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THE ANATOMY OF GALEN 29 the body, as he understood them, and, in the words of Dr. Greenhill, is a truly noble work. Besides these there are smaller works on special parts of anatomy and physiology ; and one controversial book, De Placitis Hippocratis et Platonis, directed against the Stoics and Peripatetics (or Aristotelians), is of importance as showing his methods of proof and argument. This work is quoted by Harvey?.

It must be remembered that Galen’s own dissections were made entirely on animals, the dissection of the human body being then quite impossible. Probably he had occa- sionally a glimpse of the internal organs in man, but his own remarks show that it could only have been a hurried inspection. This fact is the cause of a large number of the anatomical errors detected by Vesalius in Galen’s works, such as the description of a rete mirabile in the human skull, of the origin of the two carotids from a single stem, and many others. In one really important instance, that of the supposed perviousness of the ventricular septum, which is often quoted as one of his startling errors, he does apparently allow deduction to take the place of observation. It was evident that the blood must somehow pass from the right to the left side of the heart; and, being ignorant of the long circuit by the lungs, the old anatomists inferred a short circuit through the heart itself. Vesalius, though he could find no opening between the ventricles, inferred that there must be a communication by channels too small to be visible. Probably they were confirmed in this error

1 This treatise, though largely philosophical, and intended to show the agreement of Hippocrates and Plato: in points on which they both differed from Aristotle, contains much that is important in relation to Galen’s physiology. It is quoted by Harvey (De Motu Cordis, cap. v.). This reference, curiously enough, enables us to identify the Latin edition of Galen’s works used by Harvey. In the complete Latin editions, published at Venice by the Juntine press, and at Basel by Froben

and his successors, the title of this work, Mepl r@v ‘Imvoxparous rat TIAd- ravos Soypdarev, was translated De Decretts Hippocratis, &c. But in the Latin edition printed at Paris in 1534 the title runs De Placitis, &c. We must conclude therefore that this was the edition which Harvey used, It appears to be somewhat rare; but a copy is in the library of the Royal College of Physicians: whether it was Harvey’s own copy we cannot say. This is not a com- plete edition of Galen’s works,

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30

HARVEY AND GALEN by the occasional imperfection of the ventricular septum in the lower animals and by anatomical facts which I cannot enter upon. The same is true of the supposed anasto- moses between veins and arteries which Galen saw must somehow exist, though of course he was quite ignorant of capillaries. Even Harvey concluded from deduction, not from actual observation, that the terminal arteries and terminal veins were connected. Galen’s views of the heart and the motion of the blood have often been expounded and discussed. It is, therefore, unnecessary to go fully into them. I only desire to show that his methods of investiga- tion were perfectly sound, though they led to an erroneous conclusion. His sources of knowledge on the subject were - — (i) Dissection of a great variety of animals, mammalia (including at least once an elephant), birds, fishes, and reptiles. He says cautiously that he did not dissect such creatures as gnats, flies, bees, ants, and worms, because, seeing what mistakes anatomists had made in dissecting larger animals, he thought they would be likely to go still more wrong in the case of these small creatures. (2) Elabo- rate dissections, in the modern way, continually repeated, of those animals most resembling men, especially apes. (3) Observation of the heart and vessels in living animals which he opened for the purpose. He speaks, also, more than once of the case of a boy in whom the chest walls were deficient from the results of an accident, so that the movements of the heart could be seen. (4) Numerous ex- periments on living animals, made in his time with less reserve than at the present day. These experiments, though not always leading to correct conclusions, were extremely well contrived and quite scientific in their plan.

Of course Galen had a large body of anatomical know- ledge behind him, derived from the Alexandrian anatomists and their successors, but he never quotes any of their state- ments as authorities, relying entirely on his own observa- tions and demonstrations. Had he quoted those anatomists who had actually dissected the human body, he would probably have often been more correct, according to modern

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THE ANATOMY OF GALEN

31 knowledge, and might have avoided some of his more serious errors ; but his resolute independence forbade him to describe what he had not seen. I quote a few instances to show his method of argument.

The most important error of Galen and the old anato- mists was no doubt that of attributing the origin of all veins to the liver. Nothing was a greater hindrance to a correct idea of the circulation. But this, as a prima facie view, was very natural. When we open the body after death has taken place by the ordinary asphyxial method we find all the veins full of blood, and all apparently com- municating with the liver, the systemic veins by the hepatic, the portal system separately. Moreover, the connexion of the umbilical vein with the liver in the foetus was also noticed. This view was not universally accepted. Galen’s first instructor in anatomy, Pelops, taught that all blood- vessels originated in the brain — a view which the scep- ticism of the pupil even at that early age refused to accept 1. The doctrine of Aristotle was that all blood-vessels origi- nated in the heart, the vena cava and its branches supply- ing the right side of the body, and the aorta and its branches supplying the left side. Aristotle’s views were maintained by contemporaries of Galen, whose answer to them was that there was one system of veins unconnected with the heart — namely, the portal system, which com- municated only with the liver. ‘ This,’ he says, ‘ I have demonstrated to those desirous of knowing the truth, and they have been astonished at the error of those who main- tained that all veins came from the heart V Galen’s argument is perfectly sound from his facts, though it con- firmed him in an erroneous conclusion. What Aristotle’s answer would have been we do not know. The Peripatetics, the followers of Aristotle in Galen’s time, seem to have had no answer except a priori arguments ; in fact, Galen’s argument was never answered except by Harvey.

It is well known that Erasistratus and all anatomists

1 De Placitis, lib. vi. cap. 3 ; Kuhn, v. p. 527.

 * Ibid., cap. 5 ; Kuhn, v. p. 542.

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32 HARVEY AND GALEN before Galen, except Aristotle, maintained that the arteries contained only ‘spirit’ or air, not blood. Galen proved that they contained blood, not only by the familiar experi- ence of blood flowing from a cut artery (which the older anatomists explained by a supposed anastomosis between veins and arteries), but by placing two ligatures on an artery and dividing the vessel between them, when, of course, only blood would be found. He also inserted a fine cannula into the left ventricle of the heart during life, and showed that blood immediately flowed out without a moment’s interval in which the supposed spirit might have escaped}. This, he says, he demonstrated to many persons who were incredulous on the subject. Galen clearly states that the bright-coloured, thin, subtle, spirituous (in modern phrase arterial) blood formed in the left ventricle by mixture with ‘vital spirit’ concocted in the lungs with the help of the air, was violently carried by the arteries all over the body”. If we put vital air or oxygen for vital spirit it approximates strangely to the modern doctrine, though the anatomical errors are obvious and need not be dwelt upon. At the same time, the air returning to the lungs was supposed to carry off and send out in expiration what was, as it were, burnt up, smoky, or sooty matter. If we put, for ‘smoky, ‘carbonaceous,’ we have a near approach to a theory of respiration which was in vogue about fifty years ago *.

It seems strange to us that the ancients should have supposed spirit and not blood to be conveyed from the lungs to the heart by the pulmonary veins. But it should be remembered that after the ordinary asphyxial mode of death, when the heart is healthy, the left auricle and pul- monary veins are usually collapsed and empty, and would therefore have been supposed to contain, during life, air which had escaped. It is otherwise in the living animal, and it was Colombo‘ who first proved, by actual experi-

1 De Placitis, i. cap. 5; Kihn, v. Kahn, iii. p. 412.

pp. 182-4. * Realdus Columbus, De Re 2 Ibid., vi. cap. 8; Kuhn, v. p. Anatomica, Venetiis, 1559, p. 261. 572- Servetus had arrived at the same

3 De Usu Partium, vi. cap. 2; idea by induction.

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GALEN AND ARISTOTLE

33 ment on the living heart, that they conveyed blood from the lungs. It seems curious that Galen, who was so fond of experiment, never tried a like experiment on the pul- monary veins. Galen’s knowledge of comparative anatomy enabled him to confute Aristotle’s statement that large animals have three cavities in the heart whilst small animals have only two, of which several explanations have been suggested. The horse, he says, has no more than the sparrow, nor the ox than the mouse x. He found the right

1 De Usu Partium, lib. vi. cap. 19; Kuhn, iii. p. 442.

This strange error of Aristotle as to the number of cavities in the heart has given rise to much dis- cussion, and several explanations have been proposed. The ancient anatomists, and indeed modern ana- tomists, at least as late (I think) as the end of the seventeenth century, never thought of the auricles as cavities of the heart, but only as the terminations of the vena cava and pulmonary veins respectively (the term ‘ auricle ’ being confined to the auricular appendix), and separated from the heart proper by the mitral and tricuspid valves on the two sides. Harvey also speaks of the auricles as distinct from the heart (see Willis’s translation, De Motu Cordis, p. 29, note). Hence for them the only possible interpretation of Aristotle’s statement was that he in- tended to say that the heart of large animals had three ventricles. Vesa- lius explains the error thus : that, the upper part of the left ventricle being concealed by and rising up behind the right (anterior) flap of the mitral valve during dissection, this led Aristotle to think that this portion was a third ventricle of the heart ; an error much more excusable, he says, than that of be- lieving the number of ventricles to vary according to the bulk of the animal {De huntant corporis fabrica,

1543, p. 590). Colombo takes the same view. Cesalpino, in defending Aristotle, boldly asserts that there are three ventricles in the heart not only of larger animals, but even of birds, as may easily be seen by making transverse horizontal sections of the heart, beginning with the base. We then see the middle or third ventricle separated from the left by a septum which reaches nearly to the apex. He admits that this is denied by the medical anatomists {Quae- stiones Peripateticae, ed. 1593, lib. v. p. 1 18). Evidently he mistook the right flap of the mitral valve for a septum.

