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 two hundred and fifty million people in countries which (such as Germany) partly belong to the most advanced, the most enlightened countries, standing in point of technical development to the forefront of modern progress.

The war through the Versailles treaty imposed upon them such conditions that advanced peoples found themselves in the position of colonial dependents, of misery, starvation, and ruin, deprived of all rights because they are bound by the treaty for many generations and are placed in such conditions in which no civilised nation ever lived. Here you have the picture of peace after the war; no less than thousand two hundred and fifty millions of people are suddenly put under a colonial yoke, are subject to exploitation by beastly capitalism which was boasting of its love for peace, and some fifty years ago had some right to so boast, so long as the world was not divided, so long as no monopoly ruled, so long as capitalism could develop comparatively peacefully without colossal military conflicts

Now after this peaceful epoch we have a most monstrous accentuation of oppression, we see a return to colonial and military oppression, even worse than ever before. The Versailles treaty placed both Germany and a whole series of defeated states in conditions of impossibility of economic existence, into conditions where they are completely degraded and deprived of all right.

How many nations have benefited by it? To answer this question you must remember that the population of the United States of America, which alone fully profited by the war, and which was transformed from a country deep in debt into a country to which everybody owes money—does not exceed one hundred million. The population of Japan, which gained very much, keeping out of the European conflict and capturing the tremendous Asiatic continent, is equal to fifty millions. The population of England, which after the above countries has gained most, is also equal to fifty millions. And if we add neutral states with a very small population, which grew rich during the war, we will get in round numbers two hundred and fifty millions.

You thus get in its main features the picture of the world as it developed after the imperialistic war. One and a quarter billion people of the colonies, of countries which are being cut up alive, such as Persia, China and countries which have been defeated and thrown into a state of colonial dependence. No more that two hundred and fifty million is the


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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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sole purpose of this book is to afford a convenient guide for the amateur astronomer when engaged in telescopic observation.

Aside from a study of the moon's surface, the observation of double stars is sure to prove the most attractive work for the possessor of a small telescope. The brighter doubles the novice will have no difficulty in finding, but those below the third magnitude are often difficult to locate without reference to a diagram of the constellation of which it is a part—hence the author has seen fit to place such a diagram where it can be easily consulted.

It is presupposed that the owner of the telescope is familiar with the constellations. It then should be an easy matter, with the assistance of the accompanying diagrams, to find the double stars mentioned in the text.

The constellations are grouped under the seasons for the sake of convenience.

Many of the stars have faint companions of the ninth, tenth, or fainter magnitudes, These doubles are interesting solely to those who desire to test their eyesight, or the powers of their glass. They are disappointing as compared with the beautiful doubles the magnitude of whose components are more nearly on a par, such as


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iv Castor, (γ) Leonis, (γ) Virginis. The author has therefore arranged the doubles to be noted, so that those most worthy of observation come first in the column assigned to them.

The chapter on the moon is arranged according to the same idea as the matter on the double stars, conciseness and brevity being especially aimed at. The pleasures of sclenography are so fascinating, that the author feels assured that the student will add to the brief outline here given by collateral reading. Only the principal objects of interest are mentioned in the text accompanying each successive view of the moon. The observer will note a wealth of detail in every peep he takes at the moon that will add greatly to his pleasure.

In a word, then, the raison d'être of the book is convenience of arrangement. The author has found by experience that what the student most needs when he is observing with the telescope, is a page to glance at that will serve as a guide to the object he desires to view, and which affords concise data relative to that object. The diagrams therefore direct the student's vision, and the subject matter affords the necessary information in each case.

The fact that there are so few telescopes in use, comparatively speaking, in a great measure accounts for the little interest in astronomy taken by the public. If these pages serve to awaken the slightest interest in the fascinating study of the heavens, the author will feel amply repaid.


text: Page:Travels in West Africa, Congo Français, Corisco and Cameroons (IA travelsinwestafr00kingrich).pdf/22


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HE diagrams represent the appearance of the con stellations in the season in which they are placed, and favorable location for observation was chiefly considered in thus grouping them. The student can vary the arrangement to suit his convenience.

As the winter is the least desirable time for star-gazing, the greater number of constellations have been purposely grouped in the other seasons.

The so-called "circumpolar constellations" are of course available for observation at any time of the year, and the student can choose his own time for studying them.

At the foot of each diagram of a constellation, for ready reference, appears the name and page number of the constellations bounding it.

Only the constellations visible in the latitude of the New England and Middle States have been included in this book.

The author presupposes that the telescope to be used in connection with this book is not equipped with circles, otherwise recourse should be had to some such book as Webb's Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes, for a more


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 exact location of the objects of interest, in terms of Right Ascension and Declination.

For the most part only double stars with a primary of the sixth magnitude or brighter are given, as it is difficult te direct the telescope at a star of lesser magnitude unless its position is accurately known.

In searching for double stars many faint yet beautiful pairs and triples are observed, so that it is well to have such a book as Webb's, in order that these objects can be identified.

The diagrams include over three hundred double stars, and the sight of these and the many fine clusters and nebula mentioned should afford the happy possessor of a telescope many hours of keen enjoyment.

Considerable discrepancy will be noted in the colors assigned to the double stars, and those observed. The coloring in many cases is at best elusive, and atmospheric conditions and peculiarities of vision play an important part in determining it. In a number of cases the colors are very pronounced and render the object of surpassing beauty, as for instance in the great favorite (β) Cygni. The first color given is that of the primary or brightest star, the second color given is that of the companion,

The position angle measures the inclination to the meridian of a line drawn through the double stars. It shows the observer where to look for the companion star, and is reckoned from 0 degrees to 360 degrees, beginning


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at the north point, and proceeding through the east, The student should bear south, and west to the north.

mind in this connection that in the telescope the north and south points are reversed. The decimals are omitted from the distances given between the doubles (which are from centre to centre, and in seconds of arc) as in the wider doubles, as most of those referred to in the text would be termed, absolute in

accuracy in measurements, for purposes of observation purely, is non-essential. A three-inch glass should split stars that are distant from each other 2.3". Of course this question of splitting

doubles depends in a great measure on the power of the eyepiece used, the condition of the atmosphere, and the Serviss recomquality, of the eyesight of the observer. mends a power of from fifty to seventy to the inch of aperture.

The author has succeeded

majority of the doubles power of 130.

mentioned

in seeing the great in the text

with a

The term "light year" which is used in the text is the usual term for expressing the distance from the earth to the stars. A light year is the unit of such measurements, and

is simply the distance light travels in a year, the speed of light being 1 86 ceo miles per second. Expressed in figures it gives 5,785,344,000,000 as the distance in miles that light travels in one year. When it is added that (61) Cygni, the nearest star to the earth the northern hemisphere, is nearly six light years ,

m


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Page:A Treatise of the Covenant of Grace (John Ball).djvu/235

 Rh

man in the world, that he is not bound to beleeve, because it is not found in Scripture, nor can he beleeve it, according to their grounds that urge this argument, neither can such perswasion be the ground of justifying faith. I say every man in the world good or bad cannot beleeve it, as they teach: For either they be considered as in the common Masse, as all Infants, and then they be actually restored into grace; or as impenitent and unbeleevers, fallen from the Covenant themselves, (or as Arminius addeth, in their parents) and then Christ died not for them as such. If they be admitted into Covenant, and continue therein, Christ died for them in respect of application: if they be fallen from that state by impenitency, obstinacy, rebellion, Christ died not for them as such: If they be cast off, and not so much as outwardly called, how can they beleeve that Christ died for them, specially, when by transgression they have departed from that Covenant, and fallen from that state unto which (they say) they were admitted. Neither can this perswasion be the ground of faith justifying, for many ungodly men are perswaded that Christ died for all mankind, that neither will, nor can, nor ought as such, to beleeve in Christ, or rest upon him for Salvation: and many beleeve it not, that beleeve truly in Christ, and know they beleeve and that they ought to beleeve. If by beleeving in Christ be meant faith justifying, the proposition may be granted with two limitations. First, that under this terme they be not comprehended, who never heard of Christ, or had possible, at least probable meanes to come to the knowledge of Christ, or were admitted into Covenant. So Vorstius seemes to limit it, unlesse (saith he) Christ had died for all that are called, in vaine should they all be commanded to beleeve in him. The Authours of the Synod. cap de Election. A Law not given, or when it cannot be understood, doth not bind: Whosoever is bound to beleeve in Christ, must have the rule of new life, which is the Covenant; which was purchased by the blood of the Mediatour, as they dispute. And then he which is not in Covenant, nor ever had the rule of new life, how should he be bound to beleeve in Christ? The second caution is, that he that goeth on in an evill way, and maketh a pastime of sinne, is not called immediately to beleeve in Christ, nor hath received grace sufficient as such a man, to rest upon him for Salvation. Before they will or can come unto Christ,


text: Author:Albert Lee (1868-1946)

title: Author:Albert Lee (1868-1946)


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 away, some idea of the profundity of space is made manifest.

