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91Rh much of a figure-head as the Mikado. Custom confined the Shogunate to the Minamoto family, and the actual power was wielded by Regents in the name of the Shogun. This lasted until near the end of the sixteenth century, when it happened that Iyeyasu, the supreme military commander of his day, belonged to the Minamoto family, and was therefore able to assume the office of Shogun himself. He and his descendants held the office until it was abolished at the Restoration. The Restoration, however, did not put an end to the practice of a real Government behind the nominal one. The Prime Minister and his Cabinet are presented to the world as the Japanese Government, but the real Government is the Genro, or Elder Statesmen, and their successors, of whom I shall have more to say in the next chapter.

What the Japanese made of Buddhism reminds one in many ways of what the Teutonic nations made of Christianity. Buddhism and Christianity, originally, were very similar in spirit. They were both religions aiming at the achievement of holiness by renunciation of the world. They both ignored politics and government and wealth, for which they substituted the future life as what was of real importance. They were both religions of peace, teaching gentleness and non-resistance. But both had to undergo great transformations in adapting themselves to the instincts of warlike barbarians. In Japan, a multitude of sects arose, teaching doctrines which differed in many ways from Mahayana orthodoxy. Buddhism became national and militaristic; the abbots of great monasteries became important feudal chieftains, whose monks constituted an army which was ready to fight on the slightest provocation.


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93Rh had been able to retain the monopoly which had been granted to them by a Papal Bull. Their monopoly of trade was associated with a Jesuit monopoly of missionary activity. But from 1592 onward, the Spaniards from Manila competed with the Portuguese from Macao, and the Dominican and Franciscan missionaries, brought by the Spaniards, competed with the Jesuit missionaries brought by the Portuguese. They quarrelled furiously, even at times when they were suffering persecution; and the Japanese naturally believed the accusations that each side brought against the other. Moreover, when they were shown maps displaying the extent of the King of Spain's dominions, they became alarmed for their national independence. In the year 1596, a Spanish ship, the San Felipe, on its way from Manila to Acapulco, was becalmed off the coast of Japan. The local Daimyo insisted on sending men to tow it into his harbour, and gave them instructions to run it aground on a sandbank, which they did. He thereupon claimed the whole cargo, valued at 600,000 crowns. However, Hideyoshi, who was rapidly acquiring supreme power in Japan, thought this too large a windfall for a private citizen, and had the Spanish pilot interviewed by a man named Masuda. The pilot, after trying reason in vain, attempted intimidation.

He produced a map of the world, and on it pointed out the vast extent of the dominions of Philip II. Thereupon Masuda asked him how it was so many countries had been brought to acknowledge the sway of a single man.…"Our Kings," said this outspoken seaman, "begin by sending into the countries they wish to conquer religieux who induce the people to embrace our religion, and when they have made considerable progress, troops are sent who combine with the new

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95Rh has had great power in the Government ever since the Restoration, except during its rebellion of 1877. It is hard to disentangle what belongs to Christianity and what to mere hostility to the Central Government in the movements of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. However that may be, Iyeyasu decided to persecute the Christians vigorously, if possible without losing the foreign trade. His successors were even more anti-Christian and less anxious for trade. After an abortive revolt in 1637, Christianity was stamped out, and foreign trade was prohibited in the most vigorous terms:—

The persecution of Christians, though it was ruthless and exceedingly cruel, was due, not to religious intolerance, but solely to political motives. There was reason to fear that the Christians might side with the King of Spain if he should attempt to conquer Japan; and even if no foreign power intervened, there was reason to fear rebellions of Christians against the newly established central power. Economic exploitation, in the modern sense of the word, did not yet exist apart from political domination, and the Japanese would have welcomed trade if there had been no danger of conquest. They seem to have overrated the power of Spain, which certainly could not have conquered them. Japanese armies were, in those days, far larger than the armies of Europe; the Japanese had learnt the use of fire


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 strict sense, the successors of the apostles, that the church is resting firmly on its bishops, as on supports; that a bishop is ‘a living image of God on earth, and, by force of the sacramental power of the Holy Ghost, a prolific source of all the sacraments of the church, by means of which he procures salvation; and so he is as necessary for the church as breathing is for man, as the sun is for the world’ (Epistle of the Eastern Patriarchs, Section 10); that in the bishops is the centre of the believers who belong to his eparchy; that he is even the particular head of his spiritual realm; that, finally, as Cyprian says, ‘the bishop is in the church, and the church (which is subject to him) is in the bishop, and that he who is not in communion with the bishop is not in the church.’” (pp. 227-229.)

The pastors of various degrees, united among themselves, decide, and the people have to obey, and all that which is called the church not merely as an ornament of speech, but in reality, that is, that organ which expresses the faith which men must follow,—that church is the bishops.

175. This article shows that the church is the bishops, and that the higher power above them is an assembly of all the bishops, which is called a council, that is, of several bishops. In this article there is a very detailed account, such as is given in the Statute about the justices of the peace, about the relations of all these persons among themselves:

“From this may be seen, without any new proofs, that the right to sit in councils, both local and ecumenical, and the right to pass on ecclesiastical matters belong exclusively to the bishops as the heads of the separate churches; and the presbyters, who in everything depend on their local arch pastors, may be admitted to the councils only by their consent, and then only as counsellors, or assistants, or their plenipotentiaries, and may occupy only


text: The Problem of China/Chapter 5

title: The Problem of China/Chapter 5


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 Neither be ye called masters: for one is your Master, even Christ (Matt. xxiii. 8-10).

This very verse, these words, which are said directly against those who call themselves teachers, fathers, and masters,—this verse is connected with the verse (Luke x. 16), which has absolutely nothing in common with the first, and is adduced as a proof that those very teachers, who call themselves so against the command of Christ, have Christ as their head. After that follow proofs that (Art. 177) the church is One, (179) Holy, (180) Catholic and Universal, and (181) Apostolic.

In Division III., about the Universal Church, it says:

“III. The special privilege of the Catholic, or Universal, Church consists in this, that in matters of faith ‘it cannot err in any way, nor deceive, nor be deceived; but, like Divine Scripture, it is infallible and has eternal dignity’ (Epistle of the Eastern Patriarchs, Section 12), a privilege of which enough has been said by us in the proper place.”

The moral application of this dogma for the first time results directly from the dogma. The application of the dogma consists in obeying the church.

“(1) The Lord Jesus founded his church that it might regenerate men and educate them for eternal life; and so our relation to it has to be that of children to their mother; we are obliged to love the church of Christ as our spiritual mother and to obey it in everything as our spiritual mother. In particular our Lord Jesus: (2) enjoined the church to keep and teach to men its divine doctrine; it is our duty to receive this teaching from the mouth of the God-given church, and to understand it precisely as the church, which is instructed by the Holy Ghost, understands it; (3) he entrusted to the church the performance of mysteries and, in general, sacraments for the sanctification of men; it is our duty in awe to make use of the saving mysteries and all the other sacraments, which it performs over us; (4) he entrusted the church


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 with the guidance of men and with confirming them in their godly lives; it is our duty without murmuring to submit to the inspiration of such a guide and holily to execute all the commands of the church; (5) he himself established the hierarchy and priestly order in the church, pointed out the difference between the flock and the pastors, and showed each a definite place and service; it is the duty of all the members of the church, of the pastors and the flock, to be that which they are called to be, and to keep well in mind that we have gifts differing according to the grace that is given to us (Rom. xii. 6), and that to every one of us is given grace according to the measure of the gift of Christ (Eph. iv. 7).” (p. 246.)

So that is what the church is as an establishment, as a keeper and announcer of truths, of dogmas! That on which the whole Theology is based is a self-constituted hierarchy and, in distinction from all others, a hierarchy which regards itself alone as holy and infallible and as being the only one that has the right to preach the divine revelation. Thus the whole doctrine of the church, as the Theology teaches it, is all based on establishing the conception of the church as the only true keeper of divine truth, in order to substitute for this conception that of a certain, definite hierarchy, that is, to connect a human institution, the outgrowth of pride, malice, and hatred, which utters dogmas and instructs the flock only in that teaching which it alone regards as true, with the conception of the assembly of all believers who have invisibly at their head Christ himself,—the mystical body of Christ. To that the whole teaching of the Theology reduces itself.

This teaching asserts that the only, true church,—the body of Christ, is it alone. The train of thought is as follows: Having collected the disciples, God revealed the truth to them and promised to be with them. That truth


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Rh solitude was terrible; he was the only passenger. And the omnibus, though well-built, was cold and somewhat musty. He drew his coat round him, and in so doing chanced to feel his pocket. It was empty. He had forgotten his purse.

"Stop!" he shouted. "Stop!" And then, being of a polite disposition, he glanced up at the painted notice-board so that he might call the driver by name. "Mr. Browne! stop; O, do please stop!"

Mr. Browne did not stop, but he opened a little window and looked in at the boy. His face was a surprise, so kind it was and modest.

"Mr. Browne, I've left my purse behind. I've not got a penny. I can't pay for the ticket. Will you take my watch, please? I am in the most awful hole."

"Tickets on this line," said the driver, "whether single or return, can be purchased by coinage from no terrene mint. And a chronometer, though it had solaced the vigils of Charlemagne, or measured the slumbers of Laura, can acquire by no mutation the doublecake that charms the fangless Cerberus of Heaven!" So saying, he handed in the necessary ticket, and, while the boy said "Thank


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Rh you," continued: "Titular pretensions, I know it well, are vanity. Yet they merit no censure when uttered on a laughing lip, and in an homonymous world are in some sort useful, since they do serve to distinguish one Jack from his fellow. Remember me, therefore, as Sir Thomas Browne."

