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 acquired, demands the sacrifice of every instinct of decency to its insatiate desire. There is a church in Mott Street, at the entrance to Chinatown, that stands as a barrier between it and the tenements beyond. Its young men have waged unceasing war upon the monstrous wickedness for years, but with very little real result. I have in mind a house in Pell Street that has been raided no end of times by the police, and its population emptied upon Blackwell's Island, or into the reformatories, yet is to-day honey-combed with scores of the conventional households of the Chinese quarter: the men worshippers of Joss; the women, all white, girls hardly yet grown to womanhood, worshipping nothing save the pipe that has enslaved them body and soul. Easily tempted from homes that have no claim upon the name, they rarely or never return. Mott Street gives up its victims only to the Charity Hospital or the Potter's Field. Of the depth of their fall no one is more thoroughly aware than these girls themselves; no one less concerned about it. The calmness with which they discuss it, while insisting illogically upon the fiction of a marriage that deceives no one, is disheartening. Their misery is peculiarly fond of company, and an amount of visiting goes on in these households that makes it extremely difficult for the stranger to untangle them. I came across a company of them "hitting the pipe" together, on a tour through their dens one night with the police captain of the precinct. The girls knew him, called him by name, offered him a pipe, and chatted with him about the incidents of their acquaintance, how many times he had "sent them up," and their chances of "lasting" much longer. There was no shade of regret in their voices, nothing but utter indifference and surrender.

One thing about them was conspicuous: their scrupu-

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218 with a passionate idyl in which the history of Israel in the near past is told by the shepherd Icabo. To him Numeo and Zicareo offer consolation, and they pour balm into his wounded heart. The vividness of Usque’s style, his historical insight, his sturdy optimism, his poetical force in interpreting suffering as the means of attaining the highest life in God, raise his book above the other works of its class and age.

Usque’s poem did not win the same popularity as two other elegiac histories of the same period. These were the “Rod of Judah” (Shebet Jehudah) and the “Valley of Tears” (Emek ha-Bachah). The former was the work of three generations of the Ibn Verga family. Judah died before the expulsion from Spain, but his son Solomon participated in the final troubles of the Spanish Jews, and was even forced to join the ranks of the Marranos. The grandson, Joseph Ibn Verga, became Rabbi in Adrianople, and was cultured in classical as

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 taking into account the latter’s usual income or standing.

However, the total amount of the premium to be sent back in accordance with the previous provisions must not exceed the amount paid by the insurer.

When both spouses have invested money in a contract under which an annuity shall be given to both of them whilst they are living together and to the surviving one for life upon the death of the other, the surviving spouse is required to compensate the original property of the other spouse or the marital property, as the case may be, depending on whether the original property or the marital property was used in such investment. The money to compensate the original property or marital property as said shall be equal in amount to the special money additionally demanded by the annuity giver, in order that the annuity giver would be able to further provide the annuity to the surviving spouse.

If any person who should become an heir under section 1629(1), (3), (4), or (6) has died or been

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" is my home," said Utis, as we alighted, "and yours, too, till you weary of it."

At the sound of the dog's bark, two lovely children came rushing forth to welcome their father. The girl of about twelve summers, and the eight-year-old boy, were clad in costumes closely resembling those of their elders. To the boy was intrusted the task of wheeling the curricle to its quarters. The girl took charge of the packages my friend had brought from the city.

Two ladies met us as we entered the house. These were my host's wife and her sister. The latter was engaged, as I could tell by the arrangement of her hair. The ladies, introduced to me as Ulmene and Ialma, reecived me with cordiality as a kinsman for some time expected, but seen for the first time.

Some chance expressions let fall by them informed me that I was supposed to have arrived that day by the Australian mail-ship; and, strangest of all, I received the information that my baggage had already arrived, and awaited me in my room. Somewhat bewildered by this astounding information, I followed my host to the apart-

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I learned in regard to the origin of the social condition and government of his period was communicated to me by Utis in a series of conversations. I here give the substance of these conversations, adhering to the original form as closely as is permitted by the comparative inferiority of our language as a medium of expression. The ideas then received, too, have been modified and enlarged by subsequent reading and observation.

"The more or less democratical forms of government," he began, "that rose on the ruins of the decayed monarchical and aristocratical systems of your time, soon showed symptoms of decay. Based, as they were, upon principles, some sound, others utterly false, they contained within themselves the germs of dissolution. Loudly claiming to be the embodiment of justice and natural right, they soon rivalled the worst of former despotisms in corruption, and high-handed disregard of individual rights.

"Governors, legislators, and judges, appointed under the dictation of colossal sharpers and political quacks, were naturally the pliant tools of those that made them.

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 The law, its enforcement and interpretation, became equally engines of oppression and extortion. As if this were not enough, weak-minded enthusiasts joined with the toadies, and representatives of the criminal classes, in weakening the already insufficient safeguards of life and property. The law and its officers became simply an organization for favoring the escape of criminals from deserved punishment. In some countries, the industrious classes actually disappeared at last, ground to powder between the upper and lower millstones of oppressive government and unchecked crime. Learning, honesty, industry, died out, or took refuge in other lands. Society relapsed to a form of barbarism more frightful even than that of primitive ages, man being now armed for evil with a terrible control over the forces of nature.

"From this seething and fermenting mass were gradually evolved new political organizations. From the extremes of democracy and lawlessness, government, in these lands, naturally reverted to various systems of despotism and repression. Not only was this the sole refuge from anarchy, but it was the only means of preventing a reversion to mere savagery. Despots, however, and their satellites, do not work for nothing: some one must work to supply them with what they regard as an adequate reward for their arduous labors. Rigorous laws were put in operation to repress idleness among the thinned population left by terrible civil conflicts. Industry and prosperity revived, and even as much education as can flourish under a jealous despotism. Most acquiesced readily in the change. Better, they thought, the possibility of being crushed at a blow by an irresistible power, than to perish


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 piecemeal, devoured by political vermin. Had the inhabitants of these countries occupied a planet by themselves, they would, in all probability, after passing through the usual changes, gradually have raised themselves to a higher plane of civilization than before; but their despotic rulers regarded with jealousy and fear the countries where free institutions still held their own.

"You must keep in mind, that the series of changes just related did not take place in a day, nor in a century; also that the political disease ran its course with greater rapidity and with greater virulence in some countries than in others. Certain nations served as frightful examples to others.

"On these latter the warning was not always lost. The better disposed of their citizens had time to take alarm, on seeing the downward course of their neighbors. They saw the folly of being led by party cries into the support of knaves. They resolved no longer to be oppressed under the forms of liberty, and robbed in the name of law.

"In the political upheaval that ensued, the phonograph played much the same important part once filled by the printing-press during the great religious upheaval of the sixteenth century. Charlatans no longer found it so easy to palm themselves off as statesmen, when their every legislative utterance was spoken, as it were, in the ears of their assembled constituents.

"In the excitement of the times, many things were done that a cooler posterity has not approved. Here, in the United States, for example, the eighth article of the Constitution was abrogated by an enormous majority, in order


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 to attain the means of bringing to justice the worst of the monopolists and their legislative tools. A thorough weeding of the political garden was effected. By an important law, rigidly enforced by a special tribunal, every public officer became responsible, in means and person, for the due fulfilment of his duties. He that neglected the recovery of a fine due the State, was made to pay it from his own property: he that allowed a prisoner to escape, was made to suffer the full penalty in his stead. Trial by jury, having fallen into utter contempt, was abolished, except in political trials.

"In proportion as the consequences of the general relaxation of the bonds of law and morality among certain nations became evident, the temper of the people over here became stern, almost savage. Offences against the person were punished according to the lex talionis. The murderer was put to death, as nearly as possible in the manner he had slain his victim. In atrocious cases he was handed over to the mercies of physiological experimentists, to endure what they saw fit in the interests of the humanity he had violated.

"An earnest attempt, finally successful, was made to stamp out the criminal classes. The thief found guilty for the third time was put to death as incorrigible, painlessly as might be, but inexorably. The lazy and shiftless were gathered into what they soon found were workhouses in more than name, means being taken that effectually put it out of their power to curse society with a progeny similar to themselves. Offences against the family relation, justly regarded as the foundation of the State, were visited with such punishment as, in conjunction with


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 other causes, soon rendered offences of that nature among the rarest. These severe measures elicited, at first, loud shrieks from the maudlin sympathizers with crime,—the Hugos and Dickenses of the period. But, finding themselves treated with contemptuous disregard, they finally held their peace.

"The two sets of nations developing thus on such divergent lines became known, finally, as Absolutists and Liberals. The Absolutists believed, or pretended to believe, that the rule of an intelligent despot is the highest type of government. This theory found eloquent advocates, whose zeal was not allowed to go unrewarded. The Liberals held the opposite view, but never found it worth while arguing the matter.