The following symbols are used in the diagrams:

◯ The outlined circle to indicate the double stars,

+ The cross to indicate the position of the nebule.

░ The group of dots to show the location of the star clusters.

The following abbreviations appear in the text:

A., Angle; D., Distance; H., Herschel; Mg., Magnitude; M., Messier; Σ, Wm. Struve; ΟΣΣ, Poulkova Catalogue, Part II; P., Piazzi Smyth; ΟΣ, Otto Struve.

In the compilation of this book I desire to acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr. Garrett P. Serviss, the author of The Moon and Pleasures of the Telescope, These books have been a positive inspiration to me, and the student is urged to include them in his collateral reading.

Mr. Serviss, than whom no one has done more to popularize the charming study of the stars, has the wonderful gift of imparting knowledge through the medium of a style that is altogether fascinating, and I take great pleasure in adding my mite of tribute to one who has afforded me through his numerous writings so many hours of unalloyed pleasure.

In preparing the list of objects suitable for observation, I derived much valuable information also from the following books:


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 through their narrow entrances smooth beaches of yellow sand, fenced inland by the forest of cotton-woods and palms, with here and there an elephantine baobab.

The first of these bays is called Pirate Bay, the next English Bay, and the third Kru Bay. The wooded hills of the Cape rise after passing Kru Bay, and become spurs of the mountain, 2,500 feet in height, which is the Sierra Leone itself. There are, however, several mountains here besides the Sierra Leone, the most conspicuous of them being the peak known as Sugar Loaf, and when seen from the sea they are very lovely, for their form is noble, and a wealth of tropical vegetation covers them, which, unbroken in its continuity, but endless in its variety, seems to sweep over their sides down to the shore like a sea, breaking here and there into a surf of flowers.

It is the general opinion, indeed, of those who ought to know that Sierra Leone appears at its best when seen from the sea, particularly when you are leaving the harbour homeward bound; and that here its charms, artistic, moral, and residential, end. But, from the experience I have gained of it, I have no hesitation in saying that it is one of the best places for getting luncheon in that I have ever happened on, and that a more pleasant and varied way of spending an afternoon than going about its capital, Free Town, with a certain Irish purser, who is as well known as he is respected among the leviathan old negro ladies, it would be hard to find. Still it must be admitted it is rather hot.

Free Town is situated on the northern base of the mountain, and extends along the sea-front with most business-like wharves, quays, and warehouses. Viewed from the harbour, "The Liverpool of West Africa," as it is called, looks as if it were built of gray stone, which it is not. When you get ashore, you will find that most of the stores and houses—the majority of which, it may be remarked, are in a state of acute dilapidation—are of painted wood, with corrugated iron roofs. Here and there, though, you will see a thatched house, its thatch


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"I request, good people, that you will listen to what I have to say. In the whole world there is no distress equal to that of an ox. In spring and summer, in autumn and winter, he diligently exerts his strength: during the four seasons there is no respite to his labours.

"I, an ox, drag the plow, a thousand


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 population of the countries which succeeded in retaining their former position, and they all became economically dependent upon America and were in a dependent position in a military way all through the war, for the war took possession of the entire world. It allowed no country to remain really neutral. And we finally have no more that two hundred and fifty millions of population of countries in which, of course, only those at the top, the capitalists, have benefited by the division of the world. All this makes up nearly one and three quarters billion, the entire population of the earth.

I would like to remind you of this picture of the world, of the basic contradictions of capitalism, of imperialism which led to the revolution, the basic contradictions in the labour movement which brought. us to the most cruel struggle with the Second International referred to by the Chairman—all this is connected with the division of the population of the world.

Of course it is only as a basic outline that these figures illustrate the economic picture of the world, and, comrades, it is natural that due to such division of the population of the entire world, the exploitation of financial capital, of capitalistic monopolies has increased many times. Not only colonial defeated countries are reduced to the position of dependents, but within each victorious country more acute contradictions have developed—all capitalistic contradictions have become accentuated. Here are a few examples.

Take the national debts. We know that from 1914 to 1920 they have increased in the most important European states no less than seven fold. I shall cite one more economic source which is now becoming particularly important. It is Keynes, the British diplomat, the author of the book: „The Economic Consequences of the Peace“ who by the instructions of his government participated in the Versailles Peace Negotations, who observed them directly from a purely bourgeois view-point, who studied the matter in detail step by step, who, as an economist, participated in the conferences. He arrived at conclusions which are stronger, clearer, more instructive than any conclusion of a Communist, a revolutionist, for the conclusions are made by an avowed bourgeois, by a merciless antagonist of Bolshevism, which, being an English petty bourgeois, he pictures to himself in a distorted, ferocious, beastly form. Keynes arrived at the


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15 Who—

And—

Okay.

I'll just provide some more rope. But, you know, even evidenced by this is a—breitbart.com ran a story saying I was a speaker. And I don't know when that article came out and I didn't talk to Breitbart about that article, so I had every belief to believe that I was a speaker at the Ellipse event.

Who was the Trump campaign staffer that you were just referencing?

The Trump campaign official that I was just representing was Caroline Wren.

Who is Ms. Caroline Wren?

Caroline is a political consultant. She, you know, I don't know like, you know, what her official titles were. I knew that she was a fundraiser. And I knew that she either had the Trump campaign, or PAC, or we all—I work in politics, I guess you guys work in government, but when we say someone works for something, we could be talking about a larger collection of entities, whether it is, like, a joint fundraising committee, or a PAC, or a campaign. So during it, Caroline Wren was working with the President's son and Kimberly Guilfoyle to do fundraising, and was the person who initially reached out and said she reached out on behalf of, let's call it Trump world, and wanted to unite these events.

What role did Ms. Wren represent to you? What washer role that she represented to you? Did she say I'm part of the Trump campaign?

That was 12 months ago—or that was, like, 11 months and 2 weeks ago or so. So I wouldn't be able to recall specifically. What I believe, you know, based off my best recollection that I colloquially called her in my internal communications with people and on conference calls and stuff like that that she was with the Trump campaign. So I


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16 can't—if I said something else, you know, that's possible. If it was more detailed, but—but just on the record.

So just, it was your understanding at this time in January that Ms. Caroline Wren was part of the Trump campaign. Is that fair to say?

What's fair to say is that Caroline Wren represented greater access to the decisionmakers in Trump world, in Trump world it could be the RNC, it could be the Trump campaign, it could be the joint fundraising committee, with any number of entities. And again, just out of the abundance of caution, because you know, I wasn't asked to volunteer my testimony. I'm here under subpoena. And I know you guys have got a job do. And I know that there's been some, you know, adversarial accusations about me, but you know I would love to nail it more down for you, but I think that's what I can give you.

So it was Ms. Wren who asked you to speak at the Ellipse on January 6th, to the best of your recollection?

To the best of my recollection.

Okay. You mentioned that Ms. Wren worked with President Trump's son and Ms. Kimberly Guilfoyle. Can you please elaborate more on that working relationship for us?

No. But if you have a specific question, I couldn't because I wasn't with them.

What did she represent to you. How was she working with the President's son and Ms. Kimberly Guilfoyle?

Well, what's been widely recorded is that she works in a fundraising capacity officially with Kimberly Guilfoyle. And I think it was either RNC part-time and Trump campaign part-time or something like that, you know, consultants we're allowed to have


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17 a lot of hats. But, you know, you have like different guidance memos and firewalls. So if I represented anything more to you, I would be speculating. But—and then obviously, as I understand the President's son, you know, was at a lot of these events. I don't know that he was a contractor getting paid for his work. He's obviously a surrogate for his father.

Which son, just so we're clear?

Donald Trump, Jr.

So I just want to make sure I'm understanding this correctly. You understood Ms. Wren's role with Ms. Kimberly Guilfoyle and Mr. Donald Trump, Jr. based upon public reporting. Is that true?

We certainly had a conversation about it.

Okay.

But I can't recall it 12 months later.

Got it.

I'm sorry.

Oh, no worries. No worries at all.

So in your view, who was in charge of the January 6th event at the Ellipse? For example, was it Stop the Steal? Was it the White House? Was it Women for America First? Who was in charge of that event?

Could you clarify what you mean by in charge?

Who was responsible for the decisionmaking of the January 6th event at the Ellipse?

