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 eigners; and they were both summoned to Peking. The soldiers became mutinous on hearing this news; but the accused themselves prevailed on their troops to remain quiet. The Viceroy resigned, and his successor sent all the correspondence up to Peking; when the Emperor, seeing how unfair it was to blame the Brigadier and the taotai, did not punish them severely, and soon restored them to favour.

The Ghoorkas are south-west of Tibet, and con- terminous with the British East Indian possession Bengal, with which district they had a standing feud. Hearing in 1839 of the British raid, they represented to the Resident in Tibet that "they were neighbours of the P‘ilêng tribe belonging to Tili, and were always being insulted by them; that, the Tili now being at war with a metropolitan possession, they, the Ghoorkas, would be glad to attack the Tili possessions in order to assist the Celestial chastisement." If only our ministers had known anything about geography or foreign polities, and allowed them to create a diversion, then England's Indian troops would have had their hands full at home, and could not all have come to China. This was our first offer of assistance from abroad: but our ministers, not knowing that the Tili were the English, that P‘ilêng was Bengal, and that the Metropolitan Possession was Canton in China, re-


text: A Proclamation on Earth Day, 2021

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: A Proclamation on Earth Day, 2021


text:
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RV 228 (Rh)


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 plied that "the Heavenly Dynasty never concerns "itself with the mutual tiltings of savages;" and thus the Ghoorka barbarians abandoned the idea of attacking India, and the soldiers with which England made her raids entertained no uneasiness about India at all. After the Nanking peace in the autumn of 1842, the British on their return to India ironically asked the Ghoorkhas to "come on" the Ghoorkhas then turned upon the Residents, whom they addressed in very insubordinate terms. The Residents only just managed to keep them to a nominal allegiance.

France and America are both powerful countries of the west, and, like the English, trade at Canton. They are hereditary enemies of England, but very obsequious to China. The previous year, when the English attacked China, and stopped all trade by blockading the coast, the other countries were very indignant, and said that, if the English did not return home soon, they would also bring up men-of-war to Canton and call them to account,—as LIN TSÊH-SÜ twice represented to the Emperor. All of a sudden LIN TSÊH-SÜ was cashiered, and K'ISHEN thought of nothing but peace; so the matter fell short. In March, when K'ISHEN was marched off a prisoner, the American head-man came a few days after to try and arrange matters. Hence came the suggestions that trade and no other demands should be


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 granted, and that ships smuggling opium should be confiscated with their cargoes. But the leaders in Canton made a night attack upon the factories, and killed several Americans by mistake; so that the Americans were no longer willing to come forward in our interests.

After the repeated breaches of their conven- tion by the English, the French foreign official several times offered his assistance in building ships. That winter two men-of-war arrived, with a military leader, who said he had some confidential business upon which he wished to confer with the Tartar-General: he begged that the services of an interpreter might be dispensed with, as he had two bonzes with him who understood Chinese. The Tartar-General YIKSHAN and the Viceroy K‘IKUNG had several interviews with him outside the city. The attendants were dismissed, and it was confidentially represented that, the English having stopped the trade of all nations, the French King had sent men-of-war for protection, and had ordered him to act as mediator, and to proceed to Ningpo and Shanghai to arrange peace, when he would have no difficulty in bringing the English to a proper sense of things, and in finding a way out of their


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 greedy demands. If the English would not agree, he would find some pretext for fighting them. This was our second offer of assistance from abroad: but YIKSHAN at first refused oven to represent the matter to the Emperor. The French then suggested that they should, as a first step, go to Hongkong and see POTTINGER. After several days' discussion, they replied that the English demanded Hongkong and three millions [? of taels] for the opium. YIKSHAN still declined to forward their representations to the Emperor. At last, when he did so, he added:—"but the enemy's designs are unfathomable, and possibly they are really assisting the English in an under- hand way, and acting as spies on us for them." The French hung on from February to June, awaiting our commands; and at last in June proceeded to Wusung: but the English were already far up the Yangtsze. The French wanted to engage Chinese pilots to take them up; but the Shanghai officials, on the contrary, threw obstacles in their way; and so much time was occupied in trying to obtain pilots that, at last, when the French entered the river in other boats, the treaty of peace was already con- cluded, and the English had got all they wanted;— anyhow a vast deal more than the French had proposed on their behalf. The French head-man


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RV 229 (Rh)


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 went back much mortified; and the following winter returned to Canton to arrange about trade. The English desired that traders of all nations should report to them first, and then pay duties; but the French and the Americans indignantly exclaimed:— "We are no dependencies of England, nor have we been treacherous and bullying. Why then treat them better than us?" On this some American ships of war entered port, and, a few months later, some Frenchmen too. Both of them submitted letters, begging to pay tribute, and to be allowed to express their devotion at an interview. They also requested to be allowed to leave their ships in the south, whilst the tribute-envoys and a small suite went overland to Peking; for they wished to make some confidential suggestions, and to assist us,—as the Uigurs once assisted the T‘ang dynasty against the rebel ANLUHSHAN. This was the third offer of assistance from abroad; rejected, however, repeatedly by our ministers. ILIPU had already died at Canton; and in 1843 K‘IYING was ordered thither to carry on his work: permission had boon granted to one country after another to trade on the same terms as England without the interference of the co-hong merchants, and with liberty to go to the other ports, and stand on a footing of equality


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 with the mandarinate; so that the English even became patrons of the others.