"Are you a Sir? Oh, sorry!" He had heard of these gentlemen drivers. "It is good of you about the ticket. But if you go on at this rate, however does your bus pay?"

"It does not pay. It was not intended to pay. Many are the faults of my equipage; it is compounded too curiously of foreign woods; its cushions tickle erudition rather than promote repose; and my horses are nourished not evergreen pastures of the moment, but on the dried bents and clovers of Latinity. But that it pays!—that error at all events was never intended and never attained."

"Sorry again," said the boy rather hopelessly. Sir Thomas looked sad, fearing that, even for a moment, he had been the cause of sadness. He invited the boy to come up and sit beside him on the box, and together they journeyed on through the fog, which was now changing from yellow to white. There were no houses by the


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 is complete and divine. The truth which we preach is the same truth. Even leaving out of discussion the fact that for every man who has read Holy Scripture and who has seen the arguments which the Theology adduces in proof, it is evident that Christ never established any hierarchy, any church, in the sense in which the Theology understands it; leaving out of consideration that for every one who reads history it is evident that many men have imagined themselves to be such churches, while they contended with one another and did one another harm,—there involuntarily rises the question: on what grounds does our hierarchy consider itself to be the true one, and the other hierarchies and assemblies not to be true? Why is the Nicene symbol an expression of the true, holy church, and why not the Arian symbol, which our hierarchy has been contending against, for were not the bishops, partisans of Arius, as much ordained by succession from the apostles as the partisans of the Nicene symbol? And if this ordainment does not save men from error, why is our church the keeper of truth, and not of untruth? The Theology does not even make an attempt at answering this, for by its doctrine it cannot give any answer, since subjects that are arbitrarily passed upon cannot be proved, and so the hierarchy says only that it is right because it is holy and infallible, and it is holy and infallible, because it is a follower of the hierarchy which has acknowledged the Nicene symbol. But why is the hierarchy which has acknowledged the Nicene symbol the true one? To that there is, and there can be, no answer, so that the recognition of the hierarchy, which calls itself the true, holy, only, universal and apostolic church, is only an expression of a demand that faith should be put in it, an assertion like the one made by a man who says, “Upon my word, I am right.” But this assertion is particularly weakened by the fact that every assertion of the hierarchy about being holy is always due


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Rh road; so it must be either Putney Heath or Wimbledon Common.

"Have you been a driver always?"

"I was a physician once."

"But why did you stop? Weren't you good?"

"As a healer of bodies I had scant success, and several score of my patients preceded me. But as a healer of the spirit I have succeeded beyond my hopes and my deserts. For though my draughts were not better nor subtler than those of other men, yet, by reason of the cunning goblets wherein I offered them, the queasy soul was ofttimes tempted to sip and be refreshed."

"The queasy soul," he murmured; "if the sun sets with trees in front of it, and you suddenly come strange all over, is that a queasy soul?"

"Have you felt that?"

"Why yes."

After a pause he told the boy a little, a very little, about the journey's end. But they did not chatter much, for the boy, when he liked a person, would as soon sit silent in his company as speak, and this, he discovered, was also the mind of Sir Thomas Browne and of many


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Rh others with whom he was to be acquainted. He heard, however, about the young man Shelley, who was now quite a famous person, with a carriage of his own, and about some of the other drivers who are in the service of the Company. Meanwhile the light grew stronger, though the fog did not disperse. It was now more like mist than fog, and at times would travel quickly across them, as if it was part of a cloud. They had been ascending, too, in a most puzzling way; for over two hours the horses had been pulling against the collar, and even if it were Richmond Hill they ought to have been at the top long ago. Perhaps it was Epsom, or even the North Downs; yet the air seemed keener than that which blows on either. And as to the name of their destination, Sir Thomas Browne was silent.

Crash!

"Thunder, by Jove!" said the boy, "and not so far off either. Listen to the echoes! It's more like mountains."

He thought, not very vividly, of his father and mother. He saw them sitting down to sausages and listening to the storm. He saw his own empty place. Then there would be questions, alarms, theories, jokes, consolations. They


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 to this, that another hierarchy, which on some point disagrees with it, says precisely the opposite and asserts that it is right and to the words, “It is permitted to us and to the Holy Ghost,” replies that the Holy Ghost lives in it,—something like what happens when two men swear, denying each other.

All the theologians, no matter how much they may try to conceal it, speak and do nothing else. The church the union of all believers, the body of Christ is only an adornment of speech, in order to add importance to a human institution, the hierarchy and its assumed succession, upon which everything is built up. Remarkable and instructive in this respect are the attempts of the modern theologians, of Vinet and his followers, of Khomyakov and his scions, to find new supports for the teaching about the church, and to build up the definition of the church not on the hierarchy, but on the whole assembly of the believers, on the flock. These new theologians, without noticing it themselves, in their attempts to make stable the tree which is planted without roots, make it fall entirely. These theologians deny the hierarchy and prove the falseness of that foundation, and they think that they are giving it a different foundation. But, unfortunately, this other foundation is nothing but that sophism of theology, under which it tries to conceal the crudity of its doctrine about the church being the hierarchy. That sophism the new theologians take for a foundation and they completely overthrow the doctrine of the church, while they themselves are left with a most palpable sophism, but without a foundation.

Their error is like this: The church has received among believers two main meanings,—one, that the church is a human, temporal institution, and the other, that the church is the totality of men living and dead, who are united by one true faith. The first is a definite historical phenomenon: an assemblage of men subject to certain


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 Catholic Church recognizes the Pope as the head of the hierarchy, and in its development inevitably had to acknowledge the infallibility of the Pope. The Greek Church could fail to recognize the Pope, but in not recognizing the necessity of that supreme member of the hierarchy, it could not help but recognize the infallibility of the hierarchy itself; even so the Protestant Church, in failing to recognize Catholicism during its decadence, could not help but recognize the infallibility of that hierarchy whose dogmas it recognizes, for without the infallibility of the succession of the keepers of the Tradition it would have no foundation for the assertion of its truth.

All the churches maintain themselves only by recognizing the infallibility of that hierarchy which they accept. You may not agree in saying that such and such a hierarchy is the only correct one, but when a man says that he accepts as true the hierarchy whose, dogmas he accepts, you cannot prove to him the incorrectness of his dogmas. That is the only indestructible foundation, and so all the churches cling to it. Now, the new theologians destroy this only foundation, thinking that they are substituting a better one for it. The new theologians say that divine truth is kept, not by the infallibility of the hierarchy, but in the totality of all believers who are united in love, and that only to men who are united in love is divine truth given, and that such a church is defined solely by faith and oneness in love and in concord. This reflection is good in itself, but, unfortunately, from it cannot be deduced a single one of the dogmas which the theologians profess.

The theologians forget that, in order to recognize a certain dogma, it was necessary to recognize Tradition to be holy and definitely expressed in the decrees of the infallible hierarchy. But by rejecting the infallibility of the hierarchy, it is impossible to affirm anything, and there is not a single proposition of the church which could unite


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 all the believers. The affirmation of these theologians that they recognize those decrees which express the faith of all undivided Christians and reject all the arbitrary decrees of the separate Christians is quite incorrect, because there has never existed such a complete oneness of the Christians. Side by side with the Nicene symbol, there was an Arian symbol, and the Nicene symbol was not accepted by all, but only by one part of the hierarchy, and other Christians recognized that symbol only because. they recognized the infallibility of the hierarchy which expressed it, saying, “It pleased us and the Holy Ghost.” But there has never been a time when all the Christians agreed on anything, and the councils were assembled for the very purpose of getting in some manner away from the controversies about the dogmas, which divided the Christians.

Thus the oneness in love has, in the first place, never existed, and, in the second place, this oneness in love, by its very essence, cannot be expressed or defined in any way. The new theologians affirm that by church they understand the union of all the believers, the body of Christ, and by no means the infallible hierarchy and a human institution; but the moment they touch on matters of the church, it becomes evident that by church they understand, and must of necessity understand, a human institution. The cares of all these theologians, beginning with Luther, about the relation of church and state, prove conclusively that these theologians understand by church a still more debased human institution than is understood by the Catholics or the Orthodox. The church theologians are more consistent in their discussions. The church, according to their doctrine, is the bishops and the Pope; thus they speak, and so it is. The Pope and the bishops must, according to their teaching, stand at the head of all worldly institutions, and there can be no question about the relation of the church to the


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 state. The church is always the head of everything. Among the Protestants there appears, in spite of the apparently high significance which they ascribe to the church, the question about the relations of church and state. They are all busy now separating or freeing the church from the oppression of the state, and all of them complain of the wretched condition of divine truth and of Christ at its head, who is in captivity under Bismarck, Gambetta, and so forth, but they forget that if the state can exert any influence on the church, it is evident that, in speaking of the church, we are speaking not of the divine truth which has Christ at its head, but of a human institution.

Men who believe in the teaching of the church cannot base their faith on anything but the legality, the regularity of the succession of the hierarchy. But the regularity and legality of the succession of the hierarchy cannot be proved in any way. No historical investigations can confirm it. On the contrary, historical investigations not only fail to confirm the regularity of any hierarchy, but show directly that Christ did not establish an infallible hierarchy, that in the first times it did not exist, that that system arose in the time of the decline of the Christian teaching, during the time of hatred and malice on account of some interpretation of dogmas, and that all the most varied Christian teachings have asserted just as positively their rights in the regularity of the succession in their church, and have denied that regularity in others, so that the whole doctrine of the Theology, which in regard to the church is not verified in any respect, comes down for me to the desire of certain persons to advance, in opposition to other teachings (which have just such pretensions and which with just as much right assert that they are in the right), their own teaching as the only one which is true and holy.