You know, I've done 15 years of political organizing, and I've been doing events since, I think, 2010, I think 2010. I did help the RNC in 2008, but—I don't want to be coy, but coalition-type events, the decision tree it really depends on what silo of the


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18 event you're kind of talking about, what aspect you're talking about.

Different people have different expertises, different people have different personalities, different people are in a different pecking order in life, you know. And so—so again, if you ask me, your first question is, who was in charge, it would be speculative far me to say something. And it would be a characterization that is subjective, and probably categorizes more than what you guys should actually want. You guys should want a more detailed probing into the event, and a general answer like that I don't think would—it would just require my speculation and not serve the purpose.

Soon the morning of January 6th, who did you understand made the decision that you would not speak?

I'm trying to relive that moment real quick.

Take your time.

So here's my best memory, if I could walk you through it. I arrive to the Ellipse event in a golf cart, permitted golf cart. There is feuding at the VIP tables. I have a very strong personality, and online, I represent myself very aggressively. But anyone who knows me, knows that I'm generally a peacemaker, a dealmaker, a coalition builder. And I bring a variety of people together, and there's press reports that accuse me of, like, even of White supremacy and stuff like—it is frankly bizarre some of the things I get accused of because I'm actually a big tent guy.

And so, I remember helping to contribute to squash that beef. And I did so with my reputation as the founder of Stop the Steal. So that's the authority I was using.

And so, in a situation like that, imagine this, there are people who have physical badges. Okay, so is that person in charge? There is a decisionmaker somewhere. There is same one who gave them the badges. And then there's me, you know, who is saying, I really don't care right now, this needs to work this way.


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 conclusion that Europe and the whole world with it is, as a consequence of the Versailles peace, approaching bankruptcy. Keynes resigned, threw his book in the face of his government, and said: „You are committing an insane act.“ I shall give you his figures which, in general, reduce themselves to the following.

What are the relative national debts of the chief powers? I express it in gold roubles, taking ten roubles as the equivalent of a pound sterling, and here is what we get: the United States have to their credit nineteen thousand million roubles and no indebtedness to other countries. Before the war, it was in debt to England. Comrade Levy at the last congress of the Communist Party of Germany, held April 14, 1920, justly stated in his report that only two countries remained which stand forth in the world as independent powers, Great Britain and America. Only America appears, in regard to finances, as an absolutely independent country. It was a debtor country before the war, now it is the only creditor. All the other powers of the world are in debt. Great Britain has reached the position in which she has seventeen thousand million roubles to her debit and eight thousand million roubles to her credit. She is already fifty per-cent in debt. Besides, her credit account includes six thousand millions owed to her by Russia. The military supplies which during the war were received by Russia, are reckoned on the credit side of Great Britain. Recently, when comrade Krassin in his Capacity as representative of the Russian Soviet Government had occasion to speak with Lloyd George about an agreement with regard to repayment of loans, he made it strikingly clear to the savants and politicians, to the leaders of the British Government, that, if they expect to collect the debts too, they are greatly mistaken. And this mistake was already revealed by the British diplomat Keynes.

The question is not only, or not at all, that the Russian Government does not wish to pay the debts. No government could pay them, for these debts are the usurers' profits on what has already been paid twenty times. The same bourgeois Keynes, who has no sympathy whatever for the revolutionary movement, says: „It is self understood that these debts cannot be paid.“

Concerning France, Keynes gives the following figures: her credit account equals three and half billions, while her debit account equals ten and a half billions. And this is a country of which the Frenchmen themselves say that she is


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19 Anyway, I wanted to describe that microcosm event to you so that you could understand what would take place when we finally got into the rally. So we got through the Secret Service. They are running the metal detectors. We walked through a muddy field. We walked past the press. And then the VIP seating section I can't recall, but  I want to recall. I don't know when, because I went out and in several times, but there might have been a hold-up initially again, because people are trying to decide is this the Stop the Steal event? Is this the Women for America First? Is this a Trump event? Is this a TP USA event? You know, and this is a lot of egos and personalities.

Anyway, as we make it through there, I immediately make a B line towards the front to see if there's a seating chart, because the seats that you can immediately see there is no seating chart. When we walk up there we finally see a seating chart, and I'm really happy with my seat, obviously. You know, and then I find Caroline Wren to thank her. And ask her when I'm speaking. And she said, don't get me started. And that's what I recall her saying. That's my best recollection. And I said, that's not an answer. And I actually need an answer because I'm going to go speak. And I haven't prepared a speech, okay? None of my speeches over the 60-plus days of Stop the Steal, to my recollection, were prepared, none of them, okay. And the Ellipse wasn't going to be any different. And because I wanted more people to speak from the Stop the Steal coalition I actually was going to take 3 to 5 minutes.

So then I'm informed that the police were called on Caroline Wren by Tyler Kramer, and this is—you guys haven't asked this, and my lawyer is probably, like, what are you doing, but I'm thinking, this is kind of a brain fart moment. This is a Trump campaign official, wearing Trump gear, who is the only reason this event exists, and has done great work, and has been a peacemaker, and delivered on the goods. She


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20 delivered the President, you know, that's a big, that's a big deal. And you're telling me that a PAC or a (c)(4) or whatever of people who I have been friends with, you know, prior to November for a decade through, you know, thick and thin, that they called the police on her. Okay. I'm trying to figure out why are you still here? What authority do they have to call the police? I do know the permit's in their name, but that's is kind of like a placeholder. And what does Don, Jr. think about this? What does Kimberly think about this, you know?

And so a—so I'm trying to figure out whether I'm being played by Caroline, or whether I got, you know, screwed over for lack of a better term by Kylie and Amy Kremer, because they are the permit holder and they have a legal—so the National Park Service has a legal obligation to service the name on the permit.

And so, I actually press her for more answers, because I need to figure out what the heck is going on because there's a lot of people who look to me to tell them what then they are going to. Activist Scott Pressler and other people. And so, again, my best recollection from an event that's 11 months ago, but this was obviously a moment that really pissed me off. And, you know, it is kind of playing itself out now.

So then she proceeds to tell me that the National Park Service or police or whatever got called, they showed up, they did try to kick her out. They decided not to, and that she was avoiding it. And it is probably best just to be a team player, Ali. And I felt taken advantage of. And not by Trump, and not by the Trump campaign, and not by Caroline. It just looked like more drama. And, you know, I said, Well, what about my other speakers? Because I can understand if somebody has some personal vendetta against me, what about the others? And I was told, no, we have no control. So then I say, okay, well if it this is kind of a federated decision-making process—and I hope in this answer you can see why I didn't invade your previous answer. I am just describing like


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 the world's banker, for her „savings“ were enormous. Her colonial and financial plunder, making up a colossal sum gave all the possibility of lending thousands upon thousands of millions, especially to Russia. These loans gave her a gigantic income. But in spite of all that, in spite of her victory, France has got into the position of a debtor.

An American bourgeois source referred to by Comrade Brown, a Communist, in his book „Who should pay the war debts“ (Leipzig 1920) gets forth the relation of the debts to the national property as follows: In the victorious countries, in England and in France, the debts form more than 50%, of the national property, in Italy from 60–70%, and in Russia the national debts make up 90% of the national property. But, as you know, those debts do not trouble us, for we have somewhat anticipated Keynes and have followed his very good advice. We have annulled the debts. (Loud applause).

Keynes, however, demonstrates the usual philistine peculiarity: in giving his advice of annulling all debts he says that France, of course, would only gain by it and England would lose a very little, for there is nothing to be taken from Russia any way. America, Keynes goes on, would lose a good deal but Keynes relies on „American generosity“. In this respect we will have to differ with Keynes and the other bourgeois pacifists. We are of the opinion that the annulment of debts has nothing to do with the generosity of the capitalists, but something else is to be expected, and work most be done in quite another direction.

The figures above. referred to are indicative of the fact that the imperialist war has made conditions unbearable even for the victorious countries. This is also manifested by the enormous difference between wages and the rise of prices. The „Supreme Economic Council“, which is an institution protecting the bourgeois regime of the world against the growing revolution passed a resolution on March 8th of this year which concludes with an appeal for thrift, orderliness and effort, having in mind, of course, that the working men will remain the slaves of the capitalists.

This Supreme Economic Council being an institution of the Allies, representing the capitalists of the world, gives the following figures: in the United States of America prices have risen on the average one hundred and twenty percent, while wages have gone up only one hundred percent. In England prices have risen one hundred and seventy per-


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 cent, and wages only one hundred and thirty percent. In France the rise of prices amounts to three hundred per cent and the rise in wages two hundred per cent. In Japan prices have gone up one hundred and thirty percent, and the wage increase has been sixty per cent. I here set the figures given by comrade Brown in his work above referred to against the figures of the „Supreme Economic Council“ taken from the „Times“ of March 10th 1920.