Harvey discusses the question in two places. In the MS. Pre- leciiones (fol. 74) he says he is as- tonished that Aristotle describes three ventricles so precisely : * Nec posset salvari autor tam diligens et fidelis nisi auriculam sinistram pro ventriculo. . though Galen rightly blames him for making a difference between large and small animals. Hence he supposes that Aristotle took the left auricle for a ventricle. But in the De Motu Cordis (cap. xvii) he suggests that the position of the mitral valve perhaps misled Aristotle into thinking the left ventricle to be double {‘quae res imposuit forsan Ari- stoteli ut hunc veniriculum duplicetn sectione per transversum facta exisit- maret ’). Probably he was acquainted with the fallacy of Cesalpino, and

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34 HARVEY AND GALEN ventricle of the heart always wanting in animals which had no lungs and did not breathe air, like fishes (but not in all aquatic animals), and concluded that the right ventricle was made for the sake of the lungs h

thought Aristotle might have been misled in the same way.

The views of later commentators are discussed by Dr. William Ogle in his translation of Aristotle On the Parts of Animals (Notes, p. 197).

Some have supposed that the left auricle was not regarded, being empty and inconspicuous after death (an explanation, I think, adopted by Professor Huxley'. Dr. Ogle thinks the three cavities were the right ventricle, the left ventricle, and the left auricle ; and has minutely ex- plained how this is possible. The great difficulty is that Aristotle makes all the cavities communicate with the lung, and does not speak of their communicating with each other. The left ventricle, on its aortic side, can only be regarded as communicating with the lung if the ductus arteriosus of the foetus be re- garded as pervious, and this applies to Vesalius’s explanation as well as Dr. Ogle’s. The question is ex- tremely obscure and perhaps cannot be explained. I confess I lean to the older explanation that Aristotle sup- posed the left ventricle to be divided ; since I cannot believe that he used the word ‘ cavity ’ (xoiia) in a dif- ferent sense to that of all other ancient writers, or that he could have been so completely misunder- stood by his followers as well as by his opponents, all of whom took that word to mean ventricles only. Aristotle was never blamed or ex- cused for saying that the heart con- tained less than four cavities, but only for saying that it had more than two. His supposition that large animals had more cavities of

the heart than small animals is still more difficult to understand.

1 Harvey maintains (MS. Prae- lectiones, fol. 74) that Galen was wrong on this point, and that fishes, having no lungs, want the left ven- tricle, not the right ; that is, their single ventricle represents the right one of higher animals. (In the De Motu Cordis he speaks of the same subject, but his meaning is not so clear.) To ascertain the teaching of modern anatomists and zoologists on this point, I applied to my friend, Professor Ray Lankester, who has favoured me with the following note : — ‘As to the ventricle of Fishes, both Galen and Harvey are wrong. There is a third view, which is cor- rect, viz. that the fish’s ventricle represents both the right and the left ventricles. It becomes divided [in higher animals] by a septum which can be seen gradually becom- ing perfect. The septum first of all divides the great arterial trunk into two passages (functional in the Frog), then grows into or rather from the wall of the ventricle. In most Reptiles it is incomplete, but in Crocodiles is fully formed, so that the ventricle is strictly divided into two. The two auricles, on the other hand, are of independent origin, not formed by division of the original one. That remains as the systemic right auricle. The pulmonary is a new thing, developed on the pul- monary vein.’

Both Galen and Harvey were wrong ! — but both were partially right : an excellent illustration of the two sides of the shield.

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A DROVE of cattle, followed by a man on horse-back, and surrounded by an active collie dog, came slowly into Roxbury town in the afternoon of a day in July, 1698, and paused at the Parting Stone, or, to be more accurate, at the Parting, for the Stone was not there then.

It is now, however, and if you like, you may go to Roxbury and see and read, as people have been doing for a century and a half, upon its honest eastern face,—

while the northern side directs you "To Cambridge and Watertown," and the southern one more generously gives you the route "To Dedham and Rhode Island." It is only a curiosity now; but when Paul Dudley set it at the junction of two lonely country roads just behind his own house, it was as much a convenience as the guide-boards we

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2 hail with so much pleasure in our country drives this very summer.

"So this is Roxbury, is it? " said Samuel Cheeseboro, staring about him; "whoa, Lightfoot! Let be, Rover, let 'em graze a bit if they can find a bite. 'T is the last grass they're like to see, poor beasts. Roxbury, eh?"

And Samuel pulled off his clumsy wool hat, took a bandanna handkerchief from the pocket of his riding coat, and proceeded to rub his head, face, and neck very much as a warm and dusty man does, after two hundred years of progress.

A comely and personable young bachelor was Samuel Cheeseboro, and so thought and declared not only most of the maids and widows of Stonington, Connecticut, where he lived, but nearly every woman encountered upon the long journey he was now completing from that place to Boston, measuring the distance by the footpace of his carefully driven cattle. Of course, he had been many nights upon the road, and at his last stopping place came near falling a victim to the determined overtures of a buxom widow, who plainly declared that the drover's cattle and her pasture suited each other so marvelously that it was a sin to divide them, and that she would give her eyes if her farm had so shrewd a master as Cheeseboro would be sure to prove.

"At any rate, you'11 be coming back this way when you've made your market on the beasts, and you'll tarry a day or two and rest, and look over

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Rh my acres, won't you, Samuel?" asked she, tenderly, when the youug man persisted in pursuing his journey; but Samuel pursed up his mouth, and shook his head mysteriously.

"Not this way, dame," said he. " Not with the load I'll be taking home. There 's too many gentlemen of the road between here and Stonington for a man with a sack of silver on his nag's neck. I have planned to ride home with neighbors of mine who are visiting their kin somewhere nigh hand to Boston, and we must take another road altogether. Doubtless the loss is mine if we do not meet again, but so it is."

"Well, and you 're right, my lad," replied the widow, good-naturedly. " And I'd as lief not think of your riding these lonely roads with a bag of coin jingling a call to evil-doers. What with the Indians, and what with the swashbucklers that pretend to hunt them, the roads are far from safe. But when you ride Dedham way again, you'll stop nowhere but at Joyce Patterson's, will you, now, Samuel? "

"You'll have another goodman by then, and he'll none of me," retorted Samuel, who, safely mounted upon Lightfoot, with the herd already under escort of the accomplished Rover, found himself enough at his ease for pleasantry.

And so, a few hours later, the drove and the drover paced softly through the dust of the Dedham road, and coming to the Parting paused, the drove to snatch a last mouthful of grass,—even as

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4 at the same day the merry lads bound up Tyburn Hill paused for a last deep, strong draught of spiced ale or mighty spirits at the hostelrie known as The Highwayman's Exchange, and the drover to look about him.

"Roxbury, eh?" again remarked Samuel Cheeseboro, restoring the bandanna to his pocket and the hat to his head. " Well, 'tis a tidy little town enough, but not a patch upon Stonington."

A verdict loyal and self-respecting upon the part of the Stonington man, but liable to controversy if a Roxbury man had heard it, for Roxburians at that date considered their settlement rather as the Court End of Boston, the dignified retreat of its wealthiest citizens, than as a village by itself.

Turning his back upon the Parting Stone, one now faces a quaint old meeting-house, and sees the Norfolk House at his right hand. Samuel Cheeseboro, standing where the Stone should be but was not yet, faced the ancestor in the fourth degree of that meeting-house, and saw at his right hand a comfortable hostelrie called the Flower-de-Luce, kept by Samuel Ruggles, a worthy citizen of Roxbury.

Grouped around the meeting-house were several substantial mansions belonging to magnates of the settlement. Chief of these was the great mansion and the seven acres of merestead originally set off for Governor Thomas Dudley, and in 1699 owned by his son Joseph, and grandson Paul, who benevolently placed the Stone. The house stood nearly

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Rh upon the site of the present Universalist church, and the garden joined the grounds of the meeting-house at what is now Putnam Street. In front of the mansion, along what we call Guild Row, flowed the bright waters of Smelt Brook, over which Paul Dudley later on threw a stone bridge. But we must not keep Samuel Cheeseboro, who is very thirsty, waiting any longer.

"They'll have a tap of ale over yonder for sure," remarked he, considering the Flower-de-Luce, a large low-ceiled house, with gambrel-roof, swinging casement windows with roses and columbine twining around them, a sign painted with three fleur-de-lis, and a great oaken door set wide open, and giving entrance to a cavernous, low-browed chamber with sanded floor and wainscoted walls, one heavy oaken table in the midst, and others set in convenient nooks for customers needing only a "snack" and a draught. This, the principal room ot the inn, served as dining-hall, bar, conversation room, and general exchange for the citizens who found themselves with an hour and a sixpence to spare for social intercourse and a glass of ale or Geneva bitters.

"You're just in luck, young man, for the maid is putting supper on the table," cried the landlord heartily. "Or will you rather have a hack at a round of spiced beef and a home-baked loaf for a shilling, not counting your draught? "

"My thanks to you, landlord, but I'll tarry for neither, though I've as good a stomach for it as

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6 any man you ever saw; but I must get my beasts on, and over The Neck before nightfall. To-morrow is Thursday, as you must know."