So far I have not seen in this teaching anything true


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Rh supposed necessity for reviving oriental literature. On the contrary, they stated the objects for which the committee had been appointed to be “the better instruction of the people, the introduction of useful knowledge, including the arts and sciences of Europe, and the improvement of their moral character,” objects with which the learning of the shasters and the Koran, which it was afterwards proposed to revive, are at complete variance. The court of directors in their dispatch written about the same period are still more explicit. They emphatically state that “it is worse than a waste of time to employ persons either to teach or to learn the sciences in the state in which they are found in oriental books;” that “the great end should not have been to teach Hindu learning or Mohammedan learning, but useful learning;” and that, in establishing seminaries for the purpose of teaching mere Hindu or mere Mohammedan literature, the Indian government bound themselves “to teach a great deal of what was frivolous, not a little of what was purely mischievous, and a small remainder indeed in which utility was in any way concerned.” But meanwhile the administration of the fund had fallen into the hands of persons devoted to oriental studies, party zeal was excited,


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100 and the ingenuity of several able men was tasked to the utmost to defend a course of proceeding which had been adopted in spite of the declared sentiments of the court of directors and of common sense.

It was urged, in the next place, that it was downright spoliation to alter the appropriation of any of the funds which had previously been spent by the government in encouraging the study of Sanskrit and Arabic, but which were now directed to be employed in teaching English under the restrictions contained in the resolution of the 7th March 1835. To this it was replied that “the grants which are made from the public purse for the encouragement of literature differ in no respect from the grants which are made from the same purse for other objects of real or supposed utility. We found a sanatarium on a spot which we suppose to be healthy: do we thereby pledge ourselves to keep a sanatarium there, if the result should not answer our expectations? We commence the erection of a pier: is it a violation of the public faith to stop the work, if we afterwards see reason to believe that the building will be useless? The rights of property are undoubtedly sacred; but nothing endangers those rights so much as the practice, now unhappily too com-


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Rh mon, of attributing them to things to which they do not belong. Those who would impart to abuses the sanctity of property are in truth imparting to the institution of property the unpopularity and the fragility of abuses. If the government has given to any person a formal assurance,—nay if the government has excited in any person’s mind a reasonable expectation, that he shall receive a certain income as a teacher or a learner of Sanskrit or Arabic, I would respect that person’s pecuniary interests. I would rather err on the side of liberality to individuals than suffer the public faith to be called in question. But to talk of a government pledging itself to teach certain languages and certain sciences, though those languages may become useless, though those sciences may be exploded, seems to me quite unmeaning. There is not a single word in any public instrument from which it can be inferred that the Indian government ever intended to give any pledge on this subject, or ever considered the destination of these funds as unalterably fixed. But, had it been otherwise, I should have denied the competence of our predecessors to bind us by any pledge on such a subject. Suppose that a government had in the last century enacted, in the most solemn manner, that all its subjects should to the


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 became all good after that, and so the Theology sees that the question, as it stood before Adam,—whether to eat or not to eat the apple, and as it stands before us,—whether to live or not to live according to the teaching of Christ, is still standing before men, and so it was compelled to invent a doctrine by which the question of what man must do should be supplanted by the question of what he ought to confess and speak. And for that purpose is invented the teaching, at first, of the church, and now, of grace.

But, as we shall later see, this teaching about grace is insufficient, and there is invented another, a new teaching about faith, which is to cooperate in the obfuscation before people of the chief religious and moral question as to how men ought to live. It is impossible connectedly to render this teaching about grace in the manner in which it is expounded. The more you penetrate into it, the less you comprehend it. You read and fail to understand, not only what is being expounded, but even why it is all expounded. Only after reading the whole Theology through, after reading the chapter on the sacraments and on the mysteries, and recalling the contradiction with reality, which is put in the dogma of the redemption, is it possible, at last, to divine the cause which made them invent those strange aberrations, and to explain to ourselves that remarkable doctrine.

The explanation of the doctrine about grace I find to be as follows: the hierarchy (for exactness’ sake I will from now on use this word instead of the obscure “church”) teaches us that Christ redeemed the human race, destroyed sin, evil, death, diseases, and the unfruitfulness of the earth. In reality nothing of the kind has been destroyed; everything was left as of old. How, then, justify the unjustified assertion? In order to justify it, it is necessary to attach to the salvation of the human race by Christ another condition, without which this salvation cannot take place, so as


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102 end of time be inoculated for the small-pox; would that govermentgovernment [sic] be bound to persist in the practice after discovery? These promises, of which nobody claims the performance, and from which nobody can grant a release; these vested rights, which vest in nobody; this property without proprietors; this robbery, which makes nobody poorer,—may be comprehended by persons of higher faculties than mine.—I consider this plea merely as a set form of words, regularly used both in England and in India, in defence of every abuse for which no other plea can be set up.” All the private endowments which have at different times been placed under the management of the education committee are administered with a strict regard to the intentions of the founders. A large sum of money, for instance, left by a late minister of the king of Lucknow, which was originally appropriated to the use of the oriental college at Delhi, continues to be applied to the support of oriental literature in that institution.

Another objection which has been made is, that the abolition of the stipends formerly given to students will exclude the sons of learned men who are in indigent circumstances, as well as those of all persons living at a distance from the government colleges, the advantages of which will thus


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Rh be confined to the capital and to one or two great towns.

To this I answer, that, instead of two or three, there are already forty institutions scattered throughout the country; that the means of obtaining a liberal education have thus been brought into everybody’s own neighbourhood; and that the number of young men belonging to every class of society, and to every part of the Bengal provinces, who now profit by our seminaries, necessarily greatly exceeds what used to be the case under the plan of having a few expensive colleges at which the students as well as teachers received salaries. Hundreds of boys are now cultivating our literature in Assam, Arrakan, Tenasserim, and other frontier provinces, which did not send a single student to the colleges at Calcutta and Benares.

In India poverty is not the only obstacle to the education of children at a distance from their parents. The means of communication from place to place are slow and inconvenient; a journey of one or two hundred miles appears to a native the same formidable undertaking that it did to our ancestors in the time of Queen ; and, above all, the mutual confidence which leads Englishmen to trust the entire management of their


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104 children to persons whom they often know only by reputation, is at a very low ebb in India. No native who could afford to give his son an education of any sort at home would think of sending him to be brought up among strangers. It was once proposed to educate the public wards at Calcutta, where the government itself would have had proper care taken of them, but the relations of the wards so unanimously and decidedly objected to the plan that it was at once abandoned. They had no objection, however, to their being educated under the superintendence of the government officers at their own provincial towns, with which they are in almost daily communication, and at which the young men might have resided, often in their own town houses, under the care of the old servants of the family. Besides this, the colleges under the stipendiary system were regarded by all classes as charitable institutions; and this alone would have prevented the native gentry from sending their sons to them. They were filled with the children of indigent persons, a very small proportion of whom came from a distance; and these last, even if they had learned any thing worth communicating, which they did not; would have been too few, too uninfluential, and too much isolated from the rest of


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 prehensible, and the more controversies, lies, malicious attacks, wars, and executions have taken place because of it, as we know from history. Indeed, what can be more remarkable, for uselessness, than this remarkable teaching about grace, about what, according to the definition of the Theology, is given by God to his creatures without the least desert on their part. One would think that according to this definition grace is the whole of life, everything, for everything is given to us by God without the least desert on our part, and that therefore the relation of man to grace is the relation of man to life. So it is, but since the Theology understands man’s relation to life in the most perverse manner, all the discussions about grace reduce themselves to the attempt to lower the meaning of life to a most monstrous and crude conception.

First it takes the account of the creation of man, in which Holy Scripture expresses in the person of Adam the relation of man’s freedom to grace, that is, to the external world. The whole account is taken by the Theology in the historical sense only. Adam fell, and the whole human race perished, and before Christ there was no relation of man’s freedom to grace, that is to life, there was no life, and men did not do wrong. Christ came and redeemed the whole human race, and then, speaking strictly, according to the teaching of the Theology, there was again destroyed the relation of man’s freedom to grace, to the external world, for according to the church teaching man became all holy and now does only what is good. But, as we know, nothing of the kind has ever happened, and the whole meaning of the Old Testament and Gospel teaching and of all moral and philosophical teachings consists only in finding a solution of the contradictions of good and evil, which are struggling in man. Although theology asserts that man after his redemption became entirely good, it knows that that is an untruth. It is not true that all men were bad before the redemption and


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Rh the community, to be able to induce the body of their countrymen to participate in their opinions. The animating and civilizing influence arising from the neighbourhood of a large seminary, and the daily intercourse of the people with its numerous scholars, and the tendency which this has to interest the public in the subject of education, and to lead to the establishment of new institutions, was too partial under the stipendiary system to have any practical effect. Even if the education given had been of a kind calculated to enlighten the people, instead of confirming them in their errors, it would have taken ages to make an impression on the immense population of western India by such means as these.