"For centuries Absolutists and Liberals, in spite of occasional bickerings, and a few trials of strength, continued to develop, each in their own way attaining a high degree of material prosperity. But at last arose a great military genius. By a series of successful campaigns, he reduced all the Absolutist monarchies under one huge empire. He next attacked and overwhelmed, in spite of a desperate resistance, the Liberal nations of the Old World. It was during this conflict that London was reduced to a heap of ruins.

"Fired with the hope of universal empire, he next resolved on the subjugation of America. His fleets, armed with the tremendous inventions of scientific warfare, overbore all opposition, and landed an immense army upon our shores. Never was the cause of liberty in greater peril. For almost a full year he held the whole Atlantic region; but finally, at a cost still frightful to recall, the


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 invader was first checked, then driven back toward the coast, and, at last, captured with what remained of his army. The vanquished monarch would fain have prated of generosity to a fallen foe; but the gray-haired farmer, whom the course of events had raised to the dictatorship, took no such view. He sternly replied,—

This has been no childish game. Two millions of our people have perished. Your success meant death to us: ours means death to you, and the system you represent.'

"The dictator kept his word. Within six months he carried out his threat by hanging, in his own capital, the 'Last of the Despots,' in company with all his ministers and chief officers. There had been but slight resistance. The nations joyfully accepted the free institutions for which they had long secretly pined. Despotism had received its final blow. A sort of federal union of nations was then formed, by which all became pledged to preserve a republican form of government throughout the world, and to guarantee to each nation the integrity of its territory, even amicable arrangements for transfer or union being subject to the approval of all.

"Since then, the progress of mankind in good government has been peaceful and continuous. The stern temper generated by the long struggle between rival principles gradually softened away; though the maxims, 'Resist the beginnings of evil,' and 'Mercy to the bad is cruelty to the good,' have become settled principles of action.

"Our main reliance, after all, is upon education. The training of the young is regarded as the one great duty,


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 both of the family and of the State. Having no army, no navy, no expensive hierarchy of public functionaries, we are able to devote a great part of our energies and resources to this most important of duties. The acquisition of the knowledge to be obtained from books, though by no means neglected, we regard as the least important branch of education. Regarding a sound, equally developed body as the foundation of all the rest, we impart to our youth of both sexes a twofold physical training. The æsthetic training includes such exercises, by means of formal gymnastics, games, and a species of complicated dance somewhat resembling the military evolutions of ancient times, as tend to impart activity and grace. Mere muscular strength we leave to follow as it may; yet we know, from various sources, that we have degenerated neither in strength nor stature. The industrial training includes such training in the use of tools and instruments as shall make the hands the reliable servants of the brain.

"In our system of mental culture, including moral, intellectual, and aesthetic training, we combine the advantages of private with those of public tuition. Morals, including politeness, self-government, the acquisition of lofty ideals of conduct, we regard as specially, though not exclusively, the province of family training. At home, too, the children go over their book-lessons with the guidance and assistance of their elders. This task, or, rather, this most delightful of our occupations, the parents share, according to individual preference for certain studies; though either would be able and glad to undertake the whole.


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 CONTENTS

POEMS PECULIAR TO THE DEVONSHIRE MS. PART I

1. Take hede be tyme lest ye be spyde.

2. My pen, take payn a lyttyll space

3. I love lovyd and so dothe she

4. Suffryng in sorow in hope to attayn.

5. At last withdrawe your crueltie.

6. To wette your lye withouten teare

7. What menythe thys, when I lye alone

8. The hart and servys to yow prolferd.

9. Farewell all my welfare

10. Alas poore man what hap have I

11. Ys yt possyble

12. And wylt thow leve me thus

13. That tyme that myrthe dyd stere my shypp

14. As power and wytt wyll me assyst

15. Sumtyme I syght, sumtyme I syng

16. Pacyence of all my smart.

17. In fay the methynkes yt ys no ryght.

18. The knot which fyrst my hert did strayn

19. It was ray choyse it was no chance

20. So unwarely was never no man cawght

21. Howshuldl

22. Full well yt maye be sene.

23. Syns love ys suche, that as ye wott

24. Lo how I seke and sew to have.

25. Syns so ye please to here me playn

26. Now must I lerne to lyve at rest

27. Fforget not yet the tryde enteut.

28. 0 myserable sorow withowten cure

29. Blame not my lute for he must sound.

PART II

1. If with complaint the paine myght be exprest

2. Sins you will nedes that I shall sing.

3. What shulde I saye ....

4. Gyve place all ye that doth rejoyse

5. Me list no more to sing

6. The Joye so short alas, the paine so nere

7. Payne of all payne most grevous paine

8. Lament my losse, my labor, and my payne

9. Spight hath no power to make me sadde

10. A ! my herte, a ! what aileth the


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 11. Hate whom ye list for I kare not.

12. Grudge on who liste, this ys my lott

13. Greting to you both yn hertye wyse

14. Tanglid I was in loves snare

15. Longer to muse ....

16. Love doeth againe

17. With serving still

18. Now all of change

19. Dryven bye desire 1 dede this dede

20. Perdye I saide it not.

21. Absens absenting causithe me to compli

22. When that I call unto my mynde

23. To make an ende of all this strif.

24. Wyll ye se what wonderous love hatha

25. Deme as ye list upon goode cause.

26. I am as I am and so will I be

27. Patiens for I have wrong.

POEMS ABSENT FROM THE E. AND D. MSS.

1. To whom should I sue to ease my payne (Gourte of Venus)

2. Dysdaine me not without desert (Courte of Veniis)

3. Lyke as the wynde with raging blaste (Harl. MS.)

4. Under this stone ther lyeth at rest (Harl. MS.).

5. Like as the byrde in the cage enclosed (Parker MS., Corpus Christi), Cambridge

6. Stond who so list upon the slipper toppe (A.MS.)

FROM TOTTEL'S "SONGES AND SONETTES "

1. Accused though I be without desert (Tottel). . . 367

2. Passe forth my wonted cryes ,, ... 368

3. Your lokes so often cast ,, ... 370

4. Synce love wyll nedes that I shall love ,, ... 372

5. For want of will, in wo I playne ,, ... 374

6. If ever man might him avaunt ,, ... 376

7. When first myn eyes did view and mark, , ... 378

8. Mystrustful mindes be moved ,, ... 379

9. I see that chance hath chosen me ,, ... 380

10. Through out the world if it were sought ,, ... 382

11. It burneth yet, alas, my hartes desire (Tottel). . . 388

12. Sufficed not (Madame) that you did teare .... 385

13. Speake thou and spede where will or power ought helpthe

(Tottel) 386

14. If thou wilt mighty be flee from the rage (Tottel). . 387


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Rh well as Jewish lore. Their composite work, “The Rod of Judah,” was completed in 1554. It is a well-written but badly arranged martyrology, and over all its pages might be inscribed the Talmudical motto, that God’s chastisements of Israel are chastisements of love. The other work referred to is Joseph Cohen’s “Valley of Tears,” completed in 1575. The author was born in Avignon in 1496, four years after his father had shared in the exile from Spain. He himself suffered expatriation, for, though a distinguished physician and the private doctor of the Doge Andrea Doria, he was expelled with the rest of the Jews from Genoa in 1550. Settled in the little town of Voltaggio, he devoted himself to writing the annals of European and Jewish history. His style is clear and forcible, and recalls the lucid simplicity of the historical books of the Bible.

The only other histories that need be critically mentioned here are the “Branch


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 * PRESSURE-ACTIVATED EXPLOSIVE ANTI-PERSONNEL MINE
 * MADE OF PLASTIC
 * SIZE 11*6*2 cm
 * ACTIVATES UNDER WEIGHT OF 5 kg
 * REMOTELY PLANTED MINE
 * MINES ARE PAINTED GREEN AND BROWN
 * HAS SELF-DETONATION MECHANISM


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220 of David” (Zemach David), the “Chain of Tradition” (Shalsheleth ha-Kabbalah), and the “Light of the Eyes” (Meör Enayim). Abraham de Porta Leone's “Shields of the Mighty” (Shilte ha-Gibborim, printed in Mantua in 1612); Leon da Modena's “Ceremonies and Customs of the Jews,” (printed in Paris in 1637); David Conforte's “Call of the Generations” (Kore ha-Doroth, written in Palestine in about 1670); Yechiel Heilprin's “Order of Generations” (Seder ha-Doroth, written in Poland in 1725); and Chayim Azulai's “Name of the Great Ones” (written in Leghorn in 1774), can receive only a bare mention.

