for the various kinds of flutes, and gives a quartett for four transverse flutes of various pitches. This little piece is entitled an "Air de Cour," and was composed by Henry Le Jeune. A MS. dated 1562, in the Abbey of St. Gall, contains a picture of a quartett of transverse flutes played by angels. Father Athanasius Kircher's Musurgia Universalis (1650) is practically a copy of


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Page:Zacaton as a paper-making material (IA zacatonaspaperma309bran).pdf/13

 Z AC AT ON AS A

and

PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL.

7

up new shoots profusely. These the tops are immature. Soon, however,

after the rainy season sends

by cattle while become so tough

are relished

the tops that stock refuse to eat

them. The growth is almost entirely a wild one from self-sown seed. The mature panicles are not unlike those of timothy.

Unless

checked by or

cultivation,

fire,

the har-

vesting of the roots, rice-

root grass soon covers a It is not field solidly.

uncommon to find areas many square miles in extent covered densely with this wild

the

fields

grass.

One

harvested

of

by

Mr. McEwen was 3 miles wide and 7 miles long, covered almost entirely by a relatively pure stand of

Fig.

4.-

-Longitudinal section of a culm,

X

343,

showing

Epicampes

sclereids and pith. macroura. The information that has been secured indicates the possibility of growing this grass successfully in some localities in the Southwest, especially for paper-producThree allied ing purposes.

species grow scatteringly from Texas to California. Regarding the climate that prevails in the sections

where zacaton-root harvesting

extensively

is

on, Mr.

McEwen

We have no

means

carried

states: of

determin-

ing the rainfall, but there is a considerable quantity of rain, and the morning dew is almost as

heavy

as the average small shower In Sayula it rains

in the States.

about three months of the year, the rest of the year being dry, and

one Fig. 5.— Cross section of a leaf blade,

X

The very heavy and in the middle it is

not

uncommon

for it to

of

most beautiful climates you can possibly imagine.

of the

that

rains,

drop to 50° at night; this

is

when they come,

are

about 80° F but a good average through the

the day the thermometer

registers

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Page:Zacaton as a paper-making material (IA zacatonaspaperma309bran).pdf/14

 BULLETIN

s

309,

U.

S.

DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTURE.

summer, for my brother says that all through the present summer it has been cold enough for an overcoat at night in the town of Sayula, where he resides. During January, he says that it reaches to near zero and at 10 o'clock the next davit is up to 70° again.

Mr. O. F. Cook corroborates Mr. McE wen's observations regarding In the relative coolness of the climate in which this grass thrives. Guatemala, where the former has noted the plant especially, he found the

same

conditions.

Figure S shows a comparatively sparse stand of zacaton on the Vulcan de Agua, near Antigua, Guatemala, one of the early localities from which the plant was collected.

Figure 9, from a photograph taken in Guatemala, shows the grass promptly claiming the neglected portion of a formerly cultivated field on a terraced hillside along the road between Totonicapam and Quez alt enango, Guatemala, showing also in the

middle

distance,

on the mountain slope below the pines, a characteristic

wire-grass

formation

contending with the

pines for suprem-

—Cross section of a leaf blade,

x

showing hypodermal stereome, the large water-storage tissue, the palisade tissue, and the mestome surrounded by a parenchyma sheath and a thick-walled mestome sheath.

Fig.

6.

240,

acy. these

Both figures

of are

from negatives

made under

the direction of Mr.

Cook by Mr.

C. B. Doyle, of the

Bureau of Plant Industry. The grass is said to flower from August to October, depending upon altitude and other conditions, and usually attains a height of 5 to 7 feet. The usable portions of the roots vary in length from 2 to 30 inches. The diameter of the roots range from one sixty-fourth to three thirty-seconds of an inch. They are gathered at all seasons of the year, peons digging them up with an implement resembling a hoe in shape. After washing, cleaning, and drying, the roots are cut from the grass, graded, and separated according to quality, length, and color, and finally baled ready for shipment. Vera Cruz and Tampico are the chief exporting ports, while France, German}', and the United States are the chief users of the brushes into which the roots are manufactured. Roots of a pale yellow, a decidedly characteristic color, are preferred by the trade. It is estimated that an acre of grass yields a ton of marketable roots and at least 3 tons of At present the tops are not used in any way. It seems likely tops. that root operators might find it worth while to attempt the utilization '


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Page:Zacaton as a paper-making material (IA zacatonaspaperma309bran).pdf/15

 ZACATON AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL. of the grass for pulp

manufacture in sections where there are large acreages of luxuriant growth and where the cost of collecting the raw material in commercial quantities is not prohibitive.

Fig.

7.— Ad average

tuft

and two small

tufts of zacaton grass.

The writers have not as yet been able to obtain accurate figures as to the production of roots in pounds, but such figures as are available indicate a total production of from three to five million pounds per

6826°— Bull. 309—15

2


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Page:Zacaton as a paper-making material (IA zacatonaspaperma309bran).pdf/16

 :

BULLETIN

10

annum.

The

309, IT.

S.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

cost of producing the roots per

pound

is,

roughly, as

follows

Ground

rent, or the harvesting privilege.

$0.

04

Harvesting

.OH

Cleaning and topjnng Hauling to primary shipping point

.04

Freight to

New York

.00| .02

If the tops can be gotten out economically and reduced to pulp without an expensive freight haul, there would seem to be no question as to the promise of this material, which at present is purely a waste

Fig.

8.—A sparse stand

of zacaton

on the Vulcan de Agua, near Antigua, Guatemala.

would be unwise

attempt to put a value on the tops can be said that properly harvested esparto from Spain, Algeria, and Tripoli brings from SI 7 to S23 per ton in the English market. A good zacaton range can be profitably gone over for root brush material every third year. product.

It

delivered at a pulp mill, but

to

it

LABORATORY TESTS OF PULP PRODUCTION.

An investigation of the paper value of any new fibrous plant can be conveniently separated into two distinct divisions, just as the manufacture of paper is commercially divided into two distinct branches. The first division embraces the separation and purifica-


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Page:Zacaton as a paper-making material (IA zacatonaspaperma309bran).pdf/17

 ZACATOIST AS

A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL.

11

tion of the plant-cellulose fibers, while the second division concerns the physical treatment and formation of these fibers into the finished sheet.

The separation and investigated

Fig.

9.—Zacaton

first,

purification of the cellulose fibers

and should be brought

is

necessarily

to as satisfactory a con-

hillside near Quezaltenango, grass claiming a formerly cultivated field on a terraced

Guatemala.

elusion as possible before actual paper

making

is

considered.

This

m most accurately and produced the laboratory, where conditions can be

investigation

Fiber separation or production is effected commercially process, by one of the four following processes: The mechanical

controlled.

by

is

advantageously, almost necessarily, pursued


text:
Page:Zacaton as a paper-making material (IA zacatonaspaperma309bran).pdf/18

 BULLETIN

12

309.

U.

S.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

by acid hydrolysis; the caustic-soda hydrolysis with caustic soda; and the sulphate process, hydrolysis with sodium hydrate and sulphid.

grinding; the sulphite process, process,

by

by

From previous general knowledge of the paper value of fibrous plants and from the similarity of zacaton to known species, it was decided to investigate this material by the soda process, which consists in

subjecting the material to the action of a caustic-soda solution

at moderately high temperature for a definite length of time,

operation

is

technically

known

as cooking.

which

Since the soda solutions

at the temperatures required exert a steam pressure of 50 to 100 pounds to the square inch, the cooking is effected in large, strong steel cylinders, known as digesters, which are of two general types, the upright stationary and the horizontal rotating. The prehminary cooking of zacaton was conducted in an autoclave, simulating the conditions of the upright stationary digester. The autoclave was of the regular laboratory type, of 7J-liter capacity, composed of a rigid stand supporting the spun-copper autoclave shell, which could be securely closed by clamping on a bronze head or cover, the seal being secured by polished surfaces between the body and the head. The head was provided with a pressure gauge and thermometer well. A gas burner underneath the shell served to heat the charge to any

desired temperature or pressure.

The method hi the body,

of operation

is

to place a certain weight of material

to cover with a soda solution containing sufficient

caustic soda to completely reduce the material, to securely close the

by means

heat the entire charge This pressure is maintained the required number of hours, after which the charge is allowed to cool and the contents are removed and washed free from the dark-, colored spent soda solution known as black liquor. Undercooked pieces of grass, which are invariably present, are separated from the pulp by screening through a No. 10 screen, in which the slots are autoclave, and,

of the gas burner, to

to a definite temperature or pressure.

an inch wide. material under examination contains pith cells which by reason of their high percentage or quality tend to impart undesirable qualities to the finished sheet, it will be necessary to separate them from the true fiber at this point. Separation can readily be accomplished by manipulating the pulp on a 60 or 70 mesh wire cloth with a stream of water, whereby the small pith cells are washed away, In the case of zacaton it leaving the long, true fibers on the wire. does not appear necessary or advisable to separate the pith, and it was done only in cook No. 1. In autoclave cook No. 1, 404 grams of grass, bone-dry basis, were treated with 24.4 per cent of caustic soda at a concentration of 19.7 0.01 of

If the


text: Fifteen Poets of Modern Japan/Soseki Natsume


text:
Page:Zacaton as a paper-making material (IA zacatonaspaperma309bran).pdf/19

 ZACATOX AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL.

13

grams of caustic soda per liter for 6 hours at a steam pressure of 90 pounds per square inch. It was very apparent that the long fiber, and even the screened fiber, was superior in quality to that of many other fibrous plants which had been tested, the soft feeling and bright luster being very noticeable.

In cook Xo. 2, 400 grams of grass were treated with 23 per cent of caustic soda at a concentration of 29 grams per liter for 7h hours at a

steam pressure of 90 pounds per square inch. The yield and General appearance of the fiber from this cook were very similar to those of the one preceding, and the conditions of treatment were possibly all that could be desired with this type of digester. Further economy of

Fig. 10.— Experimental rotary pulp boiler.

treatment might be obtained with the rotary type of digester, where a lower percentage of caustic soda and a smaller volume of solution in proportion to the grass used would be possible. This method gives a more miiform pulp and affords a somewhat cheaper recovery of the spent soda, which is essential to the economic application of the soda process. The rotary type of boiler employed was a J-inch steel shell, 12J inches in diameter by 29^ inches in length (38 liters in capacity), supplied with a hand hole and screw cap and mounted so as to rotate on its long horizontal axis one revolution per minute. (Fig. 10.) The charge was heated by gas burners underneath and controlled by a thermometer inserted in a well extending from the end of the shell into the center of the charge. Table I shows the yield of fiber obtained from these two cooks.


