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Rh spectacular work of handling the hose, with its powerful streams of water.

All these scenes Blake was getting on the sensitive celluloid film, and he was congratulating himself on his success, when a voice in authority called to him:

"Say, young fellow, have you got a fire badge, or permit?"

"Why, no," answered Blake, slowly, as he continued to grind away at the crank. "I left it home, I guess." He and Joe both had permits, entitling them to go within the fire lines, but they had not taken them away on their vacation.

"You'll have to come down out of that," went on the voice of the policeman who had challenged Blake. And the youth, looking down, saw, beside the guardian of the peace, the mean, sneering face of Munson. It was he, evidently, who had suggested to the police officer that he oust Blake from his place.

"Can't you overlook it this once?" asked Blake, eagerly, for the fire was getting worse now, and he knew it would show up well on the films. If he had to leave his place he could not get another as good, and would miss some thrilling scenes.


text: A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Fu Yüeh

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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32 "Come on down!" ordered the officer. "You can't stay there without a badge, or a permit, and and you haven't got either. Get down, I tell you!"

"Hold on, Flarity," spoke a new voice. "I'll lend him my badge. You know me; don't you?" and there stepped forward a young fellow whom Blake recognized as a newspaper reporter, to whom he had often given pictures of accidents, for the journal he represented.

"Well, Kennedy, if you let him take your badge, I guess it will be all right," said the officer to the reporter.

"Say, that's mighty good of you!" cried Blake, as the newspaper man passed up the metal badge that entitled the wearer to go within the fire lines, "but what will you do?"

"Oh, I guess Flarity won't put me out," said the reporter, with a laugh. "If he does, I know something about him"

"Get on with you!" interrupted the officer, hastily, and with a rather embarrassed smile. "I'll look the other way, Kennedy."

"I thought you would," laughed the reporter. "Now you're all right, Blake," and he nodded, in a friendly fashion, at the moving picture boy.

Munson's plan had failed, and he moved away to look for another place whence he could film


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Rh the fire. He cast an ugly look at Blake as he went, though, and muttered to himself.

"I'm sorry I had to do this," thought Blake, "but I wasn't going to pass up a chance like this. Munson may make trouble for us, though. He's got a revengeful disposition. But if Joe and I go out to the flooded district probably we shan't see him for some time."

If Blake had really known the depth of the resentment Munson cherished against him, from that moment, he might have given in to the fellow. Had he done so it would have saved much trouble for himself and Joe later. But he could not foretell the future.

Blake continued to take pictures of the fire, and he was beginning to think his film would run out, when Joe came up with a fresh reel. The policeman had gone away, and there was now so much excitement about the fire that no one minded whether Joe had a badge or not. He relieved Blake at the camera.

But the blaze, big as it was, finally yielded to the work of the firemen, and at length all the persons had been gotten out of the apartment

"I guess we've got enough," said Blake, finally. "Now we'll hustle this to the laboratory, Joe, have it developed, and see what use we can make of it. I'll get some of the weeklies


text: A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Fu Yao-yü


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34 on the 'phone, and see how many prints they want."

Blake and Joe, as those of you know who have read the other books of this series, had their own establishment in New York, where they developed and printed their films.

What Blake meant by "weeklies" was a certain feature much used in moving picture houses. Important current events of the week, big accidents, volcanic eruptions, war scenes—in fact, anything in which the public is interested—are registered on the sensitive celluloid, and sent around to the theaters which take the service of the weekly film. It is, in brief, a moving picture newspaper, and our two heroes had made considerable money in the past in supplying films for this purpose.

A little later the film of the fire was being developed, ready for printing, and Blake had secured, over the telephone, a number of orders. These were turned over to their assistants, for the two youths could not do all the work themselves, and had a number of employes.

"Well, now that's done," said Joe, with a sigh of satisfaction. "We'd better be getting down to see Mr. Ringold, I guess."

"Yes," agreed Blake, looking at his watch. "And I want something to eat, too. It's past


text: A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Fu Têng


text:
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Rh ten o'clock, and we haven't had supper yet."

"That's right!" cried Joe. "I forgot all about it."

"My stomach didn't," laughed Blake.

An hour later, after a hasty meal, they reached the office of Mr. Ringold, whom they found talking to Mr. Piper.

"I was just going to telephone around, and get the police on your trail," said the gloomy comedian. "I was afraid something had happened to you. Did there?"

