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1858.] Livingston was not a member of the Constitutional Convention; the only person of the name in that body was William Livingston, Governor of New Jersey.—Mr. Parton comes into conflict with other writers upon matters affecting his hero, as to which he would have done well if he had given his authority. Matthew L. Davis, Burr's first biographer and intimate friend, says that Burr's grandfather was a German; Parton, speaking of the family at the time of the birth of Burr's father, says that it was Puritan and had flourished in New England for three generations. Mr. Parton makes Burr a witness of a dramatic interview between Mrs. Arnold and Mrs. Prevost shortly after the discovery of Arnold's treason, the particulars of which Davis says Burr obtained from the latter lady after she became his wife.—Our author is not consistent in his own statements. Upon one page he describes. Mrs. Prevost, about the time of her marriage, as "the beautiful Mrs. Prevost"; a few pages farther on he says she was "not beautiful, being past her prime." He informs us that it is the fashion to underrate Jefferson, that the polite circles and writers of the country have never sympathized with him, and in the very same paragraph he remarks that "Thomas Jefferson has been for fifty years the victim of incessant eulogy."

This carelessness in reciting facts is associated with a certain confusion of mind. Mr. Parton does not appear to have the power of distinguishing between conflicting statements of the same thing. He describes Hamilton as honest and generous, and then accuses him of malignity and dishonorable intrigue. He says that Wilkinson, at that time a general in the United States service, may have thought of hastening the dissolution of the Union "without being in any sense a traitor." How an officer can meditate the destruction of a government which he has sworn to protect, and not be in any sense of the word a traitor, will puzzle minds not in what the author calls "the Burr school" But the most curious exhibition which Mr. Parton makes of this mental and moral confusion occurs in a passage where he attempts to prove his assertion, that "Burr has done the state some service, though they know it not." This service, of which the state has continued so obstinately ignorant, consists mainly in having invented filibustering, and in having brought duelling into disgrace by killing Hamilton. "That was a benefit," our moralist gravely remarks concerning this last claim to gratitude. Certainly; just such a benefit as Captain Kidd conferred upon the world; he brought piracy into disgrace by being hanged for it. As to the invention of filibustering, we are hardly disposed to rank Burr with Fulton and Morse for his valuable discovery; but perhaps the shades of Lopez and De Boulbon, and the living "gray-eyed man of destiny," will worship him as the founder of their order.

It is impossible to define Mr. Parton's opinion of his hero. It is not very clear to himself. He is inclined to admire him, and is quite sure that he has been harshly dealt with. In the Preface he intimates that it is his purpose to exhibit Burr's good qualities,—for, as he says, "it is the good in a man who goes astray that ought most to alarm and warn his fellow-men." The converse of which proposition we suppose the author thinks equally true, and that it is the evil in a man who does not go astray which ought most to delight and attract his fellow-men. At the end of the volume Mr. Parton makes a summary of Burr's character,—says that he was too good for a politician, and not great enough for a statesman,—that Nature meant him for a schoolmaster,—that he was a useful Senator, an ideal Vice-President, and would have been a good President,—and that, if his Mexican expedition had succeeded, he would have run a career similar to that of Napoleon. We do not dare attack this extraordinary eulogy. To describe a man as not great enough for a statesman, yet fitted to make a good President, as a natural-born schoolmaster and at the same


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598 lutes him thus: "Glorious, delightful, honest John Adams! An American John Bull! The Comic Uncle of this exciting drama!" He then calls him "a high-mettled game-cock," and says "he made a splendid show of fight."

Such little foibles and vanities might easily be pardoned, if the book had no more important defects. It professes to explain portions of our history hitherto not perfectly understood, and it contains many statements for the truth of which we must rely upon the good sense and accuracy of the writer; yet it is full of errors, and often evinces a disposition to exaggeration little calculated to produce confidence in its reliability.

Our space will not permit us to point out all the mistakes which Mr. Parton has made, and we will mention only a few which attracted our attention upon the first perusal of his book. His hero was appointed Lieutenant-Colonel when only twenty-one years of age, and the author says that he was "the youngest man who held that rank in the Revolutionary army, or who has ever held it in an army of the United States." Alexander Hamilton and Brockholst Livingston both reached that rank at twenty years of age.—Mr. Parton tells us that Burr's rise in politics was more "rapid than that of any other man who has played a conspicuous part in the affairs of the United States"; and that "in four years after fairly entering the political arena, he was advanced, first, to the highest honor of the bar, next, to a seat in the National Council, and then, to a competition with Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and Clinton, for the Presidency itself." He could hardly have crowded more errors into a single paragraph. Burr never attained the highest honor of the bar. His first appearance in politics was as a member of the Legislature of New York, in 1784, when twenty-eight years old; five years after, he was appointed Attorney-General; in 1791 he was elected to the Senate of the United States; and in 1801, at the age of forty-five, seventeen years after he fairly entered public life, he became Vice-President. Hamilton was a member of Congress at twenty-five, and at thirty-two was Secretary of the Treasury; Jefferson wrote the great Declaration when only thirty-two years old; and the present Vice-President is a much younger man than Burr was when he reached that station. The statement, that Burr was the rival of Washington and Adams for the Presidency, is absurd. Under the Constitution, at that time, each elector voted for two persons,—the candidate who received the greatest number of votes (if a majority of the whole) being declared President, and the one having the next highest number Vice-President. In 1792, at which time Burr received one vote in the Electoral College, all the electors voted for Washington; consequently the vote for Burr, upon the strength of which Mr. Parton makes his magnificent boast, was palpably for the Vice-Presidency. In 1796, the Presidential candidates were Adams and Jefferson, for one or the other of whom every elector voted,—the votes for Burr, in this instance thirty in number, being, as before, only for the Vice-Presidency. Even in 1800, when the votes for Jefferson and Burr in the Electoral College were equal, it is notorious that this equality was simply the result of their being supported on the same ticket,—the former for the office of President, and the latter for that of Vice-President. Mr. Parton says, that, in the House of Representatives, Burr would have been elected on the first ballot, if a majority would have sufficed; and that Mr. Jefferson never received more than fifty-one votes in a House of one hundred and six members. Had he taken the trouble to examine Gales's "Annals of Congress" for 1799-1801, he would have found that the House consisted of one hundred and four members, two seats being vacant; and that on the first ballot Jefferson received fifty-five votes, a majority of six.—We are several times told that Robert R. Livingston was one of the framers of the Constitution. Mr.


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1858.]

life of Aaron Burr is an admirable subject for a biographer. He belonged to a class of men, rare in America, who are remarkable, not so much for their talents or their achievements, as for their adventures and the vicissitudes of their fortunes. Europe has produced many such men and women: political intriguers; royal favorites; adroit courtiers; adventurers who carried their swords into every scene of danger; courtesans who controlled the affairs of states; persevering schemers who haunted the purlieus of courts, plotted treason in garrets, and levied war in fine ladies' boudoirs.

In countries where all the social and political action is concentrated around the throne, where a pretty woman may decide the policy of a reign, a royal marriage plunge nations into war, and the disgrace of a favorite cause the downfall of a party, such persons find an ample field for the exercise of the arts upon which they depend for success. The history and romance of Modern Europe are full of them; they crowd the pages of Macaulay and Scott. But the full sunlight of our republican life leaves no lurking-place for the mere trickster. Doubtless, selfish purposes influence our statesmen, as well as the statesmen of other countries; but such purposes cannot be accomplished here by the means which effect them elsewhere. He who wishes to attract the attention of a people must act publicly and with reference to practical matters; but the ear of a monarch may be reached in private. Therefore there is a certain monotony in the lives of most of our public men; they may be read in the life of one. It is, generally, a simple story of a poor youth, who was born in humble station, and who, by painful effort in some useful occupation, rose slowly to distinguished place, who displayed high talents, and made an honorable use of them. Aaron Burr, however, is an exception. His adventures, his striking relations with the leading men of his time, his romantic enterprises, the crimes and the talents which have been attributed to him, his sudden elevation, and his protracted and agonizing humiliation have attached to his name a strange and peculiar interest Mr. Parton has done a good service in recalling a character which had well-nigh passed out of popular thought, though not entirely out of popular recollection.

As to the manner in which this service has been performed, it is impossible to speak very highly. The book has evidently cost its author great pains; it is filled with detail, and with considerable gossip concerning the hero, which is piquant, and, if true, important. The style is meant to be lively, and in some passages is pleasant enough; but it is marked with a flippancy, which, after a few pages, becomes very disagreeable. It abounds with the slang usually confined to sporting papers. According to the author, a civil man is "as civil as an orange," a well-dressed man is "got up regardless of expense," and an unobserved action is done "on the sly." He affects the intense, and, in his pages, newspapers "go rabid and foam personalities," are "ablaze with victories" and "bristling with bulletins,"—the public is in a "delirium,"—the politicians are "maddened,"—letters are written in "hot haste," and proclamations "sent flying." He appears to be on terms of intimacy with historical personages such as few writers are fortunate enough to be admitted to. He approves a remark of George II. and patronizingly exclaims, "Sensible King!" He has occasion to mention John Adams, and sa-


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the "night of record," is observed on the fifteenth day of the month, Shʾabán. It is the "Guy Fawkes Day" of India, being the night for display of fireworks.

On this night, Muhammad said, God registers annually all the actions of mankind which they are to perform during the year; and that all the children of men, who are to be born and to die in the year, are recorded. Muhammad enjoined his followers to keep awake the whole night, to repeat one hundred rakʾat prayers, and to fast the next day; but there are generally great rejoicings instead of a fast, and large sums of money are spent in fireworks. The Shab-i-Barát must not be confounded with


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596 Feebler than when the western hill
 * Faded away with its sunset gold.