If any class of persons be favoured by the plan which has now been adopted, it is those who are able and willing to learn, and who are in a situation to induce others to follow their example. If any be excluded, it is those who used to come to obtain food, not for the mind, but for the body, and who were too poor to be able to pursue their studies in after life. So long as we offer instruction only, we may be sure that none but willing students will attend; but if we offer money in addition to instruction, it becomes impossible to


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106 say for the sake of which they attend. These bounties on learning are the worst of bounties; they draw to a particular line a greater number of persons than that line would, without artificial encouragement, attract, or than the state of society requires. They also paralyze exertion. A person who does not want to learn a particular language or science is tempted to commence the study by the stipend; as soon as he has got the stipend he has no motive for zealously prosecuting the study. Sluggishness, mediocrity, absence of spirited exertion, and resistance to all improvemenimprovement [sic] are the natural growth of this system.

It is also of particular importance in such a country as India, and on such a subject as popular education, that the government should have some certain test of the wishes of its subjects. As long as stipends were allowed, students would of course have been forthcoming. Now the people must decide for themselves. Every facility is given, but no bribes; and if more avail themselves of one kind of instruction than of another, we may be sure that it is because such is the real bent of the public mind. But for the abolition of stipends, false systems might have been persevered in from generation to generation, which, with an appear-


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Rh ance of popularity, would really have been preserved from falling into disuse only by the patronage of government.

The result of the experiment has been most satisfactory. Formerly we kept needy boys in pay, to train them up to be bigoted maulavees and pundits; now multitudes of the upper and middle classes flock to our seminaries to learn, without fee or reward, all that English literature can teach them. The practice of giving stipends to students was part of the general system by which learning was confined to particular castes; this monopoly has now been broken down, and all are invited to attend who are really anxious to learn. Where formerly we paid both teachers and students, we now only pay the teachers; and our means of extending our operations have been proportionably increased; yet, so great is the demand for teachers, that if we could only increase their number at will, we might have almost any number of students.

It is constantly urged by the advocates of oriental learning that the result of all our efforts will only be to extend a smattering of English throughout India, and that the question is between a profound knowledge of Sanskrit and Arabic literature on the one side, and a super-


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108 ficial knowledge of the rudiments of English on the other.

Nothing can be more groundless than this assumption. The medical pupils who were declared by Mr. to have passed as good an examination for the time they had attended lectures as any class of pupils in Europe, acquired their knowledge entirely from English books and lectures delivered in English. Neither were these picked boys; they principally came from Mr. preparatory school, and from the second and third classes of the, and they were therefore below the standard of those who go through the whole course of instruction at our principal seminaries.

In their report published in 1831 the committee, speaking of the Hindu college, observe: “The consequence has surpassed expectation; a command of the English language and a familiarity with its literature and science have been acquired to an extent rarely equalled by any schools in Europe.” Such having been the result at the Hindu college, what is there to prevent our being equally successful in the more recently established seminaries? The same class


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 supernatural grace is divided into two species: into the grace of God the Creator, which he communicates to his moral creatures that abide in a condition of innocence; he communicated it to man before his fall, and even now imparts it to his good angels; and into the grace of God the Saviour, which he has given more properly to fallen man through Jesus and in Jesus Christ (Tit. iii. 4).” (p. 248.)

This latter subdivision is further subdivided into three parts: grace is divided into (1) the incarnation of Christ and the redemption; (2) extraordinary gifts for the advantage of the church, such as prophecy, miracles, and so forth, and (3)—

“Last, by grace is understood a special force, a special action of God, which is communicated to us on account of the deserts of our Redeemer, and which achieves our sanctification, that is, which, on the one hand, purifies us. from sin, renovates, and justifies us before God, and, on the other, confirms us and turns us back to virtue for eternal life. In this latter sense grace forms the proper subject of the dogmatic teaching about it.” (p. 249.)

This latter subdivision contains in it three more particular conceptions.

“(1) It is: (a) a special force, a special divine action in man, as is to be seen from the words of the Lord himself to the Apostle Paul: My grace is sufficient for thee: for my strength is made perfect in weakness, and then from the words of St. Paul: Most gladly therefore will I rather glory in my infirmities, that the power of Christ may rest upon me (2 Cor. xii. 9). (b) It is given to us for nothing, on account of the deserts of Jesus Christ, as the same apostle teaches us: For all have sinned, and come short of the glory of God; being justified freely by his grace through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus (Rom. iii. 23, 24). (d) It is given to us for the sake of our sanctification, that is, for our purification and justification,


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 for our success in godliness and salvation. That is confirmed by the following passages in Scripture: Grace and peace be multiplied unto you through the knowledge of God, and of Jesus our Lord, according as his divine power hath given unto us all things that pertain unto life and godliness, through the knowledge of him that hath called us to glory and virtue (1 Peter i. 2, 3), and so forth. This sanctifying grace is, for the greater clearness of its teaching, subdivided into two particular kinds. It is called external in so far as it acts upon man externally, through external means, such as, the Word of God, the preaching of the Gospel, miracles, and so forth; and internal, in so far as it acts directly in man himself, destroying the sins in him, enlightening his reason, exciting and directing his will toward the good. It is called temporary, when it produces special impressions upon a man’s soul and coöperates in his special good deeds; and constant, when it abides constantly in man’s soul and makes him righteous and pleasing before God. It is called premonitory, when it precedes each good deed and incites man to commit good deeds; and accompanying or coactive, when it accompanies each good deed. It is called sufficient, when it imparts to man sufficient force and convenience to act for his salvation, though it may not be accompanied by the action itself on the part of man; and real, when it is accompanied by the action itself and produces in man saving fruits.” (pp. 249 and 250.)

Thus there are in all fourteen different kinds of grace, and all those will be properly disclosed. All the contrary opinions will be refuted, and everything will, according to the usual method, be confirmed by Holy Scripture. In no part of the doctrine, so manifestly as in the doctrine about grace, will the remark be confirmed that the less the doctrine is necessary in order to explain the meaning of life to man and to guide him to union with God, the more has the church been talking about it, the less it is com-


text:
Page:Giuseppe Bianchini - The Work of the Fascist Government and the Economic Reconstruction of Italy - tr. Luigi Villari.pdf/19

 I have already pointed out some indications of restored prosperity as shown by the progress of industry, the assured continuity and tranquillity of labour, and the restoration of the State finances. To these data some others now may be added.

The budget of 1920–21 showed a deficit of 15,760 millions of lire. In that of 1922–23 the deficit had fallen to 3,029 millions; in that of 1923–24 it had again fallen still further to 418 millions; according to the estimates for 1924–25 the budget will be balanced, while according to those for 1925–26 there should be an actual surplus. It should be noted that, according to the original estimates, the budget for 1924–25 should have shown a deficit of 1335 millions, whereas on December 31, 1924, viz. half way through the financial year, the deficit had been reduced to 185,447,000 and by the 30th June next, the budget should certainly be balanced or may even show a small surplus. These figures are the result of the magnificent tenacity of the Finance Minister Sig. De Stefani.

The internal public debt, which on June 30 1923 amounted to 95,544 millions, on June 30 1924 had been


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 reduced to 93,163 millions, and on December 31 1924 to 91,988 millions. Here too we have not only no further increase of indebtedness, but a tendency towards an actual reduction.

In addition to the inter-Allied debts, amounting on December 31 1924 to 23,056 millions in gold, which constitute a suspended political operation, we had some foreign debts of a commercial character, i. e. debts owed by the State for supplies, foodstuffs, etc., and these debts must not be confused with the inter-Allied debts. On June 30 1922 they amounted to 278 millions in gold; they are now reduced to 51 millions, and will have been completely paid up by next Febraury.

The ruinous output of paper money, which is the cause of inflation and the chief, if not the only, cause of the depreciation of the currency, has been strictly containd, and as all further issues have completely ceased since 1922, fiduciary circulation, save for small oscillations due to commercial necessitis, has remained steady at about 20 milliards (to be accurate, on December 31 1922 it was 20,560 millions, and on December 20 1924 at 20,302 millions).


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 ception has some plausibility only in the case of baptism; in the other cases there is not even any cause for deception, and the hierarchy has to invent the cause itself, as it has done in the present case. Because Christ has said, “He that believeth on me, as the scripture hath said, out of his belly shall flow rivers of living water,” it follows that all have to be anointed with oil, and that Christ. promises a special advantage from it. Then follows the exposition of the dogma.

209. The visible side of the sacrament of unction with chrism. The visible side consists in this, that the anointing is done in the form of a cross and certain words are pronounced. Proofs from Holy Scripture.

210. The invisible side of unction with chrism, and its unrepeatedness. The invisible action consists in this, that the Holy Ghost enters into him who is being anointed, and there enters grace, (1) which enlightens in the truth of faith, (2) confirms in godliness. Mention is made that in former days they began to prophesy and speak in various tongues after it, but now that does not happen,—the Holy Ghost merely enters.

211. To whom the sacrament of unction with chrism belongs, and when it is to be performed. A priest, and not the bishop only, may anoint with chrism, and so the Catholics are wrong, and that is proved at great length.

212. Connection with the preceding. Conception of the sacrament of the eucharist. Its superiority and different appellations.