"Oh, nothing much," spoke Joe, with a smile. "But what is the news, Mr. Ringold? Have you heard any word from any of your people in the flooded district?"

"No, I haven't, I'm sorry to say, though I've tried all the means in my power. It is almost impossible to get messages through, and receive a reply. The wires are nearly all down. The only way is for us to go out there. I'm glad you boys came on."

"We started as soon as we could," explained Blake. "I guess Mr. Piper told you how we stopped to film the fire; didn't he?"

"Yes," replied the film theatrical manager. "And now, how soon can you start for the flooded district?"

"Just as soon as we can get our cameras


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36 ready, and provide for a supply of film—in the morning," answered Joe.

"Good! Then we'll start. We've got hard work and some danger ahead of us."

"We're used to that—especially the danger," remarked Joe. "I guess it won't be much worse than it was in earthquake land."

"I should hope not!" murmured Mr. Piper. "I don't like this idea at all. I'm sure something is going to happen!"

"You're nervous!" cried Mr. Ringold, "and I don't blame you, either. This news has gotten on my nerves. When I think of how my friends may be suffering, it makes me wild to get out there, and help them."

"Same here!" exclaimed Blake, and I think he and Joe had a similar thought then, and the same memory of a pretty, blue-eyed girl—Birdie Lee.

The two moving picture boys spent several hours getting their cameras and equipment ready for the start the next morning, and when they tumbled into bed they "didn't need to be sung to sleep," as Blake put it.

As several of the completed films of the Western dramas had been lost in the flood, Mr. Ringold decided to have others made, and to accomplish this he would have to hire more players.


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Rh But he thought he could engage them in the West, and so, save for a few leading characters, like Mr. Piper, he took only a few actors and actresses with him.

"We'll, [sic] we're off," murmured Joe, as, the next day, he and Blake took their places in the train that was to bear them to the West, and the flood.

"Yes, we're off, and there's no telling what may happen before we get back," answered his chum, seriously.


text: The Moving Picture Boys and the Flood/Chapter 4


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 enlisted in his behalf the services of others who could assist him in prosecuting the study of art. The boy was diligent, painstaking, staid, and silent, mixing little with his companions, and forming but few intimacies. About the year 1830, some gentlemen of the town provided him with the means of proceeding to Edinburgh, where he was admitted a student at the Scottish Academy. There he had the advantage of studying under competent masters, and the progress which he made was rapid. From Edinburgh he removed to London, where, we understand, he had the advantage of being introduced to notice under the patronage of the Duke of Buccleuch. We need scarcely say, however, that of whatever use patronage may have been to Thorburn in giving him an introduction to the best circles, patronage of no kind could have made him the great artist that he unquestionably is, without native genius and diligent application.

Noel Paton, the well-known painter, began his artistic career at Dunfermline and Paisley, as a drawer of patterns for table-cloths and muslin embroidered by hand: meanwhile working diligently at higher subjects, including the drawing of the human figure. He was, like Turner, ready to turn his hand to any kind of work, and in 1840, when a mere youth, we find him engaged, among his other labours, in illustrating the 'Renfrewshire Annual.' He worked his way step by step, slowly yet surely; but he remained unknown until the exhibition of the prize cartoons painted for the houses of Parliament, when his picture of the 'Spirit of Religion' (for which he obtained one of the first prizes) revealed him to the world as a genuine artist; and the works which he has since


text: A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Chu Ch'ang-lo


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 exhibited—such as the 'Reconciliation of Oberon and Titania,' 'Home,' and 'The Bluidy Tryste'—have shown a steady advance in artistic power and culture.

Another striking exemplification of perseverance and industry in the cultivation of art in humble life is presented in the career of James Sharples, a working blacksmith at Blackburn. He was born at Wakefield in Yorkshire, in 1825, one of a family of thirteen children. His father was a working ironfounder, and removed to Bury to follow his business. The boys received no school education, but were all sent to work as soon as they were able; and at about ten James was placed in a foundry, where he was employed for about two years as smithy-boy. After that he was sent into the engine-shop where his father worked as engine-smith. The boy's employment was to heat and carry rivets for the boiler-makers. Though his hours of labour were very long—often from six in the morning until eight at night—his father contrived to give him some little teaching after working hours; and it was thus that he partially learned his letters. An incident occurred in the course of his employment among the boiler-makers which first awakened in him the desire to learn drawing. He had occasionally been employed by the foreman to hold the chalked line with which he made the designs of boilers upon the floor of the workshop; and on such occasions the foreman was accustomed to hold the line, and direct the boy to make the necessary dimensions. James soon became so expert at this as to be of considerable service to the foreman; and in his leisure hours at home his great delight was to practise drawing


