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32 and nature, then, considering them pure, he enjoins them to speak. This man distributed his pupils into two orders, and called the one esoteric, but the other exoteric. And to the former he confided more advanced doctrines, and to the latter a more moderate amount of instruction.

And he also touched on magic—as they say—and himself discovered an art of physiogony, laying down as a basis certain numbers and measures, saying that they comprised the principle of arithmetical philosophy by composition after this manner. The first number became an originating principle, which is one, indefinable, incomprehensible, having in itself all numbers that, according to plurality, can go on ad infinitum. But the primary monad became a principle of numbers, according to substance, —which is a male monad, begetting after the manner of a parent all the rest of the numbers. Secondly, the duad is a female number, and the same also is by arithmeticians termed even. Thirdly, the triad is a male number. This also has been classified by arithmeticians under the denomination uneven. And in addition to all these is the tetrad, a female number; and the same also is called even, because it is female. Therefore all the numbers that have been derived from the genus are four; but number is the indefinite genus, from which was constituted, according to them, the perfect number, viz. the decade. For one, two, three, four, become ten, if its proper denomination be preserved essentially for each of the numbers. Pythagoras affirmed this to be a sacred quaternion, source of everlasting nature, having, as it were, roots in itself; and that from this number all the numbers receive their originating principle. For eleven, and twelve, and the rest, partake of the origin of existence from ten. Of this decade, the perfect number, there are termed four divisions,


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Runner

 * "The Runner" (1927, "White feet!—white feet!"), a poem by Arthur Henry Goodenough
 * "The Runner" (1882, "On a flat road runs the well-train'd runner"), a poem by Walt Whitman
 * "Runner" (1926, "You are not for valleys. Or for any maiden"), a poem by Genevieve Taggard

title: Runner


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circumstances indicate that the time has arrived for taking up the question of Indian national instruction in a way in which it has never yet been taken up. Obstacles, which formerly prevented the Government from taking decisive steps, have disappeared: unexpected facilities have come to light. The mind of India has taken a new spring. Substitutes are required to fill up the void created by the passing away of antiquated systems. The people want instruction: the Government wants well educated servants to fill the responsible situations which have been opened to the natives. Every thing concurs to prove that this important subject ought no longer to be re-


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144 garded only as an amusement for the leisure hours of benevolent persons. It must now be taken up as a great public question, with that seriousness and resolution to make the necessary sacrifices which the interests at stake require.

Till lately the use of the Persian language in all official proceedings bound down the educated classes of the natives, in the Bengal and Agra presidencies, to the study of a thoroughly debasing and worthless literature, and the effect was the exclusion and degradation both of English and of the vernacular languages. This spell has been dissolved: the vernacular language has been substituted for the Persian throughout the revenue department; and the same measure is now in progress in the judicial department. The extraordinary ease and rapidity with which this change was effected in the revenue administration, proves that this event took place in the fullness of time, and furnishes a happy prognostic of future improvement. In Bengal, the Persian language had disappeared from the collectors’ offices at the end of a month almost as completely as if it had never been used. It melted away like snow. This measure has so many important bearings on the welfare of the people, and the character of our government, that I shall be excused for making a few remarks on it, although they will be


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Rh only indirectly connected with my subject. A very general opinion has prevailed for some years past, that Persian ought to be discarded; but there was not the same concurrence of sentiment as to what language ought to be substituted for it. One party advocated the use of English, on the ground, that it was of more importance that the judges who had to decide a case should thoroughly understand it, than the persons themselves who were interested in it: that if the European officers used their own language in official proceedings, they would be much more independent of the pernicious influence of their administrative officers; and that the general encouragement which would be given to the study of English, by its adoption as the official language, would give a powerful impulse to the progress of native enlightenment. Some years ago this opinion was the prevailing one among those who were favourable to the plan of giving the natives a liberal European education; and it was even adopted by the Bengal government, as will be seen by the extract at the foot of the page, from a letter from the secretary in the Persian department, to the Committee of Public Instruction, dated the 26th June, 1829.


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—continued.

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146 ment to the study of the English language, which it is necessary and desirable for the Government to hold out independently of providing books, teachers, and the ordinary means of tuition. Your Committee has observed, that unless English be made the language of business, political negotiation, and jurisprudence, it will not be universally or extensively studied by our native subjects. Mr. Mackenzie, in the note annexed to your Report, dated the 3rd instant, urges strongly the expediency of a declaration by Government, that the English will be eventually used as the language of business; otherwise, with the majority of our scholars, he thinks, that all we ‘do to encourage the acquisition must be nugatory;’ and recommends, that it be immediately notified, that, after the expiration of three years, a decided preference will be given to candidates for office, who may add a knowledge of English to other qualifications. The Delhi Committee have also advocated, with great force and earnestness, the expediency of rendering the English the language of our Public Tribunals and Correspondence, and the necessity of making known that such is our eventual purpose, if we wish the study to be successfully and extensively prosecuted.

“Impressed with a deep conviction of the importance of the subject, and cordially disposed to promote the great object of improving India, by spreading abroad the lights of European knowledge, morals, and civilisation, his Lordship in Council, has no hesitation in stating to your Committee, and in authorising you to announce to all concerned in the superintendence of your native seminaries, that it is the wish and admitted policy of the British Government to render its own language gradually and eventually the language of public business throughout the country; and that it will omit no opportunity of giving every reasonable and practicable degree of encouragement to the execution of this project. At the same time, his Lordship in Council, is not predared to come forward with any distinct and specific pledge as to Another party advocated the use of the vernacular language; and argued, that the substitution


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 the period and manner of effecting so great a change in the system of our internal economy; nor is such a pledge considered to be at all indispensable to the gradual and cautious fulfilment of our views. It is conceived that, assuming the existence of that disposition to acquire a knowledge of English, which is declared in the correspondence now before Government, and forms the ground-work of our present proceedings, a general assurance to the above effect, combined with the arrangements in train for providing the means of instruction, will ensure our obtaining at no distant period a certain, though limited, number of respectable native English scholars; and more effectual and decisive measures may be adopted hereafter, when a body of competent teachers shall have been provided in the Upper Provinces, and the superiority of an English education is more generally recognised and appreciated.

“As intimated, however, by the Delhi Committee, the use of the English in our public correspondence with natives of distinction, more especially in that which is of a complimentary nature, would in itself be an important demonstration in favour of the new course of study, as serving to indicate pretty clearly the future intentions of Government; and there appears to be no objection to the immediate application of this incentive to a certain extent, and under the requisite limitations. The expediency, indeed, of revising the Governor General’s correspondence with the higher classes of natives on the above principles, has before, more than once, undergone discussion and consideration; and the Governor-general in Council, deems the present a suitable occasion for resolving to address the native chiefs and nobility of India in the English language, (especially those residing in our own provinces,) whenever there is reason to believe, either that they have themselves acquired a knowledge of it, or have about them persons possessing that knowledge, and generally in all instances where the adoption of the new medium of correspondence would be acceptable and agreeable.” of one foreign language for another was not what was wanted; that as fewer natives would know English than Persian for some time to come, the


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148 influence of the subordinate native officers would be rather increased than diminished by the change; that if the European officers were able to get through their business without using the vernacular language, they would naturally neglect the study of it; and that, although the plan proposed would give an artificial stimulus to the study of English, it would condemn the vernacular languages, the increased cultivation of which was of still more importance, to continued exclusion and contempt. To these another argument has been added by the course of events; which is, that as by the late changes in the judicial system every civil case may be decided in the first instance by a native judge, the general introduction of English as the official language would be nearly impracticable.

Every body is now agreed in giving the preference to the vernacular language. It is a great point gained for the efficiency and popularity, and consequently for the permanence of our rule, that the European officers have now been placed in such a position that they must make themselves thoroughly acquainted with the language which the people themselves speak. All other media have


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Rh been discarded, and public officers cannot discharge any of their duties unless they are familiar with it. As candidates for civil employ in India will now have only the vernacular language to attend to, the preparatory course of instruction ought to be lengthened and the examinations increased in strictness; and as, after they enter upon active life, almost every thing they hear, and speak, and read in the performance of their public duties, will be in the popular language, they must soon acquire the same, or nearly the same, facility of transacting business in it as in English.

This great point having been gained, every thing else will come out right. Being now brought into direct communication with the people, the European officers will be more independent of their executive officers: they will see and know


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 16. Beach Lane. 17. Beach Road. ... ... ... ... ...

Thih pa-sat khut-thau hang. (i) Sio-po hai-kiⁿ. ... (iii) Thih pa-sat khau. ... (v) Bang heng bi-kau. ...