“Through the sacrament of baptism we enter Christ’s kingdom of grace pure, justified, regenerated for spiritual life. In the sacrament of unction with chrism we receive in ourselves the powers of grace, which are necessary for our strengthening and growth in the spiritual life. Finally, in the sacrament of the eucharist we are made worthy for the same high purpose of partaking of the food and drink which gives salvation,—the pure flesh


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 teaching of the Lutherans and of the Reformers. The teaching of the Orthodox Church is of an entirely different kind. Speaking of the fruits of the sacrament of baptism, in which properly takes place our justification and sanctification through grace, the church teaches:

“‘In the first place, this sacrament destroys all sins: in babes—original sin, and in grown persons both original and arbitrary sin. In the second place, it reëstablishes for him that righteousness which he had in the condition of innocence and sinlessness.’ And in another place: ‘It cannot be said that the baptism does not free from all former sins, but that they remain indeed, but no longer have any force. It is extreme ungodliness to teach in that manner; it is an overthrowing of faith, and not a confession of it. On the contrary, every sin which exists or has existed before the baptism is destroyed and is regarded as though it did not exist or had never existed. For all the forms under which baptism is represented show its purifying power, and the utterances of Holy Scripture give us to understand that through it we receive complete purification, which is seen from the very name of baptism. If it is a baptism by the Spirit and by fire, it is evident that it offers complete purification, for the Spirit purifies completely. If it is light, every darkness is dispelled by it. If it is regeneration, everything old passes away; and this old thing is nothing but the sins. If the man who is baptized is divested of the old man, he is also divested of sin. If he is invested in Christ, he with the same becomes sinless through baptism (Epistle of the Eastern Patriarchs, Section 16).’” (pp. 256 and 257.)

186. The necessity of grace for the sanctification of man in general. It is proved by Holy Scripture, and this is the way it is determined by the councils:

“If any one asserts that for our purification from sins God waits for our desire, and does not confess that the desire itself to purify ourselves takes place in us through


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 Commercial activity has likewise improved. Imports in 1922 amounted to 15,320,000,000 as against 9,292,849,000 lire of exports. In the first ten months of 1924 the figures were 15,245,605,000 for imports and 11,120,478,000 for exports. There is still a difference between imports and exports, but it is being reduced. Furthermore, it is notorious that this difference is fully covered by freight charges, investments abroad, emigrants' remittances and money expended by foreigners in Italy, and it is certain that these sources of income not only cover the deficit of the commercial balance, but must even provide a certain margin, because during the last two years neither the Italian State nor Italian private economy has contracted debts abroad, but on the contrary there has been a certain of export of capital to foreign countries.

Savings also show a progressive increase. The Postal Savings Banks contained deposits in December 1922 amounting to 8,722,500,000, in December 1923 to 9,110,858,000, in December 1924 to 9,574,700,000. The deposits in the ordinary Savings Banks in December 1922 were 9,294,689,000, in December 1923 10,575,969,000,


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 in November 1924 12,007,200,000. The total amount entrusted to the Postal and ordinary Savings Banks, Banks and Monti di Pietà amounted approximately in December 1922 to 50 milliards, in December 1923 to 55 miliards, and by the end of 1924 had rearhed 60 milliards.

Each of thes figures has its own importance, but the concomitant and parallel improvement in all the indices of the economic and financial situation is peculiarly significant.

We can verily heave a sign of relief as we look back on the dangers which we have escaped, and we should indeed be grateful to the captain who has piloted us through to safety; but let us not forget that the voyage is not yet over, that fresh difficulties arise from hour to hour, and that it would be an unpardonable sin to obstruct his action while the ship is still salilingsailing [sic] in insecure waters.

We have now set forth the situation and its satisfactory features. But let us not ignore the criticisms which are being made. These are of divers nature. There those made by the enemy, i. e. by parties hostile to the


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 destiny. It is hardly worth mentioning besides, that, alongside of all this, there was some evidence of demoralization also.

The new Labor school, which the Soviet power is trying to create, must not, of course, permit such education. Its tasks are diametrically opposed to the tasks of a bourgeois school. In respect to physical work the new school sets as its aim the cultivation of a high regard for all lines of productive work, and of a profound esteem for the millions of the working masses. The productive work of men, creating new cultural values and freeing humanity from the former fetters, irrespective of the category of work—this is the fundamental idea which should be laid as a cornerstone for the education of the new labor school. The conclusion, then, follows of itself, that in the labor school-commune the teachers and the pupils should take upon themselves all those labors which the old school imposed upon the shoulders of others and that, out of an ideal inspiration, the physical work necessary for the school life should be equally divided among the participants of the school in accordance with the physical strength of the respective age groups.

Here we approach the question whether there exists a necessity for school servants altogether and, if such a necessity exists, what place in the school system should be set aside for the school servants. The answer to this question is offered by the fundamental principle of the school system: the education of children in school must be in charge of no one else but those who are to be considered as instructors and, therefore, the instruction in the physical work necessary. for the economic welfare of the school life must be put in charge of persons who may be called pedagogues. Concrete instances will illustrate better the substance of this thesis. Let us assume that in the youngest group of children who have not yet the adequate habits of physical strength to be entrusted with performing any physical work, for instance making the fires, or preparing meals, we should have to resort to the use of other people's work, let us even say, the work of school pupils of an older age group. In such case there would be still necessary in the school an instructor-stoker or an instructor-cook, who should be fully conscious of his educational duties and who, consequently, would have to attain a certain level of pedagogical development. The heating of furnaces and the preparation of food may then, under his leadership, change not only into a very important, though purely mechanical work,


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 into a mechanical productive work having a very great educational value, too, but it may become a source for the education and mental development of the children. Yet the leader-pedagogue will necessarily be compelled to have by his side a helper not from the ranks of the pupils. The moral and mental development of this helper must correspond to the indicated tasks of work in school. Another instance. If a nurse is necessary for the care of the children in the younger age group, the role of such nurse should be at the same time an educational one, and such nurse should be fully aware of her responsibility before society and should clearly understand the importance of her duties. The work of a nurse, a floor-scrubber, a stoker, etc., if it should prove impossible to do without their help, should be to some extent an expert work, a work which has a pedagogical foundation. Under such circumstances the word "servants" will assume in the school an entirely different meaning: the school servants will become, in fact, the lower pedagogical personnel corresponding, as regards its value in school, to the value of a surgeon's assistants and nurses at the time of operations.

If we should turn to the present realities of life, we would, indeed, find such conditions nowhere in school. The moral and intellectual level of the school servants very often does not correspond to their task and is, one may state it, directly inverse to the level of the luxuriousness of the school environment. This is not the fault, of course, of the staff of the lower servants. For obvious reasons, the responsibility for this is also in this case directly inverse to the educational level of the school directors and is the result of the former economic order of life.

To what extent the leading circles ignored up to the time of the November revolution, the problem of the school servants, is manifest if only from the circumstance that the school registers did not even take cognizance of the numerical force of the lower servants.

Even if we omit the question of guilt, the problem still remains and it is left to the Soviet school policy to perform this task. And when, with this policy in view, one reviews the ranks of the former school personnel, one can hardly find any personal points of support for a further movement. For that matter, however, a straight and honorable road is clearly indicated, along which not only will the movement not meet any obstacles,


text: Advice to the Indian Aristocracy/Chapter 12


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 any differences, but not even a single contradiction. This road is the abolishment of the old and the preparation of a new working school army, with the improvement of its working conditions.

And indeed, if we examine into the school methods of hygiene and if we carry into execution the measures recommended by science, we cannot imagine that the work will be successful, if the executors of the first customary rules of health preservation will demonstrate a skeptical indifference toward them and if their existence will be surrounded by anti-hygienic conditions. When a helper, while opening ventilation or removing dust, or a nurse, while attending the children, will only care to execute these operations as an order, as a hard duty, and, while removing the dust, or touching the child will carry from the dark, damp, basement, which so often is used in schools for housing and crowding servant people in them, his or somebody else's germs and his anti-hygienic habits—then such help is directly dangerous for the school. The helper-servant must, to some little extent at least, be acquainted in a general way with the elementary rules of school hygiene. The same may be said of the helpers in any other household line. Thus the school is in need of qualified workers, instructors in school economy. The creation of an army of such instructors is rendered possible all the more, since the remuneration for school work is at present sufficiently high.

How, then, to create such an army? Up to the present time there were conducted everywhere pedagogical and general educational courses for instructors of all school grades. Corresponding courses of school economy must be quickly organized in various localities for the school servants and for the instructors, and these courses must not be of a narrow technical scope but with a number of subjects of a general educational character. We may rest assured that the lower servants themselves, who undoubtedly aspire to education, will heartily respond to the idea of the courses and will lend their support to these tasks. Then we could cherish a hope for the creation of a new school army, where from young to old every one would be imbued with the common idea and where the difference between the old and young, between the "gentle" and the "common" work, would disappear. The union of the teachers-internationalists and its branches must pay special attention to this question and to advancing the problem, in co-operation with the labor union of the servants (along the lines of specialization), most decidedly and quickly. The


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 working out of the program and the introduction of the courses on school economy—this is the immediate task of groups of idealists who are interested in the problem of education.

Document No. 11 is an interesting, though rather brief, outline of an experiment with a model school of vocational training for children.

The first experimental vocational school of the department of school reforms, attached to the People's Commissariat of Education, began to function June 19, 1918. Great difficulties connected with food problems have made it impossible thus far to admit to the school its prescribed full quota of pupils. The school has the character of an experimental institution, established for the purpose of a scientific and practical solution of questions connected with the new pedagogy and, particularly, those regarding the school-workshop. Its activity has been conducted along scientifically experimental lines and for the comparatively short period of the school's existence many valuable results for the realization of school reforms have already been achieved.

The activity of the school has manifested itself within the following spheres: 1) Biological and sociological study of children of school age; 2) Physical instruction and education; 3) Experiments along the line of an extensive organization of a vocational school; 4) Experimental investigation of various methods of educational work; 5) Social education; 6) Esthetic education.