It is clear that under such conditions the indignation of the workers, the growth of revolutionary tendencies and ideas, and the growth of spontaneous mass strikes are inevitable. For the living conditions of the working people have become unendurable. They have convinced themselves that the capitalists have made excessive profits on the war and shift the expenses and the debts on the shoulders of the working people. Recently we have received a telegraph report that America is about to deport to us into Russia five hundred or more Communists to rid herself of „dangerous agitators“.

Should America send us not only five hundred but five hundred thousand Russian, American, Japanese, and French „agitators“ matters would not change, for the disproportion between prices and wages will still remain and nothing can be done for them. They cannot help that disproportion because private property with them is being carefully guarded. They consider it as sacred. It must not be forgotten that only Russia has done away with the private property of the exploiters. The capitalists can do nothing to change this discrepancy between prices and wages, and the workers cannot live under the old wage scheme. None of the old methods can alleviate this misery. No single strike, no parliamentary struggle, no voting can do anything with it, for „private property is sacred“ and the capitalists have accumulated such amounts of it that the whole world is dominated by a handful of men. At the same iimetime [sic], the living conditions of the workers are becoming harder and harder to bear. There is no way out except by abolishing „private property“ of the exploiters.

Comrade Lalinsky in his brochure „England and the World Revolution“, from which our „Vestnik of the People's Commissarat for Foreign Affairs“ of February 1920 publishes valuable extracts, points out that export prices on coal in England have proved two hundred per cent greater than those anticipated by official industrial experts.

In Lancashire matters have come to such a state that the value of shares has been quoted four hundred percent and


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Robert A. Fein, Ph.D., is a Psychologist for the U.S. Secret Service, U.S. Department of the Treasury. Bryan Vossekuil is Deputy Special Agent in Charge, Intelligence Division, U.S. Secret Service. This project was supported by the National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice, under award number 92–IJ–CX–0013, and by the U.S. Secret Service, U.S. Department of the Treasury.

The findings, conclusions, and opinions expressed in this document are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice or the U.S. Department of the Treasury.


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Rh

The U.S. Secret Service is committed to providing a safe environment for each public official it is entrusted to protect. To accomplish this mission, it has developed comprehensive protective programs. The U.S. Secret Service believes that threat assessment and protective intelligence are important aspects of these protection efforts. The purpose of U.S. Secret Service threat assessment and protective intelligence activities is to identify, assess, and manage persons who might pose a threat to those we protect, while the goal of these activities is to prevent assassination attempts.

In carrying out its protective responsibilities, including threat assessment, the U.S. Secret Service works closely with State and local law enforcement agencies. The cooperation, information, and assistance provided through this relationship play a major role in assisting the U.S. Secret Service in fulfilling its responsibilities. At the same time, the U.S. Secret Service has searched for opportunities to further partnerships with State and local police agencies and increase knowledge across all levels of law enforcement.

During the past several years, with the support of the National Institute of Justice and the cooperation of the Federal Bureau of Prisons, the U.S. Secret Service conducted an operational study of the thinking and behavior of the 83 persons known to have attacked or come close to attacking prominent public officials and figures in the United States during the past 50 years. This study, the Exceptional Case Study Project, was recently completed; its findings are leading the U.S. Secret Service to refine and improve its approaches to preventing assassination attempts.

One major product of the Exceptional Case Study Project is this guide, which represents the U.S. Secret Service's efforts to share what it has learned about protective intelligence and threat assessment with State and local law enforcement officials who have iii


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 a minimum banking income has been from forty to fifty percent. It must be pointed out in this connection that banking officials in defining the income of the bank know how to hide the greatest part of it under various disguises, calling it not straight income, but gifts, bonusses, etc. so that indiscutable economic facts show that a small handful of men have enriched themselves enormously, that the extreme luxury they live in passes all limits, while the poverty of the working classes continually increases.

One must also point out in particular that circumstance which comrade Levy has so clearly demonstrated in his report referred to above: I have in mind the change in the value of money. Money has everywhere lost its value owing to indebtedness, the issue of paper currency, etc. The same bourgeois force, to which I have already referred, namely the declaration of the „Supreme Economic Council“ of March 8th 1920 states, that the lowering of money values, taking the dollar as a unit, equals approximately one third; in France and in Italy two thirds, and in Germany it reaches ninety six percent.

This fact shows that the mechanism of capitalist economy has broken down entirely. Those commercial relationships on which under capitalism the getting of raw material and the sale of finished product depend can be continued no longer; they cannot be continued by way of subjecting a number of countries to any one country owing to the value of money. The very richest country cannot exist, cannot carry on trade because she cannot sell her finished products and cannot get any raw materials.

Thus it is that America the richest country, dominating all others, can neither sell nor buy. The very same Keynes, who had gone through all the intricacies of the Versailles negotiations is compelled to admit that such is the case in spite of all affirmed determinations to defend capitalism, in spite of all his hatred for bolshevism. By the way it appears to me, that no Communist or revolutionary appeal could rival in force of argument those pages of Keynes where he pictures Wilson and Wilsonism in reality. Wilson was the idol of middle class pacifists of the type of Keynes, and a number of heroes of the Second International and even of the „second and a half“ International, who worshipped the „fourteen points“, and have even written „learned books“ on the „roots of Wilson's policy“, hoping that Wilson is going to save the „social world“ to reconcile the exploiters and the


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A. Introduction (C)

Although Czechs and Slovaks are of common Slavic ethnic and linguistic background, they differ in their cultural and institutional heritages. The Czechs, who inhabit the traditional areas of Bohemia and Moravia, have a rich cultural tradition and have long remained in the mainstream of central European development linked to Western Europe. As one of the chief industrial centers of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Czech Lands were much more economically developed than the eastern part of the country inhabited by the Slovaks who comprise slightly less than a third of the total population. Under the control of the Magyar part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Slovaks, in contrast to the Czechs, have traditionally been an agriculturally oriented society. Industrialization in their area has been more recent and far less extensive than in the western regions.

Despite a rapid transformation of Czechoslovakia's social structure and a remolding of its political, economic, and cultural institutions on the Soviet pattern, Czechoslovak society remains culturally part of the West. The highly centralized and authoritarian regime imposed on the Czechoslovaks in 1948 is alien to the traditional political and cultural aspirations of the nation. By a combination of resignation and passive resistance, developed through centuries of foreign political domination, the Czechoslovaks have learned to accommodate themselves to the demands of a superior power but to maintain their intellectual and national integrity. This enduring national trait has been personified in Jaroslav Hasek's "Good Soldier Schweik," a fictional hero who, as a conscript in the Austro-Hungarian Army, frustrates the will of his superiors by feigning obedience, insolence, and stupidity.

As they move into the mid-1970's, the Czechoslovaks appear to be striking an uneasy modus vivendi with the regime of Gustav Husak, following a stormy period of reform and rebellion that began in the 1960's and, after a "thaw" in the spring of 1968, ended in August of the same year with the dashing of hopes for political, economic, and social reform by a Soviet-led Warsaw Pact invasion of the country. A year later, the liberal and popular leader of the reform movement, Alexander Dubcek, was replaced by Gustav Husak, a leader acceptable to the Soviets. In late 1973, the Husak regime, after purging liberal and pro-Dubcek elements, was easing political and social controls imposed after the downfall of Dubcek. Limited improvements in living levels also were working to stabilize the society, although shortfalls in economic life still gave Czechoslovakia much to grumble about. The new mode of moderation was nevertheless very evident and a normalization of life seemed to suggest that the population was prepared to accept the current Soviet-dominated regime and get on with the task of improving their quality of life as best they could under the circumstances.

B. Structure and characteristics of the society (U/OU)

1. Ethnic makeup

Czechs and Slovaks, two closely related western Slavic peoples, make up about 95% of the population of Czechoslovakia. The Czechs, constituting about 65%, are the largest ethnic group; the Slovaks, with about 30%, are the next largest. The Czechs inhabit the so-called Czech Lands (Bohemia and western Moravia), their home since the time of the massive migration of Slavic tribes into eastern and central Europe in the sixth century. The Slovaks inhabit Slovakia, their home since the sixth century, as well as parts of eastern Moravia.

Czechoslovakia's ethnic minority problems were for the most part eliminated after World War II, following population exchanges with Germany and Hungary and the cession of Ruthenia, with its Ukrainian population, to the U.S.S.R. Czechoslovakia's minorities today make up only about 5% of the population in contrast to almost 40% during the 1930's. At the beginning of 1973, Hungarians (numbering some 582,000) constituted the largest minority followed by Germans (80,000), Poles (68,000), and Ukrainians and Russians (59,000). The

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"Half a month has already elapsed since we saw each other. The weeds and thorns in my heart, are growing rapidly. The odour of your illustrious virtue, yet, however, as my girdle and vest, hands about me.