Thit pa-sat kwat-thau hang. ... (ii) Kam-pong hoi-pin. (iii) Thit pa-sat hau (iv) Sha-tsui hung-mo thit-chhong tui-min. (v) Man heng mai-kau. (vi) Hoi-nam wui-kwun hoi-pin kai.


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The Man Who Died Twice

 * “The Man Who Died Twice” (1921), a short story by Edgar Wallace
 * The Man Who Died Twice (1924), a poem by Edwin Arlington Robinson
 * “The Man Who Died Twice” (1927), a short story by Frank Belknap Long, Jr.
 * “The Man Who Died Twice” (1939), by Eli Colter

title: The Man Who Died Twice


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150 more of the people, will take a greater interest in their affairs, and will make their influence more felt among them. The people, on the other hand, will obtain a much better insight into what is going on in the courts than it was possible for them to do while the proceedings were conducted in a foreign language. They will exercise a greater check over the subordinate native officers. They will be less in the hands of their own agents. Justice will be better administered; and the people will have much more confidence in the administration of it. The field of selection for public employment, instead of being confined, as heretofore, to those who were familiarly acquainted with the Persian language, will be extended to every educated person: entirely new classes of people will be brought in to aid in the cheap and upright administration of public affairs: individuals who, without any higher literary attainment than a good knowledge of their own language, have acquired in private life a character for ability and integrity, and still more the young men who have received at the public seminaries the best education the country can afford, will infuse new life and new morality into the system. As learnlearning [sic] has ceased to be monopolised by the Brahmins, so public employment has ceased to be mono-


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Rh —namely, number, monad, square, [and] cube. And the connections and blendings of these are performed, according to nature, for the generation of growth completing the productive number. For when the square itself is multiplied into itself, a biquadratic is the result. But when the square is multiplied into the cube, the result is the product of a square and cube; and when the cube is multiplied into the cube, the product of two cubes is the result. So that all the numbers from which the production of existing [numbers] arises, are seven,—namely, number, monad, square, cube, biquadratic, quadratic-cube, cubo-cube.

This philosopher likewise said that the soul is immortal, and that it subsists in successive bodies. Wherefore he asserted that before the Trojan era he was Æthalides, and during the Trojan epoch Euphorbus, and subsequent to this Hermotimus of Samos, and after him Pyrrhus of Delos; fifth, Pythagoras. And Diodorus the Eretrian, and Aristoxenus the musician, assert that Pythagoras came to


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 巷頭掘虱巴鐵 墘海坡小 邊海傍金 口虱巴鐵 面對廠鐵毛紅嘴沙 郊米興萬 街邊海館會南海

'The iron market cul-de-sac.' (The iron market is the market built of iron, i.e. Clyde Terrace Market). (i) 'Small-town sea shore.' ('Sio-po' is small town' i, e. that part of Singapore to the north of the Stamford Road Canal, as opposed to 'toa-po' or big town, the Singapore river end of the town.) (ii) 'Kampong' sea shore.' (Kampong means Kampong Glam, and is practically the Cantonese equivalent for 'sio-po.') (iii) 'Iron market' i. e. the street to which the iron market opens or faces (see Beach Lane). (iv) Tanjong Rhu European foundry opposite. (This would seem to be a roundabout way of describing Beach Road, and would probably only be used as explanatory of (ii) (but I heard it used). (v) 'Chop 'Ban Heng' rice-mill.' (vi) 'The street along the shore near the Hailam kongsi-house.


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Rh polised by the class of people who are acquainted with Persian.

Lastly; by this measure a great impulse will be given to the study, not of English only, or of the vernacular language only, but both of English and of the vernacular language. Those natives who can afford to give their children a liberal education, will not cease to do so because it is no longer necessary to be acquainted with Persian. They are fully aware that the best educated persons generally succeed best in every pursuit of life; and in particular that they are appointed, in preference to others, to situations under Government. The vernacular language does not furnish the means of obtaining a liberal education: English does so in a much higher degree than any other language to which the natives of India have access; so much so, that the knowledge necessary for the practice of some professions—those of a Physician, a Surgeon, an Engineer, an Architect, and a Surveyor, for instance,—can be acquired through no other medium. These motives will be more than sufficient to stimulate the middle and upper classes of natives to the cultivation of English. Their own languages, on the other hand, have been relieved from the state of proscription and contempt to which they had been for ages


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152 condemned. They have been erected into the medium for transacting nearly the whole of the public business of the country. It will be an object to all both to those who look forward to be employed in any situation under Government, and to those whose concerns bring them into connection with any public court or office to have a competent knowledge of these languages. Those who receive any education will learn to read them. To write them with precision and elegance will be an attainment coveted by the most highly educated persons.

The changes which are taking place in the legal system of the country is another cause of the movement in native society. Buried under the obscurity of Sanskrit and Arabic erudition, mixed up with the dogmas of religion, and belonging to two concurrent systems made up of the dicta of sages of different ages and schools, the laws are at present in the highest degree uncertain, redundant, and contradictory. To obtain a moderate acquaintance with either Mahommedan or Hindu law is the work of a whole life, and is therefore the business of a separate profession, with which the bar and bench have nothing in common. The expositors of the law are the muftis and pundits; men, who deeply imbued with the spirit of the ancient


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Rh learning to which they are devoted, live only in past ages, and are engaged in a perpetual struggle to maintain the connection between the barbarism of antiquity and the manners and opinions of the present time. Their oracular responses are too often the result of ignorance, pedantry, or corruption; but as they are few in number, and have a monopoly of this kind of learning, it is almost impossible to convict them. The judges and barristers, being excluded by the anomalous state of the legal system from the mysteries of their own profession, can exercise no control over them. The people, who know no law except what happens from time to time to fall from the lips of the muftis and pundits, are still more helpless. The injurious influence of such a state of things as this, both on the administration of justice and on the general advancement of the people in knowledge and civilisation, can be better conceived than described.

This fabric has been overthrown by the decision of the British Parliament, that a Commission should be appointed to ascertain and digest the laws of India. The alliance between bad law and false religion has been dissolved; and as the natives will now be able to consider the civil and criminal codes only as they affect their temporal welfare, the way will be opened for the introduction of those fun-


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 ... 18. Belilios Road. 19. Bencoolen Street. ... ... 20. Ben Hoon Road

(vii) Ji-chap keug Phau-be po hang (i) Chhai-tng au. (ii) Mang-ku-lu toa lo. ... Chin-long lai.

(vii) Yi-shap kan. Phau-ma po hong (ii) Chai-thong hau. ... (iii) Mong-kwo-lo. Chau-long roi.


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154 damental changes in the frame-work of native society which are essential to its complete regeneration. The class of muftis and pundits, being no longer required, will cease to exist; and those who are learned in the law, and those who actually administer it, will for the future be the same persons. Legal knowledge will pass from pedants and antiquarians to persons who are engaged in the business and sympathise with the feelings of the present age. An improved bench and bar will both ensure a certain and prompt administration of the law, and give that aid to general improvement which may always be expected from a highly cultivated body of men, whose profession obliges them to be familiar with the interests, and attentive to the favour of society.

This happy change, however, will be slowly and imperfectly effected if it be not supported by corresponding arrangements in the department of public instruction. The Indian lawyers of the old school, who fortunately are not numerous, will be laid on the shelf on the promulgation of the new code. An entirely new set must be trained to take their place. It will be as easy now to give instruction in law as in any other branch of knowledge. Instead of an endless variety “of contradictory maxims, there will be one plain consistent body of law.


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Rh Instead of legal knowledge being scattered through several languages—two of which are among the most difficult in the world—it will all be collected in our own language and in that of our native subjects. The colleges established for giving instruction in Mahommedan and Hindu law, may now, in perfect accordance with their original design, be employed in educating enlightened men; and the plan of education at all the other seminaries may be so arranged, that to whatever extent we succeed in improving the moral worth and cultivating the intellect of our subjects, to that same extent we shall provide materials for the pure and intelligent administration of the law.

Another great change has of late years been


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156 made in our Indian administration, which ought alone to excite us to corresponding exertions for the education of the natives. The system established by Lord was based upon the principle of doing every thing by European agency. Europeans are, no doubt, superior to the natives in some of the most important qualities of administrators; but the public revenue did not admit of the employment of a sufficient number of them. The wheels of Government therefore soon became clogged: more than half of the business of the country remained unperformed; and at last it became necessary to abandon a plan, which, after a fair trial, had completely broken down. The plan which Lord substituted for it was, to transact the public business by native agency, under European superintendence; and this change is now in progress in all the different branches of the administration. We have already native judges, collectors, and opium and salt agents; and it is now proposed to have native magistrates. The native collectors are often vested with the same powers as the European collectors; and it has been lately enacted, that all civil suits, of whatever amount, may be tried in the first instance by the native judges.