The history of the volunteers or patriots of Canton is as follows. When the English were hard pressed at San-yüan Village, in the summer of 1841, they hesitated about coming to trade at Canton any more. But, after the peace, Canton was declared open by imperial decree, and the following winter the white barbarians went insolently all about the place. exasperated people rose upon them, burnt and plundered the factory, and killed some foreign officers and soldiers off Macao. The ships of the chief POTTINGER were then at Canton, but dared not take any revenge. The Viceroy and Governor, however, punished the offenders in order to give satisfaction: but P‘AN SHIH-CH‘ÊNG, a gentleman of Canton, engaged at his own expense a French foreign official named LEI-JÊN-SZ [? Colonel DE JANCIGNY] to order some ships and guns from France, and also some torpedoes for attacking ships under the water. Four two-masted men- of-war, as strong and well-built as any foreign ship, were thus built at his expense, at a cost of


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RV 230 (Rh)


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 Tls. 20,000 for each ship, and Tls. 40 for each torpedo. On this the Emperor ordered the building of a new Canton fleet to be confided to him, quite free of all official interference, so as to prevent peculation; but, owing to the obstacles thrown in the way by the high authorities, the matter dropped. Thus China was neither without allies or internal zeal in the pirate war: but she had no one to take the reins in hand; and so her dependent barbarians were driven over to aid her enemy, and her brave people were turned into disloyalists: her patriots were even denounced as obstinate persons.

Of late, with the trade all along the coast, the opium business is greater than ever; and, at the recommendation of the Canton Governor, the prohibitions against Roman Catholicism have been relaxed throughout the Empire. The foreigners in possession of Ting-hai and Kulang Sü put pressure on the officials, and harbour all sorts of outlaws; whilst the man at Wu-shih Shan in Foochow [i.e. H.B.M. Consul] occupies the very heart of the capital, and can look over the whole city. The Governor-General and the Governor look helplessly on, and represent to the Emperor "that they have only given him a tumble-down temple


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 outside the city!" The gentry and people of Foochow are highly indignant; and LIN TSÊH-SÜ, who is with his family, is in the specially black books of the high authorities there.

In 1844, K‘IYING was recalled, and HWANG ÊN- T‘UNG was degraded to the rank of sub-prefect and sent home. In 1845 the English called upon us to keep K‘IYING's promise to admit them into the city after three years, and to allow the establishment of an office there; but the Viceroy Sü KWANG-TSIN, with the co-operation of the patriots in the city and the Americans outside of it, succeeded in repelling them, and the enemy was constrained to retire re infectâ. The Viceroy was made a viscount for this, and the Governor YEH MING-SHÊN was made a baron. Things were now tolerably quiet at Canton. The new Emperor, HIEN-FUNG, as soon as he came to the throne in 1851, issued a special decree doing justice to the memories of LIN TSÊH-SÜ, YAO YING, and TAHUNGA for their efforts to maintain the integrity of the outlying parts of the Empire, and censuring K‘IYING's timidity and his error in defying the enemy. This decree was received with great satisfaction.

The barbarian pirate war lasted two years in all, and cost Tls. 70,000,000. There was always a


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RV 231 (Rh)


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RV 232 (Rh)


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RV 233 (Rh)


