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602 But I could not get away from the fear that when the novelty should be over the romantic attachment which their queen had formed for Edmund would cease to captivate the public's fancy, and then the scale would incline against us. Whenever I broached the subject to Edmund, however, he pretended to treat my fears as purely imaginary.

ACK, always impressionable and erratic, quickly lost himself in the delights of life in the brilliant capital, and eould not be brought to think of the future. To Henry I dared not open my mind, for he was already only too much disposed to brood and to take the dark view of everything. If he had known my doubts he would have driven me mad by magnifying them.

For a while he tormented us with complaints and begged to be taken back to the earth, until Edmund turned upon him in such a fury that he never again ventured to open his lips on the subject.

In the meantime it was delightful to watch the gracious manner in which Ala sought to distract us.

She began by exhibiting the marvels of the capital. Thus far we had only seen the great throne-room, the hall of justice, and one or two smaller apartments in the palace.

Now she conducted us through halls and rooms more splendid than I could have imagined to exist. The golden decorations were beyond belief in their richness, in the astonishing quantity of the precious metal lavished upon them, and in the delicacy and beauty of the forms.

Nothing interested Henry so much as this. It stirred his cupidity, which I must confess, although I liked him, was a prominent defect of his character.

"What a place for a Pizarro!" he exclaimed,

"Yes," said Edmund, "but there is no cringing Atahualpa here. You need not dream of carrying off any of this wealth."

"But you seem to be in a fair way of falling heir to it," put in Jack with a laugh.

Edmund colored, but did not reply.

"For shame, Jack," I said, "Can't you remember that if Ala does not understand our language, she has a marvelous power of reading our thoughts?"

"That's so," said Jack. "Upon my word I feel rather uncomfortable In this world where a man's mind goes naked.

"Why, a little while ago I was strongly tempted to steal a kiss from a pretty maid who was showing me a wonderful affair of gold and jewels. I don't know whether it was an idol or what, and upon my word, before I could have made a motion—and, of course, I didn't really mean to—she darted away from me as if she had been stung, and her winning smiles were changed for a black look that made me hang my head."

After this we all became a little more circumspect in our comments, and tried to keep our thoughts to ourselves, unless, as was generally the case, they were such as our entertainers could only find pleasure in knowing.

should have to write a book to tell you about all the surprising things that Ala showed us in the palace, and in the city—for we made a tour of that also.

The streets were wonderful, crooked as cow-paths, crowded with people, magnificent with shops filled with all sorts of curious objects, and bordered with thousands of aerial structures that towered up and up, glittering like a Jack Frost paradise at Christmas; while at all elevations air ships and airplanes passed and repassed, steering clear of one another; with the grace and ease of Venetian gondolas.

She took us through a great library, where we saw the printed books to which I have referred; but there was nothing to compare in strangeness with the visit which we finally made to a kind of temple, where we saw the most remarkable character in Venus, the "Head Medicine Man," as Jack facetiously dubbed him.

But we couldn't remain long in a facetious mood when in the presence of this personage. And, besides, he gave us a shock, the full nature of which I did not comprehend until long afterward, when if; came upon me with overwhelming force.

Jack's title for him may have been sufficiently descriptive of his functions. He seemed to be a kind of masculine pythoness, and his gloomy, cavernous apartment in the center of the temple, strangely lighted with huge, dull-red electric globes, was apparently a Delphic shrine for the people of Venus.

T WAS our first introduction to any thing resembling superstition among these people, and to me, at least, it came as a great surprise, for in this world of light, beauty, and harmony, such a thing seemed strikingly out of place. The evident awe with which Ala regarded this high priest of mystery displeased me also.

Contrary to what one might expect, this man, who was of extraordinary stature, I should say nearly seven feet tall, showed no signs of age. He seemed to be in middle life, and very vigorous; and, as he sat on a kind of throne of some black, highly polished metal, with his elbow resting on a short pillar capped with a circlet of red jewels that blazed like living coals, his huge head and strong face were marvelously impressive.

I never saw such a face anywhere else. It was beardless, and as white as marble. Usually he allowed only his profile to be seen; and one could not look upon it without a creeping of the nerves. His nose was immense, resembling a great curved beak, and his deep-sunk eyes, roofed with projecting brows, were as black as jet, but curiously luminous as they gleamed sidewise out of their pent-house.

But when he turned his full face, even Edmund started back. He seemed to project his countenance toward us like a monstrous bird stretching out its neck, and his glowing eyes appeared to penetrate our inmost thoughts.

This lasted only for a moment; and then he turned his profile again and remained motionless.

Ala then had a long communication with Edmund, at the end of which he turned to us and said:


text: Public Law 109-453

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Public Law 109-453


text:
Page:Stored-Grain Insect Reference Sep 2016.pdf/6

The granary weevil, Sitophilus granarius (Linnaeus), is a small, moderately polished, blackish or chestnut-brown beetle (fig. 1A). The head emends into a long slender snout with a pair of stow mandibles or jaw at the end. This insect is not more than three-sixteenths of an inch long aridand [sic] often is smaller,. [sic] There are no wings under the wing covers, and the thorax is well marked with longitudinal punctures, two characteristics that distinguish this insect from the closely related rice weevil with which it is often found.

The granary weevil., [sic] one of the oldest known insect pests., [sic] has been earnedspread? [sic] bikerice? [sic] commerce to all parts of the world. It prefers a temperate climate and is more frequently found in the Northern States than in the South.

Both the adults and larvae feed voraciously on a great variety of grains. The adult weevils live, [sic] on an [sic] average 7 to 13 months., [sic] and each female lays 50 to 250 eggs during this period. Before laying, the female uses her mandibles to bore a small hole in a grain kernel. She then deposits an egg through the hole and covers it with a gelatinous fluid that seals the hole. The small, while. fleshy, legless grub or larva hatches from the egg and burrows about inside the kernel. When fully grown., [sic] the larva transforms into a pupa and then into an adult.

In warm weather, the granary weevil develops from the egg to the adult stage in about 4 weeks. Cold weather greatly prolongs Thethe [sic] developmental period.

Figure 1. Grain weevils: Left, Granary weevil adult; center, Rice weevil adult, right, Maize weevil adult.

Stored Grain Insect Reference


text: Stored-Grain Insect Reference/Grain Weevils/Granary Weevil


text:
Page:Divehi romanization table.pdf/2

 Notes

1. Romanize ށް as ḫ when it doubles the following consonant or is used as a glottal stop.

2. When used in medial position without ް◌ (sukūn), romanize ނ as ṁ.

3. Romanization of އ.

 * (a) When used in the initial position with any vowel sign, do not romanize.

 * (b) When used in the medial position with any vowel sign, romanize as ’.

 * (c) When a consonant follows  ްއ in medial position, double it in romanization.

 * (d) When used in final position with ް◌ (sukūn), romanize as  h .

4. Romanize  ްތ followed by another  ތas t.

5. Only the vowel forms that appear at the beginning of a syllable are listed. When the vowels follow a consonant,  އis not used and the vowel signs are added to the consonant forms. Do not distinguish between the two in romanization.

6. ް◌ (called sukūn) generally indicates omission of an inherent vowel associated with a consonant. For its other uses, see Notes 1, 3, and 4.

title: Page:Divehi romanization table.pdf/2


text: Divehi romanization table

title: Divehi romanization table


text: Index:Integrated Country Strategy - Ukraine.pdf


text:
Page:Integrated Country Strategy - Ukraine.pdf/1

 {|style="width:100%" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0
 * style="width:15%"|Seal of the United States Department of State.svg
 * style="width:15%"|Seal of the United States Department of State.svg

 * }

Approved: August 29, 2023


text:
Author:Aleksandr Vasilyevich Sukhovo-Kobylin

Works

 * Свадьба Кречинского (1854) tr. by Robert Magidoff as Krechinsky's Wedding (1961)


text:
Page:The Art of War in the Middle Ages (Chadwick, 1885, artofwarinmiddle00omanuoft).pdf/22

8 cavalry must in future compose the most important part of the imperial army. To provide himself with a sufficient force of horsemen, he was driven to a measure destined to sever all continuity between the military organization of the fourth and that of the fifth century. He did not, like Constantine, raise new corps, but began to enlist wholesale every Teutonic chief whom he could bribe to enter his service. The war-bands which followed these princes were not incorporated with the national troops; they obeyed their immediate commanders alone, and were strangers to the discipline of the Roman army. Yet to them was practically entrusted the fate of the empire; since they formed the most efficient division of the imperial forces. From the time of Theodosius the prince had to rely for the maintenance of order in the Roman world merely on the amount of loyalty which a constant stream of titles and honours could win from the commanders of the '.'

Only six years after Adrianople there were already 40,000 Gothic and other German horsemen serving under their own chiefs in the army of the East. The native troops sunk at once to an inferior position in the eyes of Roman generals, and the justice of their decision was verified a few years later when Theodosius' German mercenaries won for him the two well-contested battles which crushed the usurper Magnus Maximus and his son Victor. On both those occasions, the Roman infantry of the West, those Gallic legions who had always been considered the best footmen in the world, were finally ridden down by the Teutonic cavalry who followed the standard of the legitimate emperor.

A picture of the state of the imperial army in the Western provinces, drawn precisely at this period, has been preserved for us in the work of Vegetius, a writer whose treatise would be of far greater value had he refrained from the attempt to identify the organization of his own day with that of the first century,


text:
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Rh stand around the throne of God" (Rev. v. 11, vii. 11), "whom they worship" (Psalm xcvii. 7; Heb. i. 6; Rev. vii. 11); "and do His commandments, hearkening unto the voice of His Word" (Ps. ciii. 19, 20).