Mother, your voice seemed dark and chill,
 * And your words made my young heart very cold.

You talked of fame,—but my thoughts would stray
 * To the brook that laughed across the lane;

And of hopes for me,—but your hand's light play
 * On my brow was ice to my shrinking brain;

And you called me your son, your only son,—
 * But I felt your eye on my tortured heart

To and fro, like a spider, run,
 * On a quivering web;—'twas a cruel art!

But crueller, crueller far, the art
 * Of the low, quick laugh that Memory hears!

Mother, I lay my head on your heart;
 * Has it throbbed even once these fifty years?

Throbbed even once, by some strange heat thawed?
 * It would then have warmed to her, poor thing,

Who echoed your laugh with a cry!—O God,
 * When in my soul will it cease to ring?

Starlike her eyes were,—but yours were blind;
 * Sweet her red lips,—but yours were curled;

Pure her young heart,—but yours,—ah, you find
 * This, mother, is not the only world!

She came,—bright gleam of the dawning day;
 * She went,—pale dream of the winding-sheet.

Mother, they come to me and say
 * Your headstone will almost touch her feet!

You are walking now in a strange, dim land:
 * Tell me, has pride gone with you there?

Does a frail white form before you stand,
 * And tremble to earth, beneath your stare?

No, no!—she is strong in her pureness now,
 * And Love to Power no more defers.

I fear the roses will never grow
 * On your lonely grave as they do on hers!

But now from those lips one last, sad touch,—
 * Kiss it is not, and has never been;

In my boyhood's sleep I dreamed of such,
 * And shuddered, they were so cold and thin!

There,—now cover the cold, white face,
 * Whiter and colder than statue stone!

Mother, you have a resting-place;
 * But I am weary, and all alone!


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170 the Laylat-ul-Qadr (night of power), mentioned in the Qurán, which is the twenty-seventh night of the Ramazán. The Shab-i-Barát, however, is frequently called Shab Qadr, or the night of power, by the common people.


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(lit. "the feast of breaking the fast"), is called also the feast of Ramazán, the Feast of Alms, and the Minor Festival. It is held on the first day of the month of Shawwál, which is the day after the close of the Ramazán fast. On this day, before going to the place of prayer, the Sadaqa, or propitiatory offerings, are made to the poor in the name of God. The offerings having been made, the people assemble either in the Jamaʾ-i-Masjid (i. e. the principal mosque), or proceed to the ʾIdgah, which is a special place for worship on festivals. The worship commences with two rakʾat prayers, after which the Imám takes his place on the second step of the mimbar (pulpit) and recites the Khutbah, concluding with a prayer for the king. After this is ended, he offers up a munáját, or supplication, for the people, for the


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172 remission of sins, the recovery of the sick, increase of rain, abundance of corn, preservation from misfortune, and freedom from debt. He then descends to the ground, and makes further supplication for the people, the congregation saying Amín at the end of each supplication. At the close of the service the members of the congregation salute and embrace each other, and offer mutual congratulations, and then return to their homes, and spend the rest of the day in feasting and merriment.


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1858.] calculated to contain about an eighth part of that cemetery. The greatest length of the portion thus measured is not more than seven hundred feet, and its greatest width about five hundred and fifty; nevertheless, if we measure all the streets that it contains, their united length scarcely falls short of two English miles. This would give fifteen or sixteen miles for all the streets in the cemetery of St Agnes." Taking this as a fair average of the size of the catacombs, for some are larger and some smaller, we must assign to the streets of graves already known a total length of about three hundred miles, with a probability that the unknown ones are at least of equal length. This conclusion appears startling, when one thinks of the close arrangement of the lines of graves along the walls of these passages. The height of the passages varies greatly, and with it the number of graves, one above another; but the Padre Marchi, who is competent authority, estimates the average number at ten, that is, five on each side, for every seven feet,—which would give a population of the dead, for the three hundred miles, of not less than two millions and a quarter. No one who has visited the catacombs can believe, surprising as this number may seem, that the Padre Marchi's calculation is an extravagant one as to the number of graves in a given space. We have ourselves counted eleven graves, one over another, on each side of the passage, and there is no space lost between the head of one grave and the foot of another. Everywhere there is economy of space,—the economy of men working on a hard material, difficult to be removed, and laboring in a confined space, with the need of haste.

This question of the number of the dead in the catacombs opens the way to many other curious questions. The length of time that the catacombs were used as burial-places; the probability of others, beside Christians, being buried in them; the number of Christians at Rome during the first two centuries, in comparison with the total number of the inhabitants of the city; and how far the public profession of Christianity was attended with peril in ordinary times at Rome, previously to the conversion of Constantine, so as to require secret and hasty burial of the dead;—these are points demanding solution, but of which we will take up only those relating immediately to the catacombs.

There can, of course, be no certainty with regard to the period when the first Christian catacomb was begun at Rome,—but it was probably within a few years after the first preaching of the Gospel there. The Christians would naturally desire to separate themselves in burial from the heathen, and to avoid everything having the semblance of pagan rites. And what mode of sepulture so natural for them to adopt, in the new and affecting circumstances of their lives, as that which was already familiar to them in the account of the burial of their Lord? They knew that he had been "wrapped in linen, and laid in a sepulchre which was hewn out of a rock, and a stone had been rolled unto the door of the sepulchre." They would be buried as he was. Moreover, there was a general and ardent expectation among them of the second coming of the Saviour; they believed it to be near at hand; and they believed also that then the dead would be called from their graves, clothed once more in their bodies, and that as Lazarus


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title: Notes on Muhammadanism/Chapter 36


text: Notes on Muhammadanism/Chapter 37

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or the Feast of Sacrifice, is called also Yaum-un-Nahr, Qurbán-i-ʾId, Qur-bán Bayrám, Baqr-i-ʾId (the Cow Festival), and the Great Feast, and is held on the tenth day of the month Zul-Hijja. This festival has become part of the Meccan pilgrimage, of which it is the concluding scene, although it appears that Muhammad at first tended to conform to the custom of the Jews in observing the great day of atonement, but, when he failed to maintain a friendly footing with the Jews, he merged the rite into the Meccan pilgrimage. This feast, however, is the great Muhammadan festival, which is observed wherever Islám exists; and it is a notable fact that whilst Muhammad professed to abrogate the Jewish


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ONCE knew a fortune-teller who really believed in the science that he professed. He had learned, as a student of the old Chinese philosophy, to believe in divination long before he thought of practising it. During his youth he had been in the service of a wealthy daimyō, but subsequently, like thousands of other samurai, found himself reduced to desperate straits by the social and political changes of Meiji. It was then that he became a fortune-teller,—an itinerant uranaiya,—travelling on foot from town to town, and returning to his home rarely more than once a year with the proceeds of his journey. As a fortune-teller he was tolerably successful,—chiefly, I think, because of his perfect sincerity, and because of a peculiar gentle manner that invited confidence. His system was the old scholarly one: he used the book known to English


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 readers as the Yî-King,—also a set of ebony blocks which could be so arranged as to form any of the Chinese hexagrams;—and he always began his divination with an earnest prayer to the gods.

The system itself he held to be infallible in the hands of a master. He confessed that he had made some erroneous predictions; but he said that these mistakes had been entirely due to his own miscomprehension of certain texts or diagrams. To do him justice I must mention that in my own case—(he told my fortune four times),—his predictions were fulfilled in such wise that I became afraid of them. You may disbelieve in fortune-telling,—intellectually scorn it; but something of inherited superstitious tendency lurks within most of us; and a few strange experiences can so appeal to that inheritance as to induce the most unreasoning hope or fear of the good or bad luck promised you by some diviner. Really to see our future would be a misery. Imagine the result of knowing that there must happen to you, within the next two months, some terrible misfortune which you cannot possibly provide against!

He was already an old man when I first saw


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 him in Izumo,—certainly more than sixty years of age, but looking very much younger. Afterwards I met him in Ōsaka, in Kyōto, and in Kobé. More than once I tried to persuade him to pass the colder months of the winter-season under my roof,—for he possessed an extraordinary knowledge of traditions, and could have been of inestimable service to me in a literary way. But partly because the habit of wandering had become with him a second nature, and partly because of a love of independence as savage as a gipsy’s, I was never able to keep him with me for more than two days at a time.

Every year he used to come to Tōkyō,—usually in the latter part of autumn. Then, for several weeks, he would flit about the city, from district to district, and vanish again. But during these fugitive trips he never failed to visit me; bringing welcome news of Izumo people and places,—bringing also some queer little present, generally of a religious kind, from some famous place of pilgrimage. On these occasions I could get a few hours’ chat with him. Sometimes the talk was of strange things seen or heard during his recent journey; sometimes it turned upon old legends or beliefs; sometimes it was about


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 . The last time we met he told me of an exact Chinese science of divination which he regretted never having been able to learn.

“Any one learned in that science,” he said, “would be able, for example, not only to tell you the exact time at which any post or beam of this house will yield to decay, but even to tell you the direction of the breaking, and all its results. I can best explain what I mean by relating a story.

“The story is about the famous Chinese fortune-teller whom we call in Japan Shōko Setsu, and it is written in the book Baikwa-Shin-Eki, which is a book of divination. While still a very young man, Shōko Setsu obtained a high position by reason of his learning and virtue; but he resigned it and went into solitude that he might give his whole time to study. For years thereafter he lived alone in a hut among the mountains; studying without a fire in winter, and without a fan in summer; writing his thoughts upon the wall of his room—for lack of paper;—and using only a tile for his pillow.