text: A Venetian June

title: A Venetian June


text: A Venetian June/Chapter 1

title: A Venetian June/Chapter 1


text: A Venetian June/Chapter 2

title: A Venetian June/Chapter 2


text: A Venetian June/Chapter 3

title: A Venetian June/Chapter 3


text: A Venetian June/Chapter 4

title: A Venetian June/Chapter 4


text: A Venetian June/Chapter 5

title: A Venetian June/Chapter 5


text: A Venetian June/Chapter 6

title: A Venetian June/Chapter 6


text: A Venetian June/Chapter 7

title: A Venetian June/Chapter 7


text: A Venetian June/Chapter 8

title: A Venetian June/Chapter 8


text: A Venetian June/Chapter 9

title: A Venetian June/Chapter 9


text: A Venetian June/Chapter 10

title: A Venetian June/Chapter 10


text: A Venetian June/Chapter 11

title: A Venetian June/Chapter 11


text: A Venetian June/Chapter 12

title: A Venetian June/Chapter 12


text: A Venetian June/Chapter 13

title: A Venetian June/Chapter 13


text: A Venetian June/Chapter 14

title: A Venetian June/Chapter 14


text: A Venetian June/Chapter 15

title: A Venetian June/Chapter 15


text: A Venetian June/Chapter 16

title: A Venetian June/Chapter 16


text: A Venetian June/Chapter 17

title: A Venetian June/Chapter 17


text: A Venetian June/Chapter 18

title: A Venetian June/Chapter 18


text: A Venetian June/Chapter 19

title: A Venetian June/Chapter 19


text:
Page:Mendel's principles of heredity; a defence.pdf/37

 1900, the same author's paper in ''Proc. R. S''. vol. 66, 1900, p. 140, or the extensive memoir (pubd. Oct. 1900), on the inheritance of coat-colour in horses and eye-colour in man (Phil. Trans. 195,, 1900, p. 79), will not need to be told that the few words I have given above constitute a most imperfect diagram of the operations of that law as now developed. Until the appearance of these treatises was, I believe, generally considered that the law of Ancestral Heredity was to be taken as applying to phenomena like these (coat-colour, eye-colour, &c.) where the inheritance is generally alternative, as well as to the phenomena of blended inheritance.

Pearson, in the writings referred to, besides withdrawing other large categories of phenomena from the scope of its operations, points out that the law of Ancestral Heredity does not satisfactorily express the cases of alternative inheritance. He urges, and with reason, that these classes of phenomena should be separately dealt with.

The whole issue as regards the various possibilities of heredity now recognized will be made clearer by a very brief exposition of the several conceptions involved.

If an organism producing germ-cells of a given constitution, uniform in respect of the characters they bear, breeds with another organism bearing precisely similar germ-cells, the offspring resulting will, if the conditions are identical, be uniform.

In practice such a phenomenon is seen in pure-breeding. It is true that we know no case in nature where all the germ-cells are thus identical, and where no variation takes place beyond what we can attribute to conditions, but we


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 know many cases where such a result is approached, and very many where all the essential features which we regard as constituting the characters of the breed are reproduced with approximate certainty in every member of the pure-bred race, which thus closely approach to uniformity.

But if two germ-cells of dissimilar constitution unite in fertilisation, what offspring are we to expect ? First let us premise that the answer to this question is known experimentally to differ for many organisms and for many classes of characters, and may almost certainly be in part determined by external circumstances. But omitting the last qualification, certain principles are now clearly detected, though what principle will apply in any given case can only be determined by direct experiment made with that case.

This is the phenomenon of cross-breeding. As generally used, this term means the union of members of dissimilar varieties, or species: though when dissimilar gametes produced by two individuals of the same variety unite in fertilisation, we have essentially cross-breeding in respect of the character or characters in which those gametes differ. We will suppose, as before, that these two gametes bearing properties unlike in respect of a given character, are borne by different individuals.

In the simplest case, suppose a gamete from an individual presenting any character in intensity A unite in fertilisation with another from an individual presenting the same character in intensity a. For brevity's sake we


text: Page:The Earliest English Translations of Bürger's Lenore - A Study in English and German Romanticism - Emerson (1915).djvu/93


text: The Threat to the Labor Movement/Section 25


text: The Threat to the Labor Movement/Section 26


text: Page:The Earliest English Translations of Bürger's Lenore - A Study in English and German Romanticism - Emerson (1915).djvu/94


text:
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 The struggle for Socialism is the greatest civil war in history, and the proletarian revolution must prepare for this civil war the necessary weapons; it must learn to use them—to fight and to conquer.

By arming the compact mass of working people with full political power for the purposes of the revolution is established the dictatorship of the proletariat, and therefore the true democracy. True democracy, democracy that does not defraud the people, does not exist where the wage slave sits in would-be equality with the capitalist, or the farm hand with the landowner, in order to debate in parliamentary manner over questions most vital to them—true democracy is to be found only where the mass of the workers take the entire power of government into their toil-hardened hands in order to wield it over the heads of the ruling classes as the god Thor wielded his hammer.

To enable the proletariat to solve this problem the Spartacus Union demands:—

1. The disarming of the entire police force, of all officers, as well as of the non-proletarian soldiers.

2. The seizure of all supplies of arms and ammunition, as well as of all war industries, by the Workers' and Soldiers' Councils.

3. The arming of the entire adult male population as the workers' militia. The formation of a red guard of the workers, as the active part of the militia, for the effective protection of the revolution against counter-revolutionary plots and risings.