The author of the “Branch of David,” David Gans, was born in Westphalia in about 1540. He was the first German Jew of his age to take real interest in the study of history. He was a man of scientific culture, corresponded with Kepler, and was a personal friend of Tycho Brahe. For the latter Gans made a German translation


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230 brew text of the Bible, and he was an energetic teacher of Christians. In the sixteenth century the study of Hebrew made much progress in Europe, but the Jews themselves were only indirectly associated with this advance. Despite Abarbanel, Jewish commentaries remained either homiletic or mystical, or, like the popular works of Moses Alshech, were more or less Midrashic in style. But the Bible was a real delight to the Jews, and it is natural that such books were often compiled for the masses. Mention must be made of the Zeëna u-Reëna ("Go forth and see"), a work written at the beginning of the eighteenth century in Jewish-German for the use of women, a work which is still beloved of the Jewess. But the seeds sown by Abarbanel and others of his school eventually produced an abundant harvest. Mendelssohn's German edition of the Pentateuch with the Hebrew Commentary (Biur) was the turning-point in the march


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 "The White Book 2021. Defence Policy of Ukraine" information bulletin was prepared by a working group of specialists from the Ministry of Defence of Ukraine, the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Ukraine and the Administration of the State Special Transport Service.

The head of the working group: Ivan RUSNAK

The working group: Oleh MELIKHOV, Oleh YATSYNO, Vladyslav SHOSTAK, Oleksandr BUNIAK, Serhii ZATOLOKIN, Serhii MASLOVSKYI

The secretary of the working group: Serhii SOBKOVYCH

The White Book Information Bulletin is published according to the Law of Ukraine “On National Security of Ukraine” to systematically inform the public about the activities of the Ministry of Defence of Ukraine, the Armed Forces of Ukraine and the State Special Transport Service, the status of development measures, ensuring the validity of decisions of military authorities on national security and defence, and force development.

The sixteenth edition of the White Book Information Bulletin is devoted to the implementation of the national security policy in the defence domain in the Ministry of Defence of Ukraine, the Armed Forces of Ukraine and the State Special Transport Service. The Information Bulletin also includes the main measures undertaken by the Ministry of Defence of Ukraine, the Armed Forces of Ukraine and the State Special Transport Service in 2021 and their status.

The target audience of the yearbook is civil and military experts in the domain of force development, defence and security policy, journalists, faculty members and students of the relevant higher educational establishments, and also everyone who is interested in the state and the directions of the Armed Forces of Ukraine and the State Special Transport Service development.

© Ministry of Defence Ukraine, 2022 © Design & Layout: D.V. Myshalov, 2022


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 lous neatness. It is the distinguishing mark of Chinatown, outwardly and physically. It is not altogether by chance the Chinaman has chosen the laundry as his distinctive field. He is by nature as clean as the cat, which he resembles in his traits of cruel cunning, and savage fury when aroused. On this point of cleanliness he insists in his domestic circle, yielding in others with crafty submissiveness to the caprice of the girls, who "boss" him in a very independent manner, fretting vengefully under the yoke they loathe, but which they know right well they can never shake off, once they have put the pipe to their lips and given Mott Street a mortgage upon their souls for all time. To the priest, whom they call in when the poison racks the body, they pretend that they are yet their own masters; but he knows that it is an idle boast, least of all believed by themselves. As he walks with them the few short steps to the Potter's Field, he hears the sad story he has heard told over and over again, of father, mother, home, and friends given up for the accursed pipe, and stands hopeless and helpless before the colossal evil for which he knows no remedy.

The frequent assertions of the authorities that at least no girls under age are wrecked on this Chinese shoal, are disproved by the observation of those who go frequently among these dens, though the smallest girl will invariably, and usually without being asked, insist that she is sixteen, and so of age to choose the company she keeps. Such assertions are not to be taken seriously. Even while I am writing, the morning returns from one of the precincts that pass through my hands report the arrest of a Chinaman for "inveigling little girls into his laundry," one of the hundred outposts of Chinatown that are scattered all over the city, as the outer threads of the spider's web that

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 Withal the police give the Chinese the name of being the "quietest people down there," meaning in the notoriously turbulent Sixth Ward; and they are. The one thing they desire above all is to be let alone, a very natural wish perhaps, considering all the circumstances. If it were a laudable, or even an allowable ambition that prompts it, they might be humored with advantage, probably, to both sides. But the facts show too plainly that it is not, and that in their very exclusiveness and reserve they are a constant and terrible menace to society, wholly regardless of their influence upon the industrial problems which their presence confuses. The severest official scrutiny, the harshest repressive measures are justifiable in Chinatown, orderly as it appears on the surface, even more than in the Bend, and the case is infinitely more urgent. To the peril that threatens there all the senses are alert, whereas the poison that proceeds from Mott Street puts mind and body to sleep, to work out its deadly purpose in the corruption of the soul.

This again may be set down as a harsh judgment. I may be accused of inciting persecution of an unoffending people. Far from it. Granted, that the Chinese are in no sense a desirable element of the population, that they serve no useful purpose here, whatever they may have done elsewhere in other days, yet to this it is a sufficient answer that they are here, and that, having let them in, we must make the best of it. This is a time for very plain speaking on this subject. Rather than banish the Chinaman, I would have the door opened wider—for his wife; make it a condition of his coming or staying that he bring his wife with him. Then, at least, he might not be what he now is and remains, a homeless stranger among us. Upon this hinges the real Chinese question, in our city at

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We are a young family from the glorious dynasty of Kyivan Rus’ - Ukraine.

''From the ancestry of founders. Ancestry of baptists. From a brave ancestry. Wise ancestry. Cossack ancestry.''

Having incorporated the best national military traditions established in the challenging, bloody wars and armed conflicts of the past, the Ukrainian army throughout its recent history has travelled a tortuous path to the formation of a capable and highly organized combat structure, self-confident and able to disrupt any kind of adversary's plans.

''Today our brave young men and women are defending the Ukrainian state, our sovereignty and territorial integrity. For the sake of peace and prosperity of independent Ukraine. For the sake of future generations.''

Ukrainians are proud of their Armed Forces demonstrating them the highest level of trust because it is the Ukrainian soldiers who have preserved the independence of Ukraine fought for by our ancestors for centuries.   WHITE BOOK 2021


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HE tenements grow taller, and the gaps in their ranks close up rapidly as we cross the Bowery and, leaving Chinatown and the Italians behind, invade the Hebrew quarter. Baxter Street, with its interminable rows of old clothes shops and its brigades of pullers-in—nicknamed "the Bay" in honor, perhaps, of the tars who lay to there after a cruise to stock up their togs, or maybe after the "schooners" of beer plentifully bespoke in that latitude—Bayard Street, with its synagogues and its crowds, gave us a foretaste of it. No need of asking here where we are. The jargon of the street, the signs of the sidewalk, the manner and dress of the people, their unmistakable physiognomy, betray their race at every step. Men with queer skull-caps venerable beard, and the outlandish long-skirted kaftan of the Russian Jew, elbow the ugliest and the handsomest women in the land. The contrast is startling. The old women are hags; the young, houris. Wives and mothers at sixteen, at thirty they are old. So thoroughly has the chosen people crowded out the Gentiles in the Tenth Ward that, when the great Jewish holidays come around every year, the public schools in the district have practically to close up. Of their thousands of pupils scarce a handful come to school. Nor is there any suspicion that the rest are playing hookey. They stay honestly

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Rh towards the modern exposition of the Bible, which had been inaugurated by the statesman-scholar of Spain.

 * Graetz.—IV, II.
 * I. S. Meisels.—Don Isaac Abarbanel, J. Q. R., II, p. 37.
 * S. Schechter.—Studies in Judaism, p. 173 [211].
 * F. D. Mocatta.—The Jews of Spain and Portugal and the Inquisition (London, 1877).
 * Schiller-Szinessy.—Encycl. Brit., Vol. I, p. 52.

 * Steinschneider.—Jewish Literature, p. 232 seq.

 * Specimen of the Biur, translated by A. Benisch (Miscellany of the Society of Hebrew Literature, Vol. I).


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 personal significance, holds when objective validity is claimed for an intuition which is only experienced in a set of discrete circumstances of definite specific character. The intuition may be clearer under such circumstances, but it should not be confined to them.

The wisdom of the main stream of Christian theology in refusing to countenance the notion of a direct vision of a personal God is mani- fest. For there is no consensus. The subordinate gods of the unrationalized religions — the religions of the heathen, as they are called — are not to the point; and when the great rationalized religions are examined, the majority lies the other way. As soon, however, as it comes to a question of rational interpretation, numbers rapidly sink in importance. Reason mocks at majorities.

But there is a large consensus, on the part of those who have rationalized their outlook, in favour of the concept of a rightness in things, partially conformed to and partially disregarded. So far as there is

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 conscious determination of actions, the attainment of this conformity is an ultimate premise by reference to which our choice of immediate ends is criticised and swayed, The rational satisfaction or dissatisfaction in respect to any particular happening depends upon an intuition which is capable of being universalized. This universalization of what is discerned in a particular instance is the appeal to a general character inherent in the nature of things.

This intuition is not the discernment of a form of words, but of a type of character. It is characteristic of the learned mind to exalt words. Yet mothers can ponder many things in their hearts which their lips cannot express. These many things, which are thus known, constitute the ultimate religious evidence, beyond which there is no appeal.

To-day there is but one religious dogma in debate: What do you mean by “God”?