The success of this great measure depends en-


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34 Zaratas the Chaldæan, and that he explained to him that there are two original causes of things, father and mother, and that father is light, but mother darkness; and that of the light the parts are hot, dry, not heavy, light, swift; but of darkness, cold, moist, weighty, slow; and that out of all these, from female and male, the world consists. But the world, he says, is a musical harmony; wherefore, also, that the sun performs a circuit in accordance with harmony. And as regards the things that are produced from earth and the cosmical system, they maintain that Zaratas makes the following statements: that there are two demons, the one celestial and the other terrestrial; and that the terrestrial sends up a production from earth, and that this is water; and that the celestial is a fire, partaking of the nature of air, hot and cold. And he therefore affirms that none of these destroys or sullies the soul, for these constitute the substance of all things. And he is reported to have ordered his followers not to eat beans, because that Zaratas said that, at the origin and concretion of all things, when the earth was still undergoing its process of solidification, and that of putrefaction had set in, the bean was produced. And of


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Rh tirely on the fitness of the natives for the exercise of the new functions to which they have been called. It is easier to dub a person collector or magistrate, than to secure in him the possession of the qualities which those offices require; and the lowest imbecility as well as the highest efficiency may be found under the same official title. Measures have been adopted for educating native physicians; and is it of less importance that native judges should be professionally trained? Care is taken that the young Englishmen destined to hold office in India are properly instructed; and is no exertion necessary to secure integrity and mental cultivation in the native service, which now forms at least as important a part of the general administration as the European officers themselves? When the comparative state of morals and education in the classes from which the European and native servants are respectively taken, is considered, it will appear that we could much better do without the interference of the state with the previous training of the former than of the latter. The native functionaries have acquitted themselves extremely well, considering the corrupt school to which most of them belonged and the suddenness with which they were called to the performance of new and important duties; but enough instances


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154 of delinquency have occurred to prove, that the country will not reap the fall benefit of the change that has been made, until we not only open preferment to the natives, but also furnish them with the means by which they may merit that preferment, and learn how to use it; until we not only give them power, but also secure, by a previous training, the existence of those qualities with the aid of which alone power can be beneficially exercised.

The necessity of the case obliged us to begin at the wrong end, and we cannot too soon supply the deficiency. The business of the country is now done; but we must strive that it should be well done. There is now a sufficient number of judges and collectors; but we must endeavour to provide a succession of honest and well instructed judges and collectors. We want native functionaries of a new stamp, trained in a new school; and adding to the acuteness, patience, and intimate acquaintance with the language and manners of the people which may always be expected in natives, some degree of the enlightened views and integrity of character which distinguish the European officers. Our national interest and honour, our duty to our subjects, and even justice to our native servants themselves, require this at our hands.


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 間十二 巷坡馬跑 後堂菜 後堂齋 路大魯久望 路菓芒 內廊酒

(vii) 'Twenty buildings.' (This name is more generally given to Jalan Sultan, but the twenty houses in question were in Beach Road! This is only characteristic.) 'Race Course Lane.' (There is no other name for this and half a dozen other streets leading from Serangoon Road towards the Race Course.) (i) and (ii) Behind the Vegetarians' hall.' (There is a meeting house of Chinese Vegetarian guild here.) (ii) ' ' Bencoolen' big street.' (iii) 'Bencoolen.' (A number of streets in this neighbourhood are spoken of as 'Bencoolen' by all classes of Chinese. It is usually exceedingly difficult to ascertain which street is meant). 'Within the spirit depôt (district).' (There was formerly a factory of Chinese spirit near where this road now lies. It is disused now. Cf. Cheeng Hong Lim Lane, where there is also a disused spirit-factory.)


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Rh These, however, are no new sentiments: they have been repeatedly urged by the Court of Directors on the Indian government; and considering how deeply the success of our administration, not in one only, but in all its different branches, is concerned in the establishment of a system of public instruction adequate to the existing wants of the country, it may be hoped that the necessary funds will soon be placed at the disposal of the Governor-general in Council.

But this part of the subject has another, and perhaps a still more important aspect. The same means which will secure for the Government a body of intelligent and upright native servants, will stimulate the mental activity, and improve the morals of the people at large. The Government cannot make public employment the reward of distinguished merit, without encouraging merit in all who look forward to public employ: it cannot open schools for educating its servants, without diffusing knowledge among all classes of its subjects. Those who take their notions from England, or even from most of the Continental nations, can have no conception what an immensely powerful engine, either for good or evil, an Asiatic government is. In India, the Government is everything. Nearly the whole rental of the country


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160 passes into its coffers. Its civil and military establishments are on the largest scale. The mercantile, medical, sacerdotal, and other professions, which absorb the greater part of our English youth of the middle class, are either held in low esteem, or are confined, at present, to particular castes; and almost the only idea which a liberally educated native has of rising in life, is by attaching himself to the public service. The Government, therefore, by the power which it possesses of stimulating and directing the minds of those who look forward to public employ, is able to stimulate and direct the mind of the whole nation. The candidates for situations in the public service comprise the largest and best portion of the educated class; and the educated class always draws after it the rest of the people.

A plan has lately been suggested to the Su-


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Rh this he mentions the following indication, that if any one, after having chewed a bean without the husk, places it opposite the sun for a certain period,—for this immediately will aid in the result,—it yields the smell of human seed. And he mentions also another clearer instance to be this: if, when the bean is blossoming, we take the bean and its flower, and deposit them in a jar, smear this over, and bury it in the ground, and after a few days uncover it, we shall see it wearing the appearance, first of a woman's pudendum, and after this, when closely examined, of the head of a child growing in along with it. This person being burned along with his disciples in Croton, a town of Italy, perished. And this was a habit with him, whenever one repaired to him with a view of becoming his follower, [the candidate disciple was compelled] to sell his possessions, and lodge the money sealed with Pythagoras, and he continued in silence to undergo instruction, sometimes for three, but sometimes for five years. And again, on being released, he was permitted to associate with the rest, and remained as a disciple, and took his meals along with them; if otherwise, however, he received back his property, and was rejected. These persons, then, were styled Esoteric Pythagoreans, whereas the rest, Pythagoristæ.

Among his followers, however, who escaped the conflagration were Lysis and Archippus, and the servant of Pythagoras, Zamolxis, who also is said to have taught the Celtic Druids to cultivate the philosophy of Pythagoras. And they assert that Pythagoras learned from the Egyptians his system of numbers and measures; and being struck by the plausible, fanciful, and not easily revealed wisdom of the priests, he himself likewise, in imitation of them, enjoined silence, and made his disciples lead a solitary life in underground chapels.


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 Thibetan of Tiéchoung 152

A Thibetan Village 153

Bridge at Sougomba 157

Crossing the Satchou 161

Group of Natives 168

Scene in Inhabited Thibet 169

Ruins in the Maktchou Valley 176

Lama-house at Dotou 177

Prayer-mill at Dotou 181

A Dancer 182

Dancers at Changka 185

A Buddhist Chapel 187

The Kin-sha-Kiang (Great Blue River) 189

Women at Batang 192

Lamas at Batang 193

General View of Litang 197

Litang: View from the Roofs 200

Chinese Fort at Litang 201

Entrance to the Tatsien-Lou Valley 204

French Missionaries 208

Fishing with Cormorants 212

Lolos 216

The Red River 217

Lao-kai 220

Rachmed and a Thibetan Innkeeper 221

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Rh “With a view, however, of introducing a better educated class of individuals into this office, the Court have directed me to state, that they are of opinion, that some well-considered system should be immediately adopted by Government, for the purpose of securing a regular succession of duly qualified native judicial officers. No peculiar acquirements are at present looked for in a native Judge, beyond general good character, respectability of family, and a competent knowledge of the Persian and Bengalese languages. No liberal or polite education, no legal acquirements, no knowledge even of the general forms and rules of practice, prescribed by the regulations of Government, is generally possessed by any candidate for office, save perhaps in the latter instance by some few individuals, who have been attached to the courts in subordinate situations, as mohurrers, or moonshees, or vakeels, and who are, therefore, well acquainted with the general routine of our proceedings.