4. Abolition of the commanding power of the officers and non-commissioned officers. The substitution of the voluntary discipline of the soldiers for the old brutal barrack discipline. Election of all superiors by the rank and file, with the right to recall these superiors at any time. Abolition of courts-martial.


text: The Earliest English Translations of Bürger's Lenore: a Study in English and German Romanticism/Index


text: The Earliest English Translations of Bürger's Lenore: a Study in English and German Romanticism/Adverts


text: A Proclamation on World Intellectual Property Day, 2021


text:
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RV 17 (Rh)

Substitute the words given to the right of each sentence for the underlined word (or words) of the sentence.


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RV 18 (Rh)


text:
Page:Seventh Report - Guns for gold- the Wagner Network exposed.pdf/74

Rh {| class="wikitable" ! Name of entity, with supporting information from the time of designation !! Designated by US? !! Designated by EU? !! Designated by UK?
 * + Caption text
 * “PMC Wagner Centre”.
 * “PMC Wagner Centre”.

A Russian commercial venture, aiming to support private sector investment and innovation to support and bolster Russia’s defence capabilities, with close links to the unincorporated ‘PMC Wagner Group’. (EU designation)
 * No
 * Yes
 * No
 * }


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 uliczka, ‘a little street;’ brat, ‘a brother,’ braciszek, ‘a little brother.’ Diminutives derived from monosyllables end for the most part in ik, as kon, ‘a horse,’ konik; ‘stoł, ‘a table,’ stolik; sometimes in yk, as stolarczyk, ‘a journeyman carpenter,’ szewczyk, ‘a journeyman shoemaker.’ Sometimes the vowels are changed, as ręka, ‘a hand,’ rączka, ‘a little hand.’ Another diminutive form is yna or ina, as psina, ‘poor little dog,’ expressing ‘amoris quandum fatuitatem,’ as the old grammarians used to say. Here also may be mentioned the termination -arnia, to express the place at which a trade is carried on, as drukarnia, ‘a printing-office;’ kawiarnia, ‘a coffe-house.’

The Polish adjective has the same number of cases as the noun, and its inflections vary according to the three genders. In the nominative masculine it ends in y or i, in the feminine in a, in the neuter in e.


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RV 586 (Rh)


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Page:Journal Of The Indian Archipelago And Eastern Asia Series.i, Vol.2 (IA in.ernet.dli.2015.107695).pdf/11

The probable effects on the Climate of Pinang of the Continued Destruction of its hill jungles, by, Esq. ... 534

Notice of the labours of M. Zollinger.

A trip to Probolingo, by, Esq. M. B. S. ... 537, 661

Harbour of Sourabaya, 537.— Coast of Madurs. 540.— Pulo Katapang. 541.— The Ginding wind, ib.— Pahiton Sugar work, 541— Population of Probolingo, 557.— Hindu antiquities at Johor, 558— Bezuki, 667.— Probolingo, 663.— The range and uses of the palmyra or Lontar tree, 665.— Mount Bromo, its mode of origin connection with mount Lamongan, eruptions, 667.— Lake of Kalindungan, 659.

A scheme for representing Malay sounds by Roman Letters, by, Esq. F.R.S. ... 564

Antiquity of the Chinese trade with India and the Indian Archipelago, by, Esq. ... 603

Examination of Marco Polo's voyage, and identification of the places mentioned by him. Chinese and Arabic writings.— Course of the Chinese junks from China to Singapore at present.

Notices of the Chinese intercourse with Borneo Proper prior to the establishment of Singapore in 1819, by, Esq. ... 611

Journal of a voyage to the Eastern Coast and Islands of Johore, by Esq. ... 616

Scenery of Singapore Straits, 616.— Form, and character of its coasts, 609.— Peninsula of the S. E. extremity of the continent, its physical character, rivers, inhabitants, 620.— Pulo Pinyuso, Tanjong Pinyuso or Point Romania, 621.— T. Sippong, Teloh Ayer Rambut, T. Pungai ib.— T. Kinawar, 622.— T. Lompatan, T. Mantigi ib. fragments of pumice, Bay of the Sidili.

Notices of the Geology of the East Coast of Johore by, Esq. ... 625

The rocks of Tanjong Pungai, talcose sandstons, ironmasked, iron and quartz veins, modern conglomerite on beach, 265.— Tanjong Kinawar, talcose shale, curious ligneous aspect of the rack, conversion into quartz, 628.— Tanjong


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William Jones well-known scheme for representing Asiatic sounds by Roman letters seems to me to be chiefly defective from at- tempting more than was practicable. Its basis was the Dewanagri alphabet, and the Arabic, but other Asiatic languages contain sounds not to be found in either, and such an alphabet as would comprehend the whole of them would, I am satisfied, extend to at least 100 cha- racters, and therefore be of intolerable length and prolixity.

Every language, or at least every class of languages requires, in my opinion, a system for itself, and if the native alphabet assumed as a basis be comprehensive and correct, that is, have an invariable character for every sound in the language, and such character is re- presented by an unvarying Roman letter, the task is at once accom- plished. Such a scheme necessarily excludes the use of double let- ters to represent a simple sound, both as cumbrous and superfluous.