The word in Dan. iv. 10, 17, 20, is rendered in the Arabic vers. by "vigil"; in the lxx., by, which means nothing in Greek. This figures in the Coptic version of Daniel as (ed. Tattam, p. 298), and  (ed. J. Bardelli, pp. 46, 47). In the Armenian version it is rendered by "" "watching," "vigil," ; which is exactly given in " bodriī" of the ancient Slavonic version. "Watchers," are the "" (of Orac. Sibyll, p. 90), the "vigiles," often mentioned in the "Book of Enoch" (e. g., c. xii.), said of "good Angels,"  "And they did it all with the Saints and with the ‘Watchers’ in those days," of "fallen" ones (ibid. v. 5),  : "O Enoch! scribe of righteousness! go and make known to the ‘Watchers’ that they have left Heaven," etc. It does not, however, occur, we believe, in the "Ascension of Isaiah," which is a book of a probably very early date; nor yet in the "Didascalia Æthiopica;" except as an adjective applied to a "Bishop" (p. 25), etc.

"Sed Vigiles," says J. Morinus, "Syris post

title: Page:Who is God in China.djvu/206


text:
Page:Christianity and Greek Philosophy.djvu/23

Rh But the germination of every seed depends on conditions ab extra, and all germs are modified, in their development, by geographical and climatal surroundings. The development of the acorn into a mature and perfect oak greatly depends on the exterior conditions of soil, and moisture, light, and heat. By these it may be rendered luxuriant in its growth, or it may be stunted in its growth. It may barely exist under one class of conditions, or it may perish under another. The Brassica oleracea, in its native habitat on the shore of the sea, is a bitter plant with wavy leaves; in the cultivated garden it is the cauliflower. The single rose, under altered conditions, becomes a double rose; and creepers rear their stalks and stand erect. Plants, which in a cold climate are annuals, become perennial when transported to the torrid zone. And so human nature, fundamentally the same under all circumstances, may be greatly modified, both physically and mentally, by geographical, social, and political conditions. The corporeal nature of man—his complexion, his physiognomy, his stature; the intellectual nature of man—his religious, ethical, and esthetical ideas are all modified by his surroundings. These modifications, of which all men dwelling in the same geographical regions, and under the same social and political institutions, partake, constitute the individuality of nations. Thus, whilst there is a fundamental basis of unity in the corporeal and spiritual nature of man, the causes of diversity are to be sought in the circumstances in which tribes and nations are placed in the overruling providence of God.

The power which man exerts over material conditions, by virtue of his intelligence and freedom, is also an important element which, in these studies, we should not depreciate or ignore. We must accept, with all its consequences, the dictum of universal consciousness that man is free. He is not absolutely subject to, and moulded by nature. He has the power to control the circumstances by which he is surrounded—to


text:
Author:Robert Magidoff

Works

 * In Anger and Pity (1949)
 * The Kremlin vs. the People (1953)
 * Yehudi Manuhin (1955)
 * The Possessed (1957)
 * Ezio Pinza (1958)
 * (tr.) Krechinsky's Wedding (1961), original by Aleksandr Vasilyevich Sukhovo-Kobylin
 * Rye and Nettle

title: Author:Robert Magidoff


text:
Page:TASJ-1-3.djvu/242

In the paper which I read before the Society on this subject last year I said, that if agreeable to the Society I would continue the subject on another occasion.

I, in that paper, gave a description of the evidences of constructive ability displayed by the Japanese before they had availed themselves of the assistance of Foreign experts. The continuation of the subject I then thought might suitably consist of a description of the improvements which these have succeeded in effecting. In setting myself to this task, however, I find it is one which is involved in considerable difficulty. In the first place the results which have been attained are so few and of so limited a nature that there is but little to he said concerning them, and in the second place the efficiency or practical advantages of such results are subjects of so debateabledebatable [sic] a character that, to treat of them from that point of view would form a paper hardly suited to a society of this kind. If therefore, in attempting to fulfil a promise which I

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 formerly made, I have not succeeded in forming a very valuable contribution to the proceedings of the Society the difficulties surrounding the subject which I have alluded to above are my only excuse.

In the minds of the modern Japanese there seems to be the same desire for the adoption of a dwelling constructed after a European mode, as for the adoption of European clothes. They argue, with a shew of reason, that the one is necessary to the other. Thus when sandals or clogs gave way to boots, and the loose flowing robes to the tightly-fitting European dress, it became necessary to discard the old system of squatting on mats and to adopt wooden floors with carpets, and to sit on chairs and at tables. Europeanized dwellings are therefore now common. The style of building most generally adopted throughout the country in these new houses is a bad copy of the houses to be found in the European settlements. It is almost unnecessary to describe these. They, however, display novel points in the practise of house building which are worth mentioning on that account only. The foundations consist of a stone wall generally about 8 inches thick and 2 feet high. On this wall is laid a wooden sole plate which is about 6 inches square, and into which the wooden uprights forming the walls of the house are morticed. The uprights are also about 6 inches square are placed from 2 to 3 feet apart so that when they are still uncovered they appear like a forest of posts. There are very thin laths placed longitudinally along the uprights at distances of 6 feet or so apart, which are secured to them by wooden pins. Diagonal struts or tics are very seldom used and the stability of the building is therefore dependent on the stiffness of the different joints in the framework, assisted by the walls used in the different parts of the erection. The roof is formed of timbers very much larger than is required for strength, and is laid with mud and tiles much in the same way as I have described in my former paper as is adopted in Japanese temples. Inside, the houses are generally lined with planks about $3⁄8$ in. thick on which wall paper is placed, the ceilings of the rooms being executed in the

title: Page:TASJ-1-3.djvu/243


text: A Bayard From Bengal/Chapter 7

title: A Bayard From Bengal/Chapter 7


text:
Page:TASJ-1-3.djvu/244

 same way. In some of the better class of houses, however, the walls and ceilings are lathed and plastered but this is by no means general. Outside the walls there are sometimes fixed laths to which square tiles are nailed—the joints of the tiles being pointed with plaster—sometimes the walls are plastered without any tiles and in those houses which are intended to be of the best description thin stone flags, of a thickness of about four to eight inches, are built on one another and kept in their places by small iron dogs attached to the woodwork. In some of the houses iron stove pipes are let through the walls surrounded by a stone, but the more pretentions have fireplaces and chimnieschimneys [sic] erected with stone in their interiors. These are generally about five or six feet square at the base, are generally badly built, and as they project through the roofs they must be in some cases thirty or forty feet high. They can only be kept upright by the floor or roof beams which project against them, and are a constant source of dread and danger.

This is the new species of building common in Japan and foreigners are doubtless responsible for it: even at the present day very few houses in the foreign settlements are built after a more secure or substantial style, and in Japanese hands it has, if anything, become worse. When foreigners first arrived in this country they may have had reasons for adopting this method of construction. 1st.—It is, somewhat similar to the Japanese method and those who commenced building might have been glad to adopt it on that account as the work would there be more or less familiar to the only workmen who were available at the time. 2nd.—It has the advantage of only requiring the very cheapest and most easily procured materials, and so is well suited for temporary purposes or for hasty erection. 3rd.—It is supposed by some persons to be the best construction to resist earthquakes on account of its elasticity and on account of the wooden frame work preventing the outside lining of stones or other covering from being precipitated inwards on the occasion of a shock. The first reason in its favour does

title: Page:TASJ-1-3.djvu/244


text:
Page:The Art of War in the Middle Ages (Chadwick, 1885, artofwarinmiddle00omanuoft).pdf/23

-A.D. 582.] by use of the same words for entirely different things. In drawing inferences from his statements, it has also to be remembered that he frequently gives the ideal military forms of his imagination, instead of those which really existed in his day. For example, his legion is made to consist of 6000 men, while we know that in the end of the fourth century its establishment did not exceed 1500. His work is dedicated to one of the emperors who bore the name of Valentinian, probably to the second, as (in spite of Gibbon's arguments in favour of Valentinian III) the relations of the various arms to each other and the character of their organization point to a date prior to commencement of the fifth century.

A single fact mentioned by Vegetius gives us the date at which the continuity of the existence of the old Roman heavy infantry may be said to terminate. As might be expected, this epoch exactly corresponds with that of the similar change in the East, which followed the battle of Adrianople. 'From the foundation of the city to the reign of the sainted Gratian,' says the tactician, 'the legionaries wore helmet and cuirass. But when the practice of holding frequent reviews and sham-fights ceased, these arms began to seem heavy, because the soldiers seldom put them on. They therefore begged from the emperor, permission to discard first their cuirasses, and then even their helmets, and went to face the barbarians unprotected by defensive arms. In spite of the disasters which have since ensued, the infantry have not yet resumed the use of themAnd now, how can the Roman soldier expect victory, when helmless and unarmoured, and even without a shield (for the shield cannot be used in conjunction with the bow), he goes against the enemy ?'

Vegetius—often more of a rhetorician than a soldier—has evidently misstated the reason of this change in fantry equipment. At a time when cavalry were clothing themselves in more complete armour, it is not likely that the infantry were discarding it from mere sloth and feebleness. The real meaning


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 not now exist in such strength as formerly, because, although really efficient workmen are still very difficult to procure, there are now in this country many Europeans of experience who, by their superintendence and direction can efficiently cause to be executed almost any species of building. For merely temporary buildings it may still be, on account of its cheapness, the best, but if the construction is to have any pretensions to be a lasting erection, or one which has to afford effectual protection from outside disturbances, I have no hesitation in saying that the system is the most uneconomical. From the fragile nature of the materials which compose the outside casing, whether these are stone flags, tiles or merely plaster, the walls are in want of constant repair, and are never water or air tight. The wooden framework from its insufficient covering decays with great rapidity and it is in all points excessively and dangerously weak. The third reason in its favour, viz, its efficacy to resist earthquakes, is one which opens out a large field for discussion on which I may have something to say further on.