“As the readiest mode of improving the present system of nomination, the Court would suggest the appointment of a regular professor, at all the Government Colleges, for the purpose of instructing the native youth in the laws and regulations of government, and for enabling the young men brought up at these institutions to qualify themselves for the judicial and revenue branches of the public service. To each college possessing such a professor, whether, indeed, supported by Government or otherwise, and whether in Calcutta or at any city in the interior, one or two moonsiffships and uncovenanted deputy collectorships might be presented as prizes every year, and these prizes should be bestowed on any native youth, above the age of twenty-five years, who might be found duly qualified, on public examination, for the situation; the name of the successful candidate should then be placed on the records of this court, in order that he might be employed in Bengal or Behar, according to his parentage, directly a vacancy occurred; and in the mean time he should be obliged to preme Government, by the Education Committee, by which this immensely important influence may


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162 be applied to the development of the mind and morals of our subjects, in the most extensive, effectual, and unobjectionable manner. It is proposed that public examinations should be annually held at each of the great towns in the Bengal and Agra presidencies, by officers appointed to make the circuit of the country for that purpose; that these examinations should be open to all comers, wherever they may have been educated; that those who acquit themselves well should be ranked according to their merit; and that the list so arranged, together with the necessary particulars regarding the branches of knowledge in which each person distinguished himself, should be sent to the neighbouring functionaries, to enable them to fill up from it the situations in their gift which


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Rh fall vacant. The European officers generally take so little interest in the disposal of their patronage, and are often so much at a loss for qualified candidates, that they would gladly avail themselves of this mode of replenishing the lower grades of the native service. After the young men had once been appointed, their further progress would, of course, depend upon their merits and length of service.

This plan, it will be observed, rests on a much wider basis than the Government seminaries. It is intended to encourage and reward mental cultivation wherever it exists; and to engage in the service of the country the best talent the country can afford, without any reference to particular places of education. The impulse, therefore, will be communicated to all alike. The boy from a public school will be brought into competition with the boy who has been educated in his father’s house. The students from the Government colleges will contend with the young men brought up in the missionary seminaries. The Hindus and Mahommedans will vie with Christians of every denomination. There will be no distinction made, except that of superior merit. The emulation among the young men will extend to the conductors of the seminaries at which they are trained; the merits and defects of dif-


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164 ferent plans of education will become apparent from the result of the annual examinations, and those which are found to be most successful will be generally adopted. The striking effects produced by literary competition, when much less free than this, and excited by much inferior rewards, will give some idea of what may be expected from a competition which will be open to all classes of our Indian subjects, and will be stimulated by all the influence and patronage of the Indian government.

But the most decisive proof that the time has arrived for taking up the subject of national education is, that all classes of the community are now ready to co-operate with the Government. A few years ago, the education of the natives was regarded by the Europeans either with aversion or contempt, as they happened to consider it as a dangerous interference with native prejudice, or as a chimerical undertaking unworthy of a man of sense. Now there are few stations at which there are not one or more European officers, who would be glad of an opportunity of aiding the Committee in the prosecution of its plans. The discussions which took place between the advocates of the rival systems, by strongly drawing attention to the question, and, in a manner, forcing people to an


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Rh examination of it, greatly contributed to this result. All are now more or less interested and well informed on the subject; and what is of still more importance, all are of one mind about it, and have a settled and well understood plan to pursue. Whatever differences of opinion may linger among retired Indians in England, there are none now in India; or, at least, the adherents of the old system form such an exceedingly small minority, that it is unnecessary to mention them when speaking of the general sense of the European community.

The Missionaries, taking advantage of the prevailing feeling, have established numerous excellent seminaries, at which many thousand native youth are receiving a sound, and in some cases a liberal English education. English, Scotch, Americans, and Germans, concur in availing themselves of the English language as a powerful instrument of native improvement. English priests, lately sent from Rome to take charge of the Roman Catholic Christians of Portuguese and native descent, have had recourse to the same means for enlightening their numerous and degraded flocks. The Portuguese language (another instance of the confusion of tongues which has so long distracted and dissipated the mind of India) has been discarded from the churches and schools:


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36

But Empedocles, born after these, advanced likewise many statements respecting the nature of demons, to the effect that, being very numerous, they pass their time in managing earthly concerns. This person affirmed the originating principle of the universe to be discord and friendship, and that the intelligible fire of the monad is the Deity, and that all things consist of fire, and will be resolved into fire; with which opinion the Stoics likewise almost agree, expecting a conflagration. But most of all does he concur with the tenet of transition of souls from body to body, expressing himself thus:

This [philosopher] maintained the transmutation of all souls into any description of animal. For Pythagoras, the instructor of these [sages], asserted that himself had been Euphorbus, who served in the expedition against Ilium, alleging that he recognised his shield. The foregoing are the tenets of Empedocles.

But Heraclitus, a natural philosopher of Ephesus, surrendered himself to universal grief, condemning the ignorance of the entire of life, and of all men; nay, commiserating the [very] existence of mortals, for he asserted that he himself knew everything, whereas the rest of mankind nothing. But


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166 an English Liturgy has been introduced, and large English seminaries have been established. There are also institutions at which the youth of English and of mixed English and native descent receive as good a scientific and literary education as is consistent with the early period at which they enter into active life. Most of our schoolmasters have been drawn from this class; and, as they possess the trustworthiness and a great degree of the energy of the European character, combined with an intimate acquaintance with the native habits and language, they are no mean auxiliaries in the cause of native education.

This harmony of effort, however, would be of little avail if it were not founded on a real desire on the part of the natives themselves to obtain the benefit of European instruction. The curiosity of the people is thoroughly roused, and the passion for English knowledge has penetrated the most obscure, and extended to the most remote parts of India. The steam boats, passing up and down the Ganges, are boarded by native boys, begging, not


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Rh for money, but for books. The chiefs of the Punjab, a country which has never been subdued by the British arms, made so many applications to the Political Agent on the frontier to procure an English education for their children, that the Government has found it necessary to attach a schoolmaster to his establishment. The tide of literature is even rolling back from India to Persia, and the Supreme Government lately sent a large supply of English books for the use of the King of Persia’s military seminary, the students of which were reported to be actuated by a strong zeal for European learning. The extent to which the Pasha of Egypt is engaged in enlightening his subjects, through the medium of English and the other European languages, is too well known to


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168 need any detail. The time has certainly arrived when the ancient debt of civilisation which Europe owes to Asia is about to be repaid; and the sciences, cradled in the East and brought to maturity in the West, are now by a final effort about to overspread the world.


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Rh he also advanced statements almost in concert with Empedocles, saying that the originating principle of all things is discord and friendship, and that the Deity is a fire endued with intelligence, and that all things are borne one upon another, and never are at a standstill; and just as Empedocles, he affirmed that the entire locality about us is full of evil things, and that these evil things reach as far as the moon, being, extended from the quarter situated around the earth, and that they do not advance further, inasmuch as the entire space above the moon is more pure. So also it seemed to Heraclitus.

After these arose also other natural philosophers, whose opinions we have not deemed it necessary to declare, [inasmuch as] they present no diversity to those already specified. Since, however, upon the whole, a not inconsiderable school has sprung [from thence], and many natural philosophers subsequently have arisen from them, each advancing different accounts of the nature of the universe, it seems also to us advisable, that, explaining the philosophy that has come down by succession from Pythagoras, we should recur to the opinions entertained by those living after the time of Thales, and that, furnishing a narrative of these, we should approach the consideration of the ethical and logical philosophy which Socrates and Aristotle originated, the former ethical, and the latter logical [science].

Anaximander, then, was the hearer of Thales. Anaximander was son of Praxiadas, and a native of Miletus. This man said that the originating principle of existing things is a certain constitution of the Infinite, out of which the heavens are generated, and the worlds therein; and that this principle is eternal and undecaying, and comprising all


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Rh


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—continued.

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172 invested with power, are looked upon with jealousy; and they are generally in a hurry to make what they can, and return to their own homes. On the other hand, respectable natives are more easily induced to take service, and are more under the control of public opinion in their own district than elsewhere.