The languages of the Archipelago, in so far as the native portion of them is concerned, contain no sounds that do not equally exist in the European languages, and which therefore, with very slight mo- difications may not be easily represented by single Roman letters. The Javanese alphabet, the most perfect of those of the Archipelago, has written characters, not only for every sound in the Javanese lan- guage, but also for all the sounds in the other languages, with a few exceptions easily provided for.

Taking, then, the Javanese alphabet as the foundation of the scheme, the consonants will be 22 in number, and as follows, b. c. d. ḋ. f. g. h. j. k. l. m. n. ṅ. ñ. p. r. s. t. ṫ. w. y. z. The letters b. k. l. m. n. p. 1. and s. having exactly the same sounds as in most of the European languages, require no remarks, except that a final k., and sometimes a. medial, are, in Malay and sometimes in Javanese, pronounced as if they were mere aspirates.

The letter c. being redundant in the English system, and in it or the other languages, having, according to its position, two or more different sounds, I have selected it to represent a consonant for which there is a written character in nearly all the eastern alphabets. The sound is also of frequent occurrence in the European languages, but aukwardly [sic] represented by two or three consonants combined, and


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 which do not contain the elements of the sound. The English and Spaniards represent it by ch, the French by tch, and the Dutch by tj. The Italians represent it before the vowels e. and i. by the letter c., and I have adopted this to represent the sound universally, placing au orthographic mark over it, to obviate any ambiguity.

The first d. in the series above given is a dental, and the second marked by a dot is a palatal. They are carefully distinguished by the Javanese, but not by the Malays although both be exhibited in the scheme of their alphabet.

The letter f. as a native sound is unknown to the Malay and Java- nese languages, and is confined to a few of the ruder tongues. I give to the letter g. invariably, its hard sound. The letter h. represents the simple aspirate, aud, fur the most part, occurs, in so far as na- tive words are concerned, after a vowel,—in Malay and Javanese al- ways so. The letter j. represents a sound for which there is a cha- racter in all the native alphabets exactly corresponding to its Eng- lish pronunciation, but not to that of any other European nation. The Dutch represent it by dj, which do not contain the elements of the sound, besides being clumsy.

The ṅ with a dot represents a sound for which there is a charac- ter in all the languages of the Archipelago. It is the ng. of the European systems, and in the native languages is used as an initial, as well as a medial or final. After a vowel and closing a syllable it is represented in most of the alphabets by a dot over the consonant. The sound which I represent thus ñ, is taken from the Spanish or- thography in which it appears as a substantive letter. It occurs in the Spanish word España, it is the gn. of the French and occurs with us in such words as union, onion &c.

In Malay and Javanese, there are two ts., a dental and a palatal, the first being of most frequent occurrence. The Javanese, but not the Malays, carefully distinguish them. I have marked the palatal with a dot as in the case of the palatal d. The letter w. has exact- ly its English sound, and y. is our consonant of this name which the Dutch and Germans represent by j. The letter z., like f., as a na- tive sound, occurs only in a few barbarous and unwritten languages.

The liquids or consonants which coalesce with other consonants are l. r. w. and y.,—the two first very frequently, and the two last rarely. The vowels of the Javanese alphabet, and they correspond exact- ly with the vocalic sounds of the Malay language, are six in number, and with one more will suffice to express all the vowels of all the lan-


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RV 587 (Rh)

ጤና፡ ይስጥልኝ፡ ስሜ፡ ዮሐንስ፡ ነው። የርስዎስ?

ከበደ፡ ነው። ኢትዮጵያዊ፡ ነው?

አሜሪካዊ፡ ነኝ። ነገር፡ ግን፡ አቶ፡ ተሰማና፡ አቶ፡ ለማ፡ ኢትዮጵያዊያን ናቸው።

መቼ፡ መጡ?

ትናንትና፡ መጣሁ።

እባክዎ፡ ስንት፡ ሰዓት፡ ነው?


text:
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 guages of the Archipelago as far as we yet know them. They will be as follow: a. á. e. é. i. o. u.

The vowel a. has no representative in the Javanese or any other alphabet of the Archipelago except as an initial, but it is understood to follow every consonant, unless supplanted by the mark of another vowel, or suppressed by a sign of elision. Its sound in the Malayan languages is exactly that which it usually has in all the European languages, except our own, as exemplified in the Italian word casa, a house. The sound á. with an acute accent is intended to repre- sent a Malayan vowel which in the Javanese alphabet has a distinct mark. It is the u. of the English words "but" or "cut".