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Page:Zacaton as a paper-making material (IA zacatonaspaperma309bran).pdf/20

 ——

.

BULLETIN

14

300,

U.

S.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Table

Fiber yields from two bone-dry cooks of zacaton grass, using different concenI. trations of caustic soda under a steam pressure of 90 pounds to the square inch. Caustic soda.

Quan-

Cook.

Percent-

Per

tity.

liter.

Cook No.

3

boiled.

24.4 23.0

was made

Screen- Screened ings.

Pounds.

Hours.

19.7 29.0

404 400

Pressure.

age.

Gra ms. Grams.

No. 1 No. 2

Yield.

Time

Per

90 90

6

H

in the rotary

ct.

Per

4.7 4.6

by

Pith.

fiber.

Per

ct.

35.4 37.1

Total fiber.

Per

ct.

7.

Long fiber.

Per

ct.

27.9

5

treating 2,400

ct.

40.1 41.7

grams

of

bone-dry weight, with 19 per cent of caustic soda at a concentration of 71 grams per liter for 6 hours at a steam pressure of 80 pounds per square inch, which gave a yield of 50.8 per cent of The pulp was very uniform, soft, and of good appearance, total fiber. and the cooking conditions were not as harsh or expensive as those for commercially treating poplar wood. Cook No. 4 was made from a bale of zacaton which was received in a dry but very moldy condition, and the grass was quite brittle. A charge of 2,400 grains was treated with 19 per cent of caustic soda at a concentration of 70 grains per liter for 6 hours at a steam pressure of 80 pounds per square inch, giving a yield of 49 per cent of total fiber. It was impossible to distinguish any difference in quality between the pulp from the sound and that from the moldy grass, the fungi apparently attacking only the less resistant forms of hemigrass,

celluloses.

Cook No. 5 was made by treating 2,000 grams of zacaton with 18 per cent of caustic soda at a concentration of 70 grams per liter for 5 hours at a steam pressure of 90 pounds per square inch, giving a yield of 44.6 per cent of total fiber.

Cook No. 6 was made by treating 2,400 grams of grass with 16 per cent of caustic soda at a concentration of 70 grams per liter for 5^ hours at a steam pressure of 90 pounds per square inch, giving a fiber

The expenditure

yield of 47.7 per cent of the total bone-dry grass.

soda and time was very moderate, the yield was very general appearance of the pulp was remarkably good. of

MICROMEASUREMENTS OF FIBER AND OTHER

and the

fair,

CELLS.

Table II shows the comparative measurements of the cells of zacaton grass. The measurements were made on the screened stock from which paper No. 76 was made. Table

II.

Comparison of the

cell

Parenchyma of pith

measurements of fibers and other Long epidermal cells.

cells

of zacaton grass.

Parenchyma.

Bast.

Measurement.

Maximum Minimum Average

Length.

Width.

Length.

Width.

Length.

Width.

Length.

Width.

Mm.

Mm.

Mm.

Mm.

Mm.

Mm.

Mm.

Mm.

0.112 .072 .092

072 .057 .061

0.

079 .072 .075

0.

011 .011 .011

0.

223 .162 .193

0.

05S .018 .038

0.

3.0

L7

013 .005 .0085

0.


text:
Page:Zacaton as a paper-making material (IA zacatonaspaperma309bran).pdf/21

 :

ZACATON AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL.

The

true fiber

length

its

15

(fig. 11) has remarkably good felting qualities, but than that of esparto, which varies from 1.5 to 1.9

is less

millimeters.

CHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE GRASS AND PULP. In cooperation with the Department of Commerce, an investigation of the chemical nature of zacaton grass and pulp in regard to such points as have a bearing on their paper

value was conducted at the Bureau of Standards. 1 The pulps examined were from cooks 7, 8, The report 9, and 10. of this chemical investigation,

which needs

no comment, in

Original

1.

is

given

as follows

full,

straw.

Ash; (6) moisture;

(c)

—

(a)

ether-

alcohol extract; (d) water extract; (e) cellulose

by (1)

and Bevan chlorin method, (2) Cross and Bevan dilute nitric method, Cross

Renker's chlorin

(3)

method; and (/) loss on boiling with dilute caustic soda. It to

was found necessary

grind the straw

very

on account of the lack of homogeneity of the samples The largest samples practicable with the u n g r o u n d straw gave widely varying results, so recourse was had at once fine,

.

to grinding all

the straw

in a clean coffee mill be-

n.

fore analysis.

Analyses for comparative Fig. 11.— Pulp of Epicampes macroura, X 352: 1, Bast; 2, porous parenchyma; 3, sclereid; 4 and 5, parenchyma; 6, modified epivalue should refer to dry dermal cells; 7, parenchyma of pith; 8, short epidermis cells; 9, material; hence the moislong epidermis cells; 10, pitted trachea; 11, annular trachea; 12, bast. ture was determined first to be 4.8 per cent. The ash gave £ .1 per cent in one determination and 8.8 per cent in another. In both cases a very large proportion of the ash was silica, as shown i

The chemical work on zacaton was done by Mr. George

Bureau

of Standards,

United States Department

of

S. Tilley, at

Commerce.

that time cellulose expert at the


text:
Author:Johann Gottfried Gregorii

Works

 * Das erneuerte Alterthum ('The Renewed Antiquity') (1721)
 * "Ludwig der Springer", extract included in Büsching's Volks-Sagen, Märchen und Legenden (1812)

title: Author:Johann Gottfried Gregorii


text:
Page:The Mystery of the Blue Train.pdf/119

" you were really in the thick of it all!" said Lady Tamplin enviously. "My dear, how thrilling!" She opened her china blue eyes very wide and gave a little sigh.

"A real murder," said Mr. Evans gloatingly.

"Of course Chubby had no idea of anything of the kind," went on Lady Tamplin; "he simply could not imagine why the police wanted you. My dear, what an opportunity! I think, you know—yes, I certainly think something might be made out of this."

A calculating look rather marred the ingenuousness of the blue eyes.

Katherine felt slightly uncomfortable. They were just finishing lunch, and she looked in turn at the three people sitting round the table. Lady Tamplin, full of practical schemes; Mr. Evans, beaming with naïve appreciation, and Lenox with a queer crooked smile on her dark face.

"Marvellous luck," murmured Chubby; "I wish I could have gone along with you—and seen—all the exhibits."

His tone was wistful and childlike.

Katherine said nothing. The police had laid no injunctions of secrecy upon her, and it was clearly impossible to suppress the bare facts or try to keep them


text: Page:The Golden verses of Pythagoras (IA cu31924026681076).pdf/300


text:
Page:The Mystery of the Blue Train.pdf/120

 from her hostess. But she did rather wish it had been possible to do so.

"Yes," said Lady Tamplin, coming suddenly out of her reverie, "I do think something might be done. A little account, you know, cleverly written up. An eye witness, a feminine touch: How I chatted with the dead woman, little thinking that sort of thing, you know."

"Rot!" said Lenox.

"You have no idea," said Lady Tamplin in a soft, wistful voice, "what newspapers will pay for a little titbit! Written, of course, by some one of really unimpeachable social position. You would not like to do it yourself, I dare say, Katherine dear, but just give me the bare bones of it, and I will manage the whole thing for you. Mr. de Haviland is a special friend of mine. We have a little understanding together. A most delightful mannot at all reporterish. How does the idea strike you, Katherine?"

"I would much prefer to do nothing of the kind," said Katherine bluntly.

Lady Tamplin was rather disconcerted at this uncompromising refusal. She sighed and turned to the elucidation of further details.

"A very striking-looking woman, you said? I wonder now who she could have been. You didn't hear her name ?"

"It was mentioned," Katherine admitted, "but I can't remember it. You see, I was rather upset."

"I should think so," said Mr. Evans; "it must have been a beastly shock."

It is to be doubted whether, even if Katherine had


text:
Author:Glenn Arthur Hughes

Works

 * Fifteen Poets of Modern Japan, trans. with (1928)

title: Author:Glenn Arthur Hughes


text: The Code of Honor

title: The Code of Honor


text:
Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/42

 for suspicion by the democratic leaders; his friends urged that Athens was unsafe for him, that it was an admirably propitious moment for him to see the world. And so, in that year 399 , he set out. Where he went we cannot for certain say; there is a merry war of the authorities for every turn of his route. He seems to have gone first to Egypt; and was somewhat shocked to hear from the priestly class which ruled that land, that Greece was an infant-state, without stabilizing traditions or profound culture, not yet therefore to be taken seriously by these sphinxly pundits of the Nile. But nothing so educates us as a shock; the memory of this learned caste, theocratically ruling a static agricultural people, remained alive in Plato's thought, and played its part in writing his Utopia. And then off he sailed to Sicily, and to Italy; there he joined for a time the school or sect which the great Pythagoras had founded; and once again his susceptible mind was marked with the memory of a small group of men set aside for scholarship and rule, living a plain life despite the possession of power. Twelve years he wandered, imbibing wisdom from every source, sitting at every shrine, tasting every creed. Some would have it that he went to Judea and was moulded for a while by the tradition of the almost socialistic prophets; and even that he found his way to the banks of the Ganges, and learned the mystic meditations of the Hindus. We do not know.

He returned to Athens in 387, a man of forty now, ripened to maturity by the variety of many peoples and the wisdom of many lands. He had lost a little of the hot enthusiasms of youth, but he had gained a perspective of thought in which every extreme was seen as a half-truth, and the many aspects of every problem blended into a distributive justice to every facet of the truth. He had knowledge, and he had art; for once the philosopher and the poet lived in one soul; and he created for himself a medium of expression in which both beauty and truth might find room and play—the dialogue. Never before, we may believe, had philosophy assumed

title: Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/42


text:
Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/43

 so brilliant a garb; and surely never since. Even in translation this style shines and sparkles and leaps and bubbles over.