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 And in this respect, to-day is like all its yesterdays. This is the fundamental religious dogma, and all other dogmas are subsidiary to it.

There are three main simple renderings of this concept before the world:

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It will be noticed that the Eastern Asiatic concept and the Pantheistic concept invert each other. According to the former concept, when we speak of God we are saying something about the world; and according to the latter concept, when we speak of the world we are saying something about God.

The Semitic concept and the Eastern Asiatic concept are directly opposed to each other, and any mediation between them must

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 lead to complexity of thought. It is evident that the Semitic concept can very easily pass over into the Pantheistic concept. In fact, the history of philosophical theology in various Mahometan countries — Persia, for instance — shows that this passage has often been effected.

The main difficulties which the Semitic concept has to struggle with are two in number. One of them is that it leaves God completely outside metaphysical rationalization. We know, according to it, that He is such a being as to design and create this universe, and there our knowledge stops. If we mean by his goodness that He is the one self-existent, complete entity, then He is good. But such goodness must not be confused with the ordinary goodness of daily life. He is undeniably useful, because anything baffling can be ascribed to his direct decree.

The second difficulty of the concept is to get itself proved. The only possible proof

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 would appear to be the “ontological proof” devised by Anselm, and revived by Descartes. According to this proof, the mere concept of such an entity allows us to infer its existence. Most philosophers and theologians reject this proof: for example, it is explicitly rejected by Cardinal Mercier in his Manual of Scholastic Philosophy.

Any proof which commences with the consideration of the character of the actual world cannot rise above the actuality of this world. It can only discover all the factors disclosed in the world as experienced. In other words, it may discover an immanent God, but not a God wholly transcendent. The difficulty can be put in this way: by considering the world we can find all the factors required by the total metaphysical situation; but we cannot discover anything not included in this totality of actual fact, and yet explanatory of it.

Christianity has not adopted any one of these clear alternatives. It has been true to

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 its genius for keeping its metaphysics subordinate to the religious facts to which it appeals.

In the first place, it inherited the simple Semitic concept. All its founders naturally expressed themselves in those terms, and were addressing themselves to an audience who coutd only understand religion thus expressed.

But even here important qualifications have to be made. Christ himself introduces them. How far they were then new, or how far he is utilizing antecedent thoughts, is immaterial. The point is the decisive emphasis the notions receive in his teaching. The first point is the association of God with the Kingdom of Heaven, coupled with the explanation that “The Kingdom of Heaven is within you.” The second point is the concept of God under the metaphor of a Father. The implications of this latter notion are expanded with moving insistence in the two Epistles by St. John, the author of the

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 "At school much of the time is occupied in that industrial training already referred to, and in the practical application of the mechanical and scientific principles that underlie our industrial system. At special schools, when arrived at a suitable age, the young receive instruction in the handicraft they intend to practise during life."

"Do all learn a mechanical occupation?" I inquired.

"All, without exception."

"But the children of wealthy parents?" I asked.

"They too," was the reply. At a very early period it was found that the excessive accumulation of wealth in certain families led to very serious evils. Of those, that, without any merit or exertion on their part, became rich by inheritance, it was found, that, for one useful to society in proportion to his riches, there were dozens of mere drones inflated with the idiotic pride of uselessness, Besides many actively noxious by their vices. The power of bequest was, accordingly, limited by law. After several fluctuations, it settled down to this: no person, however wealthy, was allowed to bequeath to any one person more than a certain amount. This, in the values of your period, might be estimated at about twenty thousand dollars. It was reasoned, that with a good education, and a capital of the specified amount, if a person could not manage to make a living, his living or dying was of very little consequence to the community.

"But that was rank socialism!" said I, to whom, for special reasons, such doctrines were most distasteful.

"The owner," replied Utis, "was not deprived of his property, nor even of the power of bequeathing it in


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 Gospel. To him we owe the phrase, “God is love.”

Finally, in the Gospel of St. John, by the introduction of the doctrine of the Logos, a clear move is made towards the modification of the notion of the unequivocal personal unity of the Semitic God. Indeed, for most Christian Churches, the simple Semitic doctrine is now a heresy, both by reason of the modification of personal unity and also by the insistence on immanence.

The notion of immanence must be discriminated from that of omniscience. The Semitic God is omniscient; but, in addition to that, the Christian God is a factor in the universe. A few years ago a papyrus was found in an Egyptian tomb which proved to be an early Christian compilation called “The Sayings of Christ.” Its exact authenticity and its exact authority do not concern us. I am quoting it as evidence of the mentality of many Christians in Egypt during the first few Christian centuries. At that

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 other ways. But society considered itself justified in forbidding the owner to employ his wealth in a way that experience had shown to be injurious, nay, dangerous, to the community.

"Was not this found seriously to check the desire to accumulate?"

"It would have been desirable had it done so to a greater extent than was the case," replied Utis. "Few, with all their efforts, can in a lifetime accumulate so much as to be hampered, in any way, by such a law. As for the accumulation of colossal fortunes, that was a result to be feared rather than favored. Men, after all, amass great wealth, rather from favoring circumstances than as the result of far-reaching plans having any reference to posterity. The result of the above-mentioned laws, adopted by the community solely as a means of self-defence, was not the cessation of saving, but the more equal diffusion of wealth. Some, after providing for their immediate family and more distant relatives, as far as the law permitted, would leave the residue for some public object. Others, desirous of perpetuating some great business in their name, would distribute shares. among the most faithful of their employees, leaving the control in the hands of their own family. In this way, what would once have been restricted to the support of a single family in superfluous luxury, became the comfortable maintenance of a number."

"If so much time is devoted to industrial training," was my next objection, "there cannot be much left for the culture to be obtained from books."

"Your remark is based upon a misconception," was the


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 date Egypt supplied the theological leaders of Christian thought. We find in these Logia of Christ the saying, “Cleave the wood, and I am there.” This is merely one example of an emphatic assertion of immanence, and shows a serious divergence from the Semitic concept.

Immanence is a well-known modern doctrine. The points to be noticed are that it is implicit in various parts of the New Testament, and was explicit in the first theological epoch of Christianity. Christian theology was then Platonic; it followed John rather than Paul.

The modern world has lost God and is seeking him. The reason for the loss stretches far back in the history of Christianity. In respect to its doctrine of God the Church gradually returned to the Semitic concept, with the addition of the threefold personality. It is a concept which is clear,

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 response. "For one thing, our industrial is also our professional training, to which even in your period, a certain amount of time must have been devoted. Our children, besides, have many advantages over those of the nineteenth century. By the aid of a rational alphabet, though they do not learn to read in one week, yet they do acquire the power of spelling any word as pronounced in our language. Not being obliged to fritter away our energies on the study of other tongues, we are able to devote the more time and care to the mastery of our own."

"I can easily conceive," said I, "that the study of what, in my time, were called the classical tongues, has passed away since their influence on thought and expression must have become extensively diluted by subsequent influences. But do you not study other languages contemporaneous with your own?"

"How can there be more than one living language?" he exclaimed with some surprise. Then, recollecting himself, he added, "I ought to have remembered the state of matters in your day. For us, however, it is as difficult to conceive of civilized man differing so widely in language, measures, and similar matters, as for you to realize the state of things when every district was inhabited by hostile tribes, differing in almost every respect."

"What an enormous economy of time and mental energy!" I exclaimed. thinking with regret of the years of effort spent on language alone. "But do none study any language but their mother-tongue?"

"Only those that do so for special purposes. Your father, for example, was well acquainted with the ancient


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 terrifying, and unprovable. It was supported by an unquestioned religious tradition. It was also supported by the conservative instinct of society, and by a history and a metaphysic both constructed expressly for that purpose. Moreover, to dissent was death.

On the whole, the Gospel of love was turned into a Gospel of fear. The Christian world was composed of terrified populations.

“The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge,” says the Proverb (i.7). Yet this is an odd saying, if it be true that “God is love.”

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 The populations did well to be terrified at such ambiguous good tidings, which lost no emphasis in their promulgation.

If the modern world is to find God, it must find him through love and not through fear, with the help of John and not of Paul. Such a conclusion is true and represents a commonplace of modern thought. But it is only a very superficial rendering of the facts.

As a rebound from dogmatic intolerance, the simplicity of religious truth has been a favorite axiom of liberalizing theologians. It is difficult to understand upon what evidence this notion is based. In the physical world as science advances, we discern a complexity of interrelations. There is a certain simplicity of dominant ideas, but modern physics does not disclose a simple world.

To reduce religion to a few simple notions seems an arbitrary solution of the problem before us. It may be common sense; but is it true? In view of the horrors produced by bigotry, it is natural for sensitive thinkers to minimize religious dogmas. But such pragmatic reasons are dangerous guides.

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 Anglian current in the latter part of the second chiliad. But such knowledge as his and yours is as rare as was, in that time, the ability to decipher Accad or Himaritic inscriptions."

"But what language is this I am now speaking?" I inquired with surprise. I had hitherto spoken and understood the speech of those around me with all the unconsciousness of a child, who utters his thoughts without giving a thought to the means of utterance.