The vowel e. has peculiar character in the Javanese, and, in- deed nearly all the other native alphabets. It has the sound which oc- curs twice in the Castilian word elevar, to raise. It is the é. in formé of the French, and the unaccented e. of the Italians in the word legge. The é. with an acute accent represents a sound, frequent in the Sunda language, and some other little cultivated tongues, but it has no character in any native alphabet. It is frequent in the Celtic dia- lects, and approaches in sound to the French u.

The sound of the native vowel represented by i. is the Italian one in the word Italia, and not the dipthongdiphthong [sic] sound which we ourselves whimsically give it. The o. has a distinct character in the Javanese alphabet. It is the o. chiuso of the Italians, and the o. which occurs in our word "tone". U has also its peculiar character in the Java- nese, and indeed, in all the other native alphabets. The letter is pro- nounced as in the Italian, Spanish and German, and it is the oe of the Dutch, the ou of the Trench, and the oo of the English.

In writing native words, it is to be observed, that the vowel, ex- cept when long, and sometimes even then, is inherent in each Ara- bic consonant, as in the native systems. The same is the case with i and u at the end of a word.

The dipthongs [sic] are but three, ae. ai. and au. In the Javanese al- phabet, they have no peculiar characters to mark them, but are simply expressed by the sequence of the vowels which compose them. It may here be added that neither in the Javanese, nor any other al- phabet of the Archipelago, does there exist a distinction by express characters between long and short vowels as in the Dewanagri. They are long or short, or more correctly, accented or unaccented, according to their position in a word, and in the vast majority of words, the accent of bisyllables is on the first syllable, and of poly-


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 syllables on the penultimate. Indeed there are hardly a score of examples in the Malay or Javanese of the accent being on the last syllable.

The system thus sketched would be sufficiently complete, if the paramount language, the Malay, had not been written, as it invaria- bly is, in an Arabian character ill suited to the purpose. The Ara- bian alphabet, imperfect in itself and even for its own particular pur- pose, is preposterous when applied to the languages of the Archipe- lago, the genius of the pronunciation of which is far more at variance with that of the Arabic than of the languages of the south of Europe. It wants eight letters which the Javanese alphabet and the Malay language have viz. c̈. ḋ. g. ṅ. ñ. and ṫ, and it supplies their place by diacritical points over their respective cognates, while it has no less than 12 which no native alphabet possesses, and which, for the most part, are unpronounceable by the inhabitants of the Archipelago. The Malays cannot pronounce most of the peculiar consonants of the Arabian language, and have a repugnance even to several of the vowels. A few only, ambitious of some literary or religious distinc- tion, ape an imitation of the Arabie pronunciation, and the multi- tude reduce the Arabic to the standard of their own enunciation, as we ourselves did in adopting the Norman-French portion of our lan- guage.

The discordance which exists between the orthography and pro- nunciation of Arabian words adopted by the Malayan nations, makes it therefore necessary, in order to preserve the one and exhibit the other, to adopt a double system for every word.

I represent in the following manner the Arabic letters which have no representatives either in the languages or alphabets of the na- tions of the Archipelago ġ. ḣ. ˙k. ḱ. l̇, l̈. ṡ. s̈. ẗ. z̈. ż. I give them in the order of the Roman alphabet, classing them with their cognate letters.

The Arabian f. as I have stated before, occurs, as a native letter, only in the languages of a few of the ruder tribes. In the more cul- tivated it is almost invariably transformed into p. The ġ mark- ed by a diacritical point is the well-known Arabian guttural called ghain, and our Northumbrian r. Its native pronunciation is simply that of g. hard. The ḣ. with a dot is the strong Arabian aspirate; and to which there is no sound equivalent in the Malay languages. The k̈. thus marked is the guttural called kha. It is the sound which is of such frequent occurrence in the Celtic and most of the


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 Teutonic languages, the German ch., the x. of the old, and the j. of the modern Spanish orthography. The k̇. with a single dot is a deep hard guttural which has no equivalent in any European language, and still less is there any approach to its sound in the Malayan tongues. Both these letters have the native pronunciation of an ordinary k.

The two letters l, represented respectively, by a single and by a double diacritical mark are the 15th and the 17th of the Arabian alphabet, called by the Persians zad and za. The Arabs, however, give to both a sound which approaches nearest to the double l in Welsh or Spanish. The Malayan nations pronounce them as a com- mon l.—Of the three s. noted by different orthographic marks, the first is the swad of the Arabs, or 14th of the Arabian series, and the second the 4th Arabian letter, which the Arabs pronounce like our th aspirated, as in the word "thing"; but the Persians like an s. The Malays give to both letters the simple hissing sound of an or- dinary s.

The third s. is the 12th letter of the Arabian series, the English sh, the French ch, the Dutch sj, and the German sch. With the Malayan nations it is, like the two letters which precede it, only a simple s.