“One day, in the period of greatest summer heat, he found himself overcome by drowsiness; and he lay down to rest, with his tile under his


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 head. Scarcely had he fallen asleep when a rat ran across his face and woke him with a start. Feeling angry, he seized his tile and flung it at the rat; but the rat escaped unhurt, and the tile was broken. Shōko Setsu looked sorrowfully at the fragments of his pillow, and reproached himself for his hastiness. Then suddenly he perceived, upon the freshly exposed clay of the broken tile, some Chinese characters—between the upper and lower surfaces. Thinking this very strange, he picked up the pieces, and carefully examined them. He found that along the line of fracture seventeen characters had been written within the clay before the tile had been baked; and the characters read thus:—‘In the Year of the Hare, in the fourth month, on the seventeenth day, at the Hour of the Serpent, this tile, after serving as a pillow, will be thrown at a rat and broken.’ Now the prediction had really been fulfilled at the Hour of the Serpent on the seventeenth day of the fourth month of the Year of the Hare. Greatly astonished, Shōko Setsu once again looked at the fragments, and discovered the seal and the name of the maker. At once he left his hut, and, taking with him the pieces of the tile, hurried to the neighboring town in search of the tilemaker. He


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 found the tilemaker in the course of the day, showed him the broken tile, and asked him about its history.

“After having carefully examined the shards, the tilemaker said:—‘This tile was made in my house; but the characters in the clay were written by an old man—a fortune-teller,—who asked permission to write upon the tile before it was baked.’—‘Do you know where he lives?’ asked Shōko Setsu. ‘He used to live,’ the tilemaker answered, ‘not very far from here; and I can show you the way to the house. But I do not know his name.’

“Having been guided to the house, Shōko Setsu presented himself at the entrance, and asked for permission to speak to the old man. A serving-student courteously invited him to enter, and ushered him into an apartment where several young men were at study. As Shōko Setsu took his seat, all the youths saluted him. Then the one who had first addressed him bowed and said:—‘We are grieved to inform you that our master died a few days ago. But we have been waiting for you, because he predicted that you would come to-day to this house, at this very hour. Your name is Shōko Setsu. And our master told us to


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 give you a book which he believed would be of service to you. Here is the book;—please to accept it.’

“Shōko Setsu was not less delighted than surprised; for the book was a manuscript of the rarest and most precious kind,—containing all the secrets of the science of divination. After having thanked the young men, and properly expressed his regret for the death of their teacher, he went back to his hut, and there immediately proceeded to test the worth of the book by consulting its pages in regard to his own fortune. The book suggested to him that on the south side of his dwelling, at a particular spot near one corner of the hut, great luck awaited him. He dug at the place indicated, and found a jar containing gold enough to make him a very wealthy man.”

My old acquaintance left this world as lonesomely as he had lived in it. Last winter, while crossing a mountain-range, he was overtaken by a snowstorm, and lost his way. Many days later he was found standing erect at the foot of a pine, with his little pack strapped to his shoulders: a


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 statue of ice—arms folded and eyes closed as in meditation. Probably, while waiting for the storm to pass, he had yielded to the drowsiness of cold, and the drift had risen over him as he slept. Hearing of this strange death I remembered the old Japanese saying,—Uranaiya minouyé shiradzu: “The fortune-teller knows not his own fate.”


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174 ritual, and also ignored entirely the doctrine of the atonement as taught in the New Testament, denying even the very fact of our Saviour's crucifixion, he made the "day of sacrifice" the great central festival of his religion.

There is a very remarkable Hadís, related: by ʾA′yesha, who states, that Muhammad said, "Man hath not done anything on the ʾId-ul-Azhá more pleasing to God than spilling blood; for verily the animal sacrificed will come, on the day of resurrection, with its horns, its hair, and its hoofs, and will make the scales of his (good) actions heavy. Verily its blood reacheth the acceptance of God, before it falleth upon the ground, therefore be joyful in it." Muhammad has thus become unwillingly a witness to the grand doctrine of the Christian faith that "without shedding of blood, there is no remission." The animal sacrificed must be without blemish, and of full age; but it may be either a goat, a sheep, a cow, or a camel.

According to the commentator Jalál-ud-dín Syúty, the sacrifice was instituted in com-


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 full state of the parties who are its subjects are so nearly completed, that they eagerly accept or reject "the Word" which "judgeth," and so pass on to that eternal destiny for which they are prepared.

Judgement, of course, means discrimination and decision upon what is good and evil, true and false, in the spiritual life of man. These are effected by comparing human character with the Divine law, by which right is declared and wrong is denounced. This being so, all the Lord's judgments will be conducted upon the principle of comparing the interior lives of those who are judged with the Word He has revealed. Respecting this point. He has spoken with great decision. "He that rejecteth me, and receiveth not my words, hath one that judgeth him: the word that I have spoken, the same shall judge him in the last day;" consequently, those who have received "the Word" with willingness and love will have in them those principles of life to which the Lord can be conjoined, agreeably to His own declaration: "If ye abide in me, and my words abide in you, ye shall ask what ye will, and it shall be done unto you." It is very plain that such persons, on passing into the world of spirits, will soon be elevated into heaven. But those who have not so received the Word, have not those principles of spiritual life to which the Lord can be conjoined; therefore, on their entrance into the world of spirits they will very soon sink down to hell. This also is agreeable to the Lord's saying: "If a man abide not in me, he is cast forth as a branch, and is withered." With every one, the process of judgment is the same. Men who have conformed to the Divine Word will be adopted and saved; those who have not so conformed will be rejected and lost. But the time they remain in the world of spirits will be


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Rh physician. At Columbia I took up a very heavy course which included pre-medical work. Scholastically I think I could have qualified, but after a year of study I convinced myself that some of my abilities did not measure up to the requirements which I felt a physician should have.

My mother and father wanted me to come to Los Angeles. Regretfully I left New York and moved west.

Southern California is a country of out-door sports. I was fond of automobiles, tennis, horseback riding, and almost anything else that is active and carried on in the open. It was a short step from such interests to aviation and just then, as now, Southern California was particularly active in air matters.

I remember the first air meet I attended. It was near Long Beach, at Daugherty Field, the ocean side of the broad Los Angeles valley. The sky was blue and flying conditions were

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 perfect, as I remember. As this was the summer of 1920 commercial flying was in its infancy. Even to go to see planes then was considered really sporting by the populace. There were mechanical imperfections of many kinds, but progress is made always through experimentation.

Certainly a great many of the people gathered that day had never before seen an aeroplane. The planes mostly were old war material, Jennys and Canucks. The Army and Navy were represented with the planes available at that time—Standards, D. H.'s, Douglasses, Martins, etc. None of the ships stand out distinctly in my mind as types. I imagine there were some bombing planes and pursuit jobs, but they all seemed to my untrained eye more or less routine two-seaters. Of course at that time I knew somewhat less than I do now.

However, one thing I did know that day. I wanted to fly. I was there with my father, who,

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 more or less extended, as the amount of good and evil in them approaches to a balance; in this case the power to hold the ascendancy obtained is weakened upon both sides, and this causes the period for a judgment on their destiny to be prolonged.

But let us look at those points a little closer. It is evident from what has been advanced that the last Judgment is an event to be experienced by spirits of a peculiar class. Before that time many will have experienced their judgment and gone on to their eternal homes; of this several cases are related in the Word: those of Moses and Elias, who appeared in glory at the period of the Lord's transfiguration, being illustrious examples. Hence it is evident that those who were subjects of the last judgment had some peculiarity of character. They were not the eminently wise, for these had before gone on to heaven; they were not the notoriously wicked, for these had before sunk down to hell; they, therefore, must have been some other class. The Lord calls them the sheep and the goats. Speaking of this circumstance, He said, "Before Him shall be gathered all nations: and He shall separate them one from another, as a shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats. And He shall set the sheep on His right hand, but the goats on the left." By "all nations" are meant every variety of good and of evil which can dwell together by the acknowledgment of some common principle, like a nation with a king. These, on being separated by a disruption of the bond that had united them, were called


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 of the strata in the neighbourhood of Bath was so accurate, that one evening, when dining at the house of the Rev. Joseph Townsend, he dictated to Mr. Richardson the different strata according to their order of succession in descending order, twenty-three in number, commencing with the chalk and descending in continuous series down to the coal, below which the strata were not then sufficiently determined. To this was added a list of the more remarkable fossils which had been gathered in the several layers of rock. This was printed and extensively circulated in 1801.

He next determined to trace out the strata through districts as remote from Bath as his means would enable him to reach. For years he journeyed to and fro, sometimes on foot, sometimes on horseback, riding on the tops of stage coaches, often making up by night-travelling the time he had lost by day, so as not to fail in his ordinary business engagements. When he was professionally called away to any distance from home—as, for instance, when travelling from Bath to Holkham, in Norfolk, to direct the irrigation and drainage of Mr. Coke's land in that county—he rode on horseback, making frequent detours from the road to note the geological features of the country which he traversed.

For several years he was thus engaged in his journeys to distant quarters in England and Ireland, to the extent of upwards of ten thousand miles yearly; and it was amidst this incessant and laborious travelling that he contrived to commit to paper his fast-growing generalizations on what he rightly regarded as a new science. No observation, howsoever trivial it might appear, was neglected, and no opportunity of collecting fresh


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 the sheep and the goats, to teach us that the former were in states of charity without truth, and that the latter were in the possession of truth without charity. The non-possession of truth on the part of the sheep would, for a time, keep them out of heaven, and the possession of truth on the part of the goats would keep them out of hell, and so both classes would remain in the world of spirits. It was, then, spirits of this description who became the subjects of the last judgment. The wheat and the tares grew together until the harvest.