As for me, I am rustic and destitute of ability. I learn with difficultly, the menial art of handling a whip. I only


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 God, but asserts something about ourselves, men, about something which is best known to us, and asserts it obviously contrary to reality. It was possible to refute with proofs of common sense that God the Spirit has fourteen attributes, and so forth, for the attributes of God are not known to us, but there is no need to refute with proofs of common sense the argument that by the incarnation and death of Jesus Christ the human race was redeemed, that is, is freed from the propensity to commit sin, from the dimming of the intellect, from child labour, from physical and spiritual death, and from the unfruitfulness of the earth. In this case there is not even any need to show that none of the things asserted exist, for everybody knows that. All of us know full well that they do not exist, that men are evil, die, and do not know the truth, that women suffer in child labour, and that men earn their bread in the sweat of their brows. To prove the incorrectness of this teaching would be the same as proving that he is wrong who asserts that I have four legs. The assertion made by a man that I have four legs can only cause me to look for the cause which may have led a man to assert what is palpably wrong. The same is true of the dogma of the redemption. It is obvious to all that after the so-called redemption by Jesus Christ no change took place in the condition of man; what cause has, then, the church to assert the opposite? That is a question which involuntarily presents itself to one. The dogma is based on original sin. But the dogma itself about original sin, as we have seen, is a transference of the question about good and evil from a sphere which is accessible to the inward experience of each man to the sphere of mythology.

The most mysterious foundation of human life,—the internal struggle between good and evil, the consciousness of man’s freedom and dependence on God,—is, by the doctrine about the redemption, excluded from the con-


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70 fear that by approaching your illustrious steps, I shall trespass, and dishonour you."

"Ten days have elapses since I had the privilege of listening to your able instructions. Ere I was aware, I found my heart filled and choked with noxious weeds. Perhaps I shall have to thank you, for favouring me with an epistle, in which I know your words will flow, limpid as the streams of pure water: then shall I instantly see the nature of things and have my heart opened to understand."

"We have long been far separated from each other: not a day passes but my spirit flies and hovers at your right and left. I consider with myself, whether or not, my virtuous elder brother's heart, yet ruminates on me his old friend."


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 sciousness of man and transferred to mythological history. What is said is: 7,200 years ago God created the free Adam, that is, man, and this man fell on account of his freedom and so God punished him and punished his posterity. The punishment consisted in this, that the men so punished were placed in the same position, in regard to the choice of good and evil, in which man had been before the punishment. Thus this teaching, which explains nothing in the essential question about the freedom of man, slanderously accuses God of injustice, which is so out of keeping with his goodness and justice. This injustice is, that the descendants are punished for somebody else’s sin. If the teaching about the fall explained anything to us, we might be able to understand the rational cause which has led to the transference of the question from the inner consciousness to the sphere of myths; but there are no explanations for the question about the freedom of man, and so there must be some other cause for it. This cause we only now find in the dogma of the redemption.

The church asserts that Christ has redeemed men from evil and death. If he has done so, there arises the question: Whence comes evil and death among men? And for this the dogma of the fall of man is invented. Christ the God has saved men from evil and death; but men are creatures of the same good God, so how could evil and death have come to men? To this question the myth of the fall of man gives an answer. Adam, having misused his freedom, did wrong and fell, and with him his posterity fell and lost immortality, the knowledge of God, and life without labour. Christ came and returned to humanity all that it had lost. Humanity became unailing, unworking, doing no evil, and undying. In this imaginary state humanity is already freed from sin, suffering, labour, and death, if only it believes in the redemption. It is this that the church teaches, and in this


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68 life, be transformed, each of them, into an ox, like me."

Believe and act according to the above: engrave and publish it; hence your merits and your virtue will be boundless.


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 exploited, and bring about social reforms. Keynes clearly showed how Wilson has proved a simpleton and how all his illusions have gone to the winds, as soon as they came in contact with the actual businesslike policy of capital in the person of Clemenceau and Lloyd George. The working masses guided by their own life experience see more and more clearly that the „roots“ of the Wilson policy are nothing but clerical humbug, middle class phraseology and utter incomprehension of the class struggle, while the learned pedants could have learnt the same thing even from the book of Keynes.

All this leads to two inevitable conclusions, two fundadamentalfundamental [sic] propositions: on the one hand the privation and the ruination of the masses have increased incredibly. This refers above all to the one and a quarter billions of people i. e. 70% of the population of the earth. These are the countries whose population is dependent, juridically deprived of all rights, and whose „mandates“ have been given to some financial brigands. Besides thissthis [sic], the enslavement of the defeated countries has been established by the Versailles treaty, and by those secret treaties with regard to Russia, which stipulate that we owe them so many thousands of millions. The latter treaties, it is true, are sometimes worth no more than the paper they are written on. The above represents the first time in the history of the world, when the plunder, dependence, slavery, poverty and starvation of a billion and a quarter of people has been set up as a legalised thing.

On the other hand the workers of each of the victorious countries have got into an unbearable position. All capitalist contradictions have become unusually acute as a result of the war. And this furnishes the ferment for the profound revolutionary movement which is constantly growing. For during the war people have been put under military discipline, sent to death, or menaced with immediate military punishment. War conditions made it impossible to examine economic reality. Writers, poets, priests and all the press have devoted themselves only to apologising for the war. Now when the war is over the exposure begins. German imperialism was exposed by the Brest-Litovsk peace. Likewise the veil was taken off the Versailles peace, which was to have been a victory for imperialism, but has proved its defeat. The Keynes case shows among other things, how tens and hundreds of thousands of people from the ranks of the petty bourgeoisie, from the intellectuals


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66 pound weight, fastened to my shoulders. Hundreds and thousands of lashes are, by a leathern whip, inflicted upon me. Curses and abuse in a thousand forms, are poured upon me. I am driven with threatenings rapidly along, and not allowed to stand still. Through the dry ground or the deep water, I with difficulty drag the plow. With an empty belly, the tears flow from my eyes. I hope in the morning, that I shall be early released; but who does not know that I am detained till the evening? If with a hungry belly I eat the grass in the midst of the field, the whole family, great and small, insulting abuse me. I am left to any species of herb, amongst the hills, but you, my master, yourself receive the grain that is sown in the field. Of the Chen Paddy, you make rice, of the No Paddy, you make wine. You have cotton, wheat, and herbs, of a thousand different kinds. Your garden is full of vegetables. When your men and women marry, amidst all your felicity, if there be a want of money, you let me out to others. When pressed for the payment of duties, you devise no


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Author:Zelda Kahan

Works

 * Karl Marx: His Life and Teaching (1918)
 * The Life and Work of Friedrich Engels (1920)

title: Author:Zelda Kahan


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Rh plans, but take and sell the ox, that plows your field. When you see that I am old and weak, you sell me to the butcher to be killed. The butcher conducts me home and soon strikes me in the forehead with the head of an iron hatchet, after which, I am left to die in the utmost distress. My skin is peeled off, and my bones scraped:—but when was I their enemy? When men in life are greatly distressed, I apprehend that it is in consequence of having before neglected virtue. My belly is ripped open, and my bowels taken out; my bones also are taken; the sharp knife scrapes my bones, and cuts my throat. These who sell me, do not grow rich; those who eat me, do not grow fat; those who kill me, are most decidedly bad men. They take my skin to cover the drum by which the country is alarmed, and the gods are grieved. If they continue to kill me, in time there will not be oxen to till the ground, and your children and grand-children must use the spade. I am fully persuaded after mature consideration, that the wicked persons who kill oxen, will, in the next


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Rh the same Pada, when it reoccurs within the verse, always retains the same form, or to be more precise, remains indistinguishable in any of its considered equivalent forms. Only towards the end of the Rigveda period does a differentiation of forms develop, and different forms are attributed to the same Pada depending on its location within the verse.