"Plato," says one of his lovers, Shelley, "exhibits the rare union of close and subtle logic with the Pythian enthusiasm of poetry, melted by the splendor and harmony of his periods into one irresistible stream of musical impressions, which hurry the persuasions onward as in a breathless career." It was not for nothing that the young philosopher had begun as a dramatist.

The difficulty in understanding Plato lies precisely in this intoxicating mixture of philosophy and poetry, of science and art; we cannot always tell in which character of the dialogue the author speaks, nor in which form; whether he is literal or speaks in metaphor, whether he jests or is in earnest. His love of jest and irony and myth leaves us at times baffled; almost we could say of him that he did not teach except in parables. "Shall I, as an older person, speak to you, as younger men, in apologue or myth?" asks his Protagoras. These dialogues, we are told, were written by Plato for the general reading public of his day: by their conversational method, their lively war of pros and cons, and their gradual development and frequent repetition of every important argument, the were explicitly adapted (obscure though they may seem to us now) to the understanding of the man who must taste philosophy as an occasional luxury, and who is compelled by the brevity of life to read as he who runs may read. Therefore we must be prepared to find in these dialogues much that is playful and metaphorical; much that is unintelligible except to scholars learned in the social and literary minutiae of Plato's time; much that today will seem irrelevant and fanciful, but might well have served as the very sauce and flavor by which a heavy dish of thought was made digestible for minds unused to philosophic fare.

Let us confess, too, that Plato has in sufficient abundance

title: Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/43


text:
Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/44

 the qualities which he condemns. He inveighs against poets and their myths, and proceeds to add one to the number of poets and hundreds to the number of myths. He complains of the priests (who go about preaching hell and offering redemption from it for a consideration—cf. The Republic, 364), but he himself is a priest, a theologian, a preacher, a supermoralist, a Savonarola denouncing art and inviting vanities to the fire. He acknowledges, Shakespeare-like, that "comparisons are slippery" (Sophist, 231), but he slips out of one into another and another and another; he condemns the Sophists as phrase-mongering disputants, but he himself is not above chopping logic like a sophomore. Faguet parodies him:

"The whole is greater than the part?—Surely.—And the part is less than the whole? Yes—. . . Therefore, clearly, philosophers should rule the state?—What is that?—It is evident; let us go over it again."

But this is the worst that we can say of him; and after it is said, the Dialogues remain one of the priceless treasures of the world. The best of them, The Republic, is a complete treatise in itself, Plato reduced to a book; here we shall find his metaphysics, his theology, his ethics, his psychology, his pedagogy, his politics, his theory of art. Here we shall find problems reeking with modernity and contemporary savor: communism and socialism, feminism and birth-control and eugenics, Nietzschean problems of morality and aristocracy, Rousseauian problems of return to nature and libertarian education, Bergsonian élan vital and Freudian psychoanalysis—everything is here. It is a feast for the élite, served by an unstinting host. "Plato is philosophy, and philosophy Plato," says Emerson; and awards to The Republic the words

title: Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/44


text:
Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/45

 of Omar about the Koran: "Burn the libraries, for their value is in this book."

Let us study The Republic.

The discussion takes place in the house of Cephalus, a wealthy aristocrat. In the group are Glaucon and Adeimantus, brothers of Plato; and Thrasymachus, a gruff and excitable Sophist. Socrates, who serves as the mouthpiece of Plato in the dialogue, asks Cephalus:

"What do you consider to be the greatest blessing which you have reaped from wealth?"

Cephalus answers that wealth is a blessing to him chiefly because it enables him to be generous and honest and just. Socrates, after his sly fashion, asks him just what he means by justice; and therewith lets loose the dogs of philosophic war. For nothing is so difficult as definition, nor anything so severe a test and exercise of mental clarity and skill. Socrates finds it a simple matter to destroy one after another the definitions offered him; until at last Thrasymachus, less patient than the rest, breaks out "with a roar":

"What folly has possessed you, Socrates? And why do you others all drop down at one another's feet in this silly way? I say that if you want to know what justice is, you should answer and not ask, and shouldn't pride yourself on refuting others.…For there are many who can ask but cannot answer" (336).

Socrates is not frightened; he continues to ask rather than answer; and after a minute of parry and thrust he provokes the unwary Thrasymachus to commit himself to a definition:

title: Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/45


text:
Page:The Mystery of the Blue Train.pdf/121

 remembered the name, she would have admitted the fact. Lady Tamplin's remorseless cross-examination was making her restive. Lenox, who was observant in her own way, noticed this, and offered to take Katherine upstairs to see her room. She left her there, remarking kindly before she went: "You mustn't mind Mother; she would make a few pennies' profit out of her dying grandmother if she could."

Lenox went down again to find her mother and her stepfather discussing the newcomer.

"Presentable," said Lady Tamplin, "quite presentable. Her clothes are all right. That grey thing is the same model that Gladys Cooper wore in Palm Trees in Egypt.”

"Have you noticed her eyeswhat?" interposed Mr. Evans.

"Never mind her eyes, Chubby," said Lady Tamplin tartly; "we are discussing the things that really matter."

"Oh, quite," said Mr. Evans, and retired into his shell.

"She doesn't seem to me verymalleable," said Lady Tamplin, rather hesitating to choose the right word.

"She has all the instincts of a lady, as they say in books," said Lenox, with a grin.

"Narrow-minded,” murmured Lady Tamplin. "Inevitable under the circumstances, I suppose."

"I expect you will do your best to broaden her," said Lenox, with a grin, "but you will have your work cut out. Just now, you noticed, she stuck down her fore feet and laid back her ears and refused to budge."


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 "Anyway," said Lady Tamplin hopefully, "she doesn't look to me at all mean. Some people, when they come into money, seem to attach undue importance to it."

"Oh, you'll easily touch her for what you want," said Lenox; "and, after all, that is all that matters, isn't it? That is what she is here for."

"She is my own cousin," said Lady Tamplin, with dignity.

"Cousin, eh?" said Mr. Evans, waking up again. "I suppose I call her Katherine, don't I?"

"It is of no importance at all what you call her, Chubby," said Lady Tamplin.

"Good," said Mr. Evans; "then I will. Do you suppose she plays tennis?" he added hopefully.

"Of course not," said Lady Tamplin. "She has been a companion, I tell you. Companions don’t play tennis or golf. They might possibly play golf-croquet, but I have always understood that they wind wool and wash dogs most of the day."

"O God!" said Mr. Evans; "do they really?"

Lenox drifted upstairs again to Katherine’s room. "Can I help you?" she asked rather perfunctorily.

On Katherine’s disclaimer, Lenox sat on the edge of the bed and stared thoughtfully at her guest.

"Why did you come?" she said at last. "To us, I mean. We're not your sort."

"Oh, I am anxious to get into Society."

"Don’t be an ass," said Lenox promptly, detecting the flicker of a smile. "You know what I mean well enough. You are not a bit what I thought you would be. I say, you have got some decent clothes." She


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 BULLETIN

16 by

U.

S.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

with hydrofluoric acid.

volatilizing

original straw

309,

and in the second

In one case

silica

was

7.5

per cent of the

6.5 per cent.

(a) This is a rather high ash content and a particularly large amount of silica, in comparison with the analyses of other straws published by Mayer, Miiller, Hofmeister, and others. It fuses in a glass with the other constituents of the black liquor if sharply ignited, but on slower ignition gives a cake which easily falls to pieces on extraction with water. There will probably not be silica enough to interfere with the usual soda recovery on the large scale, especially if some of the English silica-removing processes are used. A trial of this point is. however, advisable where so much silica This has. for example, nearly five times as much silica as esparto grass, as is found. analyzed by Miiller. (c)

Ether-alcohol extraction was carried out. not so

much

for

the purpose

of secur-

ing very valuable information, but in order to note abnormality, if any existed. One analysis gave 0.8 per cent loss, and a second 0.9 per cent, the nature of the extract not

being further investigated.

It Is usually reported as fat, wax. and chlorophyll. ether-extracted straw was further extracted for 14 hours with water in the modified Wiley extractor, which extracts at the temperature of the boiling solvent. (d)

The

The

loss

second.

under

As

it

was 5 per cent in one

case,

and

5.6 per cent in the

being possible to way. This value for Epicampes between rye and wheat straw, roughly speaking, although of course there are

extract as

puts

this treatment

straws go, this shows a high degree of resistance,

much

as 70 per cent of

some straws in

it

this

wide variations in individual cases. (e) "Cellulose" was determined by three methods: in each case 'the ash in the resulting product was determined and the ash-free white fiber resulting from the process followed was reported as "•cellulose." Xo process now in use can claim to give a normal cellulose" from straw or wood, and the significance of the per cent of cellulose" reported is always relative to the analytical method followed. method, as described in their book, (/) According to the original Cross and Bevan the yield of '"cellulose" averaged 41 per cent. Renker. in his recent book. 2 advises omitting the treatment with dilute alkali both before and after chlorination. The yield of fiber by this method was 51 per cent average. Cross and Bevan claim incomplete removal of lignin by this method, but Renker is certainly right in saying that the dilute alkali attacks the cellulose considerably. As a test of this, weighed samples of the straw were boiled 50 minutes with 1 per cent caustic soda, then filtered, The losses averaged 45.1 per cent on the bone-dry straw, with dried, and weighed. a residue of 54.9 per cent. This certainly leaves little for the chlorin to do in bringing "

'"

1

the residue

down

to the 41 per cent found.

It is

probable that the true value

lies

between the two. Concordance in results may be obtained by either method, but of course adds nothing but confirmation of care in performance of the work. The method of heating for 7 hours at 70° with 10 per cent nitric acid gave white residues (ash free) averaging 39.3 per cent. This is no doubt a minimum value and agrees fairly well with the results of the drastic original Cross and Bevan procedure. 2. Blov:-pit stock. Loss on bleaching was determined on the long-fiber unbleached stock. The determination is necessarily crude, because (1) if the stock be dried the chemical nature of the cellulose is changed and the bleaching may have a widely different effect, and (2) the water in the undried stock is about as serious a source of error. Determinations were made on both dried and undried stock. As nearly as possible, average samples of the undried stock were taken and moisture determined in some, while others were bleached. Limit cases were taken with (a) strongly alkaline bleach, with much active chlorin; With the stronger bleach (b) slightly alkaline, with a small amount of free chlorin.