They had for a long period been accumulating in the spiritual world, owing to the declining influence of a falling Church, until at last the influences in favour of goodness


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 facts was overlooked. Whenever he could, he possessed himself of records of borings, natural and artificial sections, drew them to a constant scale of eight yards to the inch, and coloured them up. Of his keenness of observation take the following illustration. When making one of his geological excursions about the country near Woburn, as he was drawing near to the foot of the Dunstable chalk hills, he observed to his companion, "If there be any broken ground about the foot of these hills, we may find sharks' teeth"; and they had not proceeded far before they picked up six from the white bank of a new fence-ditch. As he afterwards said of himself, "The habit of observation crept on me, gained a settlement in my mind, became a constant associate of my life, and started up in activity at the first thought of a journey; so that I generally went off well prepared with maps, and sometimes with contemplations on its objects, or on those on the road, reduced to writing before it commenced. My mind was, therefore, like the canvas of a painter, well prepared for the first and best impressions."

Notwithstanding his courageous and indefatigable industry, many circumstances contributed to prevent the promised publication of William Smith's 'Map of the Strata of England and Wales,' and it was not until 1814 that he was enabled, by the assistance of some friends, to give to the world the fruits of his twenty years' incessant labour. To prosecute his inquiries, and collect the extensive series of facts and observations requisite for his purpose, he had to expend the whole of the profits of his professional labours during that period; and he even sold off his small property to provide the means of visiting remoter parts of the island.


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 Rh Sultan Ahmad, the Khan of Moghulistan, having written several times to ask Baber's permission for the boy to be sent to him, at last obtained it, and Mirza Haidar, "led away by youthful impatience," as he himself writes, availed himself of the Emperor's consent, unwillingly given, and followed his uncle to Andiján, then the capital of Farghána.

It was about the beginning of the year 1514 that Mirza Haidar arrived at Andiján, and almost immediately afterwards entered the service of his kinsman Sultan Said Khan (the son of Sultan Ahmad), who had just then been conducting an expedition against the Uzbegs in Tashkand, but had returned to Andiján on the enemy evacuating their positions. During the following summer, however, the Uzbegs recovered themselves and marched with a large force to lay siege to the Farghana capital. Sultan Said convened a council of his chiefs, who were unanimously of opinion that they were unable, without allies, to contend against the power of the Uzbegs; they believed themselves to have a fairer chance of success by undertaking an invasion of Kashghar, and wresting that province from Mirza Abá Bakr, who then held it. This resolution was accordingly adopted, and before the Uzbegs had time to enter the country, the Khan with all his Amirs, their families and baggage, set out from Andiján and advanced towards Kashghar, by a route leading through Moghulistan. This Mirza Abá Bakr was of the line of Dughlát Amirs, and was regarded by the Khans of Moghulistan as a usurper. He was an active and able soldier, though a cruel tyrant, and during his long rule, had made himself master of nearly the whole of Eastern Turkistan, besides several of the neighbouring countries. In 1511 he had invaded Farghána, but had there received a check by coming into conflict with Sultan Said, from whose forces he experienced a severe defeat at the battle of Tutluk, near Andiján. It was this victory over the usurper, that emboldened Sultan Said and his Amirs to attack him again in his own stronghold. Their enterprise resulted in a complete success: Kashghar was taken in 1514, while Yangi-Hisar, Yarkand, and the remainder of the cities of Eastern Turkistan fell shortly afterwards. Aba Bakr, driven an exile to Ladak, was murdered on the road, and the line of Moghul Khans was re-established in Moghulistan and Eastern Turkistan.

Mirza Haidar, though now only fifteen years of age, was raised by his cousin the Khan to a high position, and his life of activity


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Talk:The Chicago Defender/Early Autumn

Printing
Per https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-understand-early-autumn-2990402 - "originally appeared in the Chicago Defender on September 30, 1950, and was later included in his 1963 collection, Something in Common and Other Stories. It has also been featured in a collection called The Short Stories of Langston Hughes" -- Beardo (talk) 06:13, 11 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Beardo: It appears that issue of the Defender had its copyright renewed: There's a renewal for The Short Stories of Langston Hughes from 1996, which is strange because as a 1963 publication, 27 years would have been in 1990 or 1991. Any further info? -Pete (talk) 16:00, 20 March 2024 (UTC)
 * If it was renewed that would mean it would still be under copyright until 2045 correct? BrandenJames (talk) 03:53, 11 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:The Chicago Defender/Early Autumn


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 became endangered, and then, because they intercepted the light of heaven in the process of its descent into the human mind, the crisis came. Other judgments had before taken place, but this is called the last, because it terminated the dispensation with which those spiritual disasters had been connected. The sheep would be elevated into heaven, because, being separated from the goats, the good which they possessed would enable them to accept the truth. The goats would pass off to hell, because, being separated from the sheep, and having no good, they would not be enabled to retain the truth they had accepted. It was from these that the greater danger came, and it was the spread of their iniquity that brought on the judgment which consigned them to their eternal homes. By that event a way has been prepared for the renewal of spiritual life in the Church, and the promotion of its intelligence among mankind. This, consequently, is the jadgment which we believe to have transpired; but we will consider the evidences of its occurrence a little more at large.

That certain spirits are detained in the world of spirits until the period of a judgment is very clearly taught in the Word. Peter tells us of those who "sometime were disobedient, in the days of Noah," and who, from that time, had remained in that region of the departed until the resurrection of the Lord. John, also, tells us that he "saw under the altar the souls of them that were slain," that they inquired about the continuance of their condition, and were told that they had yet to rest for a little season. The Lord very clearly informs us, in His parable of the tares and the wheat, that some who are good and some who are evil, as to their interior loves, will be detained in the world of spirits until the time of the last judgment should arrive.


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 12 may be said to have begun about this time. For the ensuing nineteen years, during which Sultan Said's reign lasted, the Mirza served him in various capacities, but chiefly as a soldier; and it was only after the Khan’s death, which occurred while returning from an expedition against Ladak in 1533, that he abandoned Kashghar and transferred his services to the Chaghatais in India. He not only took part in Sultan Said's wars against the Kirghiz and Uzbegs in Moghulistan, and against other tribal enemies, but was entrusted with important commands on distant expeditions. The first of these was an invasion of the hill country, then known as Bilur, or Bolor, in 1527. The expedition was nominally under the command of the Khan's eldest son, Rashid Sultan, but seeing that our author acted as a sort of tutor, or governor, to this young prince, it seems that he had much to do with the conduct of the campaign. Bolor may be described, roughly, as all the small hill states lying south of the Hindu Kush, between Baltistan on the east and Afghanistan on the west—as the limits of these countries are now accepted. Thus it included Hunza, Gilgit, Chitral, and probably most of the petty states sometimes known as "Yághistan." There appears to have been no cause for the invasion, other than that the inhabitants were not Musulmans; but considerations of this kind did not weigh with the Central Asian Khans, and Sultan Said, as the author tells us, had always been ambitious of gaining glory by waging wars against "infidels." The Bolor states were accordingly overrun and plundered during a whole winter, and the expedition returned to Kashghar in the following spring.

In 1529–30 the Khan undertook, in person, a campaign against Badakhshán, but sent Mirza Haidar in advance to begin operations. The Mirza records that he laid waste the environs of the chief town, Kila Zafar, and when the Khan arrived, his men had only to carry off what little had been left. The object of this expedition was to gain possession of the districts on the Upper Oxus—Wakhán, Shighnán, etc.—which had been conquered by the late Mirza Abá Bakr, and which Sultan Said, in consequence, considered himself the heir to. But the chief of Badakhshán was a relation and nominee of Baber, who took a view of the matter entirely opposed to that of Sultan Said, and threatened to support the chief. As Baber had now recovered, in India, the influence he had lost in Transoxiana, a letter from him to the aggressive Sultan Said, seems to have been sufficient


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 Rh to cause the Kashghar forces to be withdrawn across the Pamirs.

But it was in 1531 that Mirza Haidar undertook his most important service for Sultan Said Khan. This was the invasion, first of Ladak, then of Kashmir and Baltistan, and afterwards of Tibet proper, or the country known to Europeans under that name —an invasion as culpably aggressive as the raid into the Bolor states. There was much paganism, he tells us, in Tibet, and the Khan, always animated by a love of Islam and a desire to carry on holy wars, was led by his pious aspirations to conquer that infidel country. It was not the first time that Ladak had been wantonly overrun from the side of Turkistan. Mirza Abá Bakr, during his long reign, had once at least, carried his arms into Ladak, while it would appear, from what Mirza Haidar records, that several parties had been sent to plunder the country since the accession of his patron, Sultan Said, to the Khanate. Very little is known of these earlier invasions, beyond the mere mention of them by Mirza Haidar, and by the author of the Haft Iklim, who, however, obviously derived his information from the Tarikh-i-Rashidi. That all were unprovoked and prompted by a mere craving for plunder, however disguised under the mask of religious zeal, may be assumed with moderate confidence. None of them, including that of Sultan Said and Mirza Haidar, appear to have prospered, or to have made much impression on the inhabitants, who have preserved their old religion and manners to the present day; and though they have, in modern times, fallen politically under the Hindu yoke of the Dogras, they still keep up their ancient connection with Lassa, in all matters concerning their Buddhism and social customs. As Mirza Haidar says little about the fighting in Ladak, it is probable that the inhabitants offered only a feeble military opposition to the invaders, but trusted rather to the rugged nature of their country, the severity of the climate, and to the weapon common to most of the yellow races—passive resistance—to free them eventually from their enemy. And they were indeed successful. After subduing Ladak, a rapid march was made into Kashmir, where, to begin


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 14 with, some easy victories were won, but treachery and discontent having appeared in the Moghul camp, Mirza Haidar had, after a few months' occupation, to fall back on Ladak, leaving Kashmir, to all intents and purposes, independent.