In copying this system of construction therefore I need not say that, in my opinion, the Japanese have been led into an egregious terror. And it is really a pity to see such buildings as the new Custom House and the New Town Hall in Yokohama, the new Government offices in Yedo, all of which should be buildings of real stability and durability, built on this principle. These erections have all some pretensions to architecture, they have each cost very large sums of money, and being efforts at improvement in the way of construction, it is most unfortunate that the system adopted was not one formed on a more sound and substantial basis.

Since the great fire which happened in Yedo in 1872, the minds of the local authorities there have been greatly exercised in reference to the construction of buildings which will afford greater resistance to the spread of fire. A very creditable effort has been made in the new Boulevard at Yedo—where small brick houses have taken the lace of the slight wooden erections which are general in

title: Page:TASJ-1-3.djvu/245


text:
Page:The Art of War in the Middle Ages (Chadwick, 1885, artofwarinmiddle00omanuoft).pdf/24

10


text:
Page:The Art of War in the Middle Ages (Chadwick, 1885, artofwarinmiddle00omanuoft).pdf/26

12


text:
Page:The Art of War in the Middle Ages (Chadwick, 1885, artofwarinmiddle00omanuoft).pdf/25

-A.D. 582.]


text:
Page:The Art of War in the Middle Ages (Chadwick, 1885, artofwarinmiddle00omanuoft).pdf/27

-A.D. 582.]


text: A Bayard From Bengal/Chapter 8

title: A Bayard From Bengal/Chapter 8


text:
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 all Japanese towns. These new buildings are built with brick which has been coated with Portland cement plaster. The walls of the houses are of course perfectly uninflammable; and fireplaces with properly constructed chimneys are placed in each wall. These houses present no perfect immunity from fire, but there can be no doubt that from the use of uninflammable material in the walls, and by a well-devised system of construction they offer great checks to the spread of fire, and the danger of taking fire is immensely lessened. The buildings have evidently been designed so as to retain as far as possible the Japanese system of house with open fronts and moveable partitions; they are two storied and contain four small rooms, and have a small verandah in front supported on brick columns. They seem to be a very suitable species of building for the class of Japanese occupying them and they most certainly present an infinitely better example of building to the people than the European houses which I have just described.

The principal and most important move made by the Japanese Government towards introducing into this country a better appreciation of the art of building and, at the same time, furnishing the country with those results of the ingenuity and labours of our great engineers which have revolutionized the civilized world, is the establishment of the department of public works and the prosecution of the undertakings under its care. The construction of two lines of railway after the English model cannot fail to to instil into the minds of the many Japanese employed in connection with them, the advantages of the principles of building adopted in Europe. Although one of these lines does not unfortunately present many features worthy of imitation, the other one in the excellence of the details of the workmanship upon it, whether in brick, stone, or iron, snpplies a model of the greatest value. The lesson that these works afford the Japanese should be of the greatest use to them. The various natural products of their country have in them been moulded formed and brought into combination with each other so

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text: A Bayard From Bengal/Chapter 9

title: A Bayard From Bengal/Chapter 9


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 as to form structures of precisely the necessary strength and of the most certain durability.

The graving docks and various other works at Yokoska also present to the Japanese another phase of constructive art from which they may learn the properties and use of another species of material. While the Lighthouses, though humble specimens of construction, and labouring under the disadvantage of being placed in such situations that few people see them, afford, I hope, their quota of information.

That the Japanese have not benefited so fully as they might by the lessons given them in the carrying out of such works, I think, can be safely affirmed. This has been occasioned more by a restlessness of mind and want of application than by want of ability. Their natural presumption of knowledge is proverbial, but in addition to this there has not been established to my knowledge any definite system of education among workmen. The methods of manufacture in all countries by means of which the cheapest, the best finished and only reliable articles are produced are well known to consist of keeping each workman confined to one very narrow branch of labour. In this way he becomes expert in that particular line and is able to produce work with a rapidity and of an excellence otherwise unattainable. In building, a stone-mason, a bricklayer or a carpenter is obliged to serve a weary apprenticeship of 5 or 6 years, and after that has been completed a long probation of many years on a merely nominal pay before being considered or trusted as an efficient workman. In Japan, on the contrary, bricklayers or masons are procured ready made; a Japanese carpenter is a mason one day and a bricklayer the next. And the introduction of the system of apprenticeship—by which the intelligence and energy of youths are brought to bear on one particular branch of labour—has not, so far as I am aware, been thought of. This defect may be due in a great measure, to the exigencies of the country which has only lately commenced to adopt these improvements, but I fear it is also occasioned by the restlessness of

title: Page:TASJ-1-3.djvu/247


text: A Bayard From Bengal/Chapter 10

title: A Bayard From Bengal/Chapter 10


text: A Bayard From Bengal/Chapter 11

title: A Bayard From Bengal/Chapter 11


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 which is a well known feature in the Japanese character.

The materials used for building have been but slightly developed within late years. Wood, which still maintains its supremacy as the principal and the most commonly-used building material has not amprovedimproved [sic] in quality. It is of a most treacherous character as at present to be purchased in the market, this being due to a want of care in felling the timber, in seasoning it and in drying it. No trials have yet been made so far as I am aware of the strength, durability or weights of Japanese wood, so very little can be added to the information I gave in my former paper concerning it. There can be little doubt, however, that the extra demand for timber caused by the commencement of public works of magnitude, and by a desire for larger and more extensive edifices is causing a denudation of the forests of the country. The rapidity of decay in the material itself and, [sic] the wholesale destruction to which it is exposed by conflagrations keep up a steady demand for this the stock building material of the country, but if, to this is added the demand caused by the various improvements which have been instituted, the supply is unable to keep pace with it. With a recklessness which I fear is a characteristic of the people the forests are being taxed beyond their powers—timber itself has increased in cost within the last five years to twice or thrice its former price—and fears not unnaturally arise of certain climatic changes springing from the clearing of large of tracts of country of their former forests.

Bricks were introduced by foreigners some years ago and are rapidly getting into extensive use. They do not, however, as yet attain to that excellence of manufacture which make them at all a desirable building material. The process of brick-making, like all other work requiring skill, can only be carried out to perfection by experts. While the Japanese are well acquainted with the manufacture of various porcelain and terra-cotta articles for use or ornament, and succeed in this most

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 admirably, the making of bricks, so as to turn out both a cheap and reliable article, is a process requiring such entirely different methods of work that their knowledge in the former is not of much avail to them. The selection of the clay, its puddling and the shaping of the bricks are at present all done more or less carelessly and without method, but it is in the burning of the bricks that their principal defect lies. Their kilns are formed in the shape of a cone and are, when charged, generally filled to the top with bricks. A wooden fire is inserted at the bottom and the heated air is allowed to find its way through the large mass of bricks to the top of the kiln.—Those bricks at the bottom, we naturally find, are overburnt and cracked while those on top are quite insufficiently burned. A very small proportion only of really reliable bricks is therefore got from each kiln. I am informed that very excellent bricks are procured in Kobe and Osaka, which are made at Sakai, but I have not had an opportunity of testing these. I have, however, put bricks from various other parts of the country to the ordinary tests and the results are anything but satisfactory.

The ordinary bricks in use in London absorb after immersion in water not more than 1/15th of their own weight and they withstand a pressure of 800 lbs. on the square inch. The ordinary bricks made in Yedo absorb 1/5 of their own weight of water, and will not stand more than 300 lbs. per square inch; that is to say, they are three times as porous as they ought to be and less than half of the strength they should be. Bricks made in various other parts of the country shew almost the same results. The best which I have had opportunity of trying were those made at Hakodate; they stood fully the standard crushing strain but absorbed far too much water. Such bricks are in my opinion quite unfit for building purposes. Their actual strength, when new, may be sufficient for the small erections built in Yokohama, but their porosity renders them liable to rapid disintegration, and to actual rapid destruction from severe frost, while houses built of them must, under any circumstances, suffer from continually

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 damp walls. A very excellent instance of the character of the Japanese bricks may be seen at Hakodate, where a series of large godowns recently erected by the Kaitakushi are in ruins, owing to the splintering and reduction to powder of the brickwork in their walls, caused by one winter’s frost. A partial remedy for the badness of the bricks may be to coat the walls with lime or cement plaster, but even with this I fear that sufficient moisture will find its way to them as to have a very deteriorating effect upon them. Another and a very grave reason against the ordinary use of brickwork at at present carried out in this part of Japan is the almost useless character of the lime mortar. Bricks in a building are held together by the lime mortar between them and if this mortar does not possess the necessary connecting qualities each brick is dependent on itself and the edifice which is constructed of them is deprived of almost its entire stability. Good mortar requires clean sharp sand and newly burned lime. Such sand in the neighbourhood of Yokohama is difficult to procure and is almost never used and the Japanese seem to haves pride in using only the oldest lime which from long keeping has entirely lost its virtues.