"The present universal language is based upon the Anglian of your day much as that was based upon Saxon. The introduction of a rational orthography, at a period when it was already the mother-tongue of more than one hundred millions of people, led to its rapid adoption as a universal means of communication. The language first became modified in the direction of greater grammatical simplicity. subsequently in increased harmony of pronunciation. The greatest change arose from the enormous increase of the vocabulary by the adoption of a great variety of synonymes from many languages. In your time there were about a dozen different words signifying a dwelling. Now there are more than a hundred; each, when appropriately employed, conveying a different shade of meaning.

"Such a language," he continued, "necessarily demands careful study if its full capabilities are to be elicited. Arithmetic, again, is greatly simplified among us by the universal use of the duodecimal system. No fractions but duodecimals being employed, our entire arithmetical instruction is comprised in a thorough drill in the use of the four fundamental rules and their appli-


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 This procedure ends by basing religion on those few ideas which in the circumstances of the time are most effective in producing pleasing emotions and agreeable conduct. If our trust is in the ultimate power of reason as a discipline for the discernment of truth, we have no right to impose such a priori conditions. All simplifications of religious dogma are shipwrecked upon the rock of the problem of evil.

As a particular application, we may believe that the various doctrines about God have not suffered chiefly from their complexity. They have represented extremes of simplicity, so far as they have been formulated for the great rationalistic religions. The three extremes of simple notions should not represent in our eyes mutually exclusive concepts, from among which we are to choose one and reject the others.

It cannot be true that contradictory notions can apply to the same fact. Thus reconcilement of these cantrary concepts must

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 be sought in a more searching analysis of the meaning of the terms in which they are phrased.

The man who refused to admit that two and two make four, until he knew what use was to be made of this premise, had some justification. At a certain abstract level of thought, such statements are absolutely true. But once you desert that level, you admit fundamental transformations of meaning. Language cloaks the most profound ideas under its simplest words. For example, in “two and two make four,” the words “and” and “make” entirely depend for their meaning upon the application which you are giving to the statement.

Analogously, in expressing our conception of God, words such as “personal” and “impersonal,” “entity,” “individuality,” “actual,” require the closest careful watching, lest in different connections we should use them in different senses, not to speak of the danger of failing to use them in any determinate sense.

But it is impossible to fix the sense of fundamental terms except by reference to some

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 cations. A year is found amply sufficient for this, the more so because intricate calculations are, for the most part, performed by the aid of machines. The same economy of effort is observed throughout the other branches of pure mathematics, and all sciences worthy of the name are now but branches of mixed mathematics.

"The acquaintance with the tools of knowledge is usually obtained by the age of fifteen. At this age the boy,—I say boy, as I shall first speak of his further training; though up to this point boys and girls receive the same training,—the boy, I say, is expected to have a fair mastery of language as an instrument of expression, and a slight knowledge of literature. I say a slight knowledge, because he has hitherto been carefully kept from indiscriminate reading. A thorough knowledge of a few books is thought of more value than a skimming over many. He is expected also to possess all the mathematical knowledge required for his further studies. In addition to drawing, photography, and similar aids, he has acquired the management of the most important tools, and has had practice in the working of metals and other materials. His handicraft is now chosen for him."

"Can he not choose for himself?" I inquired.

"The matter is arranged somewhat as follows: if my son, for example, wishes to follow my pursuit, he may do so; since there are many evident advantages in so doing, But if, as is often the case, he does not wish to do so, he adopts the line of work assigned to him. A great part of the misery of ancient times arose from waste of various kinds. Not the least of these was the waste of misdirected effort, resulting in the overcrowding of callings.


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 definite metaphysical way of conceiving the most penetrating description of the universe.

Thus rational religion must have recourse to metaphysics for a scrutiny of its terms. At the same time it contributes its own independent evidence, which metaphysics must take account of in framing its description.

This mutual dependence is illustrated in all topics. For example, I have mentioned above that in modern Europe history and metaphysics have been constructed with the purpose of supporting the Semitic concept of God. To some extent this is justifiable, because both history and metaphysics must presuppose some canons by which to guide themselves.

The result is that you cannot confine any important reorganization to one sphere of thought above. You cannot shelter theology from science, or science from theology; nor can you shelter either of them from metaphysics, or metaphysics from either of them. There is no short cut to truth.

Religion, therefore, while in the framing of dogmas it must admit modifications from the

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 The avoidance of waste in every way is one of the chief means that enables us to live in comfort with so much less exertion than the people of ancient times. Carefully gathered statistics enable us to estimate, not only the amount of any product on hand at a given time, but also the number of new producers of any class that will be required within a given number of years. Guided by these estimates, we avoid over-production in either direction. A certain number of each class of employments is assigned to each district every year, and divided among the boys of the proper age. Much latitude is permissible, however, in the carrying out of this law; and none is made to adopt a trade to which he has a decided objection.

"As a great part of every trade is performed by machinery, and the boys have already great manual skill, a year suffices for them to master their handicraft. Then begins the serious study of his professional, skilled, or artistic pursuit."

"Has every one two occupations?" I inquired.

"Yes, each follows two employments; some, like myself, three."

"What are those?" inquired I.

"My handicraft is, as you have seen, bolt-making,—that of my father before me. By profession I am a physician. But there is so little call for my advice in my specialty, that first as an amusement, now as a business, I make the finer parts of microscopes. You have seen my tools. Ulmene, again, has for handicraft, weaving. By a curious reversion to the practice of primitive ages, the making of all textile fabrics is now the peculiar occu-


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 pation of woman. Ialma, as you may know, is a stocking-weaver. Her artistic pursuit is photography, in which she shows no mean skill. You must have her show you her workroom, and some specimens of her work.

"Is each allowed to choose his artistic employment?"

I asked.

"Yes: that is left entirely to the taste of the individual concerned. Thus, Ulmene from childhood showed an unusual aptitude for music. You have heard her play. Urged on by the impulse of the moment, she poured out that flood of harmony. By a device on the principle of the phonograph, every note was correctly recorded, so that she is enabled at leisure to correct and improve what was poured out in a moment of inspiration. Being in no haste to publish, she will probably spend a year in polishing that first impulsive effort."

"Reva Diotha," I could not refrain from inquiring,—"what are her employments?"

"Reva," said Utis, "is a peculiar girl, with somewhat boyish tastes. She passes her early morning-hours in brass-turning. Her work is of wonderful finish, and I have often been glad of her assistance in my specialty. The afternoon she devotes to the artistic chasing of the clasps for those silken girdles,—the most expensive article of feminine attire."

"Girls are permitted, then, to follow such masculine employments as brass-turning?" said I.

"Boys and girls have an equal right to enter any employment. By tacit consent, however, weaving has been conceded to woman as being neat, and demanding no


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 great muscular exertion. No boy would dare the ridicule caused by his infringing on woman's work. A girl willing to soil her hands with men's work is merely thought odd.

"Reva's mother died in giving her birth, and her father has never quite recovered from the shock. The girlish love that would have been her mother's is shared between her father and brother, to both of whom she bears an extraordinary affection. It was in order to be in their company as much as possible that she elected to learn their craft. Her father, a silent, self-contained man, is regarded as one of the greatest of living mathematicians. It is said that there are only a dozen people, or so, in the world, capable of fully appreciating his last work. At present he is engaged on a more popular subject,—the history of his favorite science. The tender affection Reva bears that father seems to leave no room for other love. You are by no means the first for whom she has declined to bind up her pretty dark-brown locks."

Utis smiled as he uttered those words, while his eyes twinkled with a quiet humor. Then, noting the lateness of the hour, he bade me good-night, and left me to dream of Reva Diotha.


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 occurred in the middle of the nineteenth century, through the dominance of the historical interest.

It is a curious delusion that the rock upon which our beliefs can be founded is an historical investigation. You can only interpret the past in terms of the present. The present is all that you have; and unless in this present you can find general principles which interpret the present as including a representation of the whole community of existents, you cannot move a step beyond your little patch of immediacy.

Thus history presupposes a metaphysic. It can be objected that we believe in the past and talk about it without settling our metaphysical principles. That is certainly the case. But you can only deduce metaphysical dogmas from your interpretation of the past on the basis of a prior metaphysical interpretation of the present.

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 researches and decisions of non-Christian or pre-Christian chronologers should be impartially judged. The greatest difficulty is to get people to remember that the origins of the Anno Domini and the Moslem Reckonings—the former at Rome and the latter in Arabia—are separated from each other only by a few decades of time; that the Advent in the one case was fixed long ex post facto, while the Flight in the other era was recorded chronologically almost contemporaneously with the Hegira of the Prophet.


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 supposition above mentioned; and hence the comparatively little value as to any philosophical purpose of the generality of histories respecting the earliest times.'