Sultan Said Khan, hoping to share in the glories of the "holy war," had followed his lieutenant into Ladak, but his constitution, undermined by excessive drinking, proved less vigorous than his religious zeal, and the attenuated air of the Ladak passes had nearly proved fatal to him on the journey across. He recovered, however, sufficiently to lead a portion of his force into Baltistan, while Mirza Haidar was engaged in Kashmir, but after passing a winter there, distracted by cold and hunger, he too had to retreat into Ladak, and very shortly afterwards, set out on his return to Kashghar with a portion of the army. This second journey across the heights, achieved for him what the first had so nearly accomplished. He died on the Suget Pass, from the malady known as "damgiri," or mountain sickness, and was at once succeeded by his eldest son, Abdur Rashid.

The death of the Khan in no way checked the course of the "holy war," for his second son, Iskandar Sultan, and many other Amirs, remained with Mirza Haidar, who now (July, 1533) started on an expedition to "earn merit" by destroying the great temple at Lassa—an exploit, he tells his readers, that had never been achieved by any King of Islám. He appears to have marched for about a month's journey towards the southeast, over some of the highest table-lands in Asia, to the region which gives rise to most of the great rivers of India, and to within a few days' journey of the Tibetan border of Nipal. His total force is nowhere stated in figures, and apparently it was divided into at least two, or perhaps three, columns. One of these was attacked by a force of "men armed with short swords," sent by "a Rai of Hind" to the assistance of the Tibetans—a statement that appears to point to a body of Nipali tribesmen, armed with their national weapon, the kukri. The inference is that the Moghuls were beaten in at least one fight with these people. Yet Mirza Haidar continued his march towards the capital, until he arrived at, and plundered, a place he calls Astábrak (or Astákbark), which was represented as being within eight days' journey of Lassa. No map or book of any date, now available, seems to contain this name or any variant of it, but if the estimate of eight marches from


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 Rh Lassa be correct, and these marches are intended for the long Tibetan post-stages, the invaders would still have been some 300 miles, or more, distant from their goal. However this may be, the mortality among his horses, want of supplies, and the general distress caused by cold and the high elevation, obliged the Mirza to abandon his enterprise at this point, and to set out in retreat towards Ladak. His experience, indeed, was almost exactly that of the Dogra general Zoráwar Sing who, in 1841, made an attempt to conquer the western provinces of Tibet for his master, Rájah Guláb Sing of Kashmir. Of fighting there was little in either case, except against the climate and conditions of the country, and in both instances these adversaries proved victorious.

In the early months of 1534 Mirza Haidar returned defeated, and with a mere remnant of his force, to a position of safety in Ladak. Of those who were left even, many deserted him here to find their way back to their homes across the mountains. Yet, broken and almost helpless as he was, the chiefs of Upper Ladak received him and his men with hospitality, and even assisted him in getting together a force with which, the next year, he proceeded to attack and plunder the western districts of the country, known as Purik, Suru, and Zangskar. His success in all these forays was very doubtful. He seems to have been able to do little more, during the first year, than keep his men and animals from starving, while in the second year (1535) he had again, from sheer distress, to fall back on the neighbourhood of Leh and throw himself on the mercy of the strangely tolerant Ladak chiefs. His followers, under these conditions, became discontented if not mutinous, and began to desert him; while he received such evil tidings from Kashghar, that the "holy war" against the Tibetans at length came to an end.

Rashid Sultan (otherwise Abdur Rashid Khan) had begun his reign at Kashghar, by putting to death many of his own relations, and among them the author's uncle, Sayyid Muhammad Mirza, whom he suspected of plotting against him in favour of the late Khan's younger son, Iskandar. These events seem to have made a deep impression on Mirza Haidar's mind, for he alludes to them with bitterness, more than once in the course of his narrative. His uncle had served Sultan Said faithfully for many years, and had done much arduous work for him, while Mirza Haidar himself had been the chief agent in extending


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 "These haunts of bygone murderers, smugglers, and outlaws are now only tenanted by Rock Doves, the emblems of innocence. They may be seen perpetually flitting in and out, some parties going off to feed, others returning to rest; a few birds sitting about the entrance, pluming themselves in the sunshine, or quietly dozing upon a sheltered ledge of rock. Upon a near approach, the cooing of the old birds may be heard, together with the querulous peep-peeping of the young demanding food, and the occasional stir of wings; but upon any alarm being given, the voices are immediately silenced, the clang and whir of wings reverberate from the profundity of the cave, and out pours a long stream of downy bosoms and silver wings, which swiftly skim along the surface of the sea, and disappear round the next headland. In Iona alone (though but a small island), we have as many as nine or ten caves frequented by pigeons; and in nearly every island of the Hebrides, there is sure to be one cave called, par excellence, 'Ua' Caloman,' the Pigeon Cave.

"I believe this dove is only found upon the coast, though I am not aware what attraction the sea-shore has for it; certainly, with us, it exclusively inhabits the sea-caves, and never goes far inland. In the winter I have once or twice seen them sitting upon the rocks at low water, but I hardly think they were looking for food. They feed upon land snails—some small species which at certain times is found in considerable variety and yast abundance, spread over the low sandy pastures which skirt the sea. The stubbles, the newly-sown fields, and the stackyards, are their principal resorts for food, and their crops are invariably to be found well distended with grain, though in winter it is difficult to account for their getting such good supplies, after the stubbles are picked clean, and the stack-yards cleared. They must sometimes go great distances for their daily food; those which inhabit the small islands must, of course, always come to the mainland for the supply of grain—some a great distance. When a large flock is suddenly raised while feeding in a corn-field, after wheeling up in the air, it breaks up into smaller parties, which dart off in various directions for their homes; some across the seas, others to the nearer caves.

"They seem to be migratory, to a certain extent in quest of food, at seed-time and harvest, if, as is often the case, the island crops are a little earlier than those on the mainland; then our fields are covered with those petty plunderers, and at night the caves are filled with roosting birds, which remain about the island as long as food is very plentiful, and then decamp. I think, however, that individual birds are a good deal in the habit of frequenting the same localities, and roosting in the same cave, until driven off by some cause. I have watched marked birds doing so; especially last summer I was observing a large white male pigeon, which had evidently escaped from the cote: he took to himself a little wild mate, and reared a brood in one of the caves. I made a duty of destroymg his family, which was easily done, as they were marked birds; but he himself, though of such a conspicuous colour, always contrived to escape. He became very wary, from being pursued, and I remarked that he always frequented the same cave, till


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 16 the Khan's kingdom and power. But besides this, he had been companion and instructor to two of the Khan's sons, and when the elder of these marked the commencement of his reign by acts of ingratitude and bloodshed, it is scarcely surprising that he should be deeply hurt, and should record his feelings, years afterwards, in his history.

Hence, fearing that he might meet with the same treatment as his uncle and others of his family, if he returned to Kashghar, he had to seek for a refuge. It was impossible to stay longer in Ladak, while all the direct roads to India and Kabul were in the hands of those whom he had lately been chastising and plundering, in the name of religion. With the daring of despair, he determined to try and reach Badakhshán with the handful of adherents that remained in his service, by turning off from the usual track between Ladak and Yarkand, at a point called Ak-Tagh, to the north of the Karakorum Pass; and after following the course of the Yarkand river for some distance, to gain Ráskám, the southern Pamirs, and Wakhán. This adventure—apparently almost hopeless under the conditions in which he attempted it—he accomplished successfully, accompanied by about twenty followers, though not without much hardship and suffering. The winter of 1536–7 he spent in Badakhshan, the following summer he repaired to Kabul, and shortly after to Lahore, where he was received by Baber's son, Kámrán Mirza, and found himself, as he tells us, raised from the depths of distress to honour and dignity.

Kámrán was at that time engaged in a struggle for territory with the Persians, and had, soon after our author's arrival, to proceed to the relief of Kandahar, which was being besieged by Sám Mirza and by Shah Tahmásp, the sons of Shah Ismail, the Safavi; but before setting out he appointed his guest to the governorship of those parts of India (the whole of the Punjab) which belonged to him, and in this capacity Mirza Haidar resided for over a year at Lahore, "collecting taxes, suppressing revolt, protecting the frontiers, and establishing Islám." It was shortly after Kámrán's return to the Punjab, (1538) that Humayun had sustained a severe defeat in Bengal at the hands of Shir Sháh Sur, the Afghán leader, who was now advancing towards Agra by the left bank of the Ganges. A large part of Humayun's army having accompanied him to Bengal, he made an appeal to Kámrán and his other brothers to send assistance to Agra, while he himself hurried northward. Kámrán, after


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Module:Header structure

--[=[ This is a module to implement logic for header templates ]=]

require('strict')

local p = {} --p stands for package

local getArgs = require('Module:Arguments').getArgs local plain_sister = require('Module:Plain sister')._plain_sister

-- return true if any value in list is not nil or empty in args -- (nil means not present; empty string is not nil) local function has_any_arg(args, list) for k, v in pairs(list) do		if args[v] ~= nil then return true end end return false end

--[=[ Construct the main block ]=] local function construct_main_block(args, prefix) -- header and tracking categories local main_div = mw.html.create('div') :addClass('wst-header-mainblock') :addClass(prefix .. '-mainblock')

-- If an extra main class was provided, add it -- TODO: Is this used? Is it needed? if args.main_class ~= nil and args.main_class ~= "" then main_div:addClass(args.main_class) end