"Ay, market day, sure enough. Well, do you know, drover, that the Boston folk will have no more cattle pens, barring those nigh the Town House, at the head of King Street? The yard by the docks is closed, to make way for the growing traffic in that quarter."

"All the more reason for me to hasten, then," replied Cheeseboro, blowing the foam from the pewter tankard of ale with a roasted crab-apple floating upon it, just handed him by one of the drovers." And I'd as lief pen my steers by the Town House as farther a-field, for I shall put up at the State Arms, in King Street, and that'll be handy by."

"Better stop at the Old Anchor, in the same street, neighbor," said Ruggles, cheerily; "they've a better strike of malt on tap just now."

"Give me the Dragon, the Green Dragon, 't is nigh hand to the Mill Pond, Union Street they're taking to call it nowadays; set 'em up! " growled a gray-bearded companion, who sat next to Cheeseboro, sipping a rummer of hot Hollands and water.

"The King's Head, close to Scarlett's Wharf, is the best of all, says I," remarked another.

"Without you make your manners to the females, and say the Queen's Head, a little furder up the street," amended another; and the next man spoke a good word for the Red Lion, kept by

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Rh a kinsman of his own; and his neighbor claimed the palm for the Noah's Ark, in Ship Street, kept by old John Viale; until at last Cheeseboro, smiling broadly on all around, tossed down the threepence due for his ale, and said:

"If but one man had spoke, I might have pondered his counsel, but since there are so many and so good ordinaries, I'll e'en keep to my first choice and get me to the State Arms, as I was bidden before I left home. So a fair good e'en to ye all, neighbors."

"Good e'en, drover," replied the landlord, carelessly;" and since you will go, it is as well for you to get on, for more than one wayfarer has been swamped in the marshes either hand the roadway across The Neck. One poor fellow got stuck there, and froze to death, in a bitter night last winter."

"Yes, 'tis a parlous place of a dark evening, what with the trees and bushes, and the swamps and flats," said the gray beard.

"They've cut pretty nigh all the trees that were fit for firing, but there's a mort o' scrub left," remarked another; and leaving them to their gossip, Cheeseboro mounted his horse, whistled to Rover, who at once began collecting and driving on the cattle, and in a few moments the herd moved briskly down Meeting-House Lane, which we now call Roxbury Street, past the stately Dudley mansion, over the ford of Smelt Brook, and, leaving the houses behind, entered upon the dreary stretch of waste and broken land then lying between Rox-

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 and so forth. The so-called grammar is little more than a vocabulary, in which the words are strung into rude verses illustrating their usage.

The other bugbear of Erasmus’ childhood was John de Garlande. Garlande was the author of a Compendium Grammaticæ and of an epic poem entitled De Triumphis Ecclesiæ. The latter may well have been among the works that the student was expected to read, as its subject-matter would have removed any prejudice to which its monkish eccentricities might have given rise. The main object of learning Latin was to read Ambrose and Hilary. As late as 1523 we find Vives recommending the poems of Prudentius, Sydonius, Paulinus, Arator, Prosper, and Juvencus, as being equal to the classics in style and infinitely superior in matter.

The Reformation may have been prejudicial to the advancement of Humanism at the higher seats of learning, but to schools it was the breath of life. Though a few sensibly-managed institutions were to be found, such as the Collège de Guyenne at Bordeaux, these were great exceptions. In the schools attached to the monasteries prejudiced monks would have little to say to the new learning, looked on it with suspicion, and deemed it safer to abide by Ebrard and the Doctrinal.

But a more energetic man than Erasmus was to turn upon them and tear their pedantry into shreds. Martin Luther had been subjected to the mill of scholasticism, and grammar-lessons, flogged in with the customary vigour, had left an iron impression on his soul. “Instead of sound books,” he cries in 1524, “the insane, useless, harmful, monkish books, the Catholicon, the Florista, the Græcista,


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 The district within which the Yam Tuan's authority extended was from Bandar Berangan up to Sungei Melentang, that is to say, to Batu Gominting (in other words, a portion of what is now Klawang).

Such was the limit of his private and direct rule from that time down to the time of his descendant at the present day.

And should he violate this understanding or the customs of the country he may be deposed by his officers.

"If a king be just he is reverenced if unjust checked."

Such was the order of things in former times, and the boundary of Jelebu with Pahang is the place called Meranti Sembilan, while the boundary with Sungei Ujong is Bukit Tangga.

Now Klawang is said to belong to Sungei Ujong for the following reasons.

Some time ago a son of the Datu Penghulu of Jelebu violated a daughter of the Penghulu of Klambu, and was compelled to marry her. Sufficient money to pay the fine exacted was not forthcoming, and so in place of a money payment the Penghulu of Jelebu gave Klawang (to Sungei Ujong), that is to say, so much of it as is on the right as one goes up stream to Sungei Ujong and down stream so far as Lubok Kerbau Balir. For any measure that the Yam Tuan wishes to take in the district thus defined, he must first obtain the sanction of the Government of Sungei Ujong.

Such is the account of the origin of the present Government which obtains in Jelebu, taken from the lips of those who are most likely to be informed on the subject and who are unanimous in their story.

I may append a short account of the constitution of Jelebu as I found it when I visited it about the middle of the present


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 the Labyrinth, the Dormi secure, and such-like stable-refuse have been introduced by the devil, so that the Latin tongue has decayed, and in no place is any good school or instruction or method of study left.”

With his wide-minded contempt for petty details he would have wished to abolish the formal study of grammar altogether. The books to be used are “the poets and orators, be they Christian or heathen, Greek or Latin. From these the grammar must be learned.” Now, while it is certainly a grievous error to sacrifice the whole morning of youth to the study of grammar, it is also evident that to neglect it altogether could only lead to a slipshod habit of mind in later years. A corrective for Luther’s complete carelessness of academic accuracy was at hand in Philip Melanchthon, the grammarian of the Reformation in Germany, whose Latin Grammar appeared in 1525. Melanchthon, while attaching the utmost importance to grammar, was fully aware how necessary it was to make rules as short and concise as possible. Other Grammars, he tells us, existed, but most of them were neglected on account of their length, and he had therefore written his to supply the practical wants of the age.

In truth the Grammar of 1525 is many centuries in advance of the shibboleth that Erasmus learned at Deventer. Apart from its intrinsic merit, Melanchthon’s name on the title-page would have secured its widespread use in Protestant schools. It underwent many editions, notably that by Jacob Micyllus, and was still in use at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Worthy of notice is the relative importance given to the rules for gender (these take up thirty-three pages), and the introduction of words like Halec, Huber, Lafer, and Meninx; but the main interest of the work lies in its preface, which embodies Melanchthon’s views on the study of grammar. “Of what importance it is to Christ’s


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I have thought that it would prove interesting to put before the readers of the, and especially those who are fond of Botany, the results of a ramble in the neighbourhood of Birmingham during the first week of the new year. Several paragraphs had appeared in the newspapers of that week, calling attention to the fact that primroses and violets were already in flower. I notice also that a correspondent (E.W.B.) in the February number of the magazine gives a list of flowers gathered from his garden on Christmas-day last. The mildness of the present winter naturally led us to expect that the winter and early spring flowers would blossom sooner than usual; and, therefore, one was not altogether surprised to hear of primroses and violets having already appeared, but the addition given by E. W. B. is one worthy of notice, as it is evidence not only of a mild winter, but of a very mild autumn also; otherwise, such flowers as roses, stocks, mignonette, &c., would not be in blossom at this season of the year, is in the nature of things they ere kill by the frosts and cold nights which usually characterise the autumn season. I therefore venture to add to the lists already given the plants I found in flower during the first week of January last. For some years I have made a ramble during that particular week, and always in the same locality, in order to note what plants were in bloom, as a record of the mildness or severity of the autumn and winter seasons, and for other reasons. Whilst in preceding years I have not found on an average more than twelve plants in flower in the district to which I limited my survey, this year I have recorded upwards of eighty British wild flowers, besides an unusually large number of garden flowers. The following is the list:—

Caltha palustris. Geom urbauds. Texoniea Buxhaurnii. Helleboras fetidns, Alehemilla arvensis. Veronies rgcestis. Capsella Bursa-pastoria. Spergula arvensis. enerium Seorodonis, Draba verna. Sedum reflexnm. Bullota nlera. Gurdamine hirsuta. Chssrophbyliun = temuicn- Tiamium albu. Karharea yvalearig. pum. Laminm purpuretm. Sistmbrinm oficinale. Hedera Helix. Lamium amplexicale. Chuiranthus Cheiri. Gelium aparinc. Prbnnla yulguria. Sinapis arvensis, Sonehus oleracens. Armeria. maritima, (in Viola odorata. Crepis yirens. gardens.)

¥iola tricolor. Leontodon Varaxaeam. Pilantago major, Lyehnis vespertina. Lapsana vomuiiunis. FPlantage Corenepus. Sagina procumbens. Carduns antars, Polygonum avienlare. Stellaria media. Senecio yniaris. Euphorbia Pepins. Stellaria graminer. Bellis perennis. Enpharbia hehoseapta, Arenaria trinervig. Chrysanthemum Tcnern- Jinxms sembervirens. Cerastium yiscosani, themium, Urties nreny, Cerastiam ralgatum. Matricaria Parthenium, Galanthus nivalia, Getanilim sanguinenia. Matricaria inddera. Jmzila campestris. freranium malic. Anthemis nabilis. Calhina. vulgaris. Gerantim Rebertiannm. <Arbrias Unedo, Fricw cinerea.