6. To dogmatise that any date is chronologically infallible because it has been repeated and handed down for hundreds, or even thousands, of years, is only begging the question. Errors have often been perpetuated solely on account of the magnitude of their fallacy. For instance, five centuries ago belief in the powers of the philosopher's stone was a universal tenet; so, too, in aërial apparitions and in witches. Nay, more, the thinkers of that epoch—the men who were guiding the nations— declared that the heavens revolved round this earth according to the Ptolemaic Laws. To-day what do we find? To-day all these fallacies are rejected. But chronological progress has not kept step with advancement in ethical matters. Fabulous dates still find a place in records, and are handed down with zealous care.

7. 'History to be above evasion or dispute must stand on documents, not on opinions.' And in another sentence the same great authority cogently observes that 'if were truly sincere and delivered judgment by no canons but those of evident morality, then Julian would be described in the same terms by Christian and Pagan, Luther by Catholic and Protestant, Washington by Whig and Tory, Napoleon by patriotic Frenchman and by patriotic German.' Coming from such a source, these two observations are of great consequence; and mutatis mutandis they apply to the principles of chronology. Chronology should stand upon valid documents; and the


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 superscribe B.C. and A.D. upon their pages, but they neglect the origin and the principles of chronology. I found that an historian would burden a paragraph with one Gregory, some now forgotten spy, but about Gregory the famous Pope and his Calendar (bringing in the New Style), you will find scanty references in the usual histories. Truly we may say that the golden number is a cipher, and the dominical a dead, neglected letter—to the majority of writers upon historical subjects. And yet all these styles, numbers, and letters are indispensably required in order to obtain a proper and valid foundation for the sequence of dates, which proves so essential to every page of history.

5. A quotation will emphasise this:—'Suppose that some thousands of years hence, and in the absence of authentic records, the invasion of England by William the Conqueror were referred to the period in which Augustus swayed the sceptre at Rome: would it be possible for posterity to understand the real import and connection of that incident in the manner in which we now do? Assuredly not. But every anachronism is similar in its bearing to this example; and though perhaps by no means so great in degree, would be found as fatal in the nature of its tendency if prosecuted to its conclusions. It is with no little justice, then, that chronology has been styled the eye, and even the soul, of history; or that without it the subjects of this art could be considered no other than a dark chaos, a wreck of fragments void of order and every other indication of design. Unfortunately the discordances of chronologers in cases of the highest consequence are as enormous as the difference between the truth and the


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 Indo-Arabic numerals. But how very often are these phrases used in conversation, or the digits preserved on paper without the speaker or recorder troubling himself to enquire whether there are other methods of noting the date? For instance, I can recall a sermon preached about twenty years ago by an eminent English Church divine (now deceased), in which he pictured the absurdity of any rationalist remaining a rationalist who used the year of grace to date his letters. The argument was all right on the surface. As soon, however, as one peruses the chronological authorities, one finds that the Christian era has a limited application; and that there are and were other races—by no means blind to civilisation—which possess more ancient systems of reckoning years, months, and days.

. To be particular. The year—say 1896—conveys one meaning to us Western Gentiles, another—a very sacred purport—to Jewish minds, and a third and different idea to the Moslem nations. We are apt to forget that it is only to the members of Christendom that these figures refer, in a chronological connection, to present time. To the Jews they memorise a year long ended and past; to the Moslems, a year in a future which is still dim and distant. But that is not all. Go to Asia, and millions of educated persons are regulating their lives, their fasts, and feasts according to an era which is older than our era by fifty-seven years. Which one is right, or is any one epoch the correct chronologic basis, are questions to which this volume will supply approximate answers.

. Historians, it will be observed, seem to delight to


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 the cut was repeated, until this curious calendar had, when the Doctor saw it, run up to eighty years. Again, the North American Indian spoke of 'coming over the trail of many moons from the land of the setting sun,' to mean that he had travelled from the west for many months. For any period less than a lunar month, he would use the term 'nights,' not weeks.

9. The Asiatic Indian, long before the Christian era, speaking of the moon, meant a month; he had one word. only for the two things, and that word carried the idea of measuring, seeing that time was measured by moons, nights, and winters long before it was reckoned by suns, days, and years. De Foe, in attributing the keeping of a calendar. to Crusoe, practically gives us a description of the Runic calendars of Scandanavia and Britain eight hundred years ago. He says for his immortal hero that "upon the sides of this square post I cut every day a notch with my knife, and every seventh notch was as long again as the rest, and every first day of the month as long again as that one; and thus I kept my calendar, or weekly, monthly, and yearly reckoning of time.'

10. Such, then, were the quaint methods adopted by the barbarians of keeping a tally of the years. We pass now to the domain of civilization. The Savants of China, while Norman and Saxon were fighting with each other in England, and unrest, ignorance, and warfare were the sad symbols of European progress, had begun to preserve their opinion in printed characters. Their philosophy and religion were old and established when Christianity was


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 In so far as your metaphysical beliefs are implicit, you vaguely interpret the past on the lines of the present. But when it comes to the primary metaphysical data, the world of which you are immediately conscious is the whole datum.

This criticism applies equally to a science or to a religion which hopes to justify itself without any appeal to metaphysics. The difference is that religion is the longing of the spirit that the facts of existence should find their justification in the nature of existence. “My soul thirsteth for God,” writes the Psalmist.

But science can leave its metaphysics implicit and retire behind our belief in the pragmatic value of its general descriptions. If religion does that, it admits that its dogmas are merely pleasing ideas for the purpose of stimulating its emotions. Science (at least as a temporary methodological device) can rest upon a naive faith; religion is the longing for justification. When religion ceases to seek for penetration, for clarity, it is sinking back

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 dawning in the West. Their first historic writings belong to remotest times—perhaps as early as the twenty-second century B.C. They seem to have divided their epochs into dynasties, for the building of 'The Wall' is placed in the fourth Imperial Dynasty. But there is evidence that from 163 B.C. the methods of dates was to count the years from each accession. Cycles of sixty lunar years were also in vogue, and the latest of such cycles ended in 1864 A.D. The first of such epochs is now computed to have commenced in Anno Mundi 2173, that is, 2636 B.C. This is the first historic cycle. It is a pity that the Chinese neglected the study of astronomy, for the interdependent data and synchronisms would now be of great service. Compared with this, their reputed discovery of the magnetic pole, in pre-Advent ages, is a secondary consideration.

11. The vague Egyptian year was 'so called because it consisted of 365 days, without any intercalculation. As the length of the solar year is nearly 365¼ days, the Egyptian year was, astronomically speaking, too short. In every 400 years it lost 97 days. Thus, in the period of 1504 equinoctial years, an entire solar year was gained by the Egyptian reckoning; and the first of the month of Thoth occurred on each of the 365 days of the solar year in turn.' (B. E., vol. iii., p. 332.) Unlike the Chinese, the Egyptians were earnest students of the stars, and, indeed, invented dances to represent the stellar motions.

12. As to Assyria, there are conjectures that they also were fairly well advanced in astrology; and that at times they chose 360 as the diurnal basis for the year. Now, as


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 into its lower forms. The ages of faith are the ages of rationalism.

In the previous lectures religious experience was considered as a fact. It consists of a certain widespread, direct apprehension of a character exemplified in the actual universe. Such a character includes in itself certain metaphysical presuppositions. In so far as we trust the objectivity of the religious intuitions, to that extent we must also hold that the metaphysical doctrines are well founded.

It is for this reason that in the previous lecture the broadest view of religious experience was insisted on. If, at this stage of thought, we include points of radical divergence between the main streams, the whole evidential force is indefinitely weakened. Thus religious experience cannot be taken as contributing to metaphysics any direct evidence for

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 a personal God in any sense transcendent or creative.

The universe, thus disclosed, is through and through interdependent. The body pollutes the mind, the mind pollutes the body. Physical energy sublimates itself into zeal; conversely, zeal stimulates the body. The biological ends pass into ideals of standards, and the formation of standards affects the biological facts. The individual is formative of the society, the society is formative of the individual. Particular evils infect the whole world, particular goods point the way of escape.

The world is at once a passing shadow and a final fact. The shadow is passing into the fact, so as to be constitutive of it; and yet the fact is prior to the shadow. There is a kingdom of heaven prior to the actual passage of actual things, and there is the same kingdom finding its completion through the accomplishment of this passage.

But just as the kingdom of heaven trans-

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 there are 360 degrees in a circle, an equality as to the year possibly arose. Longer than the Chinese, but shorter than the Egyptian year, it follows that neither of these nations had copied their styles from this famous empire. The empire had formerly no importance in chronology, for it belonged to that period of the sciences which was held as being empirical. Besides, many dates could not be checked with the eras of other nations. For the reasons already given, it was, therefore, all the more gratifying to historians to find that Rawlinson had rescuredrescued [sic] a whole series of dates from oblivion; and that by means of recondite calculations in regard to a solar eclipse in the eight century B.C. But particulars of this discovery will be more conveniently given in chapter xii., under 'Kindred Sciences.'