To accomplish the aims stated above the school has been organized as a vocational school-commune, having at its disposal a number of scientific and auxiliary institutions: shops, scientific cabinets, laboratories, and cabinets for medical, anthropological and psychological investigations.

The school has been completely furnished with the necessary economic and school inventories; it has several shops for carpentry, book-bindery and classes in draftsmanship. In addition to this, the children receive instruction in embroidering, modeling


text: Advice to the Indian Aristocracy/Chapter 13


text:
User:Heyzeuss/Tabular data

local p = {} local lang = mw.getContentLanguage local navbar = require("Module:Navbar")

local messages = { ["true"] = "Yes", ["false"] = "No", null = "N/A", }

local bgColors = { ["true"] = "#9f9", ["false"] = "#f99", null = "#ececec", }

local colors = { null = "#2c2c2c", }

function p._cell(args) local data = args.data or mw.ext.data.get(args[1]) local rowIdx = tonumber(args.output_row) local outputFormat = args.output_format local outputColumnNames = { args.output_column1 or args.output_column, }	while args["output_column" .. #outputColumnNames + 1] do table.insert(outputColumnNames, args["output_column" .. #outputColumnNames + 1]) end local outputColumnIdxs = {} local numOutputColumnIdxs = 0 for i, field in ipairs(data.schema.fields) do		for j, outputColumnName in ipairs(outputColumnNames) do			if field.name == outputColumnName then outputColumnIdxs[outputColumnName] = i				numOutputColumnIdxs = numOutputColumnIdxs + 1 end end if numOutputColumnIdxs == #outputColumnNames then break end end if numOutputColumnIdxs < #outputColumnNames then for i, outputColumnName in ipairs(outputColumnNames) do			assert(outputColumnIdxs[outputColumnName],				mw.ustring.format("Output column “%s” not found.", outputColumnName)) end end if rowIdx > 0 then rowIdx = (rowIdx - 1) % #data.data + 1 elseif rowIdx < 0 then rowIdx = rowIdx % #data.data + 1 else error("0 is not a valid row index.") end local record = data.data[rowIdx] if record ~= nil then if outputFormat or numOutputColumnIdxs > 1 then local values = {} for i, columnName in ipairs(outputColumnNames) do				local columnIdx = outputColumnIdxs[columnName] table.insert(values, record[columnIdx]) end if outputFormat then return mw.ustring.format(outputFormat, unpack(values)) else return mw.text.listToText(values) end else local columnIdx = outputColumnIdxs[outputColumnNames[1]] return record[columnIdx] end end end

--- Returns the value of the cell at the given row index and column name. --- A row index of 1 refers to the first row in the table. A row index of -1 --- refers to the last row in the table. It is an error to specify a row index --- of 0. --- Usage: function p.cell(frame) return p._cell(frame.args) end

function p._lookup(args) local data = args.data or mw.ext.data.get(args[1]) local searchValue = args.search_value local searchPattern = args.search_pattern local searchColumnName = args.search_column local searchColumnIdx for i, field in ipairs(data.schema.fields) do		if field.name == searchColumnName then searchColumnIdx = i		end if searchColumnIdx then break end end assert(searchColumnIdx, mw.ustring.format("Search column “%s” not found.", searchColumnName)) local occurrence = tonumber(args.occurrence) or 1 local numMatchingRecords = 0 for i = (occurrence < 0 and #data.data or 1), (occurrence < 0 and 1 or #data.data), (occurrence < 0 and -1 or 1) do		local record = data.data[i] if (searchValue and record[searchColumnIdx] == searchValue) or			(searchPattern and mw.ustring.match(tostring(record[searchColumnIdx]), searchPattern)) then numMatchingRecords = numMatchingRecords + 1 if numMatchingRecords == math.abs(occurrence) then local args = mw.clone(args) args.data = data args.output_row = i				return p._cell(args) end end end end

--- Returns the value of the cell(s) in the given output column(s) of the row --- matching the search key and column. --- Reminiscent of LOOKUP macros in popular spreadsheet applications, except --- that the search key must match exactly. (On the other hand, this means the --- table does not need to be sorted.) --- Usage: function p.lookup(frame) return p._lookup(frame.args) end

function p._wikitable(args) local pageName = args[1] local data = mw.ext.data.get(pageName) local datatypes = {} local htmlTable = mw.html.create("table") :addClass("wikitable sortable") htmlTable :tag("caption") :wikitext(navbar.navbar({ template = ":c:Data:" .. pageName, mini = "y", style = "float: right;", "view", "edit", }))		:wikitext(data.description) local headerRow = htmlTable :tag("tr") for i, field in ipairs(data.schema.fields) do		headerRow :tag("th") :attr("scope", "col") :attr("data-sort-type", datatypes[j] == "text" and "string" or datatypes[j]) :wikitext(field.title) datatypes[i] = field.type end for i, record in ipairs(data.data) do		local row = htmlTable:tag("tr") for j = 1, #data.schema.fields do			local cell = row:tag("td") if record[j] then local formattedData = record[j] if datatypes[j] == "number" then formattedData = lang:formatNum(formattedData) cell:attr("align", "right") elseif datatypes[j] == "boolean" then cell :addClass(record[j] and "table-yes" or "table-no") :css({							background = record[j] and bgColors["true"] or bgColors["false"],							color = record[j] and colors["true"] or colors["false"],							["vertical-align"] = "middle",							["text-align"] = "center",						}) :wikitext(record[j] and messages["true"] or messages["false"]) end cell:wikitext(formattedData) else cell :addClass("mw-tabular-value-null") :addClass("table-na") :css({						background = bgColors.null,						color = colors.null,						["vertical-align"] = "middle",						["text-align"] = "center",					}) :wikitext(messages.null) end end end local footer = htmlTable :tag("tr") :tag("td") :addClass("sortbottom") :attr("colspan", #data.schema.fields) footer:wikitext(data.sources) footer:tag("br") local licenseText = mw.message.new("Jsonconfig-license",		mw.ustring.format("[%s %s]", data.license.url, data.license.text)) footer :tag("i") :wikitext(tostring(licenseText)) return htmlTable end

--- Returns a tabular data page as a wikitext table. --- Usage: function p.wikitable(frame) return p._wikitable(frame.args) end

return p

title: User:Heyzeuss/Tabular data


text:
Page:Education and Art in Soviet Russia (1919).djvu/45

 and weaving. A biological cabinet has been purchased and a juvenile and teachers' library has been established. Instructions are also given in national history, mathematics in connection with national history and elements of the Russian language.

A more important experiment still than that described in Document 11, is that shown in Document 12, which is an account of the aims of the new Institute for Child Study.

Beginning September 1, 1918, 3-semester courses have been announced at the Institute for Child Study on preliminary education which have for their object the training of instructors for pre-scholastic education. Parallel to these courses there have also been functioning 3 months' courses for training instructors of Kindergarten, children-homes, playgrounds and children settlements.

The Institute itself—an institution for the first time functioning in Russia, has been established owing to the necessity of a thorough-going study of all questions connected with pre-scholastic bringing up and of creating a staff of trained instructors for the solution of urgent problems of today regarding state, social, universal and free education for children of pre-scholastic age. With these objects in view, as well as for purposes of wide propaganda of ideas of pre-scholastic education and creation of affiliated branches in provinces, the Institute has been divided into the following departments: 1) science, 2) instruction, 3) information, 4) publications.

To the Department of Science have been attached the following auxiliary institutions: 1) medical and psychological laboratory, 2) experimental infant home, 3) experimental Kindergarten. Scientific investigations are recorded in a special magazine on pre-scholastic education, published at the Institute.

The Department of Instruction includes: 1) 3-semesters' and 3 months' courses for training instructors and directors of children’s institutions of pre-scholastic age, 2) a training school


text: Advice to the Indian Aristocracy/Chapter 14


text:
Module:Sandbox/Tabular data

local p = {} local lang = mw.getContentLanguage local navbar = require("Module:Navbar")

local messages = { ["true"] = "Yes", ["false"] = "No", null = "N/A", }

local bgColors = { ["true"] = "#9f9", ["false"] = "#f99", null = "#ececec", }

local colors = { null = "#2c2c2c", }

function p._cell(args) local data = args.data or mw.ext.data.get(args[1]) local rowIdx = tonumber(args.output_row) local outputFormat = args.output_format local outputColumnNames = { args.output_column1 or args.output_column, }	while args["output_column" .. #outputColumnNames + 1] do table.insert(outputColumnNames, args["output_column" .. #outputColumnNames + 1]) end local outputColumnIdxs = {} local numOutputColumnIdxs = 0 for i, field in ipairs(data.schema.fields) do		for j, outputColumnName in ipairs(outputColumnNames) do			if field.name == outputColumnName then outputColumnIdxs[outputColumnName] = i				numOutputColumnIdxs = numOutputColumnIdxs + 1 end end if numOutputColumnIdxs == #outputColumnNames then break end end if numOutputColumnIdxs < #outputColumnNames then for i, outputColumnName in ipairs(outputColumnNames) do			assert(outputColumnIdxs[outputColumnName],				mw.ustring.format("Output column “%s” not found.", outputColumnName)) end end if rowIdx > 0 then rowIdx = (rowIdx - 1) % #data.data + 1 elseif rowIdx < 0 then rowIdx = rowIdx % #data.data + 1 else error("0 is not a valid row index.") end local record = data.data[rowIdx] if record ~= nil then if outputFormat or numOutputColumnIdxs > 1 then local values = {} for i, columnName in ipairs(outputColumnNames) do				local columnIdx = outputColumnIdxs[columnName] table.insert(values, record[columnIdx]) end if outputFormat then return mw.ustring.format(outputFormat, unpack(values)) else return mw.text.listToText(values) end else local columnIdx = outputColumnIdxs[outputColumnNames[1]] return record[columnIdx] end end end