The ẗ. thus marked to distinguish it from the native palatal ṫ, is the toe of the Arabs, but, in utterance the natives of the Archipela- go make no distinction between it, and an ordinary dental t. The z. without a diacritical mark corresponds with a sound which exists in some of the ruder languages of the Archipelago, but is un- known to the written ones now in use. It is the 11th letter of the Arabian series immediately following r, and distinguished from it only by a dot above it. The ż with a diacritical mark is the 9th of the Arabian series immediately following the letter d. and distin- guished from it only by the point. Both these letters are pronounc- ed in the same manner, and as an ordinary z. They may indeed be said to be the only peculiar letters of the Arabs that can be pronoun- ced without much effort by the Malayan nations, but even these they not unfrequently convert into a j.

The difficulty of rendering the Arabic vowels by Roman letters is still greater than of the consonants. Of the three vowels which form substantive, alif, wa and ya, the first alone invariably expresses one sound, which is that of the inherent a in the Hindu and insular al- phabets, but, as in these, it is for the most part expressed in the con sonant, at the end of words, always.


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 With the letter wa, the power is not only that of two vowels u. and o, but also of the consonant w. As a vowel, it may be invariably expressed by u, for the natives themselves do not always clearly dis- tinguish between the u and o.

The letter ya is not only the two vowels e and i, but also the con- sonant y. As a vowel I represent it invariably by its most frequent sound of i. In the Arabic Malayan alphabet, in order to distinguish the vowels from the consonants in the case of both letters now un- der consideration, a double letter is used at the beginning of words, which consists without distinction either of the letter, a. or the soft aspirate humza. I have no doubt that this was borrowed from the lost alphabet of the Malays, on which the Arabian scheme was form- ed, for it is analogous to the practise of the Javanese and other na- tive alphabets in which the vowel a is considered as a substantive, and its power changed by the application of the other vowel points. This native a is evidently represented by the Arabian alif aspirate which is never pronounced.

In the system adopted, therefore, the Arabic letters wa and ya will be represented, according to their position in a word, either by w. and y. as consonants, or u. and i as vowels, just as v. and y. are sometimes made to serve with ourselves.

The short vowels of the Arabic alphabet are noted by orthogra- phic marks, three in number, which represent, respectively, the sound which in the native alphabet I have given as á,—that of e. or i., and that of o. or u. But these orthographic signs are hardly ever written, so that it is impossible to tell which of the vowels is to be expressed. I shall represent all of them by the vowel a short, hav- ing the true sound as pronounced by the natives of the Archipelago as is done in dictionaries in the oriental character.

There still remains one letter of the Arabic alphabet to be re- presented, the peculiar guttural vowel called ain. It is a substantive letter of the alphabet, and, according as the supplementary vowel marks are applied, it is a. e. i. or u. I distinguish it by a grave accent, leaving the sound for the explanatory word. The natives treat it as an ordinary vowel without any attempt at a guttural pro- nunciation.

The whole of the Roman letters necessary to represent the Ara- bico-Malayan alphabet will be 40 in number, and as follow a. á. ä. à. b. c̈. d. ḋ. e. é. f. g. ġ. h. i. j. k. k̇. k̈. l. l̇. l̈. m. n. ṅ. ñ. o. p. r. s. ṡ. s̈. t. ṫ. ẗ. u. w. y. z. ż. It is fortunate, however, that this cum-


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 brous alphabet will not be very often called into use, for the actual number of Arabie words in the ordinary written language is not ve- ry considerable, and to the oral language, in which they are trifling, it has no reference.

A very few examples will show how much better adapted the Roman letters are than the Arabic to the expression of the native sounds of the languages of the Archipelago. The Malay words bawa, to bring, and bau, odour, are in the latter represented by the very same let- ters. So are bunga a flower, and buang, to throw away, so are arti meaning, and arta, goods, both Sanskrit words, the word bágánda, prince or highness, is written bgnd, that is without any vowel at all, although it contains three.

I conclude with a few examples of the changes which Arabic words undergo in Malayan pronunciation. Kábár, news, becomes ka- bar, fákár, to think, pikir, sábáb, cause, sabab in Malay and sawab in Javanese, rálá leave or permission, lila, and wakt, time, waktu, fá- luli, to meddle, paduli. The more the language abounds in vowels the greater the havoc committed. Májád, a mosk, become in Bugis, masigi, sálám, peace, solon, bárkát, a blessing, baraka, and kártás paper, karotusa. The Arabic word wákt time, had been pretty well mutilated by the Malays and Javanese when they reduced it to waktu, but the Bugis thoroughly disfigure it when they make it watüe.


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 After all it is not much matter, since they could not disclose the secret of its source."

"But," said the Scot, "how are we to be assured of the identity of this river with that which travelers from the north have discovered?"

"We shall have certain irresistible and infallible proofs," replied Ferguson, "if the wind only favor us for another hour."