Ulex Huropeus. llex aquifmlimnn. Spergniuna rubra. Ulex uauns. Myosotis eollina. Daphne mezcrean, Vicia hirsaca, Weronica hedere folin. Scleranthus annuns,

In addition to these, I lave found several species of Rubus, Rumex, Cyperacem, duncacee, and Graininer, This list will, I dare say, cause surprise to some, and perhaps doubt; but in all eases, except one or two, the specimens I gathered were very good ones, and would not have disgraced any collector's herbarium. I have not included plants found in bud, though I have taken a note of them, nor those in fruit, whose petals had evidently just fallen; but only those actually in blossom. I found them all within a few miles of Birmingham, I had not the opportunity to wander through, or doubtless some


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 year (1881) and in what follows, for the purposes of simplicity, I venture to leave out of consideration the recent arrangements made with the rulers of Jelebu.

There is still a Yam Tuan of Jelebu although practically he may be regarded as a cipher. He arrogated to himself powers of interference in the internal government of the country, which the Penghulu and the Waris considered to be a violation of the conditions under which the office of Yam Tuan was established, and he was ordered by them in 1880 to leave Jelebu and reside in Sri Menanti. A composition was, however, effected in his behalf, and he now resides in Klawang near the Jelebu frontier. Theoretically he still continues to be the Protector of the people, but I have not learnt that any point has been referred to him since his removal from the country, except in the case of an informal grant of land recently made to an European company in Jelebu, and again in the case of the Pahang boundary question, when he expressed his opinion to the Government at my request.

The Penghulu, therefore,, is the ruler of the country, for all practical purposes. I may say the undisputed ruler, as the Yam Tuan signed a bond in January of the present year undertaking not again to interfere in the government of the State.

The Penghulu is assisted in the conduct of affairs by nine officers, or perhaps it would be more correct to describe his jurisdiction as limited by them. They are entitled Lembagas, of whom there are five, and Waris, who are four in number. The Lembagas have each a separate title :—

 * 1) —Datu Mantri.
 * 2) —Datu Ngiang.
 * 3) —Datu Chinchang.
 * 4) —Datu Sendara.
 * 5) —Datu Lela Angsa.

These officers are all entitled to a vote in every act of State, and any act done without their concurrence is illegal. At the State Council, however, they may, in case of illness and so on, be represented by authenticated Wakils. The entire land of Jelebu is considered to be vested in them and the Waris, but under no circumstances can a Lembaga rise to the office of Penghulu.


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 Soe curst children by eager crying, grow black and suffo - cated, non deficiente animali facultate,

which again recalls to our memory Kate the Curst in the Taming of the Shrew. There is, how- ever, one page of this remarkable volume which requires more than cursory notice, as beyond illus- trating the character of our distinguished benefac- tor, which I am specially directed to do, it affords us from his example a valuable lesson for our own instruction. These are the canones anatomia generalis, rules which he evidently laid down to himself, and in which he has left us a precious legacy of advice. They are twelve in number, hastily, but evidently after mature thought, jotted down in the strange mixture of Latin and English which is throughout the book adopted (p. 4).

Canones Anatomiae Generalis I she as much Bno intuítu as can be Bt de foto Bentre: Bel foto aliquo quae accidunt deinde dißidere (propter fitus et conexiones 2 demonstrare propria illius CadaBeris NoBa Bel NoBiter inBenta 3 to supply only by speech Bhat cannot be [BeBn on your on credit and by authority


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 16

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 It is singular how much of this is still valuable, though written at a time when printed books were scarce, oral lectures the chief mode of teaching, and primers, text-books, compendia, with ail the artillery of cram, unknown. Indeed, a direct answer is given to the paradox which has of late obtained some vogue, and which has been fostered by examining machines miscalled universities, that lectures are useless, and that it is only necessary to ascertain that a student knows certain prescribed facts without asking how and where he learned them. Those of us who are teachers and examiners, and I am aware I am speaking before the most learned body of teachers and examiners in this kingdom, know the fallacy; it is a fallacy, moreover, chiefly in the higher branches of thought, where absolute certainty is unobtainable, and where tact, experience, and the exercise of a judicial function of the mind are necessary. It is a fallacy still more where acutely cultivated sense—the memory of the eye, of the ear, and of the touch—have to be added to these characters.

As an examiner myself to this College of over


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Talk:The Diary of a Pilgrimage/Clocks

Versions
The text which was originally under "Clocks" (and was replaced by transclusion from a scan) was a slightly different version - mainly, it used US spelling rather than UK, and had a few differences in punctuation. I guess those differences aren't significant enough to want two versions. -- Beardo (talk) 14:42, 20 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:The Diary of a Pilgrimage/Clocks


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 The Waris are entitled as follows:—

 * 1) —Raja Balang.
 * 2) —Maharaja Indah.
 * 3) —Raja Penghulu.
 * 4) —Datu Umbei.

They also have a vote in the State Council, and the Penghulu is elected from their body with two reservations.

The Datu Umbei cannot become Penghulu, nor can the Raja Penghulu. A member of the family of the latter officer may, however, become a candidate for election.

The succession would appear to follow a fixed rule, viz., that on the death of a Penghulu who has been of the family of a Raja Penghulu, the Raja Balang of the day is elected. At his death the Maharaja Indah of the day succeeds, and is again succeeded as Penghulu by a member of the family of the Raja Penghulu.

This rule is theoretically absolute, but has often been broken through, and in all cases the appointment must be ratified by the unanimous vote of the Lembagas.

The Datu Mantri is the head of the Lembagas, with the full title of "Datu Mantri Shah Memangku Alam." The full title of the Datu Umbei (father of the Waris) is "Datu Umbei Pangkal Maharaja Lela."

According to old custom, the Datu Lela Angsa was appointed by the Penghulu to protect the Yam Tuan, and the Penghulu when he wished to obtain an audience of the Yam Tuan applied to do so to the Datu Mantri, who laid the request before the Datu Lela Angsa.

The Yam Tuan has, however, no followers now, with the exception of an ex-Maharaja Indah, who was deposed for supporting him in acts of oppression, and who resides with him in Klawang. Similarly in former days the Yam Tuan had four officers attached to his household, who now exist no longer. Their titles were :—

 * 1) —Bruang Sati who was chosen by the Datu Sendara.
 * 2) —Penglima Prang, Datu Mantri.
 * 3) —Penglima Mamat, Datu Chinchang.
 * 4) —Penglima Prang No. 2, Datu Ngiang.

The Lembagas had thus a direct control over the internal


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 affairs of the Yam Tuan's household, but, as I have said, all this is at an end now.

The Penghulu has four officers attached to his person, who are in like manner appointed and removed by the Waris.

 * 1) —Penglima Garang is chosen by the Datu Mantri,
 * 2) —Penglima Hitam, Datu Ngiang.
 * 3) —Penglima Sutan No. 1, Datu Chinchang.
 * 4) —Penglima Sutan No. 2, Datu Sendara.

The Penghulu, though in theory above control, is in reality entirely under the direction of the Lembagas and Waris, who, if unanimous, can obtain any constitutional change in the country they may desire by observing the following routine.

If a measure is originated at the unanimous desire of the Lembagas, it is submitted by them to the Waris, and vice versa. Should it obtain the concurrence of the party which is not its originator, it is submitted in due form to the Penghulu, who has the power of veto, but who in practice accepts what is laid before him with but little discussion. After this step has been taken, the measure (until recently) is transmitted to the Yam Tuan for final ratification, and when this has been obtained, the measure becomes law, binding upon the inhabitants of the country generally.

This process may appear to be rather too involved to work without friction in a Malay State, but there can be no doubt but that it contains elements of safety for the ryot from its very complexity.

The ex-Raja Balang left Jelebu and has reappeared with the Pahang envoy supporting his theory that Jelebu has always been Pahang territory, and that Jelebu as a separate State is non-existent.

Whatever may be the real status of Jelebu, the present condition of the country is truly deplorable. It bears marks of having been, at no very distant period, fairly prosperous and sufficiently peopled, but now, speaking generally, the whole land is waste.

I passed the other day through mile after mile of deserted kampongs with fine padi land all round in abundance and with fruit-trees still in bearing.

The only sign of work or prosperity I came across was at


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Author:Mohammad Jamil ur Rehman

Works

 * The Philosophy and Theology of Averroes (1921, as translator)

title: Author:Mohammad Jamil ur Rehman


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46


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 BRITISH NORTH BORNEO.

The object of this paper is to give a short and general sketch of the territory under the Government of British North Borneo Company, from personal observations made during a residence of nearly three years in the country, and from the official reports of Messrs., , and.

Embracing an area of some 20,000 square miles, and a coast line of about 500 miles, the territory lies between the 116th and 119th degrees of East longitude, and the 4th and 7th parallels of North latitude.