--- Returns the value of the cell at the given row index and column name. --- A row index of 1 refers to the first row in the table. A row index of -1 --- refers to the last row in the table. It is an error to specify a row index --- of 0. --- Usage: function p.cell(frame) return p._cell(frame.args) end

function p._lookup(args) local data = args.data or mw.ext.data.get(args[1]) local searchValue = args.search_value local searchPattern = args.search_pattern local searchColumnName = args.search_column local searchColumnIdx for i, field in ipairs(data.schema.fields) do		if field.name == searchColumnName then searchColumnIdx = i		end if searchColumnIdx then break end end assert(searchColumnIdx, mw.ustring.format("Search column “%s” not found.", searchColumnName)) local occurrence = tonumber(args.occurrence) or 1 local numMatchingRecords = 0 for i = (occurrence < 0 and #data.data or 1), (occurrence < 0 and 1 or #data.data), (occurrence < 0 and -1 or 1) do		local record = data.data[i] if (searchValue and record[searchColumnIdx] == searchValue) or			(searchPattern and mw.ustring.match(tostring(record[searchColumnIdx]), searchPattern)) then numMatchingRecords = numMatchingRecords + 1 if numMatchingRecords == math.abs(occurrence) then local args = mw.clone(args) args.data = data args.output_row = i				return p._cell(args) end end end end

--- Returns the value of the cell(s) in the given output column(s) of the row --- matching the search key and column. --- Reminiscent of LOOKUP macros in popular spreadsheet applications, except --- that the search key must match exactly. (On the other hand, this means the --- table does not need to be sorted.) --- Usage: function p.lookup(frame) return p._lookup(frame.args) end

function p._wikitable(args) local pageName = args[1] local data = mw.ext.data.get(pageName) local datatypes = {} local htmlTable = mw.html.create("table") :addClass("wikitable sortable") htmlTable :tag("caption") :wikitext(navbar.navbar({ template = ":c:Data:" .. pageName, mini = "y", style = "float: right;", "view", "edit", }))		:wikitext(data.description) local headerRow = htmlTable :tag("tr") for i, field in ipairs(data.schema.fields) do		headerRow :tag("th") :attr("scope", "col") :attr("data-sort-type", datatypes[j] == "text" and "string" or datatypes[j]) :wikitext(field.title) datatypes[i] = field.type end for i, record in ipairs(data.data) do		local row = htmlTable:tag("tr") for j = 1, #data.schema.fields do			local cell = row:tag("td") if record[j] then local formattedData = record[j] if datatypes[j] == "number" then formattedData = lang:formatNum(formattedData) cell:attr("align", "right") elseif datatypes[j] == "boolean" then cell :addClass(record[j] and "table-yes" or "table-no") :css({							background = record[j] and bgColors["true"] or bgColors["false"],							color = record[j] and colors["true"] or colors["false"],							["vertical-align"] = "middle",							["text-align"] = "center",						}) :wikitext(record[j] and messages["true"] or messages["false"]) end cell:wikitext(formattedData) else cell :addClass("mw-tabular-value-null") :addClass("table-na") :css({						background = bgColors.null,						color = colors.null,						["vertical-align"] = "middle",						["text-align"] = "center",					}) :wikitext(messages.null) end end end local footer = htmlTable :tag("tr") :tag("td") :addClass("sortbottom") :attr("colspan", #data.schema.fields) footer:wikitext(data.sources) footer:tag("br") local licenseText = mw.message.new("Jsonconfig-license",		mw.ustring.format("[%s %s]", data.license.url, data.license.text)) footer :tag("i") :wikitext(tostring(licenseText)) return htmlTable end

--- Returns a tabular data page as a wikitext table. --- Usage: function p.wikitable(frame) return p._wikitable(frame.args) end

return p

title: Module:Sandbox/Tabular data


text:
Page:Education and Art in Soviet Russia (1919).djvu/46

 for directresses of children's homes, 3) experimental Kindergarten, and 4) experimental children's homes.

The Information Department has a museum and a library on all questions of pedagogy, and a lecture bureau.

The Publishing Department publishes a special magazine, publishes and distributes scientific and popular treatises on pre-scholastic education, and has its own shop where furniture, toys and school appliances are manufactured.

The hygienic interests of the population are treated in Document No. 13, while the application of hygiene to the school is taken up in Documents Nos. 14 and 15.

At the present moment, when the People's Commissariat of Education is approaching the question of education, and is attempting to direct it in a manner necessary for a thoroughgoing development of the individual, a great demand for physician-pedagogues is being felt. This question is naturally closely interrelated with the organization of medical-sanitary aid in the Republic. At the congress of medical-sanitary boards attached to the various local Soviets of workmen's deputies, held during the summer of 1918, in Moscow, the following resolution was adopted:

"1) The most essential organization task of medical aid in localities under the Soviet Government has been the removal of old inter-departmental limitations and their unification. 2) Therapeutics must be built on a basis of a consistent realization of the following principles: a) general accessibility, b) free treatment. 3) It is necessary to immediately take steps toward raising the quality of medical aid (special hours for treatment, ambulatories, special dispensaries). 4) Only the Soviet Government, firmly pursuing the policy of abolishing social inequality,


text:
Page:Complete Works of Count Tolstoy - 13.djvu/366

 the imaginary hairs, should make it appear that the hairs which he has measured out have become tangled and he is trying to unravel them. Besides, this teaching about grace, the purpose of which is to pull the wool over the eyes of the believers because of the non-achievement of the promise of redemption, and to increase the income of the clergy, bears in itself that terrible germ of immorality which has morally corrupted the generations that confess this teaching. If a man is going to believe in the deception that he can be cured from diseases by the grace of the chrism, or that he will be immortal if he receives the grace, or in the concealment of the fact that the earth continues to be unfruitful,—all these deceptions have been comparatively harmless, but the deception about man’s being always sinful and impotent and about the uselessness of his striving after good, if he does not acquire grace,—this teaching cuts down to the root everything which is best in human nature. The immorality of this teaching could not help but startle all the best men who have lived amidst this confession, and so against this side of the doctrine—about the relation of man’s freedom to grace—have risen the more honest men in the church itself, and so this question has been complicated by endless controversies, which until the present divided the different creeds.

In Art. 184 there is an exposition of these controversies about grace:

“The dogma about grace which sanctifies sinful man has been subject to very many mutilations on the part of the heterodox and heretics. I. Some of these have erred and still err, in a greater or lesser degree, as regards the necessity of grace for man. To these belong the Pelagians, Semi-Pelagians, Socinians, and rationalists. The Pelagians, who appeared in the beginning of the fifth century in the Western church, taught as follows: ‘Since Adam by his fall in no way impaired his nature and consequently his


text: Advice to the Indian Aristocracy/Chapter 15


text:
Page:Education and Art in Soviet Russia (1919).djvu/47

 can build a firm foundation for an organization capable of fighting successfully social diseases (tuberculosis, venereal diseases, child mortality, etc.) as well as anti-sanitary housing conditions. 5) It is necessary to immediately begin an extensive sanitary-educational propaganda among the population (readings, lectures, exhibitions, etc.). 6) Forms of the population's participation in medical and sanitary activities, and forms of its self-activity must be radically changed: a most extensive participation in those activities by organized labor and poor peasants is required."

For this purpose a People's Commissariat to safeguard health has been established. Around this Commissariat are grouped various medical and sanitary branches at the present time functioning in different localities. The central Commissariat has been in charge of the whole medical business and issues directions to local Commissariats of kindred nature.

A physician, engaged in school work, must raise the whole spirit of the school, which is a laboratory for the forging of the man of the future. The proletariat has lit the torch of education and has for its object—the utilization of all the progressive methods of Western pedagogy, school sanitation and general science subjects.

After the November Revolution a school-sanitary Soviet was established at the People's Commissariat of Education, its object being the protection of the children's health, as an essential prerequisite for a high standard of health for the population in general.

At the Congress of medical-sanitation held at Moscow, June 19, 1918, there was read and discussed at great length the report from the school-sanitation board attached to the Commissariat of Public Instruction. The Section is entrusted with safeguarding the children's health and the application of preventive measures in schools against tuberculosis and neurological diseases.

Hitherto in Russia little time was devoted to physical education of children and their hygienic conditions. At the present time the School Sanitation Board does the work of spreading physical education among children and of removal of conditions


text:
Page:Complete Works of Count Tolstoy - 13.djvu/367

 descendants are born without any natural corruption or original sin, they may by mere natural forces attain moral perfection and have no need for that purpose of any supernatural divine aid and force.' Against Pelagius and his followers first of all rose St. Augustine, who wrote very many works in refutal of them. There rose also many other pastors of the church, and both in the East and in the West there met in a short time more than twenty councils which unanimously condemned that heresy. The defenders of the truth unanimously maintained: (a) that man, who has fallen and is born in original sin, cannot in himself create any spiritual good without the aid of grace; (b) that by it are to be understood not merely the natural forces of man, the law of Moses, the teaching and example of Jesus Christ, external aids, but the supernatural power of God, which is inwardly communicated to man’s soul; (c) that this grace does not consist merely in the remission of former sins, but offers real assistance in keeping man from committing new ones; (d) it not only illuminates reason and imparts to it the knowledge of what is to be done and what avoided, but also gives it the strength to carry out what has been found good, and pours love into the heart; (e) it not only makes easier for us the execution of the divine commands, which we are supposed to perform by ourselves, though inconveniently so, but acts as an assistance, without which we are not able to execute the divine law and to do the good which coöperates in our salvation.