13. In Phoenician chronology, 'the Phoenician records, no longer extant, gave to their kingdom an antiquity of 30,000 years. Sanchoniathon, who, it is said, lived about roo years before the Trojan War, has left a chronological table (found in Eusebius) of the antedeluvian, and a few of the post-deluvian, heads of the generations of man.' It only remains for me to add that nothing more romantic or more mythical could be conceived than the contents of these tables. They are simply fables in excelsis.

14. 'The Hindoo Maba Yuga,' the same authority points out, 'consisted of four lesser yugas or ages, corresponding to the Golden, Silver, Brazen, and Iron Ages of the Greeks. In the first age (Satya Yuga) all mankind was virtuous; in


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 cends the natural world, so does this world transcend the kingdom of heaven. For the world is evil, and the kingdom is good. The kingdom is in the world, and yet not of the world.

The actual world, the world of experiencing, and of thinking, and of physical activity, is a community of many diverse entities; and these entities contribute to, or derogate from, the common value of the total community. At the same time, these actual entities are, for themselves, their own value, individual and separable. They add to the common stock and yet they suffer alone. The world is a scene of solitariness in community.

The individuality of entities is just as important as their community. The topic of religion is individuality in community.

A metaphysics is a description, Its discussion so as to elucidate its accuracy is necessary, but it is foreign to the description. The

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 the second (Treta Yuga), only three-fourths; in the third (Duapar Yuga), about half; and in the fourth only one part was good.' And no one wonders after this that many of the books of the Brahmins on astronomy are now condemned as false. They have been proved to be antedated. The famous Kalpa was claimed by them as being equal to four and one-third billions of years. The Samvat era, dating from 57 B.C., is not, however, affected by the refutation of the Brahmin's claims.

15. In the Persian (ancient) Empire, Ewald holds that 'a weekly circle of seven days' was kept. But the subsequent discovery that the regions around Thibet have possessed a week or circle of five days only, seems to militate against the argument as to the universality of any weekly circle east or west of ancient Persia. The ruling reckoning is now the Moslem Calendar, in modern Persia.

16. Coming now to the eras of Greece, one finds that there were several. The years were lunar, with seven intercalculated months extra during nineteen years, like the Jewish style. The greatest and most enduring era is that of the Olympiads. This was initiated as from the year 776 B.C., or twenty-three years before A.U.C. It contains four years, being the period which elapsed between the national games. It was not in general use till the third century B.C. There was also the Metonic Cycle and the Callippic Cycle, which are explained in later sections. Regarding the earlier chronology of Greece, Clinton, in his Fasti Hellenice, points out that


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 tests of accuracy are logical coherence, adequacy, and exemplification. A metaphysical description takes its origin from one select field of interest. It receives its confirmation by establishing itself as adequate and as exemplified in other fields of interest. The following description is set out for immediate comparison with the deliverances of religious experience.

There are many ways of analyzing the universe, conceived as that which is comprehensive of all that there is. In a description it is thus necessary to correlate these different routes of analysis. First, consider the analysis into (1) the actual world, passing in time; and (2) those elements which go to its formation.

Such formative elements are not themselves actual and passing; they are the factors which are either non-actual or non-temporal, disclosed in the analysis of what is both actual and temporal.

They constitute the formative character of

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 'in all history, where our information is exact, we direct our attention to some leading events, which mark the beginning of a new order of things, and we distribute our subject according to the character of affairs. But in the early times of Greece we are obliged to have in view the nature of our information in the distribution of the subject. It is enough if we can conjecture the probable date of a few principal facts, by comparing the scanty memorials and uncertain traditions which descended to posterity, and from which the learned of a later age composed their chronology.'

We can thus observe how all nations and races have worked from a simple to a complex chronology:—Beginning by mentioning the year (of the dynasty, reign, or other epoch), then adding the month, and finally the day of the month. Hence as civilization spread over the earth, and international communications grew more frequent, the subject of chronology became a more exact science. No longer content with scanty memorials, the custodiers of national records endeavoured to rescue the history of their own times from oblivion. But too often their efforts have been futile:—

Aided by such calamities as the destruction of the Fasti at Rome by the Gauls (B.C. 390), the burning of many sterling muniments in the Alexandrian Library in 391 A.D., and the sacking of Constantinople, with the MSS. lost thereby in 1453 A.D., the ravages of time have obliterated. much which was valuable in the records of epochs and


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 the actual temporal world. We know nothing beyond this temporal world and the formative elements which jointly constitute its character. The temporal world and its formative elements constitute for us the all-inclusive universe.

These formative elements are:

A further elucidation of the status of these formative elements is only to be obtained by

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 chronological bases. All systems of chronology have suffered, more or less, from the obliterating tendency of time, and the wilful, as well as the accidental, destruction of documents. The most important chronology in the ancient world, that of Rome, is a striking example of what has been said. It is dealt with in the next chapter. Lord Acton's dicta regarding opinions versus documents, receives, in the history of the "City," a continuous current of high support from those who have striven to obtain cosmos in classical chronology.


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 having recourse to another mode of analysis of the actual world.

The actual temporal world can be analyzed into a multiplicity of occasions of actualization. These are the primary actual units of which the temporal world is composed. Call each such occasion an “epochal occasion.” Then the actual world is a community of epochal occasions. In the physical world each epochal occasion is a definite limited physical event, limited both as to space and time, but with time-duration as well as with its full spatial dimensions.

The epochal occasions are the primary units of the actual community, and the community is composed of the units. But each unit has in its nature a reference to every other member of the community, so that each unit is a microcosm representing in itself the entire all-inclusive universe.

These epochal occasions are the creatures. The reason for the temporal character of the actual world can now be given by reference to

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 the creativity and the creatures. For the creativity is not separable from its creatures. Thus the creatures remain with the creativity. Accordingly, the creativity for a creature becomes the creativity with the creature, and thereby passes into another phase of itself. It is now the creativity for a new creature. Thus there is a transition of the creative action, and this transition exhibits itself, in the physical world, in the guise of routes of temporal succession.

This protean character of the creativity forbids us from conceiving it as an actual entity. For its character lacks determinateness. | It equally prevents us from considering the temporal world as a definite actual creature. For the temporal world is an essential incompleteness. It has not the character of a definite matter of fact, such as attaches to an event in past history, viewed from a present standpoint.

An epochal occasion is a concretion. It is

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 a mode in which diverse elements come together into a real unity. Apart from that concretion, these elements stand in mutual isolation. Thus an actual entity is the outcome of a creative synthesis, individual and passing.

The various elements which are thus brought into unity are the other creatures and the ideal forms and God. These elements are not a mere unqualified aggregate. In such a case there could only be one creature. In the concretion the creatures are qualified by the ideal forms, and conversely the ideal forms are qualified by the creatures. Thus the epochal occasion, which is thus emergent, has in its own nature the other creatures under the aspect of these forms, and analogously it includes the forms under the aspect of these creatures. It is thus a definite limited creature, emergent in consequence of the limitations thus mutually imposed on each other by the elements.

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The inclusion of God in every creature shows itself in the determination whereby a definite result is emergent. God is that non-temporal actuality which has to be taken account of in every creative phase. Any such phase is determinate having regard to its antecedents, and in this determination exhibits conformity to a common order.

The boundless wealth of possibility in the realm of abstract form would leave each creative phase still indeterminate, unable to synthesize under determinate conditions the creatures from which it springs. The definite determination which imposes ordered balance on the world requires an,actual entity imposirg its own unchanged consistency of character on every phase.

Thus creative indetermination attains its measure of determination. A simpler metaphysic would result if we could stop at this conclusion. A complete determinism would thus mean the complete self-consistency of the

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 best work. If, in your sympathy for Mrs. Quilp, you call Dickens the champion of downtrodden woman, you will suddenly remember Mr. Wilfer, and find yourself unable to deny the existence of downtrodden man. If in your sympathy for Mr. Rouncewell you call Dickens the champion of a manly middle-class Liberalism against Chesney Wold, you will suddenly remember Stephen Blackpool—and find yourself unable to deny that Mr. Rouncewell might be a pretty insupportable cock on his own dunghill. If in your sympathy for Stephen Blackpool you call Dickens a Socialist (as does Mr. Pugh), and think of him as merely heralding the great Collectivist revolt against Victorian Individualism and Capitalism, which seemed so clearly to be the crisis at the end of this epoch—you will suddenly remember the agreeable young Barnacle at the Circumlocution Office: and you will be unable, for very shame, to assert that Dickens would have trusted the poor to a State Department.


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 temporal world. This is the conclusion of all thinkers who are inclined to trust to the adequacy of metaphysical concepts.

The difficulty of this conclusion comes when we confront the theory with the facts of the world. If the theory of complete determinism, by reason of the necessity of conformation with the nature of God, holds true, then the evil in the world is in conformity with the nature of God.

Now evil is exhibited in physical suffering, mental suffering, and loss of the higher experience in favour of the lower experience. The common character of all evil is that its realization in fact involves that there is some concurrent realization of a purpose towards elimination. The purpose is to secure the avoidance of evil. The fact of the instability of evil is the moral order in the world.