The mountains fell back, giving place to numerous villages, to fields cultivated with the oil plant, dourrah, and sugar-canes. The tribes of these countries appeared excited and hostile. They approached nearer to anger than adoration; they looked upon the travelers as strangers, and not as gods. It seemed to them that in coming to the sources of the Nile they had come to steal something. The "Victoria" was obliged to keep out of musket range.

"To land here would be difficult," said the Scotchman.

"Well," said Joe, "so much the worse for the natives—we shall deprive them of the benefit of our conversation."

"I must descend, nevertheless," replied Doctor Ferguson, "if only for a quarter of an hour. Otherwise I shall not be able to verify the results of our exploration."

"Is that really indispensable, Samuel?

"It is, and we shall descend without the firing of a gun."

"That is my business," replied Kennedy, patting his carbine.

"Whenever you choose, sir," said Joe, preparing himself for fighting.

"This will not be the first time," said the doctor, "that one has worked for science arms in hand; a similar thing happened to a French professor in the Spanish mountains when he was measuring the terrestrial meridian."

"You be quiet, Samuel, and trust to your bodyguard."

"Are we at the place now, sir?" asked Joe.

"Not yet. Indeed we must ascend in order to learn the 'lie of the land' a little."

The hydrogen was expanded, and in less than ten minutes the "Victoria" was floating at a height of 2,500 feet.

They could distinguish from that elevation an inextricable network of streams, which the river received. It flowed more from the west between the hills, in the midst of a fertile country.


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 "We are not ninety miles from Gondokoro," said the doctor, referring to the map, "and scarcely five miles from the point reached by the discoverers from the north. Let us now approach the earth, but cautiously."

The "Victoria" descended more than 2,000 feet.

"Now, my friends, be ready for anything."

"We are ready," replied Dick and Joe.

"Good," said the doctor.

The "Victoria" sailed over the bed of the river at a height of scarcely 100 feet. The Nile measured fifty fathoms at this spot; and the inhabitants were tremendously excited in the villages along the banks. At the second degree the river formed a cascade about ten feet high, and was consequently impassable for boats.

"There is the very waterfall spoken of by M. Debono!" cried the doctor.

The bed of the river became extended and dotted with numerous islands, which Ferguson scanned narrowly. He seemed to be seeking a landmark which he had not hitherto perceived.

Some negroes were advancing in a boat beneath the balloon. Kennedy saluted them with a shot, which, without touching them, sent them back to the bank pretty quickly.

"Pleasant voyage!" shouted Joe; "in their place I would not take the chance of returning. I should have a wholesome fear of a monster who could hurl thunder at me at his will."

But now the doctor suddenly seized his telescope and directed it towards an island situated in the center of the river.

"Four trees!" he cried. "Do you see them down there? In fact four solitary trees were observable at the extremity of the island.

"'Tis the isle of Benga; it is indeed!" he shouted.

"Well, what then?" asked Dick.

"There we must descend, please goodness."

"But it appears to be inhabited, Mr. Samuel!"

"Joe is right; if I do not mistake, there are about twenty natives assembled there."

"We must put them to flight, that will not be a difficult matter," said Ferguson.

"All right!" said Dick.


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 The sun was in the zenith. The "Victoria" approached the island.

The negroes, who appeared to be of the Makado tribe, uttered discordant cries. One of them waved his bark head-covering in the air. Kennedy took aim, fired, and the hat was knocked to pieces. There was a general stampede. The natives precipitated themselves into the river, and swam across. From both banks there came a hail of bullets and a shower of arrows, but without any hurt to the balloon, whose grapnel had become fastened in a fissure of a rock. Joe let himself slide down to the ground.

"The ladder, the ladder," cried the doctor. "Follow me Kennedy!"

"What are you going to do?”

"To descend. I want a witness."

"Here I am, then."

"Joe, keep guard, mind."

"All right, sir; I am responsible for everything."

"Come, Dick," said the doctor, putting his foot on the ground.

He led his companion towards a mass of rock that rose up at the extremity of the island. There, after searching for some time, hunting about amongst the brushwood till his hands were cut and bleeding, suddenly he grasped the Scot's arm.

"Look there!" said he.

"Letters!" cried Kennedy.

In fact, two letters engraven in the rock appeared in all their pristine sharpness of outline. They distinctly read:

"A. D.," said the doctor. "Andrea Debono! The initials of that very traveler who mounted to the highest point of the course of the Nile."

"That is unimpeachable evidence, friend Samuel."

"Are you now convinced?"

"It is the Nile; we can have no doubt about it."

The doctor took a "last fond look" at the precious initials, of which he made a tracing.

"Now," said he, "for the balloon!"

"Quick, then, for there are some natives preparing to cross the river."

"That does not matter much to us now. If the breeze