-- "Previous" field local prev_div = main_div:tag('div') :addClass('wst-header-back') :addClass('searchaux') :addClass(prefix .. '-back') :tag('div'):addClass('wst-header-back-arrow'):wikitext('←') :done :tag('div'):addClass('wst-header-back-link'):wikitext(args['previous']) :done if args['previous'] == nil or args['previous'] == "" then prev_div:addClass('wst-header-nav-empty') end -- The central cell local center_div = main_div:tag('div') :addClass('wst-header-central-cell') :addClass(prefix .. '-central-cell') -- Special case to manage exceptional formatting in disambiguation-like -- pages; not otherwise documented local pretitle = '' if args.pretitle then local br = ' ' if not args.main_title or args.main_title == '' then br = '' end center_div:tag('span') :addClass('wst-header-pretitle') :wikitext(args.pretitle .. br) end center_div:tag('span') :addClass('wst-header-title') :addClass(prefix .. '-title') :wikitext(args.main_title or '')

-- "Next" field local next_div = main_div:tag('div') :addClass('wst-header-forward') :addClass('searchaux') :addClass(prefix .. '-forward') :tag('div'):addClass('wst-header-forward-link'):wikitext(args['next']) :done :tag('div'):addClass('wst-header-forward-arrow'):wikitext('→') :done if args['next'] == nil or args['next'] == "" then next_div:addClass('wst-header-nav-empty') end

return tostring(main_div) end

--[=[ Construct the notes block ]=] local function construct_notes_block(args, prefix) local main_div = mw.html.create('div') :addClass('wst-header-notes') :addClass('header_notes') :addClass('searchaux') :addClass(prefix .. '-notes')

-- If an extra main class was provided, add it -- TODO: Is this used? Is it needed? if args.notes_class ~= nil and args.notes_class ~= "" then main_div:addClass(args.notes_class) end

-- Left-floated content has to come first, or it may float below the sisters. local notes_left_content = '' if args.notes_left_content then local notes_left_content_div = mw.html.create('div') :addClass('wst-header-left') :addClass('header_notes_left_content') :addClass(prefix .. '-left') :wikitext(args.notes_left_content) notes_left_content = tostring(notes_left_content_div) end local shortcut = '' if args.shortcut then shortcut = mw.getCurrentFrame:expandTemplate { title = 'shortcut', args = {args.shortcut} }	end local notes_content = '' if args.notes then args.notes = mw.getCurrentFrame:preprocess(args.notes) -- linebreaks are so notes get paragraph formatting local notes_content_div = mw.html.create('div') :addClass('wst-header-content') :addClass('header_notes_content') :addClass('wst-header-notes-content') :addClass(prefix .. '-notes-content') :wikitext('\n' .. args.notes .. '\n') notes_content = tostring(notes_content_div) end local sister = plain_sister(args) if not sister and not args.notes and not args.notes_left_content then return '' end return tostring(main_div:wikitext(notes_left_content .. (sister or '') .. shortcut .. notes_content)) end

--[=[ Construct header ]=]

function p.construct_header(args) -- Make sure the main identifying class for the client template is set local prefix = "wst-unknown" if args.template ~= nil and args.template ~= "" then prefix = "wst-" .. args.template end

local headerContainer = mw.html.create('div') :addClass("ws-header") :addClass("wst-header-structure") :addClass(prefix)

-- header_class from client modules, class from individual uses if args.header_class then headerContainer:addClass(args.header_class) end if args.class then headerContainer:addClass(args.class) end headerContainer:wikitext(table.concat({ (args.pre_main or ''), construct_main_block(args, prefix), construct_notes_block(args, prefix), (args.post_notes or '') }))	local stylesheet = mw.getCurrentFrame:extensionTag('templatestyles', '', {src = 'Header structure/styles.css'}) return stylesheet .. (args.pre_container or '') .. tostring(headerContainer) end

function p.header_structure(frame) return p.construct_header(getArgs(frame)) end

return p

title: Module:Header structure


text:
Page:The Tarikh-i-Rashidi - Mirza Muhammad Haidar, Dughlát - tr. Edward D. Ross (1895).djvu/44

 Rh some hesitation, consented, and moved first to Delhi and then to Agra, with an army of 20,000 men, and in company with our author. Here dissensions took place among the brothers; Kámrán repented of his decision to support the Emperor, and putting forward bad health as a reason, determined to return to Lahore, while Shir Shah was yet on the far side of the Ganges. He endeavoured to persuade Mirza Haidar to return with him, but the Mirza declined on patriotic grounds, and from that time forward (1539) became an adherent of Humayun, who treated him with great honour and called him "brother, after the Moghul fashion."

The disastrous battle of Kanauj soon followed. Humayun's force numbered some 40,000, but was less an army than a huge undisciplined mass, commanded by Amirs who had no intention of fighting the Afghans. Mirza Haidar appears to have acted as a kind of general adviser or chief of the Emperor's staff, but he mentions incidentally that he also led the centre division. The confusion and corruption that prevailed on the side of the Chaghatais he describes with much candour, and clearly shows that the battle was lost before it had been fought. Whatever his position in the army may have been, he seems to have done his best to.advise and support his master, and finally joined him in his flight to Agra, and thence to Lahore. His narrative gives, in a few words, a vivid picture of the crowd of refugees that were assembled at the Punjab capital, their state of panic, and the divided and interested counsels with which the Emperor was perplexed. Mirza Haidar advised that the Chaghatai Amirs should occupy separate positions along the lower hills, from Sirhind to the Salt Range, where the army might be re-organised in safety and, on a favourable opportunity presenting itself, might be used with effect to regain possession of India. He himself would undertake the reduction of Kashmir, a task he hoped to accomplish in so short a time that the Emperor


text:
Module:Header structure/doc

This module provides the logic for
 * header structure
 * author subpage
 * header and translation header (Module:Header)
 * process header (Module:Process header)
 * portal header (Module:Portal header)
 * author (Module:Author).

title: Module:Header structure/doc


text:
Page:The life of Charlotte Brontë (IA lifeofcharlotteb02gaskrich).pdf/213

 sary to make some exertion to ward off settled depression of spirits. She accordingly accepted an invitation to spend a week or ten days with Miss Martineau at Ambleside. She also proposed to come to Manchester and see me, on her way to Westmoreland. But, unfortutunatelyunfortunately [sic], I was from home, and unable to receive her. The friends with whom I was staying in the South of England (hearing me express my regret that I could not accept her friendly proposal, and aware of the sad state of health and spirits which made some change necessary for her) wrote to desire that she would come and spend a week or two with me at their house. She acknowledged this invitation in a letter to me, dated

1em

"My dear Mrs. Gaskell,—Miss 's kindness and yours is such that I am placed in the dilemma of not knowing how adequately to express my sense of it. This I know, however, very well—that if I could go and be with you for a week or two in such a quiet south-country house, and with such kind people as you describe, I should like it much. I find the proposal marvellously to my taste; it is the pleasantest, gentlest, sweetest, temptation possible; but, delectable as it is, its solicitations are by no means to be yielded to without the sanction of reason, and therefore I desire for the present to be silent, and to stand back till I have been to Miss Martineau's, and returned home, and considered well whether it is a scheme as right as agreeable.

"Meantime, the mere thought does me good."


text:
Page:The Tarikh-i-Rashidi - Mirza Muhammad Haidar, Dughlát - tr. Edward D. Ross (1895).djvu/45

 18 and his brothers might send their families thither, and secure, for them at least, a refuge from all enemies. But the Mirza's advice was of no avail; for though Humayun seems to have been inclined to listen, he was overborne by other councillors.

While acting at Lahore as Kámrán's delegate, Mirza Haidar had been approached by certain chiefs of Kashmir who were at variance with the native prince then reigning in their country, and who, on being worsted by him, had found a refuge in the Punjab. They endeavoured to procure, through Mirza Haidar's influence, the assistance of a body of Kámrán's troops, to invade their own country and expel the obnoxious ruler. The scheme seems to have commended itself to the Mirza's judgment, and after some delay he was able to gather a respectable force, which he placed under the command of one Bába Chuchak, one of the most experienced officers in the service of Kámrán, with instructions to accompany the Kashmiri chiefs and restore them to the possession of their State. The Bába, however, found pretexts for evading the execution of these orders, and the expedition proved a failure. After the retreat of the Chaghatais from Kanauj to Lahore, these chiefs renewed their appeals for assistance, and it was during the discussions that took place there as to the general line of action to be adopted, that Mirza Haidar impressed on Humayun the advantage of seizing the opportunity to gain a footing in Kashmir. He had learned from his previous incursion into that country, while in the service of the Khan of Kashghar, the value of its position and resources, and calculated that, with a reasonable force, he would require only two months to subjugate it and make it a suitable asylum for the Emperor and his family, together, if necessary, with the remains of the Chaghatai army. Shir Shah, on the other hand, with the wheeled carriages and the artillery, on which his strength mainly depended, would not, the Mirza reckoned, be able to reach the outer hills in less than four months, and his troops would be exhausted by the effort.

Though these plans were not taken advantage of by Humayun (who continued his retreat to the Indus), he permitted them to be put into practice by Mirza Haidar. The Mirza was given a small body of troops, and was sent forward from Lahore to join the Kashmiri chiefs, in whose company he was to enter the hills of their country, and to be followed, at intervals, by two of Humayun's officers, called respectively Iskandar Tupchi and Khwája Kalán. When all had assembled above Jhilam, and


text:
Page:Pigeons - their structure, varieties, habits, and management (IA b28107901).pdf/35

 he received a random shot, after which I lost sight of him for a considerable time; but I found him at last, located upon the other side of the island, where he remained till his death.

"The Rock Dove's nest is made up of small sticks or heather, or dried seaweed, and is lined with dried grass: the situation selected is any little ledge or cleft within the sheltering bosom of a rocky cavern. The eggs are two in number, generally producing male and female birds. The time for commencing their nestling seems rather variable: this year I found some young ones already hatched on the 2nd of April, while other pairs were only erecting their nests. They have several broods in the year, and their eggs may be found unhatched as late as September.