The general geographical features of the country are as follows:—A range of mountains the general direction of which is North-East and South-West—forms a backbone through the heart of the country, varying in height from 4,000, 7,000 and 8,000 feet in the mountains of Melaio, Mentapok and Trodan, respectively, until the altitude of 13,698 feet is attained by the rugged peaks of Kina Balu, which tower above the surrounding country, repelling with precipitous ascent the adventurer who would attain their summits. From this range and descending to the coast on either side, are lesser ranges of


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 difficulty in the full performance of the duty here so lucidly and tersely set forth—that, namely, of comparing our own with other observations. It occurs to a great extent in the department to which the present speaker’s chief attention has been devoted, that, namely, of physics. Much valuable work and information is stored away in papers read before learned societies, in small detached pamphlets, in foreign and scientific periodicals, and similar places very hard to reach for purposes of consultation. Hence follows no little repetition of labour in rediscovery, and the consequent disappointment of perfectly conscientious observers who have unwittingly gone over the same ground as their forerunners in science. It is, moreover, from comparison of one’s own views with those of previous labourers, if it be performed in a conscientious and thorough manner, that new views and ideas often arise.

It is not, however, so much in the seeking out of new facts in Nature that these canones help us, as in the suggestions for the communication of knowledge, a function especially important in the


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 art of medicine, because at the end of our educational chain there hangs suspended a human life. There can be no hesitation in calling this pregnant collection of maxims a treatise on the art of imparting knowledge, an art too much neglected even in the present age. For, sooth to say, Englishmen fall, I fear, somewhat behind their French and German rivals in the practice of this important function. Even their speech and articulation are often inferior, as anyone who has listened to Trousseau, Claude Bernard, or Virchow must be well aware. “Brefly and playnly, yett not letting pas any one thing vnspoken of which is subject to the vew,” says our thoughtful monitor. Then again, ‘Not to dispute alias quam argumentis,” a quiet sarcasm on obtrusive controversialism which may go home to many a pulpit beyond this from which I have the honour to address you

We are now in a position to gather in the fruit of our author’s teaching; and first as to the utility of lecturing. We have it in his quaint language that it is justly a combination of what a book can give; namely, knowledge; with what


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 THE HISTORY OF PERAK FROM NATIVE SOURCES.

PAPER under the above title, which was published in No. 9 of this Journal (June, 1882), contains a translation of the later portion of the Perak "Salsila," (chain, genealogy) of the royal family. This ends abruptly with the death of Marhum Muda, which took place about the year 1777. It has been carried on and brought down to 1882 by RAJA HAJI YAHYA, of Bĕlanja, in Perak, whose manuscript I have translated. UNGKU HAJI's work does not profess to be more than a genealogical record, and is not, like the older book, a historical narrative of events. It has not, therefore, the interest of the latter. It is useful, however, as exhibiting the mode of succession which was customary among the Perak Rajas in former times, and as an authentic source from which to ascertain the relative purity of the descent of the surviving members of the royal line in that State.

For convenience of reference, the names and titles, wherever they occur, of the Rajas who at any time succeeded to the throne of Perak are printed in small capitals.

W. E. MAXWELL.

This is the genealogy of the Rajas who are in the kingdom of Perak, at present.

was the grandson of Marhum Kasab of Siak, who was descended from Sang Sapurba of Pagar-ruyong. married a daughter of Marhum Muda Pahang (by the grand daughter of, Sultan of Perak) and had six children—four sons and two daughters. The sons were :—


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 it cannot, namely, intuitus or demonstration. In many subjects, in none certainly more than general anatomy, this is a point of no mean importance. The eye can assist the ear; two inlets are afforded at once to the sentient brain instead of one, and two forms of memory can be called forth. For it is a fact, though one seldom insisted on, that memory has at least as many forms as there are senses. The memory of the ear is perhaps the commonest but also the least intellectual, unless applied to harmonious sounds and melodies. Unfortunately, the mere reproduction of the dry husks of thought termed words is too much cultivated in these days of overpressure, and too little care is taken to secure the essential nucleus of the grain of thought. To the anatomist, the surgeon, and the man of science generally the memory of the eye transcends the former. A geometrical memory, which can reproduce forms healthy or diseased, is an acquirement especially to be cultivated by the student of medicine and pathology. This is far better done in lectures than by books.


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 Secondly, the lecturer can keep himself abreast of all things “Nova vel Noviter inventa,” whereas the book even if at first up to date, as it seldom is, soon falls back in the race and becomes ancient. There are, indeed, books like the Metaphysics of Aristotle, the Republic of Plato, and the Aphorisms of Hippocrates; more lately the Principia of Newton, the Religio Medici of Sir Thomas Browne, and the work De Sedibus et Causis Morborum, by Morgagni, which will never grow old; but when we come to the new philosophy, and wrest daily fresh secrets from Nature, the case is different. Here also the lecture far transcends the book; especially if the lecturer, standing on the brink of the precipice which separates the known from the unknown, can detail facts or deductions which he can vouch for and prove “ on his own credit and authority,” as saith our teacher. It is a severe labour indeed, but a labour of love in these days of scientific progress, to keep oneself informed of all fresh truths as they arise, so as to impart them “brefly and playnly” to younger and still thirsty minds. If


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8 bury and Boston, and called by everybody The Neck.

At what is now Dover Street, the narrowest part of the isthmus, a mud wall had been thrown up, with a pair of strong gates in the centre, and this fortification, with various improvements, remained for nearly two hundred years, until 1832, as a line of demarcation between city and country.

In good time to pass the gates, closed at sundown, Samuel Cheeseboro drove his weary cattle through, and, once within the city limits, looked curiously about him. I wish we could pause to tell just what he saw, and what are the changes two hundred years have made at the South End of the city some of us love so well. But space and time forbid, and we hasten on, until we find our hero penning his cattle just behind the Town House, a building then about forty years old, standing on the site of the Old State House of our day. Some fifty years later, the Town House was burned, and with it many valuable records never to be replaced. But, rising again and yet again from its ashes, the Town House held its original place, with King Street running past it at either hand, until the one became the State House, and the other State Street. The cattle pens lying just behind it have disappeared, however, and Thursday is no longer market day for all Boston. Between the Town House and the sea lay what might be called the South End of the Boston of that day, while the mass of the citizens lived at the North End, around Copp's Hill.

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 from the veriest editio princeps possible of the first lectures, fulfil the precept to “make these dry bones live,” to give the vivifying force of character, fancy, and originality to the general facts of anatomy. Since then two hundred and seventy-one years have run their course, and still the sacred fire of thought and genius burns in them undimmed by time.

There yet remains one part, perhaps the most important, of my prescribed task to be performed, and that is to draw a practical conclusion from the essentially physical and mechanical character of Harvey’s great discovery. That he himself fully knew this has been already shown in his own words; it is also by his division of anatomy into three parts, philosophica, medica, and mechanica. Now at the present time investigation and research is abundantly carried on in the pathological, physiological and therapeutical aspects of medicine, but the physical or mechanical side is somewhat neglected. For hundreds of ardent questioners of Nature who are labouring with the microscope, in the biological and the bacteriological


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 Church,” he says, “that boys be rightly instructed in grammar! How many grievous errors I might relate that have wrought great havoc in the Church, and that have arisen solely from ignorance of grammar!” More than this, grammar is made an indispensable preliminary to knowledge of any kind. “A defective grounding in grammar leads to a most impudent misuse of other studies.”

Melanchthon was not without competitors. We find Vives (1523) recommending Catherine of Aragon to get Thomas Linacre’s Grammar for her daughter Mary; and elsewhere he says that any one may be selected from among those of Perottus, Aldus, Nebrissensis, Mancinella, Sulpitus, Melanchthon, and Ninivita. The Grammar of the last mentioned, who is better known as Despauter, was for a long time in vogue, both in France and in Germany. An abridged edition was brought out by Sebastian of Duisburg in 1534, and was used in Scotland as late as 1637. It is greatly inferior to Melanchthon’s Grammar, and burdens the mind of the student with an inordinate quantity of mnemonic verses. It is surprising to what an extent the notion prevailed that grammar should be made as complex as possible. Few scholars would care to name off-hand the seven genders in Latin, yet this was the number commonly


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 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA-RDP01-00707R000200110013-9

registry. Czechoslovakia continues to depend heavily on foreign-flag merchant ships to assure the movement of its seaborne commerce; at least 10 Yugoslav-flag and 42 western-flag ships were chartered in the first 8 months of 1973. These charter agreements were made with foreign merchant ships under the flags of Yugoslavia, Greece, Liberia, Cyprus, Panama, India, Italy, Somalia, and Lebanon. All ships were chartered on a voyage basis.

Most of the more than 400 officers and ratings serving in the merchant marine are Czechoslovak nationals. A few Russians, Poles, and Bulgarians, usually of officer rank, have been listed as crew members aboard Czechoslovak ships. About 200 additional persons are employed in the land-based operations of COSCO. Historically not a maritime nation, and having no navy from which to recruit qualified seagoing personnel, the Czechslovak merchant marine suffers from a lack of senior personnel, particularly ship-masters. This condition has been somewhat alleviated in recent years by Soviet and Polish assistance in training personnel for the maritime fleet. Seamen receive shipboard training for 3 to 4 weeks and then must pass an examination given by the Ministry of Transportation in Prague. Membership in the Communist Party and the Central Revolutionary Union, which is the maritime labor union, is mandatory for all seamen except medical officers.

H. Civil air (S)

Civil Aviation is fully government owned and controlled. Air transportation and general aviation services are provided by two state aviation enterprises, Czechoslovak Airlines (Ceskoslovenske Aerolinie—CSA) and Slov-Air. There is no private aviation. Responsibility for the administration, regulation, and control of civil aviation is vested in the Civil Aviation Division of the Federal Ministry of Transportation. Civil aviation is viewed by the government both as a means to further its economic and political aims and as a service to the public.