The system of construction best suited to withstand earthquakes is a consideration which should always hold a prominent place in the design of any erection in Japan. I have not been able, though I have made considerable efforts to do so, to procure any information either to verify the particulars I gave in my former paper regarding earthquakes or to make additions to that. While we are perfectly aware, therefore, of the liability of the country to shocks of destructive violence we are not aware of the nature of the shocks or the localities in which they may be expected to be most severe. It is to be hoped, however, that with the assistance which the Japanese Government now possesses both as regards instruments and professional men, that before long we may have a regular system of observations affording us this information. I have formed the opinion that the heavy

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 roof and the light framework in Japanese erections are ill-suited to withstand these shocks, and I believe my opinion to be sustained by the truest principles of mechanics. This, however, is hardly the place to enter into a disquisition upon that subject. I am also of opinion that a solid erection, properly constructed, will afford the greatest safety daring an earthquake and at the same time is the only one which will give reasonable security against fire, wind or the other natural disturbances. An appliance has been devised by a well known English engineer for the purpose of counteracting the disturbing force of an earthquake, the principle of which is very simple. It was said by him that the movement given to the foundations of a building is transmitted with accelerating force to its summit, and that to destroy this the simplest method was to make a break in the continuity of the structure. The designer, therefore, proposed that buildings should be made in two parts, the lower part to be firmly embedded in the earth, the upper to rest on balls which are made to roll in inverted cups. A sudden movement in the lower part would not, then, be transmitted to the upper on account of this break or joint in the structure, and the experiments made shew that in point of fact this theory was perfectly correct. He procured this idea from seeing in Japanese drawings the uprights of their houses resting on round stones, imagining this to be done in order to give them as slight a hold of the earth as possible. But from enquiries I have made this does not seem to have entered the minds of the Japanese, and the only way they can account for the uprights being placed on round stones is to keep the wood away from the moisture of the ground and because round boulders are move easily and cheaply procured than square stones. The impracticability of this scheme, which, however, deserves a fuller trial than it his yet had, arises, in my mind, from the fact that a house resting on balls is liable to be swung and rocked about in gales of wind to such an extent as to render it unfit to live in. I may mention that the tables on which the apparatus of some of the

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 Japanese lighthouses rest are constructed with this joint, but they have been found to be unsuitable for the reason I have just stated, viz. that, when touched or trod upon they shake and roll too much. It is quite possible, however, that some alterations might be effected on the design to obviate this difficulty, and if this were accomplished there can be no doubt that it would afford great immunity from earthquakes shocks. Any scheme which will afford this should be welcomed in Japan, but at the same time it is in my opinion a great mistake to sacrifice the whole comfort and the safety of dwellings from their dread enemies fire and wind to a supposed protection from so remote a contingency as a severe earthquake is in Japan. The building most truly suitable is one which to the fullest extent provides a protection from both these disturbances.

Wooden houses, on the supposition that they are best during earthquakes, are not well fitted to withstand the other disturbances to which they are much more frequently exposed—and solidly constructed houses, while they are less inflammable, and less liable to damage from bad weather, whether they are well calculated to resist an earthquake shock or not, at all events have this advantage that they will always afford their inmates time to escape. The more solidly constructed a building is the longer it will remain standing, even though solidity is no perfect protection against the rage of an earthquake.

The matter of cost is an important one in regard to works of this kind, and there is not an unreasonable fear that to erect a solid building means a large expenditure. This, wader present circumstances in Japan, is probably the case, though not to that extent which might be imagined. The present want of good material and the dearth of efficient workmen enhance the cost of good work, but we must hope that these hindrances will soon be removed, and that in a short space the towns of Japan will consist of something better than rows of tinder-boxes.

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Rh

the following communication we propose shortly to consider the various groups of strata which intervene between the great volcanic series (Borrowdale Rocks) of the Lake-district and the well-marked band of sedimentary rocks to which Prof. Sedgwick applied the name of the "Coniston Flags." In so doing we shall have occasion to note, in a general way, the physical characters and relations of the successive deposits in question; but we shall have to draw attention more especially to the organic remains which they contain and to some indications thus afforded as to their precise age and position in the geological scale.

The base of the great Silurian series of the north of England is constituted, as is well known, by the "Skiddaw Slates," a thick mass of sediments, originally in the condition of black mud, clearly proved by their fossil contents to be of the age of the "Arenig group" of Wales. Succeeding the Skiddaw Slates there occurs a great series of volcanic products, termed by Prof. Sedgwick the "green slates and porphyries," to which we have elsewhere given the name of "the Borrowdale series." These consist of ashes and breccias, alternating with ancient lavas, a portion of the series being subaerial, whilst part is of submarine formation.

Throughout the greater part of this extent, for a thickness of some thousand feet, the Borrowdale series has hitherto proved unfossiliferous; fossils, however, make their appearance in a thin band of calcareous ashes near the summit of the group (Harkness and Nicholson, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxii. p. 480).

In some places, as at Style-End Grassing, between Long Sleddale and Kentmere, this band consists of brownish or bluish grey shales, and it is separated from the Coniston Limestone by a bed of trap. In other spots, as at Sunny Brow, between Ambleside and Coniston, the bed is siliceous and gritty in nature. At Millom the same fossiliferous band is recognizable, and is not only ashy in its character, but is surmounted directly by strata belonging to the Coniston Limestone series without the intervention of traps. Lastly, there are places, such as the east side of Long Sleddale and the southern declivity of Wansfell, where the same beds can be readily recognized, having the same relation to Coniston Limestone, similar to the ordinary ashes of the Borrowdale series in their ordinary character, and exhibiting no traces of fossils beyond the presence of innumera-


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A General Meeting of the Society was held on Wednesday evening, 13th instant, at the Grand Hotel, C. W. Goodwin Esq., V. P. in the chair.

The minutes of the last meeting were approved, and it was announced that the following gentlemen had been elected ordinary members of the Society since the last general meeting: Dr. Elmore, Chargé d’Affaires for Peru, Messrs. J. C. Hayllar, Q.C., Hongkong, J. Smedley, E. S. Benson, and S. Cocking.

The Rev. E. W. Syle then read the “Itinerary of two routes between Yedo and Niigata” by Captain Descharmes.

Sir Harry Parkes observed that Captain Descharmes had described a very interesting, and a very extensive tour through the Northern, Western, and central Provinces of Japan. He regretted that, owing to the want of a good map, those who had heard the paper read would not fully profit by the information it contained until it appeared in print. The same want had been felt on previous occasions, and would continue to be felt when papers of travel were read before the society. He would therefore suggest the preparation of a map of Japan on a large scale, to be exhibited at the meetings of the society, which should show in a manner that would at once catch the eye, the Provinces and Kens, principal towns, mountain ranges, rivers, roads, and other important geographical features of the country, as far as these were at present known or might become known. The routes described in the papers read before the Society might also in some instances be marked upon it. Its use would then be felt, not only when papers were being read, but also by travellers planning a tour or an excursion, and wishing to profit by the experience of those who had preceded them. He believed such a map could be constructed at small expense, and he was satisfied that it would prove of great utility to the Society.

Mr. Cargill, in seconding the suggestion, remarked that any Foreign maps of Japan he had seen were very incomplete, while the Japanese maps, some of which were very excellent, had for those who could not read Japanese, all the characteristics of the old maps of Africa—a mere coast outline on a sheet of blank paper. Mr. Cargill also enquired what the expense of preparing a map would be, and whether the funds of the Society could afford the outlay, or whether a special subscription would be necessary.

Mr. Syle said that the matter had been under consideration. He thought that if the Society determined on constructing such a map as that referred to, Mr. Brunton should be requested to superintend the execution of it. He was afraid, however, that the funds of the Society would not admit of the undertaking at present.

In reference to what had fallen from Mr. Syle, Mr. Brunton said that he would be glad to superintend the execution of large maps for the use of the Society. He would propose that they should be made to a scale of 2$3⁄4$ miles to an inch

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462 ble cavities filled, or partially filled, with rusty peroxide of iron, apparently due to the decomposition of organic remains.

It is not our purpose to discuss here the position and age of these "Style-End Grassing beds," as they may be called. It may, however, be noted that the fossils which they have yielded are Bala types, such as Calymene Blumenbachii, Brongn., Orthis vespertilio, Sow., and Petraia æquisulcata, M'Coy. This is of interest as indicating that the volcanic activity of which the Lake-district became the theatre subsequent to the deposition of the Skiddaw Slates, continued to prevail, at any rate, up to the later portion of the Bala period.

Resting, apparently with perfect conformity, upon the Borrowdale rocks a series of deposits occur which we wish more especially to discuss here.

These deposits may be grouped in the following ascending order:—

The "Dufton Shales" are but locally distributed, though they constitute a well-marked group of muddy sediments underlying the Coniston Limestone proper and its associated shales. They do not appear in any recognizable form beneath the main hue of the Coniston Limestone in the Lake-district itself. They do not seem to occur in the Sedbergh district; nor have they been recognized in Ravenstonedale or Ribblesdale; but they are very well developed in the Silurian area which includes the Cross-Fell range.

Here they are seen in four principal exposures, owing to the folding and faulting of the strata, viz.:—Swindale Beck, near Knock; Pusgill and Dufton-Town dykes, near Dufton; Harthwaite Gill, near Keisley; and at the Smelt Mill, near Hilton.

The thickness of the Dufton Shales in these localities probably exceeds 300 feet. They consist of dark flaggy shales with a rough cleavage, sometimes (as in Swindale) having brownish or greenish ashy beds intercalated among them. These shales are readily distinguished from those associated with the Coniston Limestone, being usually darker in colour, and more flaggy, and having a less perfect cleavage. Near their base they have two bands of nodular limestones in them; these are well seen in Swindale Beck.

The Dufton Shales are richly fossiliferous throughout, this being the case with the ashy beds before referred to, as well as others of the series.

The fossils are, for the most part, characteristic Bala types; and the entire deposit may be regarded as forming, palaeontologically, the base of the Coniston Limestone.

The following is a list of the principal fossils which have been collected in these beds:—


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464 Cybele verrucosa, Illænus Bowmanni, and Lichas laxatus, can leave no doubt as to the correctness of the inference that these rocks belong to the Bala or Caradoc age. The presence of what appear to be unequivocal ashes which contain some of these fossils high up in the series at Swindale also deserves attention as showing that the volcanic forces which gave rise to the ashes and lavas of the Borrowdale group still maintained an intermittent activity during the deposition of the Dufton Shales. There would thus appear to have been no break of continuity between these shales and the underlying Borrowdale rocks—a conclusion which is further borne out by the substantial identity between the fossils of the Dufton Shales and those of the Style-End Grassing beds.