The question of the prehistory that led to the generally described Vedic state of metrical composition with its peculiar blend of definiteness and indefiniteness does not seem entirely devoid of prospects for an answer. One should, above all, follow the traces indicated by the study of Avesta literature. When comparing the poetry of the Avesta with the Indian, in terms of content, expression, and overall character, one cannot help but notice the recurring details that suggest a shared tradition of Indo-Iranian religious poetry, not only pointing to the historical commonalities of the two peoples and their religions but also to a shared tradition of Indo-Iranian religious poetry, developed in fixed forms. Whether one regards the attempts to trace a common possession of metrical forms back to the distant past of the Indo-European period as acts of legitimate scientific daring or as futile audacity is a matter of judgment; however, the question of the nature of Indo-Iranian poetry undoubtedly falls within the bounds of permissible and necessary inquiry. Especially from the perspective of Avestan research, the


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6 connection between the metrical patterns of the Avesta and the fundamental forms of Vedic metrics has been recognized and emphasized. The eight-syllable series connected in three, four, or fivefold repetition to form verses corresponds to the Gayatri, Anushtubh, and Pankti of the Veda. The fourfold eight-syllable series with a caesura after the fourth syllable corresponds to the Trishtubh. Thus, it is the fixed number of syllables in the series, the caesura, and the stanzaic connection of the series into verses that demonstrate the similarity between the Veda and Avesta. Regarding the metrical and rhythmic structure of the individual lines, we lack a solid basis for a more detailed comparison. In the Avesta, as is well known, syllables in the line are simply counted without a consistent regulation of long and short syllables. Consequently, we lack direct clues to recognize the rhythm, which must have existed in Avestan verses to some extent. But, if we focus primarily on the syllable count and quantity, the presented facts, as Westphal's keen insight has not missed, strongly suggest that the metrical art of the Indo-Iranian era occupied the same position preserved in the Avesta, one of the straightforward juxtaposition of a fixed number of syllables with indifferent quantity. In fact, it seems that even without its Iranian counterpart, Vedic metrics would likely return to this position as an overcame relic of the past. For instance, when we trace the historical development of the metrics of Trishtubh and Jagati, we can observe how, as we move from the earliest period and examine progressively younger periods, prosodic definiteness, at first limited to a specific segment of the verse, gradually expanded and gained more prominence. Thus, if we envision the same trend operating in the pre-Vedic period, we must assume that the starting point of this development is the state actually preserved in the Avesta,


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Rh initially confined to a limited area of the line, it continues to expand and gain more intensive prominence. Therefore, if we consider the same trend in the pre-Vedic period, we must assume that the starting point of development is the state actually preserved in the Avesta. Furthermore, when we examine the metrics of the Gayatri, the Veda itself presents two forms of the same underlying verse that have apparently evolved in different directions: two forms that only converge at the point of prosodic indifference indicated by the Avesta. However, if the statements made here are accurate, we should not attribute a highly pronounced or immutable character to the rhythm of Indo-Iranian versification. If it possessed these characteristics, the rhythmic variability observed in the opening of Vedic verses would likely not have developed. Similarly, the closing of verses, as we believe it to exist in the Gayatri, would probably not have been capable of dual rhythmic development in opposing directions. Syllable count and caesura, it seems, were the only determinants in the construction of these series that reached full maturity, which were perhaps only incompletely imbued with rhythmic vitality. Despite the gaps and uncertainties in our knowledge at this point, they do not cast doubt on the fundamental connection between Indian and Iranian versification. Thus, Vedic metrics, as the foundation of all subsequent Indian metrics, leads us back to distant periods of history from which generations of Indian poets have passed, and even further back


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Rh is now come; you may go." When the prince heard this, he was exceedingly glad, and immediately, having passed over the walls of the city, went to the midst of the hill Tan-te to cultivate reason. He at first remained three years at O-land and Kia-lan, where he found that they were unprofitable places. He was fully convinced that they were bad, and therefore he left them, and went to Yu-teu-lan-foe and remained three years. That place, also, he found extremely unfavourable to study; and being persuaded that it was bad, he left it, and went to Siang-teu hill, where he lived with other religionists who were not of his sect; with them he daily ate hempseed and wheat. Here he passed sixteen years. Hence the Classic says, "without having such intention; without pointing out [that it should be so] he completely subjected all the other religionists to himself. He first repeatedly tried their depraved arts, and then declared to them the square and expedient [the rule of doing that to others which we ourselves like.] He exhibited [to them] uncommon appearances,


text: 1855 The Annals and Magazine of Natural History/On the Law which has regulated the Introduction of New Species


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46 and commanded them to advance to goodness.

The book Pu-tsie says, "On the 8th day, of the second moon, when the bright stars appear, Pu-sa [the universal delivered,] in the time of was 30 years of age. It was the third year of king Mo, and the year of the cycle Kuei-wei. There, in the midst of the garden So-ye, to  five persons he communicated the four truths, and the law of returning in a circle [the metenpsychosis;] and he discoursed on reason and certain retribution." He remained in the world and spoke of his laws forty years. Afterwards he taught his pupil the honoured Mo-ho-kia-ye, saying,—

"The law of purity; the duty of trusting in the wonderful heart of Nie-puon, [he who sits cross-legged, the posture in which Foe is always represented,] the doctrine of real appearance and no appearance; the true and supremely excellent law, I now take and deliver to you. It is your's to preserve it. Do not say that it is distressing or difficult. You


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 responsibilities in the areas of physical protection or protective intelligence.

The U.S. Secret Service is pleased to join the National Institute of Justice in providing this information to our colleagues in the law enforcement and criminal justice communities. We believe that the ideas and information in the guide may assist persons and organizations responsible for preventing attacks on public officials and figures. We also hope that this information will be useful to other individuals and agencies working to prevent other forms of targeted violence, such as stalking, domestic violence, and workplace violence.

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Throughout our country's history, persons in the public spotlight have faced danger from others. Elected leaders, political figures, educators, musicians, authors—all have been threatened with attacks on their safety and, in some cases, their lives. In the past, often the only courses of action for threatened individuals were to hire private security, to use publicly provided protection (such as the U.S. Secret Service), and simply to be more aware of the dangers facing them.

In recent years, however, efforts have focused on more proactive prevention techniques—developing ways to identify and neutralize people who pose a threat to public officials and figures. The U.S. Secret Service, in its role as protector of the President and other U.S. and international officials, has pioneered these efforts. The U.S. Secret Service developed the field of threat assessment—the process of investigating and analyzing persons and groups who are interested in and capable of attacking public persons—not only to help it fulfill its mission but also to assist other Federal agencies and State and local law enforcement organizations.

Between 1992 and 1997, the U.S. Secret Service, assisted by the Federal Bureau of Prisons, participated in a collaborative project with the National Institute of Justice, studying assassins and would-be assassins of the past 50 years. The purpose of the Exceptional Case Study Project was to examine in detail the lives of assassins and would-be assassins to determine any common traits. Researchers felt that similarities of characteristics, thoughts, or behaviors among past assassins could be key in helping law enforcement officials better identify which persons could pose a present threat to public figures.

This guide is a product of these efforts; project researchers used the data gleaned from the Exceptional Case Study Project to devise a standard set of protocols and procedures for law enforcement and security agencies responsible for protecting public v


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was born on May 5th, 1818, at Treves. His father was a prominent Jewish lawyer and notary public at the County Court. He was a man of great talent, highly educated, and thoroughly imbued with the liberal progressive ideas of 18th century France. In 1824 a Prussian edict was issued commanding all Jews to be baptised on pain of forfeiting all official position. Although a freethinker, a disciple of Voltaire, the old Marx submitted, rather than give up his profession and thus bring ruin to his family. Karl Marx's mother was a Dutch Jewess of Hungarian descent, whose ancestors were Rabbis.

Karl soon showed great promise intellectually, and, fortunately, his parents were able to give him every encouragement and opportunity for cultural development.

His father read Racine and Voltaire to him, and early made him familiar with the French classics, whilst at the home of Ludwig von Westphalen, his future wife's father, he learnt to love Homer and Shakespeare. Karl Marx's deep sympathy with the working class and his revolutionary ardour were based on pure reasoning, insight and study; it was not in any way due, in the first instance, to mere sentiment, to class position, or personal suffering. Nevertheless, he was anything but the mere cold philosopher, the impersonal scientist, the detached dissector of history. As all his personal friends and his whole life testify, he was not, like Darwin, his contemporary, a mere specialist, but besides being a genius, he was an all-round human being with all the loves, desires, passions and weaknesses of the human being. It is interesting to note that his first literary efforts were poetry. His daughter Eleanor relates that "he was always loved and feared by his


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 persons and others vulnerable to targeted violence. The guide takes agencies through the entire threat assessment process, from designing a protective intelligence program to investigating suspicious persons to closing a case. The National Institute of Justice and the U.S. Secret Service hope that State and local law enforcement organizations and other criminal justice practitioners will find this guide useful as they work to prevent and deter those who would engage in violence such as stalking, workplace violence, or domestic violence.

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The authors wish to acknowledge the support of the National Institute of Justice, especially the guidance of Richard Rau, Ph.D., and the editorial support of the NIJ publications unit.

Staff from the Federal Bureau of Prisons assisted in obtaining records and interviewing study subjects. The authors especially thank Daniel Cowell, M.D.; Ruth Westrick-Connolly, M.D.; Sally Johnson, M.D.; Casey Skvorc; and staff at the Federal Medical Centers in Rochester, Minnesota, and Butner, North Carolina.