—

•

Cross, C. F.,

and Bevan, E.J.

A

Text-Book

of

Paper-Making.

411 p.. illus.. 2 fold. pi.

1907. 2

Renker, Max.

Ueber Bestimmungsmethoden der

Zellulose.

Aufl.

2,

107 p.

Berlin, 1910.

New

York,


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 ZACATON AS A PAPER- MAKING MATERIAL.

17

the losses ran about 20 per cent, while with the more dilute they were from 8 to 10 per cent, with, as was noted, a large factor of possible error. The ordinary bleaching practice would give results nearer the lower limit, if anything. The blow-pit stock from which the pith had not been separated did not bleach to a good color, even on long treatment. The loss in weight in one case which was weighed

—

12.5 per cent, but the stock was not up to a pure white rather a light cream color. This was due partly to the depth of coloring of the cooked pith and its resistant nature. The strongly resistant nature of the pith is seen by comparison of the results of dilute alkali and acid treatment with their effect on the original straw. The loss on boiling the pith 1 hour with 1 per cent caustic soda was 18.5 per cent in one case and 17.8 per cent in another. The straw lost 45 per cent under similar treatment, and the pure bleached fiber 20 per cent. The loss on heating the pith 7 hours at 70° with 10 per cent nitric acid was 18.3 per cent in one case and 17.9 per cent in another, while the straw lost 61 per cent and the pure bleached fiber lost 10 per cent under the same treatment. The necessity of removing the pith, even at the expense of some fiber, is apparent. There was quite a Httle fiber in the sample of pith, as shown by shaking up a sample with an excess of water, but no method of quantitatively separating the two has as yet suggested itself, unless fractional levigation or filtration may succeed in some form later. Chemically, there is not enough difference to effect even an approximate separation. The black liquor resulted from cooking Epicampes straw in an 3. Black liquor. autoclave at 90 pounds for 7$ hours, using 23 per cent caustic on the straw weight, at concentration of 23.9 grams per liter. It was investigated for specific gravity, per-

was

—

centage of dissolved solids, saccharine matter, nitrogenous matter, ash, and total organic matter.

The

specific gravity of the liquor

by one determination, and

was

1.046.

It

had

9.9 per cent total solids dis-

Of this, 2.89 per cent should be the original caustic soda (of course, somewhat altered by combination with silica, etc.). A determination of the ash of the evaporated residue corroborated this; 6.2 per cent of the residue burned away in the blast, leaving 3.8 per cent ash, the 6.2 per cent being, then, total organic matter. The amount of ash does not by any means account for the silica of the straw, even assuming that half of it is It is probable that much of it is loosened by the cook and left in the finished paper. solved

10 per cent according to a second.

washed away

as a fine suspension. Kjeldahl analysis of an evaporated residue showed 2.1 per cent "proteid," using the usual factor in calculation from the ammonia found; that is, there was about 0.2 per cent proteid in the liquor before evaporation. The addition of mineral acid to the black liquor gave a voluminous precipitate, consisting of acid cellulose, lignic acids, and some silicic acid. The amount of the is

A

precipitate

was

matter in the

4.8 per cent of the black liquor, leaving, then, 1.4 per cent organic

filtrate.

was examined for sugars. In 100 c. c. of the filtrate only 33 milligrams were present, calculated to dextrose. Probably the remainder in solution was levulinic acid, humic acids, acid-soluble modifications of cellulose, and similar products of the breaking down of the complex substances in the straw, but then-

The

filtrate

of sugar

small quantity and lack of value after identification argued against the necessarily long and laborious task of isolating them, even if they could be identified. Conclusion—The result of an investigation like the present one on substances of this nature gives necessarily only a general impression rather than a summary of definite and precisely measurable constants. In general, it may be said that Epicampes

macroura gives a commercially practical yield of rather unusually high-grade paper silica in the fiber, with no particular trouble to be expected except from pith and process of manufacture.


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 sighed. "Clothes are no good to me. I was born awkward. It's a pity, because I love them."

"I love them too," said Katherine, "but it has not been much use my loving them up to now. Do you think this is nice?"

She and Lenox discussed several models with artistic fervour.

"I like you," said Lenox suddenly. "I came up to warn you not to be taken in by Mother, but I think now that there is no need to do that. You are frightfully sincere and upright and all those queer things, but you are not a fool. Oh hell! what is it now?"

Lady Tamplin's voice was calling plaintively from the hall;

"Lenox, Derek has just rung up. He wants to come to dinner to-night. Will it be all right? I mean, we haven’t got anything awkward, like quails, have we?"

Lenox reassured her and came back into Katherine's room. Her face looked brighter and less sullen.

"I'm glad old Derek is coming," she said; "you'll like him."

"Who is Derek?"

"He is Lord Leconbury's son, married a rich American woman. Women are simply potty about him."

"Why?"

"Oh, the usual reasonvery good-looking and a regular bad lot. Every one goes off their head about him."

"Do you?"

"Sometimes I do," said Lenox, "and sometimes I think I would like to marry a nice curate and live in the country and grow things in frames." She paused a


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 BULLETIN

18

U.

309,

S.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

CELLULOSE FROM ZACATON.

The sample sent for examination was bleached pulp of Epicampes macroura in the form of waterleaf sheets. The purpose of the work upon it was to determine the nature of its cellulose as completely as possible. (a) Fuchsin-sulphurous acid (Schiff's reagent) First, qualitative tests were tried, turned a bit of the pulp pink on standing a few minutes. (6) Sachsse's solution (alka(c) Fehling's solution was line HgI 2 ,2KI) was reduced on boiling with the pulp, reduced on boiling with the pulp, (d) Vitz's methylene-blue test (boiling a bit of the pulp for 15 minutes with 0.5 per cent aqueous solution of methylene blue) dyed the pulp deep blue, which was not removed by long washing. A bit of pure rag paper

was put in the dye at the same time, as a check. It dyed light blue and washed nearly white under the same conditions of treatment, (e) Phenylhydrazin acetate boiled with the pulp gave a yellow hydrazone. (/) Ferric ferricyanid (Cross and Bevan) gave a blue precipitate with the pulp on standing some minutes. According to Cross and Bevan, this reaction is a quantitative measure of lignin. Later work has shown, however, that oxycellulose gives the same precipitate, (g) On distilling from a suspension of the pulp in hydrochloric acid of 1.06 specific gravity and adding a phloroglucin solution to the distillate, a large amount of furfural phloroglucid was precipiThese reactions show conclusively that the sample contained oxycellulose in tated. considerable quantity.

As oxycellulose of

is

quite sensitive to attack

importance to determine

how much was

by many

destructive agencies,

it

was

in this sample from Epicampes macroura

In the present state of knowledge (which, unforturather a state of ignorance) of the constitution of cellulose, it is impossible However, it is easy to compare to say how much of any given sample is oxycellulose.

in relation to other celluloses. nately,

is

samples and determine which has more or less of it. Accordingly, comparative quantitative determinations were made of (1) copper number and (2) furfural yield on the cellulose from Epicampes macroura, a bleached soda poplar pulp, and on cotton "cellulose" simultaneously. The "copper number" of Schwalbe is the number of grams of copper precipitated by boiling 100 grams of the pulp in question for 15 minutes with Fehling's solution, under certain definite conditions of concentration, heating, and so on. In the absence of other reducing substances it is an admirable measure of oxycellulose; hence, it was used here with a modified Low volumetric method of determining the copper instead of Schwalbe's slower and no more accurate electrolytic method. It is at once evident that the Epicampes cellulose contains slightly more oxycellulose than the poplar pulp and much more than the cotton. (Contrary to the commonly accepted belief, the writers have found most cotton cellulose to contain a little oxycellulose, as

shown by many

tests.)

For further confirmation and comparison, simultaneous quantitative estimations of the furfural yield from the same cotton, poplar pulp, and Epicampes pulp were made, following the method of Flint and Tollens. This, of course, would not be applicable in the presence of wood gums or various other pentosans or furfurosans, but was here applicable because the other furfural-yielding groups were absent. The numerical results of these two analyses are shown in Table III.


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 —

8

ZACATON AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL. Table III.— Copper number and furfural

19

yield of samples of cotton, poplar

Epicampes pulp in two determinations. Determination No.

1.

pulp and

Determination No.

2.

Sample.

Copper No.

Furfural.

Per

Cotton Poplar pulp

1.25 4.26

Epicampes pulp

4.

Copper No.

Per

cent. 0. 40 10.01 10. 92

58

Furfural.

cent.

1.31

0.

3.82 4. 39

10.

50 00

10.62

evident that Epicampes cellulose is close to poplar pulp in oxycelluand contains slightly more of it. This being so, the Epicampes cellulose should be more sensitive to attack by hydrolytic and oxidizing agents. In verification of this, determinations were made (a) of the action of alkaline solutions and (6) of nitric acid on all three celluloses, using the same three of the preceding work. First, the action of a 1 per cent aqueous NaOH solution on the three celluloses was tried. Weighed samples were boiled 60 minutes with a large excess of the solution, then filtered, washed, dried, and again weighed. This verifies, in so far, the prediction from the relative amounts of oxycellulose. Next, the action of concentrated NaOH solution was tried, according to the usual procedure for determining "loss on mercerizing." The agreement here is as good as can be expected of this reaction, because of the slow penetration and uneven action of the cold concentrated solution. It shows the same relation between the celluloses, although more roughly than preceding determinations. Next, the action of nitric acid was tried, (a) using "nitrating acid " and determining "gain on nitration" in the usual manner and (b) using 5 per cent HN0 3 at 70° C. The resistance to combined oxidizing and solvent action of the nitrating for 7 hours. acids (equal parts of concentrated sulphuric and fuming nitric acids) is very evident It is here again

lose content

Table IV shows the numerical results

in the predicted order.

Table IV.

of

these

tests.

Action on cotton, poplar pulp, and Epicampes pulp of a concentrated and dilute and concentrated solutions of sodium hydroxid.

nitrating mixture

Determination No.

Sample.

Loss in

Loss in

NaOH,

1

per cent

solution.

Per

Per

cent.

2.0 12.3 19.3

Epicampes pulp i

Total yield

per 100 NaOH, con- grams in centrated

solution.