"It is rather a timid bird if offen shot at, but is by no means a shy or wary bird: in the fields the feeding flocks may often be openly approached, or the most barefaced attempts at stalking them will succeed. In the breeding season the hen will sit on the nest till approached, and never deserts it, though often disturbed, and her nest and eggs handled. She does not seek for inaccessible ledges to build her nest on, but takes any spot which offers, sometimes even the very floor of the cave. If her eggs are taken out, she will probably replace them; and if her young are taken when half-fledged, she seems glad to get them so soon off her hands, and at once prepares for rearing her second brood. The young birds instantly become quite tame, and reconciled to hand feeding; indeed, as they grow up, their impertinent boldness becomes rather troublesome. They readily take to the dovecot, and pair with the tame pigeons; even with fancy breeds, such ag Fantails, etc. If a pair of real wild ones breed in confinement, their progeny at once show signs of diverging in colour from the natural uniform of their wild ancestry; the young birds are of a dark slate-colour in their first plumage, though they have the same markings as the adult birds. The male is recognized from his mate by a slight superiority of size, and more lustrous plumage.

"In a gastronomic point of view, these pigeons are one of the most valuable kind of birds which frequent our coasts. They are nearly always fat and in good condition, are numerous and always to be procured; besides, being fed constanily upon our barley and oats, one can feel no compunction in levying a tribute upon them in return.

"They are easiest shot while feeding abroad in the fields: at the caves, a shout will cause them to fly out, but with such suddenness and swiftness, that it requires something of a pigeon-shooter's knack to succeed in hitting them quick enough. An indifferent shot (after knocking over one or two which may be incautiously napping upon the outer ledges) had better conceal himself either in the cave or in a good position above it: in a short time the bird is sure to come darting swiftly for its accustomed haunts, but upon catching a glimpse of a lurking foe, he stops his rapid career, flutters his pinions for a moment, uncertain what to do; that momentary indecision is fatal—down he falls!—while a roar


text: Template:Author subpage/sandbox

title: Template:Author subpage/sandbox


text:
Page:Pigeons - their structure, varieties, habits, and management (IA b28107901).pdf/36

 of a volcano bellows along the vaulted roof, and the cave is filled with wreaths of sulphureous smoke.

"Writing from Iona, I must not conclude without reminding you of the name of our patron saint. St. Columba, the Dove that first brought to this land the olive branch of mercy."


text: Template:Header structure

title: Template:Header structure


text:
Template:Header structure/doc

Usage
Produces a header template; used by author subpage.

title: Template:Header structure/doc


text:
Template:Header structure/styles.css

/* Styles used by header templates (not just header) */

/*
 * main block

/* The top level wrapper for the header main block. */ .wst-header-mainblock { margin: 4px auto 4px auto; padding: 0 3px; display: flex; align-items: center; }

/* Common styles for back and forward links */ .wst-header-back, .wst-header-forward { display: flex; flex: 1 4 100%; min-width: min-content; align-items: center; font-size: .9em; } .wst-header-nav-empty { visibility: hidden; }

/* The container for the back (previous) link. */ .wst-header-back { justify-content: flex-start; text-align: left; }

/* The container for the central cell. */ .wst-header-central-cell { flex: 4 1 100%; max-width: max-content; text-align: center; }

/* The container for the forward (next) link. */ .wst-header-forward { justify-content: flex-end; text-align: right; }

@media(max-width:768px) { /* Put title on its own flexbox row */ .wst-header-mainblock { flex-wrap:wrap; }	.wst-header-central-cell { flex:0 0 100%; order:-2; width:auto; }	.wst-header-back, .wst-header-forward { width:auto; } }

/*
 * notes block

/* The overall notes container. */ .wst-header-notes { display:inline-block; border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0; empty-cells:hide; font-size:.9em; line-height:1.4; margin:0 auto 4px auto; width:100%; }

/* Left-floated content. */ .wst-header-left { float:left; }

title: Template:Header structure/styles.css


text:
Page:The life of Charlotte Brontë (IA lifeofcharlotteb02gaskrich).pdf/214

 On the 10th of December, the second edition of "Wuthering Heights" was published. She sent a copy of it to Mr. Dobell, with the following letter:—

"I offer this little book to my critic in the 'Palladium,' and he must believe it accompanied by a tribute of the sincerest gratitude; not so much for anything he has said of myself, as for the noble justice he has rendered to one dear to me as myself—perhaps dearer; and perhaps one kind word spoken for her awakens a deeper, tenderer, sentiment of thankfulness than eulogies heaped on my own head. As you will see when you have read the biographical notice, my sister cannot thank you herself; she is gone out of your sphere and mine, and human blame and praise are nothing to her now. But to me, for her sake, they are something still; it revived me for many a day to find that, dead as she was, the work of her genius had at last met with worthy appreciation.

"Tell me, when you have read the introduction, whether any doubts still linger in your mind respecting the authorship of 'Wuthering Heights,' 'Wildfell Hall,' &c. Your mistrust did me some injustice; it proved a general conception of character such as I should be sorry to call mine; but these false ideas will naturally arise when


text:
Page:The life of Charlotte Brontë (IA lifeofcharlotteb02gaskrich).pdf/215

 we only judge an author from his works. In fairness, I must also disclaim the flattering side of the portrait. I am no 'young Penthesilea mediis in millibus,' but a plain country parson's daughter.

"Once more I thank you, and that with a full heart. 2em


text:
Page:The life and opinions of Tristram Shandy (Volume 8).pdf/67

 of his story, had my uncle Toby twice touch'd his Montero-cap with the end of his cane, interrogativelyas much as to say, Why don't you put it on, Trim? Trim took it up with the most respectful slowness, and casting a glance of humiliation as he did it, upon the embroidery of the fore-part, which being dismally tarnish'd and fray'd moreover in some of the principal leaves and boldest parts of the pattern, he lay'd it down again betwixt his two feet, in order to moralize upon the subject.

—'Tis every word of it but too true, cried my uncle Toby, that thou art about to observe


text:
Page:The life and opinions of Tristram Shandy (Volume 8).pdf/68

 "Nothing in this world, Trim, is made to last for ever."

—But when tokens, dear Tom, of thy love and remembrance wear out, said Trim, what shall we say?

There is no occasion, Trim, quoth my uncle Toby, to say any thing else; and was a man to puzzle his brains till Doom's day, I believe, Trim, it would be impossible.

The corporal perceiving my uncle Toby was in the right, and that it would be in vain for the wit of man to think of extracting a purer moral from his cap, without further attempting it, he put it on; and passing his hand across his fore-


text:
Page:The life and opinions of Tristram Shandy (Volume 8).pdf/69

 to rub out a pensive wrinkle, which the text and the doctrine between them had engender'd, he return'd, with the same look and tone of voice, to his story of the king of Bohemia and his seven castles.


text:
Page:The life and opinions of Tristram Shandy (Volume 8).pdf/70

was a certain king of Bohemia, but in whose reign, except his own, I am not able to inform your honour

I do not desire it of thee, Trim, by any means, cried my uncle Toby.

It was a little before the time, an' please your honour, when giants were beginning to leave off breeding;—but in what year of our Lord that was


text: The Life of Charlotte Brontë/Volume 2/Chapter 3


text: The Life of Charlotte Brontë/Volume 2/Chapter 4


text:
Module:Header structure/sandbox

--[=[ This is a module to implement logic for header templates ]=]

require('strict')

local p = {} --p stands for package

local getArgs = require('Module:Arguments').getArgs local plain_sister = require('Module:Plain sister')._plain_sister

-- return true if any value in list is not nil or empty in args -- (nil means not present; empty string is not nil) local function has_any_arg(args, list) for k, v in pairs(list) do		if args[v] ~= nil then return true end end return false end

--[=[ Construct the main block ]=] local function construct_main_block(args, prefix) -- header and tracking categories local main_div = mw.html.create('div') :addClass('wst-header-mainblock') :addClass(prefix .. '-mainblock')

-- If an extra main class was provided, add it -- TODO: Is this used? Is it needed? if args.main_class ~= nil and args.main_class ~= "" then main_div:addClass(args.main_class) end

-- If an extra main id was provided, add it -- TODO: Is this used? Is it needed? if args.main_id then main_div:attr('id', args.main_id) end

-- "Previous" field local prev_div = main_div:tag('div') :addClass('wst-header-back') :addClass('searchaux') :addClass(prefix .. '-back') :tag('div'):addClass('wst-header-back-arrow'):wikitext('←') :done :tag('div'):addClass('wst-header-back-link'):wikitext(args['previous']) :done if args['previous'] == nil or args['previous'] == "" then prev_div:addClass('wst-header-nav-empty') end -- The central cell local center_div = main_div:tag('div') :addClass('wst-header-central-cell') :addClass(prefix .. '-central-cell') -- Special case to manage exceptional formatting in disambiguation-like -- pages; not otherwise documented local pretitle = '' if args.pretitle then local br = ' ' if not args.main_title or args.main_title == '' then br = '' end center_div:tag('span') :addClass('wst-header-pretitle') :wikitext(args.pretitle .. br) end center_div:tag('span') :addClass('wst-header-title') :addClass(prefix .. '-title') :wikitext(args.main_title or '')

-- "Next" field local next_div = main_div:tag('div') :addClass('wst-header-forward') :addClass('searchaux') :addClass(prefix .. '-forward') :tag('div'):addClass('wst-header-forward-link'):wikitext(args['next']) :done :tag('div'):addClass('wst-header-forward-arrow'):wikitext('→') :done if args['next'] == nil or args['next'] == "" then next_div:addClass('wst-header-nav-empty') end

return tostring(main_div) end

--[=[ Construct the notes block ]=] local function construct_notes_block(args, prefix) local main_div = mw.html.create('div') :addClass('wst-header-notes') :addClass('header_notes') :addClass('searchaux') :addClass(prefix .. '-notes')