Many persons within the U.S. Secret Service supported the authors' efforts and contributed to the success of the Exceptional Case Study Project (ECSP). The authors especially thank Director Lewis C. Merletti; former Directors John R. Simpson and Eljay Bowron; Assistant Directors H. Terrence Samway, Michael Smelser, David Lee, and Stephen Sergek; Special Agents in Charge Jane Vezeris and Dale Wilson; Deputy Special Agent in Charge James Lucey; Special Agents Marty Allen, Steve Amico, Al Baker, John Berglund, Mike Garduno, Paul Gebicke, and George Sexton; Intelligence Research Specialist Chris Wallace; Research Section Chief Margaret Coggins, Ph.D.; Researchers Angela Macdonald and Joseph Gerston; Senior Intelligence Research Specialist Lynn Zimney; Archivist Michael Sampson; Supervisory Visual Specialist Ed Ross; and Visual Information Specialists Jeff Clemente, Bob Fulk, MacKenzie Kearney, and Patrick Nolan. A special note of thanks is due Assistant Director Sergek, who reviewed ECSP drafts and provided numerous comments.

Pamela Clark Robbins and Henry Steadman, Ph.D., of Policy Research Associates, Inc., provided incisive suggestions and key support at each stage of this project.

Shervert Frazier, M.D., provided invaluable information on violence that shaped the authors' understanding of assassination behaviors.

Gavin de Becker shared information and insights and made many helpful comments about an early draft of the guide. vii


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 because he was always ready for boyish pranks, and feared because he wrote cutting, satirical poetry and exposed his enemies to derision." All his life he remained passionately fond of poetry, art, and music. His favourite authors were Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, Cervantes, Balzac, Schedrin and Pushkin. He was the personal friend of all the German revolutionary poets of the time, Heine, Freiligrath and Weehrt, and not only inspired many of their revolutionary poems, but often helped Heine whilst they were together in Paris to polish off lines, every word in a poem sometimes being discussed between them until all was smooth and polished. Marx knew about half a dozen languages, could write literary French and English like a native, and was, moreover, deeply interested in the progress of science. Liebknecht relates how excited he became when the first electric engine was exhibited in July, 1850. Engels also emphasises the joy Marx always felt when a new discover was made in any sphere of theoretical science, although, he adds, this was not equal to what he felt when such a discovery could at once be applied to industry and thus contribute to the development of society. When Darwin's Origin of Species was published in 1859, and even before that, Marx at once recognised the epoch-making importance of Darwin's work, and for months in the circle of the German fugitives nothing was spoken of but Darwin.

We mention all this in order to show his universality and to refute the fairly prevalent idea that Marx was mere "dry-as-dust" economist. We shall speak later of his work, but we may here mention that whilst even Marx could not make the science of economics exactly easy, nevertheless even the more formal aspects of the subject are not treated in his work as drearily as by the older economists. whilst the historical sections of even "Capital" are so full of human sympathy and understanding, the illustrations are so apt, the sarcasm so natural and to the point, that no worker imbued with ordinary intelligence and a general elementary education need be afraid of tackling his works providing he has a certain power of concentration and determination to learn.


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 The authors also wish to thank several other people who reviewed early drafts of the guide, including Randy Borum, Psy.D., Frederick Calhoun, Ph.D., Michael Gelles, Psy.D., Chris Hatcher, Ph.D., Robert Kasdon, Paul Kelly, David Noznesky, Lieutenant Tom Taylor, and Patrick Wolfe. Their comments strengthened the guide.

The authors are grateful to Rita Premo of Aspen Systems Corporation for her editorial assistance.

Finally, the authors wish to acknowledge the contribution of Gwen Holden, who provided both enormous support and great expertise. Her vigorous and skillful editing helped shape the guide into a useful document for Federal, State, and local law enforcement and security professionals. viii


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 hreat assessment is a developing field pioneered by the U.S. Department of the Treasury's U.S. Secret Service, which is charged with protecting the President of the United States and other U.S. and foreign leaders. Threat assessment measures involve investigation and analysis of situations and individuals that may pose threats to persons in public life. In 1992, the Secret Service, in partnership with the National Institute of Justice and with assistance from the Federal Bureau of Prisons, began the Exceptional Case Study Project (ECSP), a 5-year study to examine the thinking and behavior of individuals who have attacked or approached to attack prominent public officials or figures in the United States since 1949.1 ECSP findings reveal general threat assessment information relating to attacks on public officials and figures, while suggesting that broader application of threat assessment protocols by Federal, State, and local law enforcement officials could help anticipate and prevent other crimes, such as stalking and workplace violence.

Drawing from project findings, this guide describes an approach to threat assessment and the protective intelligence investigative process that can be of assistance to Federal, State, and local law enforcement and security professionals with protective intelligence responsibilities. Though not intended to serve as an operations manual, the guide presents information and ideas about developing and implementing protective intelligence programs and activities. Information about the thinking and behavior of persons who have attacked or come close to attacking public officials and figures can help refine law enforcement operations related to preventing and investigating violence and threats of violence.

Assassination of political leaders and other public figures has been a significant problem in the United States. Since 1835, 11 attacks on U.S. presidents (4 of them resulting in the death of the President) have occurred. Since 1949, two attacks on Presidential candidates have been attempted, in addition to two attacks on Members of Congress, several assassinations of national political 3


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At 16 Marx entered the University of Bonn, and in 1836 he went to the Berlin University, in order, at the desire of his father, to study law, but he does not seem to have paid much attention to his studies. Philosophy interested him far more, and although his parents' hopes were disappointed, the world undoubtedly gained by the fact that the young Marx became an ardent student of philosophy, and joined the circle of the Berlin young Hegelians. There he made the acquaintance of much older men, such as Bruno Bauer and F. Köppens, who soon recognised the genius of the young student, although they were later to differ from him very materially. Already, at that time, his thirst for knowledge was inexhaustible and his capacity for work, self-criticism and attention to every detail which could clarify a philosophical or historical problem, was remarkable. In 1841 Marx obtained his doctorate, and thought of establishing himself at the University as lecturer of philosophy; but the experience of his friend Bauer, who was a private lecturer there, and had had no end of trouble with the authorities, soon convinced Marx that such a position would be untenable. The same year, however, the Rhenish liberal bourgeoisie founded a new opposition paper, the Rheinishe Zeitung, and although Marx was then only 24 years of age, he was made editor of the paper. His editorship was one continual fight with the censorship, "But," as Engels said, "the censorship could not get away with the Rheinishe Zeitung." Marx's great ability to win and dominate men already showed itself here. The censors allowed many a passage to go through that gave offence to the Berlin authorities. They were reprimanded and continually changed, but nothing availed, and finally the Government adopted the best and surest means of getting rid of the nuisance. They suppressed the Rheinishe Zeitung altogether. At the same time the embarrassment he found himself in when it was necessary to engage in controversy on so-called material interests, controversies on forest thefts, free trade, protection, etc., gave Marx the first impulse to study economic questions.


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 leaders, a number of attacks on State and local elected officials, several murders of Federal and State judges, and several wellpublicized attacks on celebrities and business leaders. These attacks do not include many other individuals who presented themselves as warranting serious concern. Each year, Federal, State, and local law enforcement officials and private security officers intercede with thousands of individuals who demonstrate inappropriate or unusual interest in a public official or figure. Some of these individuals were intercepted within lethal range of a target just before they attempted to mount an attack.

Although substantial academic literature on assassination exists, little has been written about the thinking and behavior of assailants who attempt attacks on prominent persons. For example, how do attackers select their targets? What are their motives? How do they plan their attacks? How do these persons assess the security barriers that face them? What communications, if any, do they make before their attacks? To what extent do symptoms of mental illness affect their actions?

Planned, targeted attacks are not confined to those involving prominent public officials and celebrities. Tragically, such attacks are a frequent feature of interpersonal violence in this country today. Cases involving stalking, domestic violence, workplace violence, and bias-motivated criminal activity involve planned— often violent—attacks on intentionally selected targets.

The study examined the thinking and behavior of all 83 persons known to have attacked or approached to attack a prominent public official or figure in the United States from 1949 to 1996. During this time period, 74 attacks and near-lethal approaches occurred.2 Six attacks were carried out by 16 individuals who were members of groups. Sixty-eight of the attacks and near-lethal approaches were carried out by 67 individuals acting alone. (One individual attacked two public figures.) Targets of these individuals included Presidents, other officials protected by the Secret Service, Members of Congress, Federal judges, prominent national political 4


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 leaders, State and city officials, business executives, and entertainment, sports, and media celebrities. (See exhibit 1.) All targets were selected because they were prominent persons.