The next step will be, to extend the system from town to country; from the influential few to the mass of the people. This part of the subject is not of pressing importance, because the materials of a national system must be prepared in the Zillah seminaries before they can be employed in the organisation of the Purgunnah and village schools. The youth of the upper and middle classes, both in town and country, will receive such an education at the head station of the Zillah as will make them willing and intelligent auxiliaries to us hereafter in extending the same advantages to the rest of their countrymen. The Zillah seminaries will be the normal schools, in which a new set of village schoolmasters will be trained, and to which many of the existing schoolmasters will be induced to resort to obtain new lights in their profession. The books and plans of instruction, which have been tried and found to answer at the Zillah seminaries, will be introduced


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38 the worlds. And he speaks of time as something of limited generation, and subsistence, and destruction. This person declared the Infinite to be an originating principle and element of existing things, being the first to employ such a denomination of the originating principle. But, moreover, he asserted that there is an eternal motion, by the agency of which it happens that the heavens are generated; but that the earth is poised aloft, upheld by nothing, continuing [so] on account of its equal distance from all [the heavenly bodies]; and that the figure of it is curved, circular, similar to a column of stone. And one of the surfaces we tread upon, but the other is opposite. And that the stars are a circle of fire, separated from the fire which is in the vicinity of the world, and encompassed by air. And that certain atmospheric exhalations arise in places where the stars shine; wherefore, also, when these exhalations are obstructed, that eclipses take place. And that the moon sometimes appears full and sometimes waning, according to the obstruction or opening of its [orbital] paths. But that the circle of the sun is twenty-seven times larger than the moon, and that the sun is situated in the highest [quarter of the firmament]; whereas the orbs of the fixed stars in the lowest. And that animals are produced [in moisture ] by evaporation from the sun. And that man was, originally, similar to a different animal, that is, a fish. And that winds are caused by the separation of very rarified exhalations of the atmosphere, and by their motion after they have been condensed. And that rain arises from earth's giving back [the vapours which it receives] from the [clouds ] under the sun. And that there are flashes of lightning when the wind coming down severs the clouds. This person was born in the third year of the Olympiad.


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174 is at present only a limited demand for books in the vernacular languages. But what is the remedy proposed? To print more books. To print more books than are wanted, because they are not wanted! This scheme, though in appearance more popular, would be, in reality, just as useless as that of the Arabic translations: the books would rot on the shelves; and, as they would not be read, nothing would be gained by their being in a known, instead of an unknown, tongue. The chance that anything worth reading will be produced by salaried translators, who are certain of being paid whether their books are good or bad, is also very small indeed. If such a plan were to answer in any degree, it would be likely to do so at the expense of pitching the national taste at the outset at a very low standard.

In order to create a vernacular literature, we must begin by creating a demand for one. The adoption of the vernacular language, as the language of public business, will contribute more towards the formation of a vernacular literature than if the Government were to spend a crore of rupees in translating and printing books. It will have the same effect as the substitution of English for Norman-French in legal proceedings, and for Latin in the exercises of religion had in England.


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The lengths of the reigns of 65 of the old kings are given, 26 not given.

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Rh

But Anaximenes, who himself was also a native of Miletus, and son of Eurystratus, affirmed that the originating principle is infinite air, out of which are generated things existing, those which have existed, and those that will be, as well as gods and divine [entities], and that the rest arise from the offspring of this. But that there is such a species of air, when it is most even, which is imperceptible to vision, but capable of being manifested by cold and heat, and moisture and motion, and that it is continually in motion; for that whatsoever things undergo alteration, do not change if there is not motion. For that it presents a different appearance according as it is condensed and attenuated, for when it is dissolved into what is more attenuated that fire is produced, and that when it is moderately condensed again into air that a cloud is formed from the air by virtue of the contraction; but when condensed still more, water, [and] that when the condensation is carried still further, earth is formed; and when condensed to the very highest degree, stones. Therefore, that the dominant principles of generation are contraries,—namely, heat and cold. And that the expanded earth is wafted along upon the air, and in like manner both sun and moon and the rest of the stars; for all things being of the nature of fire, are wafted about through the expanse of space, upon the air. And that the stars are produced from earth by reason of the mist which arises from this [globe]; and when this is attenuated, that fire is produced, and that the stars consist of the fire which is being borne aloft. But also that there are terrestrial natures in the region of the stars carried on along with them. And he says that the stars do not move under the earth, as some have supposed, but around the earth, just as a cap is turned


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Rh We must also give a liberal English education to the middle and upper classes, in order that we may furnish them with both the materials and the models for the formation of a national literature. In this way, the demand, and the means of supplying the demand, will grow up together. The class of people who, without knowing English, require some mental aliment, will become more and more extensive: the class who do know English, will be more and more induced by pecuniary interest, by ambition, by the desire of doing good, to supply this aliment. Out of their fulness, from minds saturated with English knowledge and tastes formed by the study of English masterpieces, they will produce, not dull translations, but original works, suited to the intellectual habits of their countrymen. Mediocrity will meet with no encouragement. Out of many attempts, few will succeed; but those few will lay the foundation of the mental independence of India, and will oblige even those who know English to regard their own literature with respect, and to consider it as worthy of cultivation for its own sake.

Latin was formerly upheld as the only proper medium for scientific and literary composition. expected to be known to posterity by his Latin poems, which nobody now reads: and of


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Rh couraging mediocrity, give direct aid to the growth of a national literature. The consumption of books in the native languages, in the Government schools, is already great, and is daily increasing as the schools become more numerous and better billed. The adoption of any book as a class-book in the Government seminaries also establishes its reputation, and creates a general demand for it. Here then is a certain and perfectly unobjectionable mode of encouraging the production of good books: only the best books of each kind are bought, and they are bought only as they are actually wanted; the pupils themselves pay for them, and a large number of useful books thus annually pass into the hands of the people. When particular books are required for the use of the Government schools, it would be advisable to make the want publicly known, in order that all native authors may have an opportunity of supplying it. The best among many competitors is likely to produce something better worth having than any single writer who could be selected.

A good law of copyright, embracing the whole of British India, would now be of great use. The want has only lately begun to be felt. Nothing was to be made by works in manuscript; and printed books were not in sufficient demand to


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178 make the copyright of any value. Now, however, large editions of many works, both in English and the vernacular languages, are called for; and anxiety is felt by publishers on account of their liability to be deprived of their profits by piratical editions.

Although my remarks have been particularly directed to the state of things in the Bengal and Agra presidencies, they are, for the most part, equally applicable to the rest of British India. The plan which has been found to be best adapted for enlightening the people in Bengal, is not likely to be less efficacious at Madras and Bombay. Those presidencies will suffer less by the start of a few years, which Bengal has had, than they will gain by being placed in possession of a well devised and well tested plan of proceeding, without having had any of the trouble or expense of making the experiment.

At Madras, where least has been done for native education, there are, perhaps, more abundant materials and fewer obstacles than in any of the other presidencies. Native learning is even more thinly spread than in Bengal, and no institutions have been established by us to confirm its hold upon the country. On the other hand, a colloquial knowledge of English is a much more common acquirement than it is in Bengal. There are seve-


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 Across Thibet.

1

CHAPTER IX.

AMONG THE THIBETANS.

"A Man is Coming "—Description of the First Thibetan Encountered— Thibetan Horsemen— Driving a Bargain — A Savage's First Sight of a Watch — Uncomplimentary Comments — On the High Road to Lhassa — Getting Information under Difficulties — English and Russians in Bad Odour — Lake Burben-cho — The Dungan shows his Seals — Silos — A Thibetan Interior — A Native "Woman — Imatch Done Up — Prayers Engraved on Stones — Taking a Prisoner — Death of Imatch — In Sight of the Ningling Tangla and the Namtso.

January 30.—Although we get a little lower down

is still intense, the minimum of to-day

zero at an altitude of 14,200 feet.

h lighter and walk much more freely,

^s we have no longer to concern our-

n looking for the route, we are able to

e the ridges of the hills more carefully,

5 if there is any sign of movement or

>ts resembling tents.

uary 31. — While the beasts are being

loaded and we are sipping our tea in

the tent, we hear shouts, and Abdullah

comes rushing in, beaming with joy,

and says, "You can get out your

purse and pay the winner : a man is

coming." We enjoin Abdullah to

THE FiKST THIBETAN ENCOUNTERED, ^^eat thc straugcr wcU, give him

some tea, take him up to the fire, and try to soften him down and coax what he can out of him. On the arrival of the Thibetan, he is greeted in Mongolian, 29

Digitized by VjOOQIC

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40 round our head; and that the sun is hid, not by being under the earth, but because covered by the higher portions of the earth, and on account of the greater distance that he is from us. But that the stars do not emit heat on account of the length of distance; and that the winds are produced when the condensed air, becoming rarified, is borne on; and that when collected and thickened still further, clouds are generated, and thus a change made into water. And that hail is produced when the water borne down from the clouds becomes congealed; and that snow is generated when these very clouds, being more moist, acquire congelation; and that lightning is caused when the clouds are parted by force of the wdnds; for when these are sundered there is produced a brilliant and fiery flash. And that a rainbow is produced by reason of the rays of the sun falling on the collected air. And that an earthquake takes place when the earth is altered into a larger [bulk] by heat and cold. These indeed, then, were the opinions of Anaximenes. This [philosopher] flourished about the first year of the Olympiad.