The annexed section (fig. 1) exhibits the stratigraphical relations of the Dufton Shales in Swindale Beck, where, as before stated, they are very well exposed.

The "Coniston Limestone," notwithstanding its comparatively small vertical extent, has long occupied the position of being the best-defined and most universally recognized of all the divisions of the Lower Silurian series of the north of England—a position which it owes to its easily recognized lithological characters, and to the number of organic remains which it has yielded. It is unnecessary here to recapitulate the geographical range of the Coniston Limestone. Its main line of outcrop crosses the Lake-district in a direction from S.W. to X.E., running from Millom on the one hand to Snap Wells on the other. It is more or less developed in Ravenstonedale, Dentdale. the Sedbergh valley, near Ingleton, in Ribblesdale, at Ireleth, at High Haulme. in Furness. and at various points in the Lower Silurians which lie to the south-west of the Cross-Fell range.

Lithologically the term "Coniston Limestone" is somewhat misleading, as it is never wholly calcareous in its composition, and the calcareous element is occasionally almost wanting. In its most typical form, as seen in its range between Long Sleddale and Broughton Mills, in Furness, the Coniston Limestone consists of


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466 At Shap Wells, close to the medicinal spring, occurs a singular band of Coniston Limestone, to which we shall have occasion to refer again.

The band in question is a calcareous breccia composed of innumerable fragments of various rocks, mostly under a quarter or half an inch in diameter, imbedded in a calcareous matrix. Thin sections of this rock are very difficult to prepare, owing to the large number of angular fragments of quartz which they contain; in addition to which there are numerous fragments of limestone, felspathic ash, and perhaps traps, the cementing matter of the whole being a granular limestone apparently devoid of fossils. That this breccia is more or less altered by the near vicinity of the Shap granite cannot be doubted, the more so as the graptolitic mudstones are seen in an unequivocal form about 200 yards to the south of the breccia, with numerous graptolites, but so highly indurated as to have become almost flinty in their fracture. In connexion with this we may briefly refer to the microscopic characters of the more highly metamorphosed Coniston Limestone, about a quarter of a mile from the mineral spring, near the top of the Blea Beck. Here the Coniston Limestone is penetrated and apparently overlain by a mass of felstone, doubtless emanating from the granite of Wastdale Crag. In the immediate vicinity of this intrusive mass, the limestone is converted into an olive-green splintery rock, which shows, in microscopic sections, particles of iron pyrites and disseminated specks of a dark green mineral (hornblende?), together with a few traces of minute fossils. At a distance of a few yards from the felstone this limestone presents itself as a dark grey crystallized rock, which is shown by thin sections to be completely granular, with hardly any indications of fossils.

About two miles west from Shap Wells, at a short distance to the south-west of the farm-house of Wastdale Head, the Coniston Limestone exhibits itself in a very highly metamorphosed condition. Here, in the course of a small stream flowing from the north, a small patch of the limestone occurs, having a white colour and a crystalline structure. A few feet to the north of this patch a small exposure of rock is seen, having a gneissic character, the particles of which are very crystalline. This gneiss is very nearly in contact with the south-west portion of the Wastdale-Crag granite. It is probably either metamorphosed shales of the Coniston Limestone, or of the representatives of the Dufton Shales.

The white crystalline limestone has peculiar features. It has a fine scaly structure, with a pearly lustre, and resembles fine-grained Schiefer spar. It contains within it Idocrase; and in the upper portion, where it has been subjected to the action of the water of the stream, the idocrase almost remains alone, the carbonate of lime having been removed.


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468

1. Strophomena corrugatella, Dav. Keisley.

2. rhomboidulis, Wilckens. Keisley.

3. deltoidea, Conrad. Keisley.

4. expansa, Sow. Keisley.

5. Orthis biforata, Scbloth. Keisley.

6. calligramma, Dalm. Keisley.

7. flabellulum, Sow. Keisley.

8. Actoniæ, Sow. Keisley.

9. vespertilio, Sow. Keisley.

10. porcata, M'Coy. Keisley.

11. elegantula, Dalm. Skelgill Beck.

12. Discina? corrugata?, M'Coy. Keisley.

13. Triplesia? monilifera, M'Coy. Keisley.

14. Atrypa imbricata, Sow. Keisley.

15. Leptæna tenuicincta, M'Coy. Keisley.

1. Orthoceras vagans, Salt. Keisley. Abundant.

1. Sphærexochus mirus, Beyrich. Keisley.

2. Cheirurus juvenis, Salt. Keisley.

3. bimucronatus, Murch. Keisley.

4. gelasinosus, Portl. Keisley.

5. cancrurus, Salt. Keisley.

6. octolobatus, M'Coy. Keisley.

7. Lichas laxatus, M'Coy. Keisley.

8. hibernicus, Portl. Millom.

9. Illænus Davisii, Salt. Keisley.

10. Bowmanni, Salt. Keisley.

11. Rosenbergi, Eichwald. Appletreeworth Beck.

12. Calymene Blumenbachii, Brongn. Keisley. Rare.

13. Agnostus, sp. A form somewhat resembling A. trinodus, Salt. (= Trinodus agnostiformis, M'Coy), in shape and size, but having its whole surface tuberculated. Not uncommon at Keisley.

14. Phacops (Chasmops) macrourus, Sjögren. This characteristic Bala species is the Odontochile obtusicaudata of M'Coy; but it wants the surface-granules of the true P. obtusicaudatus, Salt. Fine tails, though somewhat distorted by cleavage, are not uncommon at Appletreeworth Beck.

15. Phacops apiculatus, Salt. Appletreeworth Beck.

16. Ampyx Sarsii, Portl. Keisley.

17. Remopleurides, sp. Alai-ge form allied to, but apparently distinct from, R. longicapitatus, Portl. Not uncommon at Keisley.

18. Proëtus, sp. The free cheeks only are known, and resemble P. latifrons, M'Coy. Keisley.

19. Bronteus, sp. Pygidia only known. Keisley.

20. Beyrichia impendens, Jones. Appletreeworth Beck.

21. Primitia protenta, Jones. Appletreeworth Beck.

No one can analyze the preceding list of fossils and entertain any doubt as to the geological horizon of the Coniston Limestone. Whether or not it be in the precise position of the Bala Limestone of Wales is a point which may admit of doubt; but it is the precise equivalent of the limestone of the Lower Silurian of Portraine, co. Dublin, and also of that of the Chair of Kildare (see Appendix),


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470 (3) The presence, near the summit of the Coniston Limestone itself, at Shap Wells, of a calcareous breccia containing numerous fragments of ash proves that an eruption took place towards the close of the period during which the Coniston Limestone was deposited. Nor does the site of this eruption appear to have been very far removed from Shap Wells itself; for the microscopic investigation of this breccia indicates that some of the older and previously formed beds of the Coniston Limestones were broken up by this outburst, and were thrown over the sea-bottom along with innumerable fragments of ash, the whole being subsequently cemented together by calcareous ooze to constitute the singular stratum in question.

(4) The presence in the Coniston Limestone in the Sedbergh district, as shown by Prof. Hughes, of interbedded felstones, proves conclusively the occurrence of volcanic eruptions contemporaneous with the deposition of the limestone, in this area at any rate, if not elsewhere.

(5) By the supposition we have brought forward a satisfactory explanation is obtained of a certain amount of apparent discordance between the Coniston Limestone and the underlying volcanic Borrowdale rocks. This discordance, so far as it exists, might be set down as due to a want of conformity; but we do not think that this is its true explanation.

If the views we entertain be correct, it is rather due to the fact that the Coniston Limestone was deposited round the shores of the volcanic nucleus of the Lake-district very much after the fashion that a modern limestone might have been in process of formation for thousands of years off the coasts of Sicily. In such a case beds of limestone would wrap round sheets of lava so as to be apparently transgressive thereon, or might be interstratified with strata of tuff, of ash, or of volcanic rocks. Any seeming discordance between the calcareous series and the volcanic products would be due, not to absolute unconformability, indicating a lapse of time, but simply to the difference in the method by which the two groups were formed. In spite of any apparent discordance, both groups would belong to the same period, and in part they would be actually contemporaneous.

If these inferences be confirmed by further researches, it will follow that the Borrowdale rocks must be regarded as being of Lower-Bala age. As the Skiddaw slates are unquestionably Arenig, and the Coniston Limestone equally unquestionably Bala, the only other view which could be taken as to the Borrowdale series would be to refer them to the Llandeilo. Apart, however, from the considerations just mentioned, this view is rendered unlikely by the fact that the great series of Llandeilo rocks developed in the south of Scotland appears to be wholly free from intermixture with contemporaneous igneous matter. We can hardly suppose that such could possibly have been the case, if the Llandeilo strata of the southern uplands of Scotland had been in process of formation at a time when the closely adjoining region of the Lake-district was the


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474 Discinocaris, are found in the darkest and most highly fossiliferous graptolitic zones. The Trilobites were obtained exclusively from a dark grey band lying between two graptolitiferous bands, about ten feet above the highest bed of the Coniston Limestone.

Lastly, all the Brachiopods, with the exception of a common but undetermined Orthis of small size, were procured from a single band, the position of which is shown with absolute clearness at several points in the course of Skelgill Beck.

The highest bed of the Coniston Limestone in this locality is fortunately actually a limestone, and not merely a calcareous shale; and it is seen at various points to be directly overlain by a thin band of the characteristic black Mudstone, not more than six or eight inches in thickness, containing numerous Graptolites (Climacograptus &c). The direct contact and juncture of the limestone and the above-mentioned graptolitiferous band can be observed at various spots; and the latter is at once surmounted by a dark grey shale, about eighteen inches in thickness, from which Graptolites are almost entirely absent, but in which the great majority of the Brachiopods were obtained; and this shale is immediately succeeded by a second graptoliferous band. The shale affording the Brachiopods is highly cleaved; and these shells are, unfortunately, so much distorted as to render their determination a matter of considerable difficulty. The Trilobites, on the other hand, occur in a zone several feet higher in the series, surmounted in turn by other graptolitiferous beds, and they are so well preserved as to admit of ready and complete identification.