Cotton Poplar pulp

Determination No.

1.

cent.

7.9 15.4 17.3

Loss in

1

per cent

nitrating

mixture.

Grams. 177.7 159.0 149.2

Sample exploded during the process

Loss in

NaOH,

solution.

Per

Per

1.4 12.1

19.4

Total yield

per 100 NaOH, con- grams in centrated

solution.

cent.

2.

cent.

9.1 18.2 18.4

nitrating

mixture.

Grams. 180.7

0) 140.

of drying.

Weighed samples of hot dilute (5 per cent) nitric acid was tested. poplar pulp and Epicampes pulp were heated for 7 hours at 70° 0. with 100 times Because filtered, washed, dried, and weighed. their weight of 5 per cent 3 then Next, the action

of

HN0

,

the small amount of Epicampes pulp remaining, no duplicate could be made. The soda poplar pulp lost 6.1 per cent and the Epicampes pulp 10.2 per cent in the process. of


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 BULLETIN

20

300,

U.

S.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

This evidence was considered sufficiently complete with regard to the oxycellulose The behavior of Epicampes pulp with the usual solvents of cellulose was

question. tried,

with results

as follows:

Schweitzer's reagent dissolved all but the merest faint trace of the fiber. (6) Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolved the fiber quite rapidly and completely, with a very faint darkening in color not nearly so dark as straw celluloses usually (a)

—

give with sulphuric acid. (c) Zinc chlorid in concentrated hydrochloric acid dissolved the fiber more slowly

than did sulphuric acid, but quite completely. (d) Zinc chlorid solution swelled the fiber, but dissolved it only slowly. The percentages of ash and moisture were also determined, ash being 2.2 per cent and moisture 4.8 per cent. Both determinations are of minor importance, the ash qualitatively and quantitatively being dependent on the previous treatment of the pulp and the moisture on the atmospheric conditions. The fact that they were not extraordinary had, however, to be determined. The moisture was within 0.2 per cent of that of poplar pulp under the same atmospheric conditions, indicating again the close chemical relationship that has been evident throughout in the comparison of poplar and Epicampes pulps, as it is well known that different forms of cellulose have widely differing hygroscopicity. It is, in fact, more closely related to poplar pulp than it is to straw celluloses, like those of wheat or rye. These latter give from 12 to 14 per cent of furfural, for example, while Epicampes pulp gave a 10.8 per cent average, poplar giving 10 per cent. The resistance of Epicampes cellulose to destructive agents in general is correspondingly higher than that of the usual straw celluloses. It was next intended to make a methoxyl determination on the Epicampes pulp, but microscopic examination showed (1) lignified cells still present and (2) cells in bundles that are usually completely separated by cooking, although only a very little A methoxyl determination would be unfair to the sample when thus underof either. cooked, and so was not earned out. Direct determination of cellulose by any of the accepted methods is obviously useless here, (1) because the pulp has already been through processes for lignin removal and (2) because the presence of oxycellulose renders impossible a determination of cellulose accurate to 15 per cent, as it is always attacked much more than lignin by the usual reagents. There is no existing accurate method for these conditions. Carbon and hydrogen determination by combustion would add, perhaps, a little to the already present wealth of evidence of oxycellulose presence, but the relation of furfural yield to carbon percentage is so well known that the carbon could be predicted to a fraction of a per cent. This determination, therefore, seemed needless for the complete characterization of the Epicampes fiber. Hydralcellulose was tested for during the 'copper number' determinations, by Schwalbe's method, and found absent. To sum up the net result of these determinations: Epicampes macroura bleached pulp is a natural oxycellulose closely related to poplar pulp in chemical properties and considerably superior to the usual straw celluloses in power of resisting chemical '

'

attack

by destructive

agencies.

SEMICOMMERCIAL TESTS OF THE PULP. Having experimentally determined the cooking conditions and found them to be reasonable and satisfactory and also having determined that the chemical nature of the pulp was satisfactory, the work was continued on a semicommercial scale and was planned to include the actual manufacture of paper. There is a tendency on the part of many to discount the practical value of results obtained


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 — ZACATON AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL.

21

experimentally on a small scale, and doubtless in many cases this attitude is justified. Experimentation on a small scale has its own valuable sphere of usefulness, but great care should be exercised in its commercial interpretation. Therefore, with a view to giving this material a more reliable or commercial paper value the work was continued on a larger scale, more nearly under mill conditions and at a place where the services of actual mill emploj^ees could be secured for the work.

The

employed

work was of the upright stationary by 10 feet high and heated by direct steam. The cooked charge was "blown" in the regular manner into a blow pit of ordinary construction, where it was drained and washed free from black liquor. After screening in the regular manner the stock was bleached with mill bleach liquor in a beating engine and bleach chest, washed free from bleach residues, made into the desired furnish, and suitably beaten, after which it was run through a Jordan refiner and then to a Fourdrinier paper machine. The greater part of this whole work was performed by the regular digester

for this

type, measuring about 2 feet in diameter

mill employees. 1

The material used for the .four cooks of this test was dry, but had previously molded to some extent, being the same as that used in cooks Nos. 4, 5, and 6. Table shows the cooking conditions and

V

the yields of the four cooks.

Table V.

Conditions of cooking and total yields of fiber of four cooks of zacaton grass.

Cook.

Charge,

bone dry.

Pounds.

No. 7.. No. 8

Caustic

soda added.

Per

Hours under

Yield,

bone drv,

pressure.

of total fiber.

Pounds.

cent.

175 182 192 186

No. 10 o

Concentration of Cooking caustic pressure. soda.

20

41

100

19

90

90

18 16

90 90

38.6 33.4 44.6 45.2

5 6 5 6

a The charge in the digester was covered with water and heated to a steam pressure of 50 pounds per square inch for 1 hour, after which the water extract was all drained off and the residue cooked in the regular

manner.

The higher yield of total fiber in cooks Nos. 9 and 10 is due to the lower percentage of soda added and the fact that its concentration was lowered by the water remaining in the grass after extraction. The general appearance of the pulp of these four cooks was very similar; they were soft feeling, bulky, and had a very silky luster. Screening was done on a No. 10 cut screen, and in place of a pulp thickener the screened stock was run over the wet end of a Fourdrinier paper machine and taken off at the first press. This procedure left the stock in fine condition to be transferred to the bleach beater. iMuch

assistance

and information was furnished by

S.

D. Warren

&

Co.,

Cumberland

Mills,

Me.


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 22

BULLETIN

309,

U.

S.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Screened pulp from the four cooks was combined into one beater charge, heated to about 40° C, and after being thoroughly mixed with bleach liquor to the equivalent of 21 per cent of its bone-dry weight of commercial bleaching powder, was pumped to a bleach chest When the bleach was practically all consumed and the to exhaust.

Fig. 12.— Semicommercial rotary pulp boiler.

was found to be satisfactory, it was drained and washed free from bleach residues. The bleached stock was then beaten with a medium brush for 2

color of the stock

hours, loaded with 25 per cent of clay, sized with a 0.5 per cent resin

and 2 per cent of alum, and run through a Jordan refiner and then to a 30-inch Fourdrinier paper machine speeded to 90 feet per minute. The stock acted very well on the paper machine, giving

size


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 — ZACATON AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL.

23

very little trouble and producing a machine-finished sheet of good appearance and quality. Physical tests on this sheet, designated as No. 41, are recorded in Table VIII. Since the installation of a rotary type of digester further tests were

conditions

by this bureau, the more favorable treatment. The rotary

made on Epicampes under by

afforded

method

this

of

measured 6 feet in length by 4 feet in diameter, and was supplied with a large man head, thermometer well, pressure gauge, steam inlet, and steam relief through the hollow trunnions, and rotated at one-half a revolution per minute (fig. 12). A charge of 350 pounds could be handled conveniently, using a much stronger caustic solution and yielding a more uniform pulp. The cooked charge was dumped into an iron drain tank under-

by means of a false bottom, the fiber could be drained and washed with no loss. By means of a vacuum under the false bottom, the water could be drained from the fiber uniformly, leaving only 70 to 80 per cent of water in the fiber, in which condition it could be sampled and weighed with a good degree of accuracy. Uniformity of chemical action on the grass was very noticeable and assisted very much in the subsequent operations and quality of the neath, where,

pulp.

was of good, medium quality and in Four cooks were made, in order to secure sufficient pulp for a fair trial on the beating engine and paper macliine, the cooking conditions of which are shown in Table VI.

The

grass used for these tests

perfect condition.

Table VI.

Conditions of

trials

offour cooks of zacaton-pulp.

Maximum

Grass.

temperature,

boiling.

Rela-

Bone dry.

Cook. Air dry.

tion of caustic

soda added.

Per cent.

Strength

Caustic

of caustic soda solution. added.

Caustic solu-

tion

added.

Pounds.

Per

Pounds.

ct.

Time to reach.

Per

cent.

Pounds. Gallons. Hours.

No. 11

341

90.7

309

19.0

9.18

58.9

77

If

No. 12

361

91.0

328

20.1

9.18

66.0

86

2

No. 13 No. 14

335 342

90.8 90.8

304 311

20.2 20.3

9.18 9.18

61.6 63.2

81

If If

.

82

Heat

Time

used.

held.

°

C.

160 166 160 166 166 166

Hours. 6 4 4 3|

As seen by the table, the cooking was controlled by temperature Since it is temperature and not instead of by steam pressure. pressure which induces chemical action, and since steam pressure is indirectly an expression of temperature, it is obviously correct to employ either for control. On account of the presence of more or less air in the steam supply, and on account of gases which are


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24. liberated during the cooking, there is usually more pressure within the digester than the pressure corresponding to the temperature of the charge, and since this false pressure is usually unknown it seems preferable to employ temperature as the control.

The results of the tests are shown in Table VII.

Table VII. Results of trials of four cooks of zacaton pulp.

The average yield of fiber at 90 per cent bone dry is 43 per cent of the air-dry grass, which would average 80 per cent bone dry. The excess caustic soda, 8.1 to 8.9 per cent of the bone-dry grass, doubtless higher than is necessary, and it would indicate that less soda could have been employed in the cooking.