After this [thinker] comes Anaxagoras, son of Hegesibulus, a native of Clazomenæ. This person affirmed the originating principle of the universe to be mind and matter; mind being the efficient cause, whereas matter that which was being formed. For all things coming into existence simultaneously, mind supervening introduced order. And material principles, he says, are infinite; even the smaller


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Rh ral different languages spoken in the Madras presidency, and English has been to a great extent adopted as the common medium of intercourse, not only between Europeans and natives, but between the natives themselves. This circumstance must give a permanent impulse to the study of the language, and will probably lead to its being more commonly used in ordinary conversation, and more largely diffused through the native languages in the south of India than in any other part of our Eastern dominions. The rough materials of a system of national education are therefore ready to hand in the Madras presidency; and all we have to do is to organise them, and apply them to their proper purpose. English is no novelty; it is in great request; thousands already know it: but it has hitherto been taught loosely and unsystematically, and we must bring all the modern improvements in education to the aid of its easy and correct acquisition. It has hitherto been taught merely to the extent necessary for carrying on colloquial intercourse; but we must enable our subjects to cultivate it as the means of obtaining access to all the knowledge of Europe.

At Bombay more has been done for native education. At first, too exclusive attention was paid to the vernacular languages; books for which there


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738 smoothly with her, turbulently with me, until, enthusiastically excited, she must be lifted on to the table's edge, "just to try one lovely little shot," which escaped her reach from the ground.

My game was up!

We were alone. Arabella perched upon the table, jubilant at having achieved a pocket,—I dismal and blue, beside her.

"There, take me down," she said.

I looked around through each window, inclined my ear to the door, swept an arm around her waist, and forgot to proceed.

"Oh, Arabella! Arabella! wherefore art thou Arabella?"

"Do you wish I were somebody else?" she asked, slyly.

"No, no! but what of Frank Lillivan?"

"Frank, do you know him?" (With a luminous face.)

"And he has told me yes."

"What?"

"Of his relations with Miss Tarlingford."

"With Anna,—yes."

"What Anna? Who is Anna?"

"Dear me! my sister Anna. Don't be absurd!"

"But I never knew"

"No,—you knew nothing of her; the worse for you! You avoided her,—I'm sure I don't see why,—and she is retiring."

"Retiring!—the very word!"

"What word? You vex me; you puzzle me; take me down."

"Forgive me, dear Arabella! I'm too delighted to explain. I never will explain. I thought it was you on whom Frank's affections were fixed."

Dear, no! Frank is sensible; he knows better; he has judgment"; and she laughed a quiet laugh, and made as if she would jump down.

As she descended, two heads caromed together with a click. It was the irrepressible influence of the billiard atmosphere, I suppose. No one contemplated it.

That evening, when Frank Lillivan arrived, I met him at the door.

"God bless you, Frank!" said I; "I forgive you everything. Say no more."

"Hollo! what's up?" cried Frank.

"Well, certainly, it was a little imprudent for you to neglect writing the whole address of the letter you sent to Anna Tarlingford. I thought it was for Arabella."

"Dear me!" said Frank, twinkling, "what then?"

That is enough.


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180 was no demand, were translated at a heavy expense; and as the vernacular language only was taught in the schools, a fixed and narrow limit was placed to the acquisitions of the pupils. This plan has since been modified; and, while proper attention is still paid to the vernacular language, English is also extensively cultivated: the taste for it is said to be rapidly increasing; and as the youth of the Bombay Presidency have every thing at their disposal which the English language contains, they have now an open career before them.

It is a striking confirmation of the soundness of the prevailing plan of education, that the Bengal and Bombay Presidencies, although they set out from opposite quarters, and preserved no concert with each other, settled at last on exactly the same point. In Bengal we began by giving almost exclusive attention to the native classical languages, as they did in Bombay to the vernacular languages; and in both cases experience has led to a conviction of the value of English, and to its having had that prominent place accorded to it which its importance demands. It is time that these partial efforts should give place to a general plan, embracing the whole of British India. The constitution given to it by the late charter has es-


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Rh tablished the identity of our Indian empire, and the Government has since been occupied in remodelling the different departments of administration on this principle. All the provinces of this empire are to have the same criminal and civil law, the same post-office and commercial regulations; and it is surely not of less importance that they should have the same system of public instruction. Our subjects have set out on a new career of improvement: they are about to have a new character imprinted on them. That this national movement should be taken under the guidance of the State, that the means at our disposal should be equally distributed, that each province should profit by the experience of all the rest, that there should be one power to regulate, to control, to urge the indolent, to restrain the over-zealous, to lead on the people by the same or corresponding means to the same point of improvement, will hardly be denied to be as conducive to the welfare of our subjects as it will be to the popularity and permanency of our dominion over them.

The Bengal Education Committee was bound to keep a single eye to the enlightenment of the people, that being the object for which they had been associated as a public body, and for which the administration of a portion of the reve-


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Rh the resources of education. Education was conducted in a way more adapted for the lecture-room of a German university, than for the enlightenment of benighted Asiatics. The friends of education, in performing the indispensable duty of recovering the sum which had been assigned by the state for their object, were very unwillingly placed in a state of apparent opposition to the interests of oriental research. The more immediate supporters of the Asiatic Society, in struggling to retain the interest they had enjoyed in this sum, were marshalled against the cause of popular education. Since the separation has been effected, both parties have pursued their respective objects with much greater success than before. The Education Committee, uninfluenced by any foreign bias, has employed all its disposable funds in founding new seminaries. The Asiatic Society, forced at last to lean on its natural supporters, has been liberally assisted by private contributions; and will, it may be hoped, soon receive that aid from the public resources to which the public importance of its labours so justly entitle it.

It is much to be desired that this division of labour between the departments of general science and popular education should receive the sanction of the highest authority, and be carried into full


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184 effect. The plan which appears to me best calculated to answer every purpose, is, for the Government to attach a Sanskrit professor, with several native assistants, to the establishment of the Asiatic Society. These persons, selected on account of their eminent attainments and known love of science, and undisturbed by any other pursuit, might devote themselves to the investigation of the history, antiquities, philosophy, and literature of the East, recording the result of their researches in the most lasting and available forms. India is undoubtedly at the threshold of a new era; and it seems to be no less incumbent on us at this period to gather up the recollections of the past, than to provide matter of national improvement for the future. The Hindu system of learning has formed the character of the people up to the present point; and it must still be studied, to account for daily occurring phenomena of habits and manners. Whatever mental cultivation, whatever taste for scientific and literary pursuits has survived among the Hindus, is owing to it: they were a literary people when we were barbarians; and, after centuries of revolution, and anarchy, and subjection to foreign rule, they are still a literary people, now that we have arrived at the highest existing point of civilisation. That the system


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 above ten years, to find any case, to which Leslie's criteria applied, and which yet was untrue.

I will extract such portion of Leslie's words, as may suffice to explain this. (Short and Easy Method with the Deists, iii. 2.)

Of a truth, you know not wherewith you are trifling; and I would mention this rather as an unexpected benefit, derived from adherence to the truth, than as the use of that truth,—an instance how many hidden values every truth contains within it, though but gradually perhaps evolved to us, how much more than we are aware we lose, if we abandon truth.

The progress of error on this head is indeed a warning how men be ashamed of any, even though it seem to them the least portion of the truth committed to their trust; men first suppressed it as invidious, and an obstacle to charity, then were ashamed of it, then disbelieved it, lastly ridicule it. Those of this generation must look to it, lest the fear of avowing their

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Rh which has produced these effects should be carefully analysed and recorded in all its different parts, is no less required by the interests of science in general than by our particular interest as rulers of India. The pundits and students of the Sanskrit College, whose whole time is taken up in teaching and learning that language, are quite unequal to the task. The Asiatic Society, whose proper business it is, are also at present unequal to it; they have no machinery for its performance: the members of the society are principally public officers, overburdened with other duties; and they have as yet been obliged to confine their attention to the replenishment of their museum, and the collection of such scattered notices of the antiquities of the country as have been sent to them by amateur correspondents. The examining and laying open of the different branches of Hindu and Mahommedan literature, has been of necessity, almost entirely neglected; and unless some plan be adopted such as I have suggested, it is not easy to see how this object (the one for which the society was principally founded), can ever be accomplished. Such Arabic and Sanskrit works as are worthy of being preserved, might be printed under the superintendence of the professor and his native assistants; and the expense might be borne,


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186 as hitherto, partly by subscription, and partly by the sale of the works themselves, without much assistance from Government. What the finances of the society are not equal to, is, the payment of salaries sufficient to secure the whole time of highly qualified persons to review and make researches into the ancient literature of the country.