Any doubt which might have been previously entertained as to the precise age of the Graptolitic Mudstones seems to be removed by the fossils recently obtained from these beds.

It has been already mentioned that these Mudstones were to be regarded as of Lower-Silurian age; and the materials at present in our hands appear entirely to confirm this view. Leaving the evidence afforded by the Graptolites to be considered separately, it is impossible to doubt that the fauna of the Mudstones is essentially a Lower-Silurian fauna. Amongst the Trilobites Agnostus trinodus, Phacops apiculatus, Calymene senaria, Trinucleus fimbriatus, and Cheirurus bimucronatus are characteristic Bala forms ; and all of them, with the exception of the last mentioned, are exclusively confined to rocks of Lower-Silurian age. Harpes Flanagani, the sole remaining form that we have been able to determine with certainty, is a Bala type from Tyrone and Desertecreat. The Discinocaris is closely allied to if not absolutely identical with D. Brouniana, a well-known fossil from the graptolitic Lower Silurians near Moffat.

Of the Cephalopoda the singular Endoceras proteiforme is a characteristic fossil of the Trenton Limestone (Llandeilo-Caradoc) of North America, and Orthoceras angulatum ranges from the Bala to the Ludlow group. The Brachiopoda, even when so much distorted as to be specifically indeterminable, have nevertheless a distinct Lower-Silurian facies; and Orthis vespertilio with Strophomena expansa are characteristic types of the Bala rocks. Lastly, the few


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476 If it be remembered that along one line of outcrop alone, from Appletreeworth Beck to Shap Wells, the Graptolitic Mudstones can be traced almost continuously succeeding the limestone for a distance of about twenty-four miles, it will be seen to be almost impossible that any want of conformity, however slight, could exist without there being, at the same time, a transgression of the Mudstones over the Limestones. It is true that, owing to the circumstance that the calcareous matter of the Coniston Limestone series is disposed in the form of irregular lenticular masses or concretionary layers, the lithological character of the bed immediately below the Mudstones is not invariably the same, being at one time a limestone and at another a calcareous shale. This, however, is due to an irregularity of deposition which obtains throughout the entire limestone series; and we have failed to find any evidence that the Graptolitic Mudstones ever rest upon any of the lower beds of the Coniston Limestone. As the latter group is of small thickness, and as its main line of outcrop is a very long one, such an overlap must occur, supposing unconformity to exist; and in all probability we should even find the Mudstones passing across the limestones and resting upon the older Borrowdale series.

The absence therefore of any unobserved overlap is, under the circumstances, the strongest possible proof that the Mudstones are entirely conformable to the Coniston Limestone.

That the Graptolitic Mudstones constitute a geological horizon of a definite character, and of much more than mere local importance, is shown by the fact that they can be recognized in Ireland in circumstances similar to those under which they occur in the northwest of England (see Appendix). They have also been recognized in Sweden, in Carinthia, and in Bohemia, while future researches will doubtless bring corresponding strata to light in other Lower-Silurian regions.

In Sweden Dr. Linnarsson has shown (Geol. Mag. June, 1876) that the so-called "Upper Graptolitic Schists" are the equivalents in that country of the Graptolitic Mudstones of the north of England. These Upper Graptolitic Schists, as seen in Westrogothia and Ostrogothia, are the highest Silurian rocks exposed to view, so that they add nothing to the evidence as to the age of the Coniston Mudstones.

In Scania, however, they are overlain by undoubted Upper Silurian beds; and in Dalecarlia they are surmounted by a locally developed limestone (the "Leptsena Limestone" of Tornquist), which appears to form either the summit of the Lower Silurian or the base of the Upper Silurian, being in turn covered by the undoubted Upper Silurian "Encrinurus-beds." Upon the whole, therefore, the evidence to be derived from the Swedish area entirely corroborates the view that the Graptolitic Mudstones are of Lower-Silurian age.

In Carinthia, beds corresponding precisely with the Graptolitic Mudstones have been described by Dr. Guido Stache (Die Graptolithen-Schiefer am Osternig-Berge in Kärnten); and the parallelism of the two deposits has been fully noticed by this distinguished


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478 high amount of cleavage; and fossils, though by no means wholly unknown in them, are almost always more or less distorted. At Knock they have yielded only two Graptolites, viz. Monograptus priodon, Bronn, and M. broughtonensis, Nich. & Lapw. At Skelgill, and on the high ground between this place and the vale of Troutbeck, they have afforded many specimens of small Brachiopods (Orthis and Discina) and minute Lamellibranchs. These, however, occur only in the form of external and internal casts; and, as yet, no conclusion has been arrived at concerning their specific forms.

The Knock beds are directly surmounted by the well-known and well-marked group the "Coniston Flags," a series of strata corresponding to the "Denbighshire Flags" of North Wales, and which have been clearly shown, more especially by the researches of Prof. Hughes, to be of Upper-Silurian age. As to the exact age of the Knock beds, it is not to be denied that sufficient evidence is yet wanting on which to found any positive or final opinion. They rest upon the Graptolitic Mudstones, which we have shown to be placed nearly or quite at the summit of the Lower Silurian; and they are overlain by the Coniston Flags, which are quite or nearly the base of the Upper Silurian. It is therefore clear, from their physical position, that the Knock beds must be either the basement series of the Upper Silurian, or the summit series of the Lower Silurian, or a group of passage-beds between these two.

The palæontologieal evidence at present obtained is not enough to justify us in adopting definitely any one of these hypotheses. So far as it goes, the evidence tends to favour the view which regards them as the base of the Upper Silurians—the only two species of Graptolites observed being forms common to the overlying Coniston Flags, whilst there appears to be a complete absence of the genera and species characteristic of the Graptolitic Mudstones.

Further researches, however, will undoubtedly add to the fauna of this group of beds, and enable its position to be determined with greater precision.

In the meanwhile it can only be said that the conclusion to which the few known fossils point is corroborated by the strong lithological resemblance between the "Knock beds" and the "Tarannon Slates" of Wales. We cannot, therefore, be far wrong in provisionally regarding the Knock beds as the base of the Upper Silurian series of the Lake-district, in which case the Graptolitic Mudstones will constitute the highest portion of the Lower Silurians of the same area.

On referring to a geological map of the British Isles it will be seen, from the strike of the Coniston Limestone in the southern portion of the Lake-district, and after it disappears under the newer


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480 such it has its representatives well exposed under the Carboniferous Limestones along the eastern margin of the Lake-district, and also under the Pennine escarpment.

A short distance east of the conglomerate a porphyry, having a delicate purple tint and containing well-developed crystals of a greenish white felspar, occurs. This porphyry is similar to that which forms the bulk of Lambay. Its purple tint is doubtless due to staining from the purple conglomerate which, in some places, overlies it.

Fragments of a similar purple porphyry are met with in the Lake- district near Caldbeck; and in some spots this porphyry is seen in situ overlain by purple conglomerates, when it manifests the same tint as the Portraine porphyry.

The Portraine porphyry is succeeded by traps and ashes; and these are seen to occur to beyond the farm-house on the coast.

At the farm-house the coast trends for a short distance south-east. A little beyond this the ash-beds begin to exhibit trappean fragments in them, the ashes assuming the nature of ash-breccias. The trap fragments, however, are not the only substances which the ashes contain; calcareous nodules also make their appearance in them.

Patches of black shale, which show no traces of volcanic origin, are also associated with the ash-beds; and these black shales afford Graptolites (Climacograptus teretiusculus). These ash-breccias with calcareous nodules and graptolitic shales prevail in greater abundance higher in the series; and in the cliffs under the Martello tower they are seen to be succeeded by fine green-coloured shales so much affected by cleavage that their bedding can scarcely be made out. There are some small faults indicated by Mr. Du Noyer as occurring between where the porphyry is seen and where the green shales make their appearance. These, however, are not of sufficient importance to render the section difficult to interpret. The green shales contain limestone nodules in bands which, though much contorted, indicate distinctly the lines of bedding of the shales, these shales being, no doubt, of ashy origin. Fossils occur in these nodules and also in those which are found in the ash-breccia; and these fossils are distinctly of a Bala type.

The "conglomerates," before referred to as seen on the south-east side of Lambay Island, are a portion of the ash-breccia series. They afford the same fossils, and they have the same graptolitic shales accompanying them.

As regards the horizon in which the nodular ash-breccias occur, as compared with the rocks of the north of England between the Borrowdale group and the Coniston Flags, it would seem that they must be placed on a parallel with those of Style-End Grassing and with the more amply developed Dufton shales. To the latter they are in part allied by their black shales, and to the former by their ashy nature. They indicate more violent volcanic activity in the locality of their deposition than the Dufton shales, but less powerful igneous influences than in the case of the Style-End Grassing ash-beds, where no black shales occur.


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482 the rocks are, in part, well exhibited. Their nature and arrangement have been described by the officers of the Irish Geological Survey (description of Map 35, N.E.). The hill of Grange, where these rocks are best seen, consists principally of porphyries, traps, and ashes, the latter at one spot affording abundance of fossils of Bala age. The porphyries have a great affinity to those of Portraine and Lambay; and the traps and ashes are intimately related to those of the east coast of Ireland.

The western side of the hill of Grange consists of Coniston Limestone, well seen in the portion of the hill known as "the Chair of Kildare" and its immediate surroundings. Judging from its strike, this limestone would appear to be brought against the underlying igneous rocks by means of a fault. Although the limestone and igneous rocks are well exposed, the strata which overlie the former cannot be recognized in the hill of Grange.