Evil, triumphant in its enjoyment, is so far good in itself; but beyond itself it is evil in its character of a destructive agent among things greater than itself. In the summation of the

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 more complete fact it has secured a descent towards nothingness, in contrast to the creativeness of what can without qualification be termed good. Evil is positive and destructive; what is good is positive and creative.

This instability of evil does not necessarily lead to progress. On the contrary, the evil in itself leads to the world losing forms of attainment in which that evil manifests itself. Either the species ceases to exist, or it sinks back into a stage in which it ranks below the possibility of that form of evil. For example, a species whose members are always in pain will either cease to exist, or lose the delicacy of perception which results in that pain, or develop a finer and more subtle relationship among its bodily parts.

Thus evil promotes its own elimination by destruction, or degradation, or by elevation. But in its own nature it is unstable. It must be noted that the state of degradation to which evil leads, when accomplished, is not in itself evil, except by comparison with what

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 might have been. A hog is not an evil beast, but when a man is degraded to the level of a hog, with the accompanying atrophy of finer elements, he is no more evil than a hog. The evil of the final degradation lies in the comparison of what is with what might have been. During the process of degradation the comparison is an evil for the man himself, and at its final stage it remains an evil for others.

But in this last point respecting the evil for others, it becomes plain that, with a suffciently comprehensive view, a stable state of final degradation is not reached. For the relationships with society and the indirect effects have to be taken into account. Also destruction when accomplished is not an evil for the thing destroyed. For there is no such thing. Again the evil lies in the loss to the social environment. There is evil when things are at cross purposes.

The contrast in the world between evil and good is the contrast between the turbulence of evil and the “peace which passeth all

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 understanding.” There is a self-preservation inherent in that which is good in itself. Its destruction may come from without but not from within. Good people of narrow sympathies are apt to be unfeeling and unprogressive, enjoying their egotistical goodness. Their case, on a higher level, is analogous to that of the man completely degraded to a hog. They have reached a state of stable goodness, so far as their own interior life is concerned. This type of moral correctitude is, on a larger view, so like evil that the distinction is trivial.

Thus if God be an actual entity which enters into every creative phase and yet is above change, He must be exempt from internal inconsistency which is the note of evil. Since God is actual, He must include in himself a synthesis of the total universe. There is, therefore, in God’s nature the aspect of the realm of forms as qualified by the world, and the aspect of the world as qualified by the forms. His completion, so that

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 He is exempt from transition into something else, must mean that his nature remains self-consistent in relation to all change.

Thus God is the measure of the æsthetic consistency of the world. There is some consistency in creative action, because it is conditioned by his immanence.

If we trace the evil in the world to the determinism derived from God, then the inconsistency in the world is derived from the consistency of God. Also the incompletion in the world is derivative from the completion of God.

The temporal world exhibits two sides of itself. On one side it exhibits an order in matter of fact, and a self-contrast with ideals, which show that its creative passage is subject to the immanence of an unchanging actual entity. On the other side its incompletion, and its evil, show that the temporal world is to be construed in terms of additional formative elements which are not definable in the terms which are applicable to God.

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The purpose of God is the attainment of value in the temporal world. An active purpose is the adjustment of the present for the sake of adjustment of value in the future, immediately or remotely.

Value is inherent in actuality itself. To be an actual entity is to have a self-interest. This self-interest is a feeling of self-valuation; it is an emotional tone. The value of other things, not one’s self, is the derivative value of being elements contributing to this ultimate self-interest. This self-interest is the interest of what one’s existence, as in that epochal occasion, comes to. It is the ultimate enjoyment of being actual.

But the actuality is the enjoyment, and this enjoyment is the experiencing of value. For an epochal occasion is a microcosm inclusive of the whole universe. This unification of the universe, whereby its various elements are combined into aspects of each other, is an atomic unit within the real world.

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 organisms. Vibration is the recurrence of contrast within identity of type. The whole possibility of measurement in the physical world depends on this principle. To measure is to count vibrations.

Thus physical quantities are aggregates of physical vibrations, and physical vibrations are the expression among the abstractions of physical science of the fundamental principle of æsthetic experience.

Another example of this same principle is to be found in the connection between body and mind. Both mind and body refer to their life-history of separate concrete occasions. So the connection which we seek is to be found in the creative process relating a physical occasion, in the life of the body, to its corresponding mental occasion in the life of the mind.

The physical occasion enters into the mental occasion, as already actual, and as contributing to its ground. The reversion from its ground, which the consequent of ideal novelty

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 must exhibit, is now of the most fundamental character. The reversion is the undoing of the synthesis exhibited in the ground. Thus the transition from bodily occasion to mental occasion exhibits a new dimension of transition from that exhibited in the transition from bodily occasion to bodily occasion. In the latter transition there is the novelty of contrast within the one concept of synthesis. In the former, the contrast is the contrast of synthesis itself with its opposite, which is analysis.

Thus in the birth of the mental occasion the consequent of ideal novelty enters into reality, and possesses an analytic force over against the synthetic ground. Ideal forms thus synthesized into a mental occasion are termed concepts. Concepts meet blind experience with an analytic force. Their synthesis with physical occasion, as ground, is the perceptive analysis of the blind physical occasion in respect to its degree of relevance to the concepts.

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 The phrase “immediate experience” can have either of two meanings, according as it refers to the physical or to the mental occasion. It may mean a complete concretion of physical relationships in the unity of a blind perceptivity. In this sense “immediate experience” means an ultimate physical fact. But in a secondary, and more usual, sense it means the consciousness of physical experience. Such consciousness is a mental occasion. It has the character of being an analysis of physical experience by synthesis with the concepts involved in the mentality. Such analysis is incomplete, because it is dependent on the limitations of the concepts. This limitation arises from the grading of the relevance of the concepts in the mental occasion. The most complete concrete fact is dipolar, physical and mental. But, for some specific purpose, the proportion of importance, as shared between the two poles, may vary from negligibility to dominance of either pole.

The value realized in the mental occasion is

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 knowledge-value. This knowledge-value is the issue of the full character of the creativity into the creature world. There is nothing in the creativity which fails to issue into the actual world. Thus the creativity with a purpose issues into the mental creature conscious of an ideal. Also God, as conditioning the creativity with his harmony of apprehension, issues into the mental creature as moral judgment according to a perfection of ideals.

The order of the world is no accident. There is nothing actual which could be actual without some measure of order. The religious insight is the grasp of this truth: That the order of the world, the depth of reality of the world, the value of the world in its whole and in its parts, the beauty of the world, the zest of life, the peace of life, and the mastery of evil, are all bound together — not accidentally, but by reason of this truth: that the universe exhibits a creativity with infinite freedom, and a realm of forms with infinite possibilities; but that this creativity and these forms are

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 Such an ultimate concrete fact is of the nature of an act of perceptivity. But, if we are speaking of the non-mental facts, such perceptivity is blind. It is without reflective consciousness; it is the self-value of its own microcosmic apprehension. The self-value is the unit fact which emerges. In calling it a perceptivity, or an apprehension, we are already analyzing it into the separate ingredients which go to form the one emergent thing. Each actual entity is an arrangement of the whole universe, actual and ideal, whereby there is constituted that self-value which is the entity itself.

Thus the epochal occasion has two sides. On one side it is a mode of creativity bringing together the universe. This side is the occasion as the cause of itself, its own creative act. We are here conceiving the creation as the reverse of our analysis. For in our description we are holding the elements apart; whereas in the creation they are put together.

On the other side, the occasion is the

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 creature. This creature is that one emergent fact. This fact is the self-value of the creative act. But there are not two actual entities, the creativity and the creature. There is only one entity which is the self-creating creature.

The description of the variety of aspects, under which the various actual occasions enter into each other’s natures, is the description of the various relationships within the real physical and spiritual worlds.

The mental occasion is derivative from its physical counterpart. It is also equally of the character of a perceptivity issuing into value-feeling, but it is a reflective perceptivity.

There are two routes of creative passage from a physical occasion. One is towards another physical occasion, and the other is towards the derivative reflective occasion. The physical route links together physical occasions as successive temporal incidents in the life of a body. The other route links this bodily life with a correlative mental life.

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 A mental occasion is an ultimate fact in the spiritual world, just as a physical occasion of blind perceptivity is an ultimate fact in the physical world. There is an essential reference from one world to the other.

There is no such thing as bare value. There is always a specific value, which is the created unit of feeling arising out of the specific mode of concretion of the diverse elements. These different specific value-feelings are comparable amid their differences; and the ground for this comparability is what is here termed “value.”

This comparability grades the various occasions in respect to the intensiveness of value. The zero of intensiveness means the collapse of actuality. All intensive quantity is merely the contribution of some one element in the synthesis to this one intensiveness of value.

Various occasions are thus comparable in respect to their relative depths of actuality. Occasions differ in importance of actuality. Thus

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