Having made this provision for the preservation of Arabic and Sanskrit learning, and satisfied every reasonable wish which either national pride or scientific curiosity can suggest, we shall be able with more satisfaction to take the requisite steps for the introduction of new knowledge, and the creation of a new literature. Every object will have been secured, and all parties will pursue their respective ends without interfering, and will co-operate without misunderstanding.


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 conviction lead to the same result with regard to the sacraments of their Lord; whether they have not already taken the first steps.

This again I would regard as the inevitable result of the use of ridicule; and its ill tendency is the more illustrated by its having corrupted your natural love of fairness. It is part of the character which you have adopted, not of your own. For having once resolved on the fiction which was to be the vehicle of your satire, then the laws of composition required that the fiction should be in keeping, however at variance with the laws of truth. The laws of fiction are indeed stern laws, since they require the sacrifice of whatever is at variance with themselves. Having adopted the fiction of a letter from the Pope to certain members of your Church, as being his emissaries, it became necessary, by disguise, or omission, or perversion, to conceal whatever would have disturbed the unity of the drama. For instance, you play not unfrequently upon the words which one of these writers addresses to the Church of Rome,—"Cum talis sis, utinam noster esses." And who would not echo the wish? Who,—bearing in mind the holy truths which Rome, amid her corruptions, yet holds, how much of the highest Christian truth, which many Protestant bodies have lost, or are in jeopardy of losing, on the mystery of the Trinity, of the Incarnation, and its consequences; or considering, again, the extent of her Communion,—would not wish, and long, and pray that she might be freed from her anti-Christian servitude; that she, as ourselves have been, might be restored to her primeval purity, when she was once the guardian of Christian truth; that God would "break the yoke of her burden, the staff on her shoulder, and the rod of her oppressor?" (Is. ix. 4.) Taken then in their obvious sense, the words are the expression of every Christian heart Your fiction, however, required that they should express a desire for union with Rome as she is; and in this sense, accordingly, you

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188 its frightful consequences, by means of a political system supported by the revenue taken from the Indians themselves. Whether we govern India ten or a thousand years, we will do our duty by it: we will look, not to the probable duration of our trust, but to the satisfactory discharge of it, so long as it shall please God to continue it to us. Happily, however, we are not on this occasion called upon to make any effort of disinterested magnanimity. Interest and duty are never really separated in the affairs of nations, any more than they are in those of individuals; and in this case they are indissolubly united, as a very slight examination will suffice to show.

The Arabian or Mahommedan system is based on the exercise of power and the indulgence of passion. Pride, ambition, the love of rule, and of sensual enjoyment, are called in to the aid of religion. The earth is the inheritance of the Faithful: all besides are infidel usurpers, with whom no measures are to be kept, except what policy may require. Universal dominion belongs to the Mahommedans by Divine right. Their religion obliges them to establish their predominance by the sword; and those who refuse to conform are to be kept in a state of slavish subjection. The Hindu system, although less fierce and aggressive than


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Rh the Mahommedan, is still more exclusive: all who are not Hindus are impure outcasts, fit only for the most degraded employments; and, of course, utterly disqualified for the duties of government, which are reserved for the military, under the guidance of the priestly caste. Such is the political tendency of the Arabic and Sanskrit systems of learning. Happily for us, these principles exist in their full force only in books written in difficult languages, and in the minds of a few learned men; and they are very faintly reflected in the feelings and opinions of the body of the people. But what will be thought of that plan of national education which would revive them and make them popular; would be perpetually reminding the Mahommedans that we are infidel usurpers of some of the fairest realms of the Faithful, and the Hindus, that we are unclean beasts, with whom it is a sin and a shame to have any friendly intercourse. Our bitterest enemies could not desire more than that we should propagate systems of learning which excite the strongest feelings of human nature against ourselves.

The spirit of English literature, on the other hand, cannot but be favorable to the English connection. Familiarly acquainted with us by means of our literature, the Indian youth almost cease to


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190 regard us as foreigners. They speak of our great men with the same enthusiasm as we do. Educated in the same way, interested in the same objects, engaged in the same pursuits with ourselves, they become more English than Hindus, just as the Roman provincials became more Romans than Gauls or Italians. What is it that makes us what we are, except living and conversing with English people, and imbibing English thoughts and habits of mind? They do so too: they daily converse with the best and wisest Englishmen through the medium of their works; and form, perhaps, a higher idea of our nation than if their intercourse with it were of a more personal kind. Admitted behind the scenes, they become acquainted with the principles which guide our proceedings; they see how sincerely we study the benefit of India in the measures of our administration; and from violent opponents, or sullen conformists, they are converted into zealous and intelligent co-operators with us. They learn to make a proper use of the freedom of discussion which exists under our government, by observing how we use it ourselves; and they cease to think of violent remedies, because they are convinced that there is no indisposition on our part to satisfy every real want of the country. Dishonest and bad rulers alone de-


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Rh rive any advantage from the ignorance of their subjects. As long as we study the benefit of India in our measures, the confidence and affection of the people will increase in proportion to their knowledge of us.

But this is not all. There is a principle in human nature which impels all mankind to aim at improving their condition: every individual has his plan of happiness: every community has its ideas of securing the national honour and prosperity. This powerful and universal principle, in some shape or other, is in a state of constant activity; and if it be not enlisted on our side, it must be arrayed against us. As long as the natives are left to brood over their former independence, their sole specific for improving their condition is, the immediate and total expulsion of the English. A native patriot of the old school has no notion of any thing beyond this: his attention has never been called to any other mode of restoring the dignity and prosperity of his country. It is only by the infusion of European ideas, that a new direction can be given to the national views. The young men, brought up at our seminaries, turn with contempt from the barbarous despotisms under which their ancestors groaned, to the prospect of improving their national institutions on


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192 the English model. Instead of regarding us with dislike, they court our society, and look upon us as their natural protectors and benefactors: the summit of their ambition is, to resemble us; and, under our auspices, they hope to elevate the character of their countrymen, and to prepare them by gradual steps for the enjoyment of a well-regulated and therefore a secure and a happy independence. So far from having the idea of driving the English into the sea uppermost in their minds, they have no notion of any improvement but such as rivets their connection with the English, and makes them dependent on English protection and instruction. In the re-establishment of the old native governments they see only the destruction of their most cherished hopes, and a state of great personal insecurity for themselves. The existing connection between two such distant countries as England and India, cannot, in the nature of things, be permanent: no effort of policy can prevent the natives from ultimately regaining their independence. But there are two ways of arriving at this point. One of these is, through the medium of revolution; the other, through that of reform. In one, the forward movement is sudden and violent; in the other, it is gradual and peaceable. One must end in a


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Rh complete alienation of mind and separation of interests between ourselves and the natives; the other in a permanent alliance, founded on mutual benefit and good-will.

The only means at our disposal for preventing the one and securing the other class of results is, to set the natives on a process of European improvement, to which they are already sufficiently inclined. They will then cease to desire and aim at independence on the old Indian footing. A sudden change will then be impossible; and a long continuance of our present connection with India will even be assured to us. A Mahratta or Mahommedan despotism might be re-established in a month; but a century would scarcely suffice to prepare the people for self-government on the European model. The political education of a nation must be a work of time; and while it is in progress, we shall be as safe as it will be possible for us to be. The natives will not rise against us, because we shall stoop to raise them: there will be no reaction, because there will be no pressure: the national activity will be fully and harmlessly employed in acquiring and diffusing European knowledge, and in naturalising European institutions. The educated classes, knowing that the elevation of their country on these principles can only be


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194 worked out under our protection, will naturally cling to us. They even now do so. There is no class of our subjects to whom we are so thoroughly necessary as those whose opinions have been cast in the English mould: they are spoiled for a purely native regime; they have every thing to fear from the premature establishment of a native government; their education would mark them out for persecution: the feelings of independence, the literary and scientific pursuits, the plans of improvement in which they indulged under our government, must be exchanged for the servility and prostration of mind which characterise an Asiatic court. This class is at present a small minority, but it is continually receiving accessions from the youth who are brought up at the different English seminaries. It will in time become the majority; and it will then be necessary to modify the political institutions to suit the increased intelligence of the people, and their capacity for self-government.

The change will thus be peaceably and gradually effected: there will be no struggle, no mutual exasperation; the natives will have independence, after first learning how to make a good use of it: we shall exchange profitable subjects for still more profitable allies. The present


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 New Ideas.

HY charity? asks Henry Ford in his wonderful book, the Bible of the future.