Though provided with the six-inch Map, on which Mr. Du Noyer recorded his observations, through the kindness of Prof. Hull and Mr. O'Kelly of the Irish Geological Survey, the rocks succeeding the limestone could not be determined by us. The occurrence of dark shales about this position was indicated on the Map, but the places where they are represented no longer show them.

The exposures seem to have been in ditches; and they are now covered up. On the west the Coniston Limestone is cut off by a fault, "the last traces of it being seen on the south-west brow of the Chair hill."

A short distance south-west of the Chair, a hill called Dunmury occurs. The composition of this hill is altogether different from that of the hill of Grange, neither limestone nor volcanic products being found in connexion with it.

On the eastern side of this hill, and on the western side of the road to Kildare, near a well, a very dark-coloured compact rock, exceedingly like the Graptolitic Mudstones, is seen; and rocks of a like nature occur westward.

The exposures of rock on this hill, however, are very poor; Mr. Du Noyer records, on the map, the appearance of purple and greeu rocks on the west of the road south of the well above referred to. These cannot now be seen; and it is probable they were exposed when the surface of the road was levelled. Judging from Mr. Du Noyer's observations, these purple and green rocks appear to be nearly akin to the Knock beds. Should this be the case, and taken in connexion with the occurrence near them of strata resembling the Graptolitic Mudstones. it would seem that the rocks of Dunmury hill represent these two series.

It is also to be remarked that the outline of this hill differs greatly from that of the hill of Grange.

The contour of Dunmury bears a much greater affinity to the hills of the north-west of England composed of rocks above the Borrowdale series than to such as are made up of members of this portion of the Bala group.


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484 the Upper and the top of the Lower Silurians, whilst in others a real or apparent unconformity occurs. He expressed much surprise at some of the fossils from the Mudstones, and remarked that Trinucleus fimbriatus is a true Lower-Silurian form.

Mr. remarked that, as many geologists have worked over the area referred to in the paper, and have differed so much in their results, it is very difficult to come to any definite conclusion. The Mudstones possess a fauna belonging to the Caradoc beds and low down in the Bala series. He agreed with Prof. Hughes that there are more than one series of pale slates. It occurred to him that there must be some mistake in the determination of the species in the Graptolitic Mudstones; and yet all the interest of the paper hinges upon them. The Coniston Limestones have a well-recognized position.


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Prof. regretted that the more important fossils were not upon the table, as he thought an examination of them, or of the matrix, might suggest some explanation of the difficulties. He questioned the discovery of Orthis vespertilio, Trinucleus, &c. in the Graptolitic Mudstones; and with regard to the sections drawn by the authors, he said he had not carried away quite the same impression of the stratigraphical position of the beds in the area described. He thought that the Coniston Limestone could seldom be considered as one distinct mass of limestone, but that concretionary bands of varying thickness and number appeared at various horizons in a mass of shale in which different fossils locally prevailed at different horizons. By this kind of evidence it was almost but not quite certain that the Graptolitic Mudstones and their basement-beds did rest on different parts of the Lower Series, e.g. at Skelgill, on the limestone bands, and near Coniston, on the Ash-Gill Flags. In the Craven district he had found a conglomerate at the base of the Coniston-Ulag Series, but no Graptolitic Mudstones. In the Sedbergh district a similar conglomerate seemed distinctly to underlie the Graptolitic Mudstones. He allowed that the facies of the Graptolites was very like that of the Lower Series, but pointed out that Barrande had got the very same group in his E, e, i at the base of his Upper Series.

He further pointed out that there were in North Wales two sets of pale slates, one near the top of the Lower Series, the other near the base of the Upper, and probably derived at second hand from older volcanic rocks. Only the Upper were well marked in the Lake-district; and these were the Knock beds of the authors.

Mr. stated that he had spent two years in mapping the rocks of the Volcanic (Borrowdale) series underlying those under consideration. He agreed with Prof. Hughes, that the fossiliferous calcareous band referred to by the authors belonged to the Coniston Limestone, and not to the underlying volcanic rocks, as stated by them. And he remarked that in tracing the outcrop of the Coniston Limestone across country, it was found to rest upon different and successive members of the underlying volcanic series, which plunge under it with varying direction of strike and amount of dip, the unconformity being so marked between the two sets of rocks that occasionally the volcanic series appear to have obtained a dip, been denuded, and faulted before the deposition of the overlying Coniston series.

Mr. differed from Prof. Hughes as to the value of the paper, which he regarded as at all events opening a question on which other observers might be induced to bring forward their views. He inquired whether Mr. De Rance's statements showing unconformity at the base of the Coniston series did not conflict with the views of Prof. Hughes. He thought that there was no occasion to be surprised at repetitions of beds in such a district. In some sections there is no visible unconformity between the base of


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Rh Nodular limestone bands have been referred to as making their appearance in the highly cleaved and contorted green shales. Near the top of these shales the limestone bands become more predominant, and the nodules gradually change into continuous layers succeeded by thicker strata, the whole forming a finely developed mass of Coniston Limestone, in some parts very fossiliferous. The higher beds of the series, however, again assume a nodular form; and at the top of the group a very singular deposit is seen. This bears some resemblance to the nodular ash-breccias; the nodules, however, prevail to a much greater extent.

This bed is so conglomeratic in its aspect as to appear, at first sight, a mass of this nature overlapping the Coniston Limestone. This, however, is clearly not the case, as there occurs underneath this curious nodular bed a mass of a somewhat similar kind, the two being separated from each other by apparently ashy shales in which nodules of limestone are seen.

This singular nodular mass is probably near the horizon of the band of limestone which occurs at Shap Wells as a calcareous breccia.

Dark-coloured rocks are seen resting conformably on the nodular limestone. In their nature these rocks have a great affinity to the Graptolitic Mudstones of the Lake-district. They occur in cliffs which are very inaccessible, and therefore could not be well searched for fossils. Judging from their mineral aspect (and this is a well- marked feature in the Graptolitic Mudstones), we are disposed to refer them to this position.

The rocks south of the Coniston Limestone of Portraine form a synclinal trough. Here the strata are more accessible than where the black shales occur. They consist of fine-grained greenish-coloured shales, having dark grey rocks intercalated with them. The former, as regards their nature, are identical with the green rocks of the Knock beds. Their position also allies them with the latter strata; and they are succeeded by hard grey rocks having a close resemblance to the Coniston Flags. Taking the Portraine section collectively, the nature, the arrangement, and the fossils contained in the rocks here are such as to justify us in referring them to positions lying between the Borrowdale group and the Coniston Flags of the north of England.

To the south of the synclinal alluded to, the continuity of the Portraine section is broken, the coast being for a short distance sandy.

Beyond this sandy area the Bala rocks again appear in the form of ashes and traps, the latter being the most abundant.

The line of strike before alluded to, if continued south-west from Portraine, would bring us to another area where the Coniston Limestone and its associated rocks are seen. This area is in the co. Kildare, about three miles north of the town of Kildare; and here


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Rh rocks west of Millom, that its occurrence might be looked for in Ireland, where rocks appertaining to the Bala series are seen.

On the coast of the co. Dublin, the nearest locality where such rocks could be expected to appear, they are absolutely seen in the direct line of strike of the Coniston Limestone of the north-west of England.

On Lambay Island, two and a half miles east from the mainland, in the south-east portion of the island, we have part of the Coniston series forming a synclinal, though exhibiting many of the same features and the same fossils which this group of rocks in the Lake-district affords. Here are grey limestones succeeded by concretionary bands called by Mr. Du Noyer "coarse Conglomerates" (Explanations of Sheets 102 & 112 of the Maps of the Geological Survey of Ireland). This "Conglomerate" is described as "composed chiefly of rounded pebbles and boulders of grey Silurian Limestone, either fossiliferous or not, with fragments of dark cleaved state, grey grit and greenish grey greenstone, and ash: in one instance a boulder of an older Silurian Conglomerate was discovered, in which were rolled pebbles of a dark green close-grained greenstone, the base being a grey limestone containing Silurian fossils." (Note by Mr. Jukes:—"Some of the Silurian corals were attached by their bases to the pebbles, showing that they had grown on them, just as corals may now be seen growing on pebbles or fragments of rocks along a tropical shore.") "The matrix of the Kiln-Point Conglomerate is a black mud; and throughout the deposit are irregular slaty layers." "When we get lower into the mass we lose the conglomerate, and find nothing but pure dark grey slates, which, near Raven's Well, are found to contain Graptolites and thin calcareous fossiliferous bands" (p. 48).

It is also stated that at Kiln-Point the "grey Silurian Limestone is a wedge-shaped mass of lumpy layers, with thin bands of dark grey earthy shales between them, all very much contorted and resting on the porphyritic greenstone, which has evidently come up under them while in a pasty condition from heat, as it sends veins and strings into the lower beds of the limestone, and often enclosing fragments derived from it." Other circumstances indicate volcanic activity during the deposition of these limestones, even to a greater extent than has been recognized in the Lake-district.

These limestones have below them rocks intimately related to those of the Borrowdale series of the north of England, which are doubtless the equivalents of the latter.

At Portraine, on the mainland, immediately opposite Lambay, there is seen, on the coast, one of the finest sections of the Coniston Limestone and its associated rocks which occurs in the British Isles.

Portraine is about two miles east of Don abate Station, on the Dublin and Drogheda Railway. On reaching the coast an exposure of rock is seen a little east of the coast-guard station. This consists of a purple conglomerate, largely made up of quartz pebbles, which has been designated Old Red Sandstone; but it is more probably the basement conglomerate of the Carboniferous formation. As


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Rh observer. Unfortunately the succession of the Silurian strata in the Osternig is still so obscure as not to permit of any safe con- clusions being drawn as to the precise stratigraphical horizon of these beds, though Dr. Stache concludes that they stand on the borderland between the Lower and Upper Silurians.