Pulp charges from the four cooks were remarkably similar in appearance and feeling; they drained and washed with great ease, a property not shared by the pulp of many plants and a fact of great importance in a commercial sense, because of the necessity of washing out and recovering the spent soda.

On screening the pulp charges through a No. 10 cut screen there remained undercooked screenings to the extent of 2.05 per cent of the bone-dry pulp, or 1 per -cent of the bone-dry grass. The screened stock bleached easily and to a satisfactory color with the equivalent of 12.7 per cent of commercial bleaching powder.

After washing free from bleach residues, the stock was given four hours' medium brushing in a beating engine (fig. 13) and furnished with 24 per cent of clay, 1.8 per cent of resin size, and 2 per cent of alum.

At the close of the beating operation the charge was whitened by the addition of a small amount of blue or blue and red color, to offset the residual yellow tint invariably present in all bleached stocks.

The finished stock was run through a Jordan refiner and to a 30-inch Fourdrinier machine speeded to 85 feet per minute. Although the stock was as a little too "free" to get the maximum felting of the fiber it acted very well on the machine and gave a machine-finished sheet of good appearance and quality. Physical tests of this sheet, designated as No. 76, in connection with those of sheet No. 41 are given in Table VIII.


text:
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 ZACATON AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL.

25

PHYSICAL TESTS OF ZACATON PAPERS. grade these papers according to any recognized from the zacaton plant is not recognized as the equivalent of any commercial paper stock. From the fact that the chemical examination placed the fiber very close to soda poplar fiber it might be regarded as the equivalent of soda poplar in grading the samples according to any scheme of classification. However, since the endurance of these papers, as well as their behavior under manufacturing conditions, yet remains to be proved, it would hardly be justifiable at present to regard zacaton fiber as the equivaIt is impossible to

classification, since the fiber

FlG.

lent of

13— Beating machine

any commercial

It

fiber.

consider each physical test

by

supplied with washer.

would seem

better,

on the whole,

to

itself in characterizing these special

papers.

and specifications followed in this work main is used as the basis is that established by Veitch, which in the in the purchase of paper by the Government. to Sample sheets from the semicommercial tests were submitted for Chemistry of Bureau the Leather and Paper Laboratory of the testing room physical examination. This laborato ry makes use of a

The system

of classification

1

i

Veitch, F. P.

Paper

specifications.

In U.

S.

Dept. Agr. Rpt.

89, p. 13-51, 4 fig.

1909.


text:
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 — 26

BULLETIN

309,

U.

S.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

which can be maintained accurately at a constant temperature and which are absolutely essential to comparative and absolute paper testing. The sample designated as No. 41 was manufactured from the combined pulps of cooks Nos. 7, 8, 9, and 10, and the sample designated as No. 76 was manufactured from the combined pulps of cooks Nos. The report of the Leather and Paper Laboratory 11, 12, 13, and 14. shown in Table VIII. is samples these on

relative humidity, conditions

Table VIII. ing

to tests

Physical properties of six paper samples made from zacaton pulp, accordconducted by the Leather and Paper Laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry.

Bursting strength. L. and P. No.

Mark Ash. Xo.

500.

factor,

Aver- Maxiage.

Per -30612 30613 30614 30615 30616 30617

ct.

41 41 41

19.5 19.4 19.2

76 76

22. 4

76

22.5 21.4

Lis. 51.0 49.5 51.0 52.5 57.0 52.5

Folding endur-

Strength

Weight, 25x38, Mini-

per wt., 25x38.

ance.

Pts.

Pts.

28.0 25.5 27.5 13.0 14.0 13.5

29.0 27.0 29.0 14.0 14.0 14.0

27.0 24.0 26.0 12.0 14.0 13.0

55 .52 .54 .25 .25 .26

0.

factor.

ness.

Trans-

Longi-

Trans-

Longi-

verse.

tudinal.

verse.

tudinal.

mum. mum.

Pts.

Folding

Thick-

36 34 37 40 3S 39

27 25 38

42 39

0.53

0.82

35

.51 .74

4 4

3 3 3

.08 .07 .06

.79 .69 .06 .05 .06

3

Sample No. 41 contains the ash specified for a coated paper, namely, 20 per cent, although some uncoated book papers carry nearly this quantity. Practice varies in the different mills, some using more than others for the same general grade of paper. This sample shows a strength factor, which is the bursting strain divided by the ream weight, which is higher than that specified for a first-grade

filler

machine-finish printing paper, although the ash this grade.

The

folding factor

is

is

four times that of

likewise higher than

is

specified for

a first-grade machine-finished printing paper.

Sample Xo.

76, according to the

same

classification,

would fall below

the fourth-grade machine-finish printing paper. It should be noted here, however, that at the time the specifications of Report No. 89 were drawn up, the chief object was to secure better papers in general for the use of the United States Government. The

somewhat different and more rigorous the case had it been the intention to apply have been than would them to the general run of commercial papers. According to present commercial usage, sample No. 41 would be

specifications, therefore, are

regarded as much better than a first-grade machine-finish printing paper and No. 76 would be classed as a second-grade machine-finish printing paper


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 ZACATON AS A PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL.

27

CONCLUSION. Zacaton grass may prove to be a valuable paper stock, although at it is a waste product and nourishes in a region remote from paper-manufacturing sections. the The grass can be chemically reduced to paper stock by the soda process under less drastic and less expensive conditions than those employed for the reduction of poplar wood. The well-known process, methods, and machinery employed for the manufacture of pulp from poplar wood are entirely suitable for the treatment of this material. In place of the wood-sawing, chipping, and screening machinery, a grass cutter, and possibly a duster, is present

required.

A production of 43 per cent of air-dry fiber from the air-dry grass is regarded as a very good yield, the fiber yield from poplar wood being from 46 to 48 per cent, and from esparto 43 per cent. For bleaching the stock it has been found necessary to use more bleaching powder than in the case of poplar stock. Paper manufactured from this stock has shown physical tests equal to those of a first-grade machine-finish printing paper. The paper has a very satisfactory appearance and feeling. It is realized that in these two semicommercial tests the maximum possibilities of this material in all probability have not been attained, and better results may reasonably be expected. Moreover, an experienced mill organization after a few months of operation would learn the qualities of the stock and be in a position greatly to improve the product. It would not be advisable, nor even possible, from the work here described, to make any estimate of the cost of manufacture or the value of the product. Such data can be secured only by extensive experimentation on a semicommercial scale or by actual mill operations.


text:
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 PUBLICATIONS OF UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO MATERIALS FOR PAPER MAKING. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION.

Department Bulletin 72. Crop Plants for Paper Making. Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 82. Pulp and Paper and other Products from Waste Resinous Woods. Bureau Suitability of Longleaf Pine for Paper Pulp.

of

Chem-

istry Bulletin 159.

Paper-making Materials and Their Conservation. Bureau of Chemistry Circular 41. Paper Birch in the Xortheast. Forest Service Circular 163. Experiments with Jack Pine and Hemlock for Mechanical Pulp. Forest Service Miscellaneous.

FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS.

The Grinding

Forest Service Bulletin 127. Price, of Spruce for Mechanical Pulp. 15 cents. Progress in Saving Forest Waste. Yearbook 1910. Price. SI. The" Utilization of Crop Plants in Paper Making. Yearbook 1910. Price, SI. 28

ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS

GOVERNMENT PRINTING WASHINGTON, AT 5

OFFICE

D. C.

CENTS PER COPY

V

"WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

191."


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text:
Template talk:Printer errata

template for tagging errata pages?
such as at page:zacaton as a paper-making material (IA_zacatonaspaperma309bran).pdf/9 Arlo Barnes (talk) 22:49, 9 February 2024 (UTC)

 * @Arlo Barnes: There's no need to tag the page itself; listing it as "Erratum" (or "Errata") in the Index: pagelist (as you have done), and transcluding it as a separate subpage (e.g. Zacaton As a Paper-making Material/no.309/Errata or Zacaton As a Paper-making Material/no.309/Erratum) is enough. You can then use errata on the pages it corrects; that template also provides an option to link to the errata subpage. -- Yodin T 11:13, 10 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Template talk:Printer errata


text:
Author:Ernst Brotuff

Works

 * Historia Martisbvrgica (1606)
 * "Die Frau von Weissenburg", a poem recorded in this book

title: Author:Ernst Brotuff


text: Index:All the Sad Young Men (1926).pdf

title: Index:All the Sad Young Men (1926).pdf


text:
Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/46

This, of course, is the doctrine which our own day more or less correctly associates with the name of Nietzsche. "Verily I laughed many a time over the weaklings who thought themselves good because they had lame paws." Stirner expressed the idea briefly when he said that "a handful of might is better than a bagful of right." Perhaps nowhere in the history of philosophy is the doctrine better formulated than by Plato himself in another dialogue, Gorgias, (483 f), where the Sophist Callicles denounces morality as an invention of the weak to neutralize the strength of the strong.

title: Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/46


text:
Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/47

This justice is a morality not for men but for foot-men (oude gar andros all' andrapodou tinos); it is a slave-morality, not a hero-morality; the real virtues of a man are courage (andreia) and intelligence (phronesis).

Perhaps this hard "immoralism" reflects the development of imperialism in the foreign policy of Athens, and its ruthless treatment of weaker states. "Your empire," said Pericles in the oration which Thucydides invents for him, "is based on your own strength rather than the good will of your subjects."

And the same historian reports the Athenian envoys coercing Melos into joining Athens in the war against Sparta: "You know as well as we do that right, as the world goes, is only in question for equals in power; the strong do what they can, and the weak suffer what they must." We have here the fundamental problem of ethics, the crux of the theory of moral conduct. What is justice?—shall we seek righteousness, or shall we seek power?—is it better to be good, or to be strong?

How does Socrates—i.e., Plato—meet the challenge of this theory? At first he does not meet it at all. He points out that justice is a relation among individuals, depending on social organization; and that in consequence it can be studied better as part of the structure of a community than as a quality of personal conduct. If, he suggests, we can picture a just state, we shall be in a better position to describe a just individual. Plato excuses himself for this digression on the score that in testing a man's vision we make him read first large type, then smaller; so, he argues, it is easier to analyze justice on a large scale than on the small scale of individual

title: Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/47


text:
Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/48

 behavior. But we need not be deceived: in truth the Master is patching two books together, and uses the argument as a seam. He wishes not only to discuss the problems of personal morality, but the problems of social and political reconstruction as well. He has a Utopia up his sleeve, and is resolved to produce it. It is easy to forgive him, for the digression forms the core and value of his book.