All available criminal justice, court, social services, mental health, and public records were gathered and analyzed for each individual studied. Additionally, 24 of the 83 individuals were interviewed.

* Note: Total number was 74. Rh


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 ECSP information gathering and analysis focused on seven major questions:
 * How did these individuals develop the idea of assassination, and how did they move from the idea of assassination to lethal or near-lethal action?
 * What were the individuals' motives?
 * How did the individuals select their targets?
 * How did the individuals plan their attacks?
 * What communications, if any, did individuals make before their attacks or near-lethal approaches?
 * What role, if any, did symptoms of mental illness play in individuals' assassination behaviors?
 * Were there key life experiences or incidents that appeared to affect individuals' assassination interests or behaviors?

ECSP findings could be used to help law enforcement and security professionals throughout the United States reevaluate their methods of investigating assassinations and kidnapings, formulating protective strategies, and gathering protective intelligence. This guide describes the following:

 * Important information about assassins and assassination behaviors.
 * Elements of an effective protective intelligence system.
 * Specialized threat assessment investigations.

Law enforcement organizations, private security experts, and the potential targets of violent attacks spend considerable resources on personal protection measures such as enhancements in physical security; 24-hour-a-day physical protection for themselves, their home, and their office; and/or periodic protection. They also may include specialized personal safety training for potential targets. 6


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 Threat assessment or protective intelligence is the process of gathering and assessing information about persons who may have the interest, motive, intention, and capability of mounting attacks against public officials and figures. Gauging the potential threat to and vulnerability of a targeted individual is key to preventing violence. Among criminal justice functions, threat assessment holds great promise for determining vulnerability and guiding interventions in potentially lethal situations.

The primary goal of every protective intelligence investigation is to prevent an attack on a potential target. By using a combination of investigative skill, corroboration, and common sense, a protective intelligence investigator can gather the information and evidence to make a thoughtful assessment of the threat an individual may pose to a target. Once an assessment is made, a plan can be developed and implemented to monitor the individual and to intervene, as appropriate, to prevent an attack. Attention to the individual's motives and attack-related behaviors and to the systems (family, work, community, criminal justice, mental health, and social services) that the individual is involved with are key to assessing and managing a potential threat.

Building and maintaining the organizational capacity to conduct protective intelligence investigations at the Federal, State, and local levels takes careful conceptualization, planning, and oversight by experienced law enforcement and security agency managers. Once developed, a protective intelligence program will serve as a key component of a comprehensive protection program to prevent targeted violence. Rh


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 hree days after a Presidential candidate visited a small Southern city in September 1988, an anonymous letter writer ordered the candidate to drop out of the Presidential race. The letter stated that the writer had attended the candidate's rally with a gun and had stood within shooting range of the candidate. "I didn't shoot this time," said the letter. "I will the next." Enclosed with the letter were three photographs of the rally. Investigative analysis suggested that the photographer was standing within 100 feet of the candidate.

A receptionist in the Governor's office reported that a well-dressed man came to the office, gave his name, and demanded a meeting with the Governor. Asked why he wanted to see the Governor, the man stated, "If he won't meet with me by next Thursday, I will place him under arrest." The man then left the office.

A man called the police to report that a female tenant in his apartment building appeared to be "fixated" on a popular film actor. He said that when he was asked to fix a broken toilet in her apartment about a month ago, he noticed that the walls were covered with posters of the actor. The day before, another tenant had told him that the woman said that "X [the actor] and I will both be dead in a week." When the man read in the newspaper that X was scheduled to make an appearance at a benefit dinner in the city early the following week, he decided to contact the police.

These are examples of situations that come to the attention of Federal, State, and local law enforcement authorities and security managers. Any of these cases may present a risk to a target. The overwhelming majority of cases that come to law enforcement's attention do not result in attacks. But, a few cases do culminate in assassination attempts. Sometimes, individuals and groups attempt assassinations without becoming known to authorities before they attack.

Three prevalent beliefs about assassination exist in popular culture, largely unsupported by data that have been gathered and Rh


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 analyzed about attackers of public officials and figures in the United States. Critical thinking about assassination behaviors proves these beliefs to be myths.

Much has been written about profiles of assassins, but in reality there are no accurate descriptive or demographic profiles of American assassins, attackers, and near-lethal approachers. American assassins and attackers have been both men and women of various ages, educational backgrounds, employment histories, and other demographic and background characteristics.

ECSP findings about the histories and personal characteristics of attackers and near-lethal approachers include the following:

 * Their ages ranged between 16 and 73.
 * Almost half had attended college or graduate school.
 * They often had histories of mobility and transience.
 * About two-thirds were described as socially isolated.
 * Few had histories of arrests for violent crimes or for crimes that involved weapons.
 * Few had been incarcerated in Federal or State prisons before their attack or attempt to attack a public figure.
 * Most had histories of weapons use, but few had formal weapons training.
 * Many had histories of harassing other persons.
 * Most had histories of explosive, angry behavior, but only half of the individuals had histories of physically violent behavior.
 * Many had indicated their interest in attacking a public figure to someone else.


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 *They often had interests in militant or radical ideas and groups, though few had been members of such groups.
 * Many had histories of serious depression or despair.
 * Many were known to have attempted suicide or to have considered suicide at some point before their attack or near-lethal approach.
 * Almost all had histories of grievances and resentments, many directed against a public official or figure.

Although there is no such thing as an assassin profile, potential attackers often engage in many of the same behaviors and actions before their attacks. Mounting an attack on a prominent person requires a number of preparatory decisions and activities— attack-related behaviors. For instance, a potential assassin must choose a target, learn where the target is going to be, choose and secure a weapon, survey security, develop an attack plan, and consider whether and/or how to escape. Although not every ECSP attacker and near-attacker engaged in all of these activities and behaviors, most engaged in several of them.

Many believe that attacks on public figures are deranged behaviors, without rational or understandable motives; they therefore believe that perpetrators of these crimes must be mentally ill. In most cases, however, mental illness does not appear to be a primary cause of assassination behavior. Attacks on prominent persons are the actions of persons who see assassination as a way to achieve their goals or solve problems, which requires a fairly rational process.

Most near-lethal approachers and the great majority of assassins were not mentally ill—none were models of emotional well-being, but relatively few suffered from serious mental illnesses that caused their attack behaviors. Rh


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 In almost every case—even those in which the attackers were seriously mentally ill—an attack was a means to achieve an end, such as calling attention to a perceived problem. Moreover, in cases where mental illness clearly played a role in assassination attempts, symptoms of mental illness generally did not prevent the person from engaging in attack-related activities, such as rationally developing an attack strategy. In most situations involving persons with severe and untreated mental illness, the symptoms disable the person's usual problem-solving abilities. However, among mentally ill ECSP attackers and near-lethal approachers, most remained organized and capable of planning and mounting an attack.

Mental health histories of ECSP attackers and near-lethal approachers include the following:

 * Many had contact with mental health professionals or care systems at some point in their lives, but few indicated to mental health staff that they were considering an attack on a public official or figure.
 * Almost half had histories of delusional ideas, but few of these ideas led directly to a near-lethal approach or attack.
 * Few had histories of command hallucinations (imagined voices ordering the individual to take action).
 * Relatively few had histories of substance abuse, including alcohol abuse.

People who study assassination often associate threateners with attackers, as if the two are the same. Many assume that those who make threats pose real threats. Although some threateners may pose a real threat, usually they do not. However, most importantly, those who pose threats frequently do not make threats. 14


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 *None of the 43 assassins and attackers communicated a direct threat to the target before their attack.
 * Fewer than one-tenth of all 83 attackers and near-lethal approachers communicated a direct threat to the target or to a law enforcement agency.
 * Two-thirds of the assassins and near-lethal approachers were known to have spoken or written in a manner suggesting that they were considering an attack. Would-be assassins told family members, friends, colleagues, and associates about their thoughts and plans, or they wrote down their ideas in journals or diaries.

These data do not suggest that investigators should ignore threats that are communicated to or about public officials or figures. Many persons may have been prevented or deterred from taking action because of a prompt response to their threatening communications. However, careful attention should also be paid to identifying, investigating, and assessing anyone whose behaviors suggest that he or she might pose threats of violence, even if the individual does not communicate direct threats to a target or to the authorities.

Three key observations about assassins and their behaviors emerged from the ECSP study:

Rh
 * Assassinations and attacks on public officials and figures are the products of understandable and often discernible processes of thinking and behavior.
 * Most people who attack others perceive the attack as the means to a goal or a way to solve a problem.
 * An individual's motives and selection of a target are directly connected.


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