In Bohemia we find the representatives of the Graptolitic Mudstones in the "Colonies" of Barrande's Étage D and in the lower portion of the Étage E of the same eminent palæontologist.

These beds, as is well known, are referred by M. Barrande to the base of the Upper Silurian.

Without, however, entering fully into this question here, and disregarding the strong evidence which we now hold as to the Lower-Silurian age of our Graptolitic Mudstones, we would simply point out that M. Barrande himself fully admits that the succession of Silurian life in the Bohemian area was later, stage by stage, than in the northern European and British areas. Thus he supposed that the Bohemian area was peopled with a general Lower-Silurian fauna at a time when the North European and British areas were peopled with a general Upper-Silurian fauna, and he employs this supposition to explain the phenomena of the "Colonies." Admitting therefore that the "Colonies" and the lower portion of Étage E are Upper Silurian, it would in no way follow that the corresponding Graptolitic Mudstones of the north of England are also Upper Silurian. On the contrary, by M. Barrande's own theory, the Graptolitic Mudstones ought to be Lower Silurian, being thus "homotaxeous," but not "contemporaneous" with the lower part of Étage E of Bohemia. We thus see that the evidence to be derived from Bohemia, though apparently at conflict with our views as to the age of the Graptolitic Mudstones, is, when fully analyzed, an additional argument in favour of our conclusions.

The Graptolitic Mudstones are succeeded by a series of strata for which the name of "Knock beds" has been proposed (Nicholson & Lapworth, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Bristol, 1875), on account of their excellent development in Swindale Beck, near Knock. Lithologically the Knock beds present a singular uniformity wherever they are found, enabling them to be recognized with the greatest readiness. They consist principally of pale green, fine-grained slates, extremely ashy in their appearance, exhibiting numerous dendrites, and very commonly containing crystals of cubic pyrites. Along with these greenish slates are often well-marked bands of red and purple slates of the same grain and texture as the preceding; and occasionally there is met with a thin band having a grey or even a nearly black colour, though this is exceptional. The general strike and dip of the Knock beds conform with those of the underlying Graptolitic Mudstones; and there is, at present, no clear evidence of any want of conformity between the two groups.

The Knock beds have been subjected to a varying but always a


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Rh corals which have been found are not such as to give any guide to the age of the strata, all that can be said being that they belong to a type not hitherto recognized in the underlying Coniston Limestone.

The clear evidence borne by the Crustacea, Brachiopoda, and Cephalopoda as to the Lower-Silurian age of the Graptolitic Mudstones, is still further substantiated when we consider the characters of the Graptolites themselves, by far the most abundant fossils in this series. Without entering into any minute analysis of the Graptolites found in these rocks, it may at once be stated that they constitute an assemblage of forms of an unequivocally Lower-Silurian aspect. This is proved by the presence, in abundance, of representatives of the Diprionidian genera Diplograptus and Climacograptus, by the remarkable variety of the species of Monograptus, and by the presence of the genus Rastrites. At the same time, that the Graptolitic Mudstones are not low down in the Lower Silurian series is equally clearly shown by the total absence of the genera Didymograptus and Dicranograptus.

As regards the species of Graptolites, Climacograptus teretiusculus, Diplograptus pristis, D. palmeus, D. tamariscus, Monograptus Sedgwickii, M. triangulattis, M. spinigerus, M. intermedius, M. gregarius, M. Sagittarius, M. fimbriatus, M. lobiferus, M. Nilssoni, Rastrites peregrinus, R. distans are all found in the Moffat shales of the south of Scotland, and are more especially characteristic of that division of the Moffat shales to which Mr. Lapworth has given the name of the "Birkhill Group." Thus nearly three fourths, or seventy-five per cent., of the total number of Graptolites known in the Mudstones, including all the common and characteristic species of the group, can be specifically identified with forms which serve to mark the Lower Silurian rocks of the southern uplands of Scotland, the position of which has never been questioned.

Taking all the various fossils now known from the Graptolitic Mudstones together, it is impossible to doubt that the balance of the palæontological evidence is overwhelmingly in favour of the view that this formation is of Lower-Silurian age.

Such being the case, the Graptolitic Mudstones must correspond in position with the highest beds of the Bala series or with the lower portion of the Llandovery group; and this is the direction in which we believe all the evidence tends. As to the precise physical relations between the Graptolitic Mudstones and the subjacent Coniston Limestone, we are of opinion that the two groups are strictly conformable to one another. Not only are the Mudstones invariably found in their proper position, resting upon the limestone, as seen when there are sections of these groups, but no discordance can be detected, as regards the dip and strike, between the two series where they cannot be seen in actual contact.

Moreover (and this appears to us to be an argument of the greatest weight) it cannot be shown that there is any overlap of the Graptolitic Mudstones upon the Coniston Limestone, the former always resting, so far as we have seen, upon the highest bed of the latter.


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1. Climacograptus teretiusculus, His. Everywhere.

2. Diplograptus pristis, His. Long Sleddale.

3. palmeus, Barr. Skelgill.

4. tamariscus, Nich. Skelgill.

5. confertus, Nich. Skelgill.

6. Monograptus Sedgwickii, Portl. Skelgill &c,

7. Nilssoni, Barr. Skelgill &c.

8. spinigerus, Kick. Long Sleddale.

9. intermedius, Carr. Skelgill.

10. gregarius, Lapw. Skelgill.

11. discretus, Nich. Long Sleddale.

12. sagittarius, His. Mosedale &c.

13. lobiferus, M'Coy. Skelgill.

14. turriculatus, Barr. Long Sleddale.

15. fimbriatus, Nich. Skelgill.

16. triangulatus, Harkn. Skelgill.

17. Rastrites peregrinus, Barr. Skelgill &e.

18. distans, Lapw. Long Sleddale.

19. Retiolites perlatus, Nich. Long Sleddale.

1. Favosites, sp. A form resembling young specimens of F. gothlandica, Lam., but with only a single row of large mural pores, each of which is surrounded by a raised margin on each of the prismatic faces of the corallites. Known by casts only. Skelgill Beck.

2. Favosites, sp. A form with smaller corallites than the preceding, and having the walls perforated with numerous minute irregular mural pores; corallum pyriform. Known from casts only. Skelgill.

1. Strophomena expansa, Sow. Skelgill.

2. Orthis vespertilio, Sow. Skelgill.

3. flabellulum, Sow.? Skelgill.

4. elegantula, Dalm.? Skelgill.

5., sp. A small indeterminable form. Skelgill.

1. Endoceras proteiforme, Hull. Skelgill,

2. Orthoceras angulatum, Wahl, Skelgill,

1. Agnostus trinodus, Salt. Skelgill.

2. Phacops apiculatus, Salt. Skelgill.

3. Cheirurus bimucronatus, Murch. Skelgill.

4. Harpes Flanagani, Portl. Skelgill.

5. Calymene senaria, Conr. (?). A single imperfect example only. Skelgill.

6. Trinucleus fimbriatus, Murch. Skelgill.

7. Discinocaris, sp. A Phyllopod with a concentrically striated, nearly circular carapace, nearly resembling D. Brouniana, H. Woodward, from the Llandeilo rocks near Moffat. Not uncommon in the Mudstones at Skelgill and Poolwyke.

All the more highly organized fossils of the above list were obtained from beds unequivocally belonging to the Graptolitic Mudstones. Some of them, such as Endoceras proteiforme and the species of


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Rh scene of the intense volcanic activity which gave birth to the Borrowdale series.

Resting directly upon the Coniston Limestone, in every locality where the summit of the latter has been recognized, is a series of dark-coloured Mudstones and grey Shales, which, though of small vertical thickness, are of especial interest from the organic remains which they contain. These beds were originally described by us (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiv. p. 296); and to them was applied the name "Graptolitic Mudstones," as indicating their general mineral character and the predominant fossils which they yield. Subsequently, as an alternative local name, the title "Skelgill Beds" was proposed by one of us for these strata, from the farm of High Skelgill, near Ambleside, where they are typically developed (Nicholson and Lapworth, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Bristol, 1875). As before stated, immediately above the highest member of the Coniston Limestone these Graptolitic Mudstones come on. The finest sections of the series, however, are to be found on both sides of Long Sleddale, in Skelgill Beck, near Ambleside, in Appletreeworth Beck, and in Swindale Beck, near Knock.

Many other localities exhibit the same beds; but they are generally badly exposed, and, from their comparatively soft nature, they often become so far worn down as to be indicated simply by a depression immediately following the outcrop of the limestone.

In their mineral characters the Graptolitic Mudstones are so well marked that they may be recognized by this alone, apart from the detection of their characteristic fossils. They consist of dark-coloured, often nearly or quite black Mudstones, which are sometimes anthracitic, the joints of which are characteristically iron-stained. These dark Mudstones are replete with beautifully preserved Graptolites, and alternate in successive bands with lighter and darker grey or even sometimes greenish shales, both the light and dark bands being more or less cleaved. Annexed is a diagrammatic sketch (fig. 3) showing the succession of the strata at Skelgill, where the Graptolitic Mud-stones are admirably exhibited.

In our earlier researches in the Graptolitic Mudstones we devoted ourselves principally to the black bands containing Graptolites, a large number of species of these organisms being described by one of the present writers from this group (Nicholson, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiv. p. 521). More recently an examination has been made, in greater detail, of the grey bands which interstratify the dark-coloured graptolitic layers, with the gratifying result that these have been proved to contain a considerable number of fossils of higher organization than Graptolites. We append a list of the more important species of Graptolites, and of the other fossils at present known as occurring in this series.