CSA operates an extensive international route network; among the Communist air carriers, only the U.S.S.R.'s Aeroflot has service to more cities. Scheduled flights originating in Prague and Bratislava serve 49 cities in 40 countries. CSA routes reach into

20

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 laboratories, those who attack medicine from its physical side may be counted on the fingers of one hand. Nor indeed are the written treatises on this subject abundant, in this country at least. The Animal Mechanics, of the Rev. Dr. Haughton, of Trinity College, Dublin, is an exceptional work of great value, which has hardly received the attention it deserves from the medical profession, but it stands almost alone as the representative of its class. On the Continent, however, and in America the case is very different. The admirable Medical Physics of Professor Wundt, of Heidelberg, has been translated from the German into French, with valuable additions by Dr. Ferdinand Monayer, who regularly lectures on medical physics at the Lyons Faculty of Medicine, and affords a storehouse of information of the highest value to the medical practitioner.

Dr. John C. Draper, Professor of Chemistry and Physics in the Medical Department of the University of New York, has also made an excellent contribution to the literature of this subject in his Textbook of Medical Physics, published the year be-


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 fore last. There is indeed a small but scanty manual by Dr. McGregor Robertson, the Muirhead Demonstrator of Physiology in the University of Glasgow, published in Cassell’s Student’s Series, but it is entirely unfit to compete with the two exhaustive treatises named before.

As with the bibliography, so with the teaching. With the exception of a course of lectures which the present speaker has delivered since 1871 in St. Thomas’s Hospital, I am not aware of any systematic attempt in London to teach the medical student the vast mass of physical facts which underlie the daily practice of medicine. This College, however, forms an honourable exception, for it has on two occasions kindly given me the opportunity to bring before my brother physicians some few of what our Harvey terms “ Nova vel Novita inventa,”—respecting the Physical Basis of Auscultation in the Croonian, and the Electrical Conditions of the Human Body in the Lumleian, lectures of a few years back.

It is true that the University of London in its Preliminary Scientific Examination for the


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 degree of Bachelor of Medicine requires students to satisfy their examiners in physics by means of a written paper. But this paper is the same as that set to Bachelors of Science not medical. It is a terrible stumbling block to the rising medical generation; it bristles with what the late genial Professor De Morgan, himself a mathematician of the highest order, delighted to call mathematical conundrums. It is set by pure physicists, who know nothing, and probably care little, for the problems which interest us as medical men. It contributes a large percentage to the slaughter of innocent aspirants to the higher degrees in medicine, on which one of their most distinguished graduates, now Censor of this College, has feelingly and righteously commented. In the sixteen years during which I have carefully read the papers there set, I have never once seen a question directly or indirectly bearing on the physics of medicine.

The fact is that the large, difficult, and somewhat heterogeneous branch of knowledge connoted by the word physics is rapidly splitting


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Rh The cattle and Lightfoot safely bestowed for the night, Samuel Cheeseboro, having secured his bed at the State Arms, sallied forth to view the town, with a certain sense of Bohemian delight incident to the first visit of a countryman to the metropolis.

"Go look at the Province House, master," advised his new landlord. "'Tis the finest house in town, as befits the dwelling of a real live lord."

"What! Sir William Stoughton?"

"No, but the Earl of Belmont, my Lord Belmont, as he's to be called. Have never you heard down in Connecticut of my lord's appointment?"

"Nay, we've heard naught of the grandees since Sir William Phipps was sent home to England to answer for malpractice in office," replied Cheeseboro dryly, and the landlord laughed with a relish, for the imp of independence was already born in the American colonies, although it took some half century to bring it to maturity.

The next day was market day, and before noon Samuel Cheeseboro had sold his beasts to good advantage, refused more than one offer for Lightfoot, paid his score at the State Arms, and set out for Hingham, where he intended to pass a night with the Hobart family, and carry to the widow of the Rev. Peter Plobart his mother's love and a little pot of rose-conserve, which had been a great trouble to him upon the road, as his entire luggage consisted of a horseman's knapsack strapped to the back of his saddle. This knapsack, furthermore,

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 given in sixteenth-century works. Even in 1633 a Scotch Grammar tells us that “the genders are seven in number: masculine, feminine, neuter, common of two, common of three, promiscuous, and doubtful.” At this rate, why stop at seven? It is surprising that the writer did not bring their number up to twenty-one and work them into a mnemonic verse. For the beginner seven genders must have been a more crushing burden than the As in præsenti that caused such agony to our grandfathers.

The set of metrical rules beginning with this locution, as well as the Propria que maribus, were by Lily, one of the first masters at St. Paul’s School and afterwards high-master of Wolsey’s school at Ipswich, and are often found affixed to his Brevissima Institutio, the most popular Grammar ever written and the basis of the Eton Latin Grammar published in 1826.

Lily’s work appeared in many forms. The edition of 1577 is in English with a Latin appendix, and is prefaced by an injunction of Elizabeth “Not to teache your youth and scholers with any other Grammar than with this English introduction hereafter ensuing, and the Latine Grammar affixed to the same.” The use of the Brevissima Institutio was confined to England, but Lily’s Syntax met with considerable success on the continent. An edition was brought out by Erasmus at Strasburg in 1515, and was afterwards reprinted at Basle, Paris, Antwerp, and Cologne.

We cannot leave Lily without giving some account of his rules Ad discipulos de moribus. These survey the whole field of school morality in elegiac verse.


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10 was now stuffed to repletion with gold and silver pieces, amounting to between two and three hundred pounds, the price of the drove of cattle. The principal purchaser had, indeed, offered to pay in one of the new-fashioned letters of credit then beginning to be used after the manner of bankbills, but Samuel Cheeseboro looked askance and shook his head.

"I won't say they're not just as good as the gold, neighbor," began he, "but"—And here the other indignantly interrupted:—

"Why, surely they are, drover! This one is drawn on Jonathan Gibbs, the shipowner and merchant, whose warehouse you may see down King Street this minute. If he's not good for a hundred pounds, I'll give you my head for a China orange."

"Doubtless he's good for more thousands than I ever saw hundreds," replied Cheeseboro, good-humoredly. "Natheless, friend, I'd rather hold the coin than a slip of paper in the stead of my cattle. They are not all my own, and I know well enow that those who trusted them to me would be but ill-suited with a bill of exchange, or letter of credit, whichever name I might give it, when they look for gold and silver in hand."

"Say no more, man. Gold is scarce, but so long as Neighbor Hull turns out his sixpences and shillings at the rate he does, there's plenty of silver. Didst hear that he dowered his daughter t'other day, when she was wed to Justice Sewall, with as many pine-tree shillings as would weigh

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Rh


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Rh her down in his own scales? Thirty thousand pound they footed up, I'm told."

"I heard naught of that, but I've seen a many of Master Hull's shillings," replied Cheeseboro, cautiously.

"Nay, I'm not jesting with thee, man! 'Twas so in sober verity; and now I'll be off to fetch some of those same shillings to meet thy demand, since thou'lt have none of my bill of credit."

"I'd liefer have guineas than shillings; they're less bulky," remonstrated Cheeseboro, but the other retorted mockingly:

"The Colony's silver is legal tender, and what more is needed for a good citizen who lodges at the State Arms rather than the King's Head?"

This business finished, and the noonday dinner eaten and paid for, Samuel Cheeseboro leisurely walked his horse over the desolate Neck and through the gates into the open country, with a heavy bag of coin strapped to his saddle-bow besides the knapsack at the croup.

"Better throw your coat over yon bag, friend," suggested the gate-warden, who with four men kept watch over the safety of the town by day and night." It looks marvelously like a money pouch, and there's no lack of light-fingered gentry on the road 'twixt here and Connecticut."

"Many thanks to you, friend," replied the young man, gayly." But I've a comrade at either hand that will have a word to say to any such gentry I may meet withal." And, touching the butts of a

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With Lily, as with the continental educationists, a colloquial knowledge of Latin was highly prized—

For the boy who prompts in class a terrible punishment is threatened—

Comenius’ complaint that the beginner in Latin was compelled to learn the unknown through the medium of the unknown, does not apply with very much force to England. As early as 1495 we find a black-letter treatise, Pervula by name, giving the rules of syntax in English. Nothing could be simpler or more explicit than the proposition with which it starts. “What shalt thou doo when thou hast an englyssh to be made in latyne? I shall reherse myn englysshe fyrst ones, twyes, or thryes, and loke out my princypal verbe and aske hym this question, who or what. And that worde that answeryth to the questyon shall be the nominatyf case to the verbe.”

In English is also the curious Grammar and Syntax by M. Holt, entitled Lac Puerorum. On the subject of gender Holt exercises a rare restraint and only inflicts one page on the learner; but his pent-up passion for analysis bursts forth when he comes to the moods, and he introduces us to “the shewynge mode,” the “biddynge mode,” “the askynge mode,” “the wysshynge mode,”


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12 pair of pistols in the holsters of his saddle, he rode through, adding distinctly:

"I shall hardly reach Wrentham to-night."

"Wrentham, says he! "ejaculated a rough-looking horseman, who had dismounted at the gate a few moments before, and now hastily mounted again; "why, it's a matter of five-and-twenty mile to Wrentham, and none too good a road. He'll never get beyond Dedham, sure."

"If that chap has his will, the drover'll never reach Wrentham with that bag o' coin at's saddle-bow," remarked the warder, gazing after the horse-man, and his subordinate slowly shook his head and filled his pipe, as who should say it was no affair of his.