Why should charity have to be forever practised in this world?

And he supplies the answer himself: BECAUSE IT IS EASIER TO GIVE THAN TO MAKE GIVING UNNECESSARY.

The charity that confines itself to giving and does not trouble about making giving unnecessary achieves merely this: THE UPKEEP OF HUMAN MISERY. And well it were if it did nothing more! But it entails another evil – it actually blocks the way to the solution of the problem of human misery. The money, the energy, the intelligence spent in persistently following the wrong road, endowing charity with a semblance of organic form under the denomination of philanthropy, all this simply holds up to our gaze the mirage of a solution but nothing is solved at all. The real matter at issue, seen on the plane where Henry Ford’s extraordinary insight has focussedfocused [sic] it, is something 15


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198 The Emperor Akbar followed up this policy in India, Arabicised Persian was adopted as the language of his dynasty; and the direction thereby given to the national sympathies and ideas greatly contributed to produce that feeling of veneration for the family which has long survived the loss of its power. This feeling, which in Europe would be called loyalty, is common to those who have been brought up in the old learning, but is very rarely found in connection with an English education. The policy of our predecessors, although seldom worthy of imitation, was both very sound and very successful in this respect. If we adopt the same policy, it will be more beneficial to the natives in proportion as English contains a greater fund of true knowledge than Arabic and Persian: and it will be more beneficial to us in proportion as the natives will study English more zealously and extensively than they did Arabic and Persian, and will be more completely changed by it in feeling and opinion.

These views were not worked out by reflection, but were forced on me by actual observation and experience. I passed some years in parts of India, where, owing to the comparative novelty of our rule and to the absence of any attempt to alter the current of native feeling, the national habits of


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Rh thinking remained unchanged. There, high and low, rich and poor, had only one idea of improving their political condition. The upper classes lived upon the prospect of regaining their former pre-eminence; and the lower, upon that of having the avenues to wealth and distinction re-opened to them by the re-establishment of a native government. Even sensible and comparatively well affected natives had no notion that there was any remedy for the existing depressed state of their nation except the sudden and absolute expulsion of the English. After that, I resided for some years in Bengal, and there I found quite another set of ideas prevalent among the educated natives. Instead of thinking of cutting the throats of the English, they were aspiring to sit with them on the grand jury or on the bench of magistrates. Instead of speculating on Punjab or Nepaulese politics, they were discussing the advantages of printing and free discussion, in oratorical English speeches, at debating societies which they had established among themselves. The most sanguine dimly looked forward in the distant future to the establishment of a national representative assembly as the consummation of their hopes all of them being fully sensible that these plans of improvement could only be worked out with the aid and protection of


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Author talk:Mark Beaufoy

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The image shown is of the father (also Mark Beaufoy), not of the son Colonel Mark Beaufoy FRS. Can someone please either remove the image of correct the title please. Martin of Sheffield (talk) 18:06, 18 November 2023 (UTC)
 * Done (at Wikidata). Andy Mabbett ( Pigsonthewing ); Talk to Andy; Andy's edits 22:35, 22 November 2023 (UTC)

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, far nobler and far more rational. It is seen to be not alone a question of succouring misery but of suppressing it. Ford’s idea is to make charity useless for lack of objects.

How many readers will smile at this! How many will take this to be only one more of the countless Utopian visions that people the human brain!

That is because they don’t know how Ford forms his ideas – they don’t know that his idealistic faculty is a practical working organ. Ford’s ideas are based on experiment – they represent what the possibilities have held out to him.

Absurd as this proposition may seem of suppressing charity by suppressing want, Ford demonstrated it in Detroit in the same way that Columbus solved the problem of the egg. And there is no reason why an experiment on a small scale should have different results when we make it on a larger scale. What he did can be done the wide world over; the Detroit solution is universally applicable.

But what did he do?

He studied the primary causes of misery. He saw that these primary causes are incapacity for work and dislike for work. For the misery that supervenes because a man does not want to work there is a very simple remedy: let him starve. Whatever kind of beneficence seeks to take care of this class of idlers is criminally guilty because it justifies and rewards sloth. But there are those who cannot 16


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 quote them. The very next words of the writer contradict this. He proceeds (and to prevent the possibility of a mistake, he has printed these words in capitals),—

Honesty required the insertion of these words; but they would have spoiled the jest, and so they are omitted.

Again, as a member, to all appearance, of our Church, and so having no prejudice against her, it is hardly probable that you should believe what a recent author has well termed "The fable of the Nag's Head consecration." Bishop Bull calls it "a putid fable;" and even Lingard, who shrinks not from any plausible fable, discards it. It suited, however, your assumed character, and so, in answer to the words—

You reply:

"But surely you are aware of all the circumstances of the Nag's Head consecration. This must at least diminish confidence as to the continuity

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200 the British Government by the gradual improvement of their countrymen in knowledge and morality; and that the re-establishment of a Mahommedan or any other native regime would at once render all such views impracticable and ridiculous. No doubt, both these schemes of national improvement suppose the termination of the English rule: but while that event is the beginning of one, it is only the conclusion of the other. In one, the sudden and violent overthrow of our government is a necessary preliminary: in the other, a long continuance of our administration, and the gradual withdrawal of it as the people become fit to govern themselves, are equally indispensable.

Our native army is justly regarded as the pillar of our Indian empire; and no plan of benefiting either the natives or ourselves can be worth anything which does not rest on the supposition that this pillar will remain unbroken. It is therefore of importance to inquire how this essential element of power is likely to be affected by the course of policy which has been described. The Indian army is made up of two entirely distinct parts; the English officers, and the native officers and men. The former will, under any circumstances, stand firm to their national interests: the latter will be animated by the feelings of the


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 work: the disabled and the sick. If they cannot work, how are they to live except on charity or beneficence?

It is here that Henry Ford makes the world a Great Revelation.

The legions of the unfit are not incapacitated for work; for the work, as we have organized it, is unadaptable to them. Intelligent organization of industry, as effected by Ford in his own business, solves the problem perfectly.

Ford had a study made of all the tasks carried out in his factory and what each required of the artisan. He found that so many needed a normal man in good health, so many one arm only, so many no legs, so many not even eyesight, and so on. Then he rounded up the halt and lame of Detroit who were being supported by public charity and offered each one work suited to his physical condition. He did not do this out of charity, thereby burdening production. He did it to prove that a man of impaired physical capacity, given suitable work, can produce as much as a sound man, deserving therefore full pay. In this way he provided work in his factory for thousands of non-productive human beings who were a burden on the productive, levelling them up to normal efficiency, relieving society of so much dead weight and sparing the former the mortification of knowing themselves to be encumbrances. 17


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Rh class of society from which they are drawn, except so far as those feelings may be modified by professional interests and habits. The native officers rise from the ranks; and the ranks are recruited from the labouring class, which is the last that will be affected by any system of national education. Not one in five hundred of the boys who are instructed in the Zillah seminaries, will enlist in the army. If the Sepoys are educated anywhere, it must be in the village schools; and the organisation of those schools will be the concluding measure of the series. The instruction given to the labouring class can never be more than merely elementary. They have not leisure for more. But, such as it is, they will be indebted for it to us; and as it will form part of a system established and superintended by ourselves, we shall take care that it is of a kind calculated to inspire feelings of attachment to the British connection. After this, the young men who enlist in the army will become imbued with the military spirit, and moulded by the habits of military obedience. I leave to others to judge whether this training is calculated to make better and more attached, or worse and more disaffected, soldiers than the state of entire neglect, as regards their moral and intellectual improvement, in which the whole class


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aurora borealis, or rather, the polar aurora,—for there are auroræ australes as well as auroræ boreales,—has been an object of wonder and admiration from time immemorial.

Pliny and Aristotle record phenomena identical with those which later times have witnessed. The ancients ranked this with other celestial phenomena, as portending great events.

In a Bible imprinted at London in the year 1599, the 22d verse of the 37th chapter of Job reads thus: "The brightness commeth out of the Northe, the praise to God which is terrible." The writer of the Book of Job was very conversant with natural objects, and may have referred to the aurora borealis and the phenomena immediately connected therewith.

In 1560, we are told, it was seen at London in the shape of burning spears, a similitude which would be no less appropriate now than then. Frequent displays are recorded during the fifteen years following that date. During the latter half of the seventeenth century, the phenomena were frequently visible, oftentimes being characterized by remarkable brilliancy. After 1745, the displays suddenly diminished, and were but rarely seen for the next nine years. The present century has been favored to a remarkable degree. The displays during the years 1835, '36, '37, '46, '48, '51, '52, and '59, have been especially grand.