“At the present time the teaching of the Orthodox Church, as directed against the heresy of the Pelagians, may be seen in the three following rules of the Council at Carthage, which is accepted among the number of the nine local councils, and which met to refute Pelagius: ‘If any one says that divine grace, by which men are justified in Jesus Christ our Lord, is active only in the remission of sins already committed, but does not in addition to


text:
Page:Education and Art in Soviet Russia (1919).djvu/48

 detrimental to students' health.. To accomplish this the Board has established an Institute of Physical Education in Russia, experimental institutions (settlements, schools of forestry, school-sanatoriums, ambulatories, etc.) and has been aiding labor organizations interested in the establishment of such institutions.

The following resolution of the School Sanitary Board was adopted:

1. The object of school sanitation within the boundaries of the Russian Soviet Republic is the safeguarding of the health of children of all ages, physical as well as mental, and a proper organization of physical education.

2. For the realization of this problem a central school-sanitation Soviet is established at the Commissariat of Public Instruction, representatives of proletarian organizations and large masses of the population participating in the work.

3. Likewise, similar school-sanitation Soviets are established in localities regulating and directing the local school-sanitation activity.

4. The directing organs in the matters of school sanitation are medical boards, elected by medical sanitary organizations such as the Soviet of Medical Boards' or the Commissariat of Health and medical Sanitary sections attached to the local Soviets of Workmen's Deputies and approved by the Commissariat of Public Instruction. All these organizations are working in close contact with the Central Commissariat of Health as well as with the Commissariat of Public Instruction and sections attached thereto.

5. A school physician is a permanent and competent member of the pedagogic Soviet and is actively engaged in school work. He is elected by the school-sanitary sub-section of the medical sanitary board and is approved by the Department of Public Instruction attached to the Soviet.

6. To safeguard the health of children and to render direct mental, moral and physical aid to children of imperfect health the school-sanitary sections (medical boards) establish special institutions: sanatoriums, schools of forestry for physically weak and sick children, auxiliary schools for underdeveloped children, auxiliary dispensaries, sanatoriums and agricultural settlements for exceptional forms of mental and physical deformity. School ambulatories are established for study, medical treatment and assigning children to proper institutions.

adopted at the joint session of the United School and School-Sanitary Board, July 10th, 1918.

The science of hygiene must permeate our school instruction and


text:
Page:On the education of the people of India (IA oneducationofpeo00trevrich).pdf/65

Rh and the cry of indignation of the Calcutta literati was re-echoed with more than its original bitterness from the colleges of France and Germany.

In order to understand these phenomena, it will be necessary to go back a few years in the history of India. When Lord established the college of Fort William, he provided munificently for the encouragement of oriental learning. For a long time after, that learning was nearly the sole test of merit among the junior members of the civil service, and such military and medical officers as aspired to civil employment. A superior knowledge of Sanskrit and Arabic was sure to be rewarded by a good place. The reputations of many members of the government and of nearly all the secretaries had been founded on this basis. The literary circle of Calcutta was almost exclusively composed of orientalists. The education committee was formed when this state of things was at its height, and hence the decidedly oriental cast of its first proceedings.

By degrees the rage for orientalism subsided among the Europeans, while the taste for European literature rose to a great height among the natives. A modification of the committee’s proceedings suited to this altered state of things was called for; but the persons who had been trained under the


text:
Page:Samuel Gompers - Out of Their Own Mouths (1921).djvu/161

 Rh Mr. Libby obtained his information from Arthur J. Watts, an English Friend, who has been engaged in relief work in Russia. Mr. Watts gave Mr. Libby a translation of the reports of Russian commissars from various cities.

For all this the Bolshevists are largely—though, of course, not wholly—responsible. Whatever the degree of their responsibility may be, it is an outrageous falsehood to talk of great educational advances under such conditions which are admitted as being far worse than anything Russia has hitherto experienced.

Yet the Soviets have never ceased to put forth inflated and grandiose paper schemes as if certain of accomplish-


text:
Page:The Celestial Omnibus and Other Stories - Forster (1912).djvu/79

Rh would expect him back at lunch. To lunch he would not come, nor to tea, but he would be in for dinner, and so his day's truancy would be over. If he had had his purse he would have bought them presents—not that he should have known what to get them.

Crash!

The peal and the lightning came together. The cloud quivered as if it were alive, and torn streamers of mist rushed past. "Are you afraid?" asked Sir Thomas Browne.

"What is there to be afraid of? Is it much farther?"

The horses of the omnibus stopped just as a ball of fire burst up and exploded with a ringing noise that was deafening but clear, like the noise of a blacksmith's forge. All the cloud was shattered.

"Oh, listen, Sir Thomas Browne! No, I mean look; we shall get a view at last. No, I mean listen; that sounds like a rainbow!"

The noise had died into the faintest murmur, beneath which another murmur grew, spreading stealthily, steadily, in a curve that widened but did not vary. And in widening curves a rainbow was spreading from the horses' feet into the dissolving mists.


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 136 ment, to take credit to themselves for the reopening of old institutions under new names, such as "children's palaces," to show off a handful of favored schools as typical of thousands, to talk of new methods while admitting the wholesale lack not only of new teachers but of teachers generally, and—while foisting upon the children their crude, ignorant, violent and petty dogmas in the place of the culture of the ages—to claim that they are giving them a new and superior education. We have Russian Communists in America. Let anybody who knows them think of what is happening to the starving and helpless children of Russia in the light of this Moscow wireless of February 6th, 1921:

Recalling the fact that only the most violent and narrow-minded one per cent of Russia are members of the Communist Party, and remembering that the 200,000 teachers who, it is said, are needed will absorb a large part of that organization, leaving no possibility of discrimination in appointments, consider the statement of the Communist Party Congress in March, 1919, that one "basis of educational work already established by the Soviet Government is the preparation of a new class of teachers who are imbued with Communism."

Lenin explained the Bolshevist conception of public


text:
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Rh "But how beautiful! What colours! Where will it stop? It is more like the rainbows you can tread on. More like dreams."

The colour and the sound grew together. The rainbow spanned an enormous gulf. Clouds rushed under it and were pierced by it, and still it grew, reaching forward, conquering the darkness, until it touched something that seemed more solid than a cloud.

The boy stood up. "What is that out there?" he called. "What does it rest on, out at that other end?"

In the morning sunshine a precipice shone forth beyond the gulf. A precipice—or was it a castle? The horses moved. They set their feet upon the rainbow.

"Oh, look!" the boy shouted. "Oh, listen! Those caves—or are they gateways? Oh, look between those cliffs at those ledges. I see people! I see trees!"

"Look also below," whispered Sir Thomas. "Neglect not the diviner Acheron."

The boy looked below, past the flames of the rainbow that licked against their wheels. The gulf also had cleared, and in its, depths there flowed an everlasting river. One sunbeam entered and struck a green pool, and as they passed


text:
Page:Samuel Gompers - Out of Their Own Mouths (1921).djvu/163

 Rh education in the most explicit manner at the All-Russian Political Education Conference on the 5th of November, 1920. (See Soviet Russia, April 30th, 1921.) He explained that the teachers must be, first of all, political propagandists and humble followers of the Communist Party:

But the school teacher the world over has a certain minimum respect for his calling. Though the overwhelming majority of the teachers under Kerensky were Social Revolutionists or Social Democrats, they were teachers, and not propagandists. Dismissed by the wholesale, the majority of the new teachers are scarcely more amenable. Lenin and Lunacharsky, Commissary for Education, complain bitterly of this difficulty and pursue their usual method of vilifying their victims. Lenin says, in the speech just quoted:

Already for a long time the teachers' organization has been fighting against the socialist transformation. In


text:
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 138 pedagogical circles the bourgeois prejudices have taken particularly firm root, and we are compelled to conquer our Communist position slowly, step by step. The teaching staff, which grew up in bourgeois prejudices, was at the bottom of its heart hostile to the proletariat and had no contact with it. We must now raise a new army of pedagogical workers, which must be more closely connected with the party, more intimately acquainted with its ideals, more fully impressed with the spirit of those ideas.

Far from any advance less than 27 per cent of the children are receiving any instruction whatever. Humanité, the leading Communist organ of France, on January 3, 1920, in summing up the official report of Lunacharsky, Chief Soviet Commissar for Education, gives this figure and the British Labor Party's Russian delegation reports:

It may, therefore, be questioned if the proportion of children attending school is greater than under the Czars!


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 Rh The Bolshevists have repeatedly stated that the people must be made literate if they are to become useful subjects for Communist rule; this was also the Prussian idea of education. But the Communists, not to mention their personal incapacity, have a system that produces neither the personnel nor the material for educational institutions of any kind. Far from any sacrifice being made for the children, education, literature, science, or art, all these are deliberately, daily and unremittingly sacrificed in order to maintain and, if possible, to increase the power of the Communist Party.

Education is, first of all, the pre-requisite for propaganda. Second, after the individual has learned to read and write, education becomes propaganda—as we may see from Lenin's speech already quoted:

In regard to family life there is the most rapid and demoralizing retrogression. Homes are being broken up and children, as far as practicable, separated from parental influence and placed in a sort of orphan asylum