Justice would be a simple matter, says Plato, if men were simple; an anarchist communism would suffice. For a moment he gives his imagination reign:

Observe here the passing reference to the control of population (by infanticide, presumably), to vegetarianism, and to

title: Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/48


text:
Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/49

 a "return to nature," to the primitive simplicity which Hebrew legend pictures in the Garden of Eden. The whole has the sound of Diogenes the "Cynic," who, as the epithet implied, thought we should "turn and live with the animals, they are so placid and self-contained"; and for a moment we are likely to classify Plato with St. Simon and Fourier and William Morris and Tolstoi. But he is a little more sceptical than these men of kindly faith; he passes quietly on to the question, Why is it that such a simple paradise as he has described never comes?—why is it that these Utopias never arrive upon the map?

He answers, because of greed and luxury. Men are not content with a simple life: they are acquisitive, ambitious, competitive, and jealous; they soon tire of what they have, and pine for what they have not; and they seldom desire anything unless it belongs to others. The result is the encroachment of one group upon the territory of another, the rivalry of groups for the resources of the soil, and then war. Trade and finance develop, and bring new class-divisions. "Any ordinary city is in fact two cities, one the city of the poor, the other of the rich, each at war with the other; and in either division there are smaller ones—you would make a great mistake if you treated them as single states" (423). A mercantile bourgeoisie arises, whose members seek social position through wealth and conspicuous consumption: "they will spend large sums of money on their wives" (548). These changes in the distribution of wealth produce political changes: as the wealth of the merchant over-reaches that of the land-owner, aristocracy gives way to a plutocratic oligarchy—wealthy traders and bankers rule the state. Then statesmanship, which is the coördination of social forces and the adjustment of policy to growth, is replaced by politics, which is the strategy of party and the lust for the spoils of office.

Every form of government tends to perish by excess of its basic principle. Aristocracy ruins itself by limiting too narrowly the circle within which power is confined, oligarchy

title: Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/49


text:
Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/50

 ruins itself by the incautious scramble for immediate wealth. In either case the end is revolution. When revolution comes it may seem to arise from little causes and petty whims; but though it may spring from slight occasions it is the precipitate result of grave and accumulated wrongs; when a body is weakened by neglected ills, the merest exposure may bring serious disease (556). "Then democracy comes: the poor overcome their opponents, slaughtering some and banishing the rest; and give to the people an equal share of freedom and power" (557).

But even democracy ruins itself by excess—of democracy. Its basic principle is the equal right of all to hold office and determine public policy. This is at first glance a delightful arrangement; it becomes disastrous because the people are not properly equipped by education to select the best rulers and the wisest courses (588). "As to the people they have no understanding, and only repeat what their rulers are pleased to tell them" (Protagoras, 317); to get a doctrine accepted or rejected it is only necessary to have it praised or ridiculed in a popular play (a hit, no doubt, at Aristophanes, whose comedies attacked almost every new idea). Mob-rule is a rough sea for the ship of state to ride; every wind of oratory stirs up the waters and deflects the course. The upshot of such a democracy is tyranny or autocracy; the crowd so loves flattery, it is so "hungry for honey," that at last the wiliest and most unscrupulous flatterer, calling himself the "protector of the people" rises to supreme power (565). (Consider the history of Rome.)

The more Plato thinks of it, the more astounded he is at the folly of leaving to mob caprice and gullibility the selection of political officials—not to speak of leaving it to those shady and wealth-serving strategists who pull the oligarchic wires behind the democratic stage. Plato complains that whereas in simpler matters—like shoe-making—we think only a specially-trained person will serve our purpose, in politics

title: Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/50


text:
Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/51

 we presume that every one who knows how to get votes knows how to administer a city or a state. When we are ill we call for a trained physician, whose degree is a guarantee of specific preparation and technical competence—we do not ask for the handsomest physician, or the most eloquent one; well then, when the whole state is ill should we not look for the service and guidance of the wisest and the best? To devise a method of barring incompetence and knavery from public office, and of selecting and preparing the best to rule for the common good—that is the problem of political philosophy.

But behind these political problems lies the nature of man; to understand politics, we must, unfortunately, understand psychology. "Like man, like state" (575); "governments vary as the characters of men vary;…states are made out of the human natures which are in them" (544); the state is what it is because its citizens are what they are. Therefore we need not expect to have better states until we have better men; till then all changes will leave every essential thing unchanged. "How charming people are!—always doctoring, increasing and complicating their disorders, fancying they will be cured by some nostrum which somebody advises them to try, never getting better, but always growing worse.…Are they not as good as a play, trying their hand at legislation, and imagining that by reforms they will make an end to the dishonesties and rascalities of mankind—not knowing that in reality they are cutting away at the heads of a hydra?" (425).

Let us examine for a moment the human material with which political philosophy must deal.

Human behavior, says Plato, flows from three main sources: desire, emotion, and knowledge. Desire, appetite, impulse, instinct—these are one; emotion, spirit, ambition, courage

title: Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/51


text:
Author:August Gottlieb Meißner

As editor

 * Für ältere Litteratur und neuere Lectüre (1783–1785) edited with Karl Christian Canzler
 * "Die Frau von Weissenburg", a poem and associated story, taken from older sources (1783)

title: Author:August Gottlieb Meißner


text:
Author:Karl Christian Canzler

As editor

 * Für ältere Litteratur und neuere Lectüre (1783–1785) edited with August Gottlieb Meißner
 * "Die Frau von Weissenburg", a poem and associated story, taken from older sources (1783)

title: Author:Karl Christian Canzler


text:
Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/52

 these are one; knowledge, thought, intellect, reason—these are one. Desire has its seat in the loins; it is a bursting reservoir of energy, fundamentally sexual. Emotion has its seat in the heart, in the flow and force of the blood; it is the organic resonance of experience and desire. Knowledge has its seat in the head; it is the eye of desire, and can become the pilot of the soul.

These powers and qualities are all in all men, but in divers degrees. Some men are but the embodiment of desire; rest- less and acquisitive souls, who are absorbed in material quests and quarrels, who burn with lust of luxuries and show, and who rate their gains always as naught compared with their ever-receding goals: these are the men who dominate and manipulate industry. But there are others who are temples of feeling and courage, who care not so much what they fight for, as for victory "in and for itself"; they are pug- nacious rather than acquisitive; their pride is in power rather than in possession, their joy is on the battle-field rather than in the mart: these are the men who make the armies and navies of the world. And last are the few whose delight is in meditation and understanding; who yearn not for goods, nor for victory, but for knowledge; who leave both market and battle-field to lose themselves in the quiet clarity of secluded thought; whose will is a light rather than a fire, whose haven is not power but truth: these are the men of wisdom, who stand aside unused by the world.

Now just as effective individual action implies that desire, though warmed with emotion, is guided by knowledge; so in the perfect state the industrial forces would produce but they would not rule; the military forces would protect but they would not rule; the forces of knowledge and science and phi- losophy would be nourished and protected, and they would rule. Unguided by knowledge, the people are a multitude without order, like desires in disarray; the people need the guidance of philosophers as desires need the enlightenment of knowledge. "Ruin comes when the trader, whose heart is

title: Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/52


text:
Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/53

 lifted up by wealth, becomes ruler" (434); or when the general uses his army to establish a military dictatorship. The pro- ducer is at his best in the economic field, the warrior is at his best in battle; they are both at their worst in public office; and in their crude hands politics submerges statesmanship. For statesmanship is a science and an art; one must have lived for it and been long prepared. Only a philosopher-king is fit to guide a nation. "Until philosophers are kings, or the kings and princes of this world have the spirit and power of philosophy, and wisdom and political leadership meet in the same man,…cities will never cease from ill, nor the human race" (473).

This is the key-stone of the arch of Plato's thought.

Well, then, what is to be done?

We must begin by "sending out into the country all the inhabitants of the city who are more than ten years old, and by taking possession of the children, who will thus be pro- tected from the habits of their parents" (540). We cannot build Utopia with young people corrupted at every turn by the example of their elders. We must start, so far as we can, with a clean slate. It is quite possible that some enlightened ruler will empower us to make such a beginning with some part or colony of his realm. (One ruler did, as we shall see.) In any case we must give to every child, and from the outset, full equality of educational opportunity; there is no telling where the light of talent or genius will break out; we must seek it impartially everywhere, in every rank and race. The first turn on our road is universal education.

For the first ten years of life, education shall be pre- dominantly physical; every school is to have a gymnasium and a playground; play and sport are to be the entire curriculum ; and in this first decade such health will be stored up as will make all medicine unnecessary. "To require the help of

title: Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/53


text:
Page:Peterson Magazine 1869B.pdf/295

 272

ONLY A WOMAN AFTER ALL.

wine, and says it is time for me to try the experiment. Heaven grant me success!

October 15th, 4 A. M. - Eliza is safe ! What joy it is to know it I cannot express. I find now how much my heart clings to these, almost my only, friends.

I followed Mr. Barrington to Eliza's room. As I turned to go in he laid his hand on mine, and whispered, " Courage! You will not fail. Come to the library when it is over. "

As soon as I had seated myself by the bedside, Dr. Marly took John by the arm and left the room. He thought, best to prevent the possibility of exciting counter- currents.

At first I thought I could never fix Eliza's eyes on mine, they wandered so from one thing to another. After awhile they seemed fastened by mine, and I waited breathless to see the first flutter of the lids, which is always, to me, a sign that I am controlling. They stared till I almost feared her mind was gone.

At last came two or three convulsive quivers, and the eyes closed.

I longed to carry the good news to John, but dared not move. For three hours she slept, and I held her hands. During the time I know Dr. Marly came to the door and looked in more than once; often, too, I could hear John's impatient breathing, and once I felt Mr. Barrington behind me. I did not look nor speak to any of them. I feared to lessen my influence. I sat there till I ached all over, and felt sometimes that I must scream, the silence was so oppressive.

Eliza waked refreshed and renewed, it seemed, and I left her, feeling too nervous to stay.

John buried his face in the sofa- cushions and wept, when I stepped into the library to tell him the result; and his grateful smile, when he went up stairs, I shall never forget.