But arriving at Roxbury Line, the canny drover suddenly put spurs to his horse, and turning to the left pushed down Eustis Street, as we now should say, a proceeding which so bewildered his follower that he drew rein, and sat staring stupidly after him, until, a brilliant idea penetrating bis brain, he muttered an oath or two, and putting spurs to his horse galloped off down the Dedham Turnpike, to wait in ambush at a point where a cross-road connected the southern and southwestern highways.

"He thinks to cheat me by making a roundabout turn, does he? Well, he'll find I'm upsides with him, I fancy," muttered he.

Meanwhile Samuel Cheeseboro, unconscious that he was "wanted" by this knight of the road, passed quietly by the turning that would have led

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As the large inland city of Chiang-chau has been but seldom visited as yet by any European, a short account of a visit which I paid to it lately may not perhaps be altogether uninteresting That city lies in a westerly direction, or west by north, about 35 or 40 miles from the city of Amoy, and is the chief city of the large district of Chiang-chau in the province of Hokkien. This was the second time I had been there, so the scenery which presented itself to my view, though still full of exciting interest, appeared divested of much of the strangeness which its whole aspect bore on my first visit.

It was on the morning of Friday the 28th of December last, that with a few friends I went before daylight on board a Chiang-chau fast boat which we had previously engaged, and at once we com- menced sailing up the inner harbour of Amoy. When day began to dawn we found ourselves opposite Pagoda Island, and already passing it lying on our left. The wind and the tide both being in our favour we soon left the island far behind us, and were proceed- ing rapidly in a westerly course across the expansive bay towards the mouth of the Chiang-chau river. Our boat-men knew the course well, otherwise we should have been somewhat at a loss to know whither to steer, as nothing appeared before us for a long time but a seemingly unbroken boundary of land. But on approaching nearer, the river gradually opened out before us, the winding direction of its course behind the rising ground having previously hidden it from our view. While proceeding up the river we saw traces all along of its having formerly spread itself over a wide extent of ground lying at each side of its course. But now extended embankments keep it within narrower limits, and the recovered land is usefully employed in the production of paddy, or of a long sort of grass from which ropes and mats are made. Still sailing rapidly with the tide up the river, we soon arrived opposite the large and picturesque-looking town of Hai-teng; and after about another hour's sailing we reached the town of Chioh-bey. This town lies about half way between Amoy and Chiang-chau; and both it and Hai-teng are on the south side of the Chiang-chau river. Chioh-bey is a long and narrow but very populous town, the houses generally forming nearly parallel rows running along in the direction of the river. I have been twice visiting the people of that town, and have found them,—like the generality of the inhabitants of the towns and villages around Amoy,—always very affable and friendly. In increasing crowds they followed us walking along their streets; eagerly they accepted the Christian tracts or books in their language which we had taken


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 sions. To him men present themselves individualised, and if they classify it is by some skin-deep accident of tint, some trick of the tongue or habit of gesture, or such-like superficiality. And after all there exists to-day available one kind at least of unbiassed anthropological evidence. There are photographs. Let the reader turn over the pages of some such copiously illustrated work as "The Living Races of Mankind," and look into the eyes of one alien face after another. Are they not very like the people one knows? For the most part, one finds it hard to believe that, with a common language and common social traditions, one would not get on very well with these people. Here or there is a brutish or evil face, but you can find as brutish and evil in the Strand on any afternoon. There are differences, no doubt, but fundamental incompatibilities—no! And very many of them send out a ray of special resemblance and remind one more strongly of this friend or that, than they do of their own kind. One notes with surprise that one's good friend and neighbour X and an anonymous naked Gold Coast negro belong to one type, as distinguished from one's dear friend Y and a beaming individual from Somaliland, who as certainly belong to another.

In one matter the careless and prejudiced nature of accepted racial generalisations is particularly marked. A great and increasing number of people are persuaded that "half-breeds" are peculiarly evil creatures—as hunchbacks and bastards were supposed to


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 with us for distribution; and as a dense living mass they stood still and listened eagerly to us while we preached to them the gospel.

Leaving Chioh-bey on our left, after having proceeded about two miles farther we saw the town where the famous pirate Koxinga used to reside. At the northern bank also, the ruins of what was once a fort belonging to him still meet the passenger's eye as he goes up or down the river.

The views of the country which presented themselves to us all along our course were full of varied beauty. Green hills were all around, some low and gently sloping, others higher and more abrupt, while some of them were adorned with pine trees ranged in rows up to their very summits, appearing, as seen between us and the clear blue sky beyond them, like earth-weaned pilgrims travelling up- wards towards heaven.

But the most interesting feature of the landscape was the perpetual recurrence, at short intervals of distance from each other, of those clusters of green shady trees which always indicate the locality of a village, or of a smaller or a larger town, showing that the whole district was densely peopled by members of the family of man.

We procceded by water till we came to within two miles of the outskirts of the ancient and still flourishing city of Chiang-chau. It was then about one o'clock P. M. when we found that the tide had receded so much as to leave the water too shallow for our somewhat bulky boat getting any further up at that time, so taking with us a large supply of Chinese tracts, we landed and walked the rest of of the way by the river side.

On arriving at the suburbs of the town we walked straight on without meeting with any sort of hindrance to our progress. Many persons came near and gazed at us as we passed, and soon we were surrounded and followed by large companies of people, but their words and their looks evinced only feelings of pleasing wonder; and the wonder and the pleasure which they manifested visibly increased when they heard us speak to them in the familiar tones of their own language. We distributed many tracts among the more intelligent looking of the people who crowded upon us eager to receive them; and repeatedly we stood on high steps in front of the warehouses and preached to them of Him whose grace our tracts unfold.

Having passed along several streets and under two or three high arched ornamental stone gateways, commemorative of famous men or of virtuous women of olden times, we arrived opposite the court of the chief magistrate of the city. There two or three of the city police came forward and offered to conduct us to any place which we might wish to sce; but it was evident enough that they wished us to make our stay in the city as short as possible. We told them we wished to walk along the top of the city walls, as we knew we should be less crowded and could more pleasantly


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 look around us there. We ascended above the eastern gates and walked over half the extent of the city's boundary walls, looking down upon the crowded streets, the various public buildings, and the more secluded dwelling houses of the rich: and towards the west of the city our eyes were gratified with a sight of some beautiful parks and fruit and flower gardens.

Passing out of the city by the western gate, we ascended a gently rising hill beyond it whence excellent views may be obtained of the city and the country around. This hill is called K'aig- wan; it has three separate summits at short distances from each other, and each of them is surmounted by a covered porch. Standing under those porches, and enjoying the pleasing shade which they yielded us, we contemplated in various aspects the city which lay opened out to our view as a vivid picture, and we looked with much interest on the widely extended prospect before us. The plain on which the city is built stretches far to the north- ward and to the east-ward before it reaches the high hills by which it is bounded; and over that wide plain we traced towns and villages almost innumerable.

From the fact that the cities of China are all built after one model, we feel that the sight of one makes us acquainted with what all the rest are like ; some cities are larger and more opulent than others, and the scenery around each has its own specific character, yet the general appearances of the houses, the shops, the public buildings, &c., are so much alike, that the impression of mysterious- ness may pass off from our minds in thinking of the multitude of cities in the interior of China to which no foreigner has yet had access.

But the more we see of the real state of the people, who, in numbers almost without number, are spread abroad over the face of this vast land, the more fervently should our desires ascend to heaven for the speedy evangelization of China.

Amoy, 8th February, 1850.


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Western Europe, the Middle East, North and West Africa, the Western Hemisphere, and South and Southeast Asia, as well as the U.S.S.R. and all the Communist Eastern European countries except Albania. Some of these services, notably the flights to Montreal and New York, are operated more for prestige purposes than economic gain. Other international services, including those to Africa and Southeast Asia, are designed to establish and strengthen economic ties with developing areas and new nations. In recent years, however, air traffic potential and profitability have become the criteria for establishing new routes, thus causing some low-volume routes to be cancelled. Although CSA's international services are used primarily by government, diplomatic, and technical personnel traveling to foreign countries, tourist travel is claiming an increasingly greater proportion of the passenger traffic. Increased summer services to Kiev, Leningrad, and resort areas in Yugoslavia and Romania have become very profitable in recent years. In addition to these regularly scheduled services, CSA charter flights annually transport thousands of tourists to Yugoslavia and the Black Sea resorts.

Domestic air services are highly developed; about 175 flights depart weekly from Prague to 10 other points throughout the country. Bratislava and Brno receive much of this traffic, being served each week by about 50 and 25 flights, respectively. Cargo and officials traveling on government business comprise most of the weekday traffic, but passenger loads increase considerably on weekends. Summer passenger traffic is much heavier than winter, reflecting internal tourist travel to the various recreation areas of the country.

The CSA fleet is estimated to include 45 major transport aircraft: 22 CRATE (Avia-14), 7 COOT (Il-18), 4 CAMEL (Tu-104), 2 COOKPOT (Tu-124), 6 CRUSTY (Tu-134) and 4 CLASSIC (Il-62) aircraft (Figure 12). In the future, CSA is considering the purchase of CARELESS (Tu-154) aircraft to replace its aging CAMEL and COOT units. CSA's twin-engine piston CRATE aircraft are employed exclusively on domestic routes. Turboprop COOT units are now used only on domestic routes and as back-up aircraft for short-range international flights. COOKPOT twinjets are no longer used on scheduled routes and may soon be retired from service. The four-engine CLASSIC jetliners see service primarily on long-range international flights to Southeast Asia and the Western Hemisphere, and twinjet CAMEL and CRUSTY aircraft are the workhorses of CSA's short- and medium-range international routes. All of CSA's major transport aircraft are of Soviet manufacture, except for the CRATE, which is the Czech-built version of the Soviet Il-14.