-- If an extra main class was provided, add it -- TODO: Is this used? Is it needed? if args.notes_class ~= nil and args.notes_class ~= "" then main_div:addClass(args.notes_class) end

-- If an extra main id was provided, add it -- TODO: Is this used? Is it needed? if args.notes_id then main_div:attr('id', args.notes_id) end -- Left-floated content has to come first, or it may float below the sisters. local notes_left_content = '' if args.notes_left_content then local notes_left_content_div = mw.html.create('div') :addClass('wst-header-left') :addClass('header_notes_left_content') :addClass(prefix .. '-left') :wikitext(args.notes_left_content) notes_left_content = tostring(notes_left_content_div) end local shortcut = '' if args.shortcut then shortcut = mw.getCurrentFrame:expandTemplate { title = 'shortcut', args = {args.shortcut} }	end local notes_content = '' if args.notes then args.notes = mw.getCurrentFrame:preprocess(args.notes) -- linebreaks are so notes get paragraph formatting local notes_content_div = mw.html.create('div') :addClass('wst-header-content') :addClass('header_notes_content') :addClass('wst-header-notes-content') :addClass(prefix .. '-notes-content') :wikitext('\n' .. args.notes .. '\n') notes_content = tostring(notes_content_div) end local wdid = mw.wikibase.getEntityIdForCurrentPage local sister = plain_sister(args) if not sister and not args.notes and not args.notes_left_content then return '' end return tostring(main_div:wikitext(notes_left_content .. (sister or '') .. shortcut .. notes_content)) end

--[=[ Construct header ]=]

function p.construct_header(args) -- Make sure the main identifying class for the client template is set local prefix = "wst-unknown" if args.template ~= nil and args.template ~= "" then prefix = "wst-" .. args.template end

local headerContainer = mw.html.create('div') :addClass("ws-header") :addClass("wst-header-structure") :addClass(prefix)

-- header_class from client modules, class from individual uses if args.header_class then headerContainer:addClass(args.header_class) end if args.class then headerContainer:addClass(args.class) end headerContainer:wikitext(table.concat({ (args.pre_main or ''), construct_main_block(args, prefix), construct_notes_block(args, prefix), (args.post_notes or '') }))	local stylesheet = mw.getCurrentFrame:extensionTag('templatestyles', '', {src = 'Header structure/sandbox.css'}) return stylesheet .. (args.pre_container or '') .. tostring(headerContainer) end

function p.header_structure(frame) return p.construct_header(getArgs(frame)) end

return p

title: Module:Header structure/sandbox


text:
Module:Portal header/sandbox

require('strict')

local p = {}

local getArgs = require('Module:Arguments').getArgs local yesno = require('Module:Yesno') local construct_header = require('Module:Header structure').construct_header local portal_class = require('Module:Portal class')._portal_class local portal_parent = require('Module:Portal parent').portal_parent

function p._portal_header(args) local current_title = mw.title.getCurrentTitle local namespace = args.namespace or current_title.nsText local cats = {} local categorize = not yesno(args.nocat) or args.forcecat == 'forced' or (yesno(args.forcecat) ~= false and namespace == 'Portal') args.header_class = 'wst-portal-header' args.main_class = 'wst-portal-header-mainblock ws-header ws-noexport noprint' args.main_title = args.title or current_title.subpageText if not yesno(args.noparent) then if args.parent then -- use the explicit parent args.previous = 'Parent portal: ' .. args.parent .. '' -- tracking cat if categorize then table.insert(cats, '') end else args.previous = tostring(mw.html.create('div'):addClass('wst-portal-parentlink'):wikitext(portal_parent(args))) end end args.notes_class = 'wst-portal-header-notes' if not yesno(args.noclass) then args.notes_left_content = portal_class(args) end if categorize then if args.shortcut then table.insert(cats, '') end

if args.forcecat ~= 'forced' and current_title.isSubpage then table.insert(cats, '') else if args.sortkey then table.insert(cats, '') else table.insert(cats, '') end if not yesno(args.reviewed) then table.insert(cats, '') end end end args.post_notes = table.concat(cats) local stylesheet = tostring(mw.html.create('div'):addClass('ws-noexport'):wikitext(mw.getCurrentFrame:extensionTag('templatestyles', '', {src = 'Portal header/styles.css'}))) return stylesheet .. construct_header(args) end

function p.portal_header(frame) return p._portal_header(getArgs(frame)) end

return p

title: Module:Portal header/sandbox


text:
Page:R L Stevenson 1917 Familiar studies of men and books.djvu/37

 instinct, the instinct of the man of an age profoundly different, taught him otherwise; and, in his work, the individual characters begin to occupy a comparatively small proportion of that canvas on which armies manœuvre, and great hills pile themselves upon each other's shoulders. Fielding's characters were always great to the full stature of a perfectly arbitrary will. Already in Scott we begin to have a sense of the subtle influences that moderate and qualify a man's personality; that personality is no longer thrown out in unnatural isolation, but is resumed into its place in the constitution of things.

It is this change in the manner of regarding men and their actions first exhibited in romance, that has since renewed and vivified history. For art precedes philosophy and even science. People must have noticed things and interested themselves in them before they begin to debate upon their causes or influence. And it is in this way that art is the pioneer of knowledge; those predilections of the artist he knows not why, those irrational acceptations and recognitions, reclaim, out of the world that we have not yet realised, ever another and another corner; and after the facts have been thus vividly brought before us and have had time to settle and arrange themselves in our minds, some day there will be found the man


text:
Page:R L Stevenson 1917 Familiar studies of men and books.djvu/38

 of science to stand up and give the explanation. Scott took an interest in many things in which Fielding took none; and for this reason, and no other, he introduced them into his romances. If he had been told what would be the nature of the movement that he was so lightly initiating, he would have been very incredulous and not a little scandalised. At the time when he wrote, the real drift of this new manner of pleasing people in fiction was not yet apparent; and, even now, it is only by looking at the romances of Victor Hugo that we are enabled to form any proper judgment in the matter. These books are not only descended by ordinary generation from the Waverley novels, but it is in them chiefly that we shall find the revolutionary tradition of Scott carried farther that we shall find Scott himself, in so far as regards his conception of prose fiction and its purposes, surpassed in his own spirit, instead of tamely followed. We have here, as I said before, a line of literary tendency produced, and by this production definitely separated from others. When we come to Hugo, we see that the deviation, which seemed slight enough and not very serious between Scott and Fielding, is indeed such a great gulph in thought and sentiment as only successive generations can pass over: and it is but natural that one of the chief advances that Hugo has made upon


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 Scott is an advance in self-consciousness. Both men follow the same road; but where the one went blindly and carelessly, the other advances with all deliberation and forethought. There never was artist much more unconscious than Scott; and there have been not many more conscious than Hugo. The passage at the head of these pages shows how organically he had understood the nature of his own changes. He has, underlying each of the five great romances (which alone I purpose here to examine), two deliberate designs: one artistic, the other consciously ethical and intellectual. This is a man living in a different world from Scott, who professes sturdily (in one of his introductions) that he does not believe in novels having any moral influence at all; but still Hugo is too much of an artist to let himself be hampered by his dogmas; and the truth is that the artistic result seems, in at least one great instance, to have very little connection with the other, or directly ethical result.

The artistic result of a romance, what is left upon the memory by any really powerful and artistic novel, is something so complicated and refined that it is difficult to put a name upon it and yet something as simple as nature. These two propositions may seem mutually destructive, but they are so only in appearance. The fact is


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 that art is working far ahead of language as well as of science, realising for us, by all manner of suggestions and exaggerations, effects for which as yet we have no direct name; nay, for which we may never perhaps have a direct name, for the reason that these effects do not enter very largely into the necessities of life. Hence alone is that suspicion of vagueness that often hangs about the purpose of a romance: it is clear enough to us in thought; but we are not used to consider anything clear until we are able to formulate it in words, and analytical language has not been sufficiently shaped to that end. We all know this difficulty in the case of a picture, simple and strong as may be the impression that it has left with us; and it is only because language is the medium of romance, that we are prevented from seeing that the two cases are the same. It is not that there is anything blurred or indefinite in the impression left with us, it is just because the impression is so very definite after its own kind, that we find it hard to fit it exactly with the expressions of our philosophical speech.

It is this idea which underlies and issues from a romance, this something which it is the function of that form of art to create, this epical value, that I propose chiefly to seek and, as far as may be, to throw into relief, in the present study. It is thus,


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 I believe, that we shall see most clearly the great stride that Hugo has taken beyond his predecessors, and how, no longer content with expressing more or less abstract relations of man to man, he has set before himself the task of realising, in the language of romance, much of the involution of our complicated lives.

This epical value is not to be found, let it be understood, in every so-called novel. The great majority are not works of art in anything but a very secondary signification. One might almost number on one's fingers the works in which such a supreme artistic intention has been in any way superior to the other and lesser aims, themselves more or less artistic, that generally go hand in hand with it in the conception of prose romance. The purely critical spirit is, in most novels, paramount. At the present moment we can recall one man only, for whose works it would have been equally possible to accomplish our present design: and that man is Hawthorne. There is a unity, an unwavering creative purpose, about some at least of Hawthorne's romances, that impresses itself on the most indifferent reader; and the very restrictions and weaknesses of the man served perhaps to strengthen the vivid and single impression of his works. There is nothing of this kind in Hugo: unity, if he attains to it, is indeed