I found, when I came to the library, that Mr. Barrington had prepared a cup of chocolate, and a dish of oysters for me, and, although I refused them, be said, "Eat, " in such a way that I began, with the words of declination on my lips. They were both delicious ; and when I tasted them, I discovered I was very much in need of refreshment.

After I had eaten, Mr. Barrington sat down, and pretty soon said,

"I suppose you will stay here, at least till Mrs. Greggerson is well again?"

"I shall stay," I answered, "until she is able to come down stairs ; it is out of my power to remain longer. I must and will do something. Thus far I have felt it a duty to stay; but I must begin for myself now."

"Mrs. Greggerson is very much opposed to your attempting to work for yourself, you know, and wants you to remain with her. Why don't you?"

"Eliza knows I could not accept charity, as I should have to if I remained here. I know it would delight John and Eliza to give me everything I wanted ; but I cannot accept what does not rightfully belong to me. I am determined to receive no favors from any one, but to make my own way in the world."

"Do you long for a career?" And I fancied I could detect the least bit of a sarcastic smile.

"Not a public career," I answered ; "that would be distasteful to me ; but I do very much want to prove that a woman, alone, and unaided by friends, can, without loss of womanly delicacy or womanly dignity, make a place, however small, for herself in the world.”

"Had you not put it out of my power to do so, by saying, ' unaided by friends, ' I should have offered you any assistance I could render ; but now I see it would be useless. If ever you do need help in any way, promise me there is no one from whom you will sooner seek it than Richard Barrington."

He held out his hand, and half reluctant, half pleased, I placed my own in it.

Presently he resumed, " Have you decided what to do yet?"

"I have decided to try to get the position of corresponding secretary in an Institution, as I happen to know the place is soon to be vacated. I shall send in an application tomorrow."

"Since you seem to desire success, let me wish it you most truly."

Again I fancied I saw the covert smile, and I exclaimed, " Why is it, Mr. Barrington, that whenever I talk of my own plans you smile, which smile, but for your politeness, would, I know, be an absolute laugh?”

"I beg your pardon; but I confess it does seem paradoxical to me to think of a young lady like yourself going out into a harsh and bitter world to do what even men, without means, often find it hard to accomplish.”

"If you will strike out ' even ' from your last sentence I shall like it better; and at the same time permit me to ask why you used it?"

"Because it did seem right to me. I did not intend to give you the impression that men, in my opinion, are in and of themselves better calculated to make a way in the world ; but all their education, from their very babyhood, tends to that end, and so they have the advantage.

"And now let me advise you to lie down and

title: Page:Peterson Magazine 1869B.pdf/295


text:
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 medicine because by lives of indolence and luxury men have filled themselves like pools with waters and winds,… flatulence and catarrh—is not this a disgrace?…Our present system of medicine may be said to educate diseases," to draw them out into a long existence, rather than to cure. them. But this is an absurdity of the idle rich. "When a carpenter is ill he asks the physician for a rough and ready remedy—an emetic, or a purge, or cautery, or the knife. And if anyone tells him that he must go through a course of dietetics, and swathe and swaddle his head, and all that sort of thing, he replies at once that he has no time to be ill, and that he sees no good in a life that is spent in nursing his dis- ease to the neglect of his ordinary calling; and therefore, say- ing good-bye to this sort of physicians, he resumes his cus- tomary diet, and either gets well and lives and does his busi- ness, or, if his constitution fails, he dies and has done with it" (405–6). We cannot afford to have a nation of malingerers and invalids; Utopia must begin in the body of man.

But mere athletics and gymnastics would make a man too one-sided. "How shall we find a gentle nature which has also great courage?—for they seem to be inconsistent with each other" (375). We do not want a nation of prize-fighters and weight-lifters. Perhaps music will solve our problem: through music the soul learns harmony and rhythm, and even a disposition to justice; for "can he who is harmoniously con- stituted ever be unjust? Is not this, Glaucon, why musical training is so powerful, because rhythm and harmony find their way into the secret places of the soul, bearing grace in their movements and making the soul graceful?" (401; Protagoras, 326). Music moulds character, and therefore shares in determining social and political issues. "Damon tells me—and I can quite believe it—that when modes of music change, the fundamental laws of the state change with them." Music is valuable not only because it brings refinement of

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text:
Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/55

 feeling and character, but also because it preserves and restores health. There are some diseases which can be treated only through the mind (Charmides, 157): so the Corybantic priest treated hysterical women with wild pipe music, which excited them to dance and dance till they fell to the ground exhausted, and went to sleep; when they awoke they were cured. The unconscious sources of human thought are touched and soothed by such methods; and it is in these substrata of behavior and feeling that genius sinks its roots.

"No man when conscious attains to true or inspired intuition, but rather when the power of intellect is fettered in sleep or by disease or dementia"; the prophet (mantike) or genius is akin to the madman (manike) (Phædrus, 244).

Plato passes on to a remarkable anticipation of "psychoanalysis." Our political psychology is perplexed, he argues, because we have not adequately studied the various appetites or instincts of man. Dreams may give us a clue to some of the subtle and more elusive of these dispositions.

title: Page:The Story of Philosophy.pdf/55


text:
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Music and measure lend grace and health to the soul and to the body; but again, too much music is as dangerous as too much athletics. To be merely an athlete is to be nearly a savage; and to be merely a musician is to be "melted and softened beyond what is good" (410). The two must be com- bined; and after sixteen the individual practice of music must be abandoned, though choral singing, like communal games, will go on throughout life. Nor is music to be merely music; it must be used to provide attractive forms for the sometimes unappetizing contents of mathematics, history and science; there is no reason why for the young these difficult studies should not be smoothed into verse and beautified with song. Even then these studies are not to be forced upon an unwilling mind; within limits a libertarian spirit must prevail.

With minds so freely growing, and bodies made strong by sport and outdoor life of every kind, our ideal state would have a firm psychological and physiological base broad enough for every possibility and every development. But a moral basis must be provided as well; the members of the community must make a unity; they must learn that they are members of one another; that they owe to one another certain amenities and obligations. Now since men are by nature acquisitive, jealous, combative, and erotic, how shall we persuade them to behave themselves? By the policeman's omnipresent club? It is a brutal method, costly and irritating. There is a better way,

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 and that is by lending to the moral requirements of the com- munity the sanction of supernatural authority. We must have a religion.

Plato believes that a nation cannot be strong unless it be- lieves in God. A mere cosmic force, or first cause, or élan vital, that was not a person, could hardly inspire hope, or devotion, or sacrifice; it could not offer comfort to the hearts of the distressed, nor courage to embattled souls. But a liv- ing God can do all this, and can stir or frighten the self- seeking individualist into some moderation of his greed, some control of his passion. All the more so if to belief in God is added belief in personal immortality: the hope of another life gives us courage to meet our own death, and to bear with the death of our loved ones; we are twice armed if we fight with faith. Granted that none of the beliefs can be demon- strated; that God may be after all only the personified ideal of our love and our hope, and that the soul is like the music of the lyre, and dies with the instrument that gave it form: yet surely (so runs the argument, Pascal-like, of the Phaedo) it will do us no harm to believe, and it may do us and our chil- dren immeasurable good.

For we are likely to have trouble with these children of ours if we undertake to explain and justify everything to their simple minds. We shall have an especially hard time when they arrive at the age of twenty, and face the first scrutiny and test of what they have learned in all their years of equal education. Then will come a ruthless weeding out; the Great Elimination, we might call it. That test will be no mere academic examination; it will be practical as well as theo- retical: "there shall also be toils and pains and conflicts pre- scribed for them" (413). Every kind of ability will have a chance to show itself, and every sort of stupidity will be hunted out into the light. Those who fail will be assigned to the economic work of the nation; they will be business men, and clerks, and factory workers, and farmers. The test will be impartial and impersonal; whether one is to be a

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 farmer or a philosopher will be determined not by monopolized opportunity or nepotic favoritism; the selection will be more democratic than democracy,

Those who pass this first test will receive ten more years of education and training, in body and mind and character. And then they will face a second test, far severer than the first. Those who fail will become the auxiliaries, or executive aides and military officers of the state. Now it is just in these great eliminations that we shall need every resource of persuasion to get the eliminated to accept their fate with urbanity and peace. For what is to prevent that great unselected majority, in the first test, and that lesser but more vigorous and capable second group of Eliminees, from shouldering arms and smashing this Utopia of ours into a mouldering reminiscence? What is to prevent them from establishing there and then a world in which again mere number or mere force will rule, and the sickly comedy of a sham democracy will reënact itself da capo ad nauseam? Then religion and faith will be our only salvation: we shall tell these young people that the divisions into which they have fallen are God-decreed and irrevocable—not all their tears shall wipe out one word of it. We shall tell them the myth of the metals:

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Perhaps with this "royal fable" we shall secure a fairly general consent to the furtherance of our plan.

But now what of the lucky remnant that ride these succes- sive waves of selection?

They are taught philosophy. They have now reached the age of thirty; it would not have been wise to let them "taste the dear delight too early;…for young men, when they first get the taste of philosophy in their mouths, argue for amusement, and are always contradicting and refuting,…like puppy-dogs who delight to tear and pull at all who come near them" (539). This dear delight, philosophy, means two things chiefly: to think clearly, which is metaphysics; and to rule wisely, which is politics. First then, our young Elite must learn to think clearly. For that purpose they shall study the doctrine of Ideas.

But this famous doctrine of Ideas, embellished and ob- scured by the fancy and poetry of Plato, is a discouraging maze to the modern student, and must have offered another severe test to the survivors of many siftings. The Idea of a thing might be the "general idea" of the class to which it belongs (the Idea of John, or Dick, or Harry, is Man); or it might be the law or laws according to which the thing operates (the Idea of John would be the reduction of all his behavior to "natural laws"); or it might be the perfect pur- pose and ideal towards which the thing and its class may develop (the Idéa of John is the John of Utopia). Very probably the Idea is all of these—idea, law and ideal. Be- hind the surface phenomena and particulars which greet our senses, are generalizations, regularities, and directions of development, unperceived by sensation but conceived by reason and thought. These ideas, laws and ideals are more permanent—and therefore more "real"—than the sense-

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