CSA's scheduled domestic services are supplemented by air-taxi transportation and charter services provided by the Bratislava-based enterprise, Slov-Air. A fleet of 6 L-410 and about 30 L-200 (Morava) aircraft are used for this purpose. The 17-passenger L-410 aircraft have also performed scheduled services to Bratislava and other points in Slovakia. It is, however, the aim of the government to reserve all scheduled services for CSA and employ Slov-Air aircraft only on charter, air taxi, and general aviation missions. The Czech-built four-passenger L-200's provide air taxi service to over 70 airfields in all areas of the country. In addition to transporting passengers to the country's smaller airfields, they are also used for emergency medical missions, the transport of mail, and for sightseeing excursions.

Agricultural services are also performed by Slov-Air, using a fleet of approximately 125 light aircraft and helicopters. The Czech-Z-37 (Cmelak), a versatile single-engine plane specifically designed for agricultural work, is the primary aircraft of the fleet. Also included are a few Soviet COLT (An-2) biplanes and Soviet HARE (Mi-1) helicopters. Throughout the country Slov-Air has about 65 stations, from which planes are contracted out to local and central

'''FIGURE 12. CSA's newest transport, the Soviet IL-62 (U/OU)'''

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 few others would have been added. Many of the localities where those plants were gathered are in exposed situations, and therefore one would have imagined it useless to look for them; and when we remember that in the Christmas week there had been several nights of sharp frost, and snow had fallen also, it is all the more surprising that so many different specimens should have been found. I am somewhat astonished that no list has appeared from the Southern Counties, which are so much warmer than our own Midland Counties; for, judging from a letter received from a friend in Devonshire, I should suppose that most of the summer flowers are still in bloom. He compares the Christ,as week there to the Australian Christmas, and says that he gathered wild strawberries (Fragaria vesca) in abundance on Christmas-day. He also mentions that two nests with eggs had been found—the one a thrush’s, the other a hedge-sparrow’s. All these facts are certainly very interesting, and point to a most exceptionally mild winter.

Of the foregoing list some are plants that flower at this season of the year, and a mild winter only accelerates their flowering; some few others may be seen in flower all the year through, but by far the greater number are, so far us the experience of the last ten years allows me to speak, strangers to the late part of the autumn, and certainly to the winter, There are several absent that I have recorded in other years, such as

Ranunculus aeris and R. sectceatus, Stelaria uliginosu, rica Pelvalix, Luchnisdiuene, Nepeta Glechoma, Seneto Facnhoe, &e., and, strange to say, I did not find Potentille Fragariastrant, a very early little flower, Neither did I find Tussilega Karierre.

The mild weather still continues, and I notice that the hazel and willow are blossoming, and the hawthorn leaves already appearing. Doubtless others of your correspondents can add a few more to the list I have given. I think the record would be worth the while, for careful observation may enable us, in course of time, to ascertain with something he accuracy in what manner and to what degree plants are affected by the weather, So far we notice that, whilst certain plants live through the autumn into the winter, under certain conditions of weather, others, that appear much hardier, do not; whilst, for example, Aenunewlus acrix or Centaurea nigra

will be found sometimes in January, after a severe and cold autumn, yet when the latter season has been mild, and the winter also, they are not to be found.—, Oscott, February 18th, 1873.

Correspondence.

Organised Work for Natural History Societies.—The existence of "The Midland Union of Natural History Societies" is a matter for congratulation. The desultory efforts and resultless labours of many students might possibly he directed and utilised to good purpose if the Council would undertake the work of organisation. May I suggest that one part of the duties of that body should be to draw out a schema for combined labours? Why should not the "Midland Naturalist" publish from time to time the results of the systematised labours of the naturalists of central England? Why should not all the Societies in the Union be engaged in preparing for this purpose, and under the direction of a competent committee, a complete account of the flora, fauna, and geology of the Midland Counties? The work would be arduous and not easily done: but a proper division of labour, working within definite lines, for well-considered purposes, would find excellent occupation for many of


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This is the Genealogy of all the Kings who have reigned in Acheen.

On Friday the 1st of Ramazan, in the year of the flight of the Holy Prophet of God, Sultan Juhan Shah came from the windward and converted the people of Acheen to the Mahomedan faith. He married a daughter of Baludari at Acheen and by her had a son, and died on Thursday the 1st of Rajab after a reign of 30 years, 11 months and 26 days, and was succeeded the same day by his son Sultan Ahamed at that time 32 years of age, who was called

Paduka Sri Sultan Rayait Shah and who reigned 34 years, 2 months and 10 days. He died on Friday the 4th of Shaaban in the year 665 and was succeeded by his son aged 1 year, who was called

Paduka Sri Sultan Mahomed Shab and who reigned 43 years. This King removed from the port and built a fort inland which be called Dal-al Dunia, and died on Friday the 12th of Rabinlawal. He was succeeded by his son called

Paduka Sri Sultan Perman Shah who reigned 47 years, 8 months, 13 days and died in 755, succeeded by

Paduka Sri Sultan Manshur Shah who reigned 56 years, 1 month, 23 days, and died on Monday the 10th Shaaban in the year 811, succeeded by his son Rajah Mahomed called

Paduka Sri Sultan Ala-oodin Juhan Shah who reigned 59 years, 4 months and 12 days and died on Thursday the 12th of Shaban 870. He was succeeded by

Paduka Sri Sultan Hassan Shah who reigned 31 years, 4 months, 2 days, and died on Wednesday the 1st of Rajaab in 901 succeeded by

Paduka Sri Sultan Ali Rayait Shah who reigned 15 years, 2 months, 13 days and died on Tuesday the 12 of Rajab in 917 (Note 1) He was succeeded by

Paduka Sri Sultan Salleh Oodeen who reigned 28 years, 3 months, 28 days and was deposed on Monday the 4th of Dulkeida 946, by his brother,

Paduka Sri Sultan Ala-oodin, the tyrant, who reigned 28 years, 6 months, 27 days and died on Sunday the 15th of Saffer 975, succeeded by

Paduka Sri Sultan Hassan Shah who reigned 8 years, 4 months, 12 days and died on Tuesday the 15th of Jimadieulakhir 983. He was succeeded by his son, aged 4 months

Pakuka Sri Sultan Muda who reigned 6 months, 28 days and died on Friday the 12th of Mohuram in the year 984, succeeded by


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 Paduka Sri Sultan Periaman (Note 2) who reigned 1 month, 22 days, and was killed on Thursday the 12th of Rabialawal 985, succeeded by

Paduka Sri Sultan Rajah Jeinal (Note 3) who reigned 10 months, 10 days, and was killed on Friday the 10th of Mo- huram 985, succeeded by the King of Perak

Paduka Sri Sultan Mansbur Shali (Note 4) who reigned 8 years, 3 months, 3 and days, and was killed on Monday the 17th of Mohuram in 993, succeeded by

Paduka Sri Sultan Buyong who reigned 2 years, 11 months, and died on Tuesday the 17th of Dulkaidah in 996, succeeded by Firman Shah, the son of our former King, called

Paduka Sri Sultan Ala-oodin Rayait Shah who reigned 15 years, 10 months, 28 days and was deposed by his son Sultan Muda (Notes 5 & 6) who ascended the throne in the year 1011 and was called

Paduka Sri Sultan Ali Mafait Shah, he reigned 3 years, I month, 21 days, and died on Wednesday the 1st of Dulbajah 1015, succeeded by Maha Rajah Derma-Wangsa Tuan Paukat, called (Note 7)

Paduka Sri Sultan Iskunder Mudah who reigned 30 years, 7 mon'bs, 24 days and died on Saturday the 29th of Rajub 1045. (Note 8) He was succeeded by his son-in-law Sultan Maghul, called

Paduka Sri Sultan Ala-oodin Mafait Shah, who reigned 4 years, 3 months, 7 days and died on Monday the 7th of Dulkaidah, (Note 9) Succeeded by Taajal Alum, daughter of our master Iskunder Mudah called

Paduka Sri Sultana Taaj Alum Sefait Oodin who reigned 35 years, 8 months, 12 days and died on Tuesday the 1st of Shabaan 1086. (Notes 10 & 11) Succeeded by

Paduka Sri Sultana Noor Aalam Fakait Oodin who reigned 2 years, 3 months, 25 days. In this reign the kingdom of Acheen was divided into 3 provinces in the first of which there were 22, in the 2nd 26, and in the 3rd 25 Mukims. The Queen died on Sunday the 21st of Dulkhaida 1086, succeeded by her daughter called,

Paduka Sri Sultana Anait Shah who reigned 11 years and 8 days and died on Sunday the 8th of Dulhajah 1090, succeeded by

Paduka Sri Sultana Kamalat Shah who reigned 11 years, 4 months and 2 days. This Queen was deposed by all the viziers and people in consequence of the arrival of a letter from Mecca sent by the Khali Malek Al Adil, in which he informed them that it was unlawful for a female to hold sovereign power, notwithstanding this 4 females reigned in Acheen for a period of 60 years, 4 months and 17 days. (Note 12)