text: A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Chu Chi-wêng


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 at home. In this he soon succeeded; and when he again entered the Institute and took out 'Burnet' a second time, he was not only able to read it, but to make written extracts for further use. So ardently did he study the volume, that he used to rise at four o'clock in the morning to read it and copy out passages; after which he went to the foundry at six, worked until six and sometimes eight in the evening, and returned home to enter with fresh zest upon the study of Burnet, which he continued often until a late hour. Parts of his nights were also occupied in drawing and making copies of drawings. On one of these—a copy of Leonardo da Vinci's 'Last Supper'—he spent an entire night. He went to bed indeed, but his mind was so engrossed with the subject that he could not sleep, and rose again to resume his pencil.

He next proceeded to try his hand at painting in oil, for which purpose he procured some canvas from a draper, stretched it on a frame, coated it over with white lead, and began painting on it with colours bought from a house-painter. But his work proved a total failure; for the canvas was rough and knotty, and the paint would not dry. In his extremity he applied to his old teacher, the barber, from whom he first learnt that prepared canvas was to be had, and that there were colours and varnishes made for the special purpose of oil-painting. As soon, therefore, as his means would allow, he bought a small stock of the necessary articles and began afresh,—his amateur master showing him how to paint; and the pupil succeeded so well that he excelled the master's copy. His first picture was a copy from an engraving called 'Sheep-shearing,' and was afterwards sold by him


text: A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Chu Chan-chi


text:
Index talk:Duck and Cover 1440 x 1080 01836081.webm

Songs
Text between "♫" are sung lyrics. M-le-mot-dit (talk) 09:04, 25 February 2024 (UTC)


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 folks took hold, I persuaded them to sell it to me. There wasn't such a lot—maybe a hundred volumes altogether—but I wanted what there was. And as they were of no interest to them, they sold 'em. That's some months ago. I put all the books in a corner—and I never really examined them until this very afternoon. Then—by this afternoon's post—I got a letter from a Barford man who's now out in America. He wanted to know if I could supply him with a nice copy of Hopkinson's History of Barford. I knew there was one in that Mallathorpe collection, so I got it out, and examined it. And in the pocket inside, in which there's a map, I found—what d'ye think?"

"Couldn't say," replied Pratt. He was still thinking of his dinner, and of an important engagement to follow it, and he had not the least idea that old Antony Bartle was going to tell him anything very important.

"Letters? Bank-notes? Something of that sort?"

The old bookseller leaned nearer, across the corner of the desk, until his queer, wrinkled face was almost close to Pratt's sharp, youthful one. Again he lifted the claw-like finger: again he tapped the clerk's arm.

"I found John Mallathorpe's will!" he whispered. "His—will!"

Linford Pratt jumped out of his chair. For a second he stared in speechless amazement at the old man; then he plunged his hands deep into his trousers' pockets, opened his mouth, and let out a sudden exclamation.

"No!" he said. "No! John Mallathorpe's—will? His—will!"


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 "Made the very day on which he died," answered Bartle, nodding emphatically.

"Queer, wasn't it? He might have had some—premonition, eh?"

Pratt sat down again.

"Where is it?" he asked.

"Here in my pocket," replied the old bookseller, tapping his rusty coat. "Oh, it's all right, I assure you. All duly made out, signed, and witnessed. Everything in order, I know!—because a long, a very long time ago, I was like you, an attorney's clerk. I've drafted many a will, and witnessed many a will, in my time. I've read this, every word of it—it's all right. Nothing can upset it."

"Let's see it," said Pratt, eagerly.

"Well—I've no objection—I know you, of course," answered Bartle, "but I'd rather show it first to Mr. Eldrick. Couldn't you telephone up to his house and ask him to run back here?"

"Certainly," replied Pratt. "He mayn't be there, though. But I can try. You haven't shown it to anybody else?"

"Neither shown it to anybody, nor mentioned it to a soul," said Bartle. "I tell you it's not much more than half an hour since I found it. It's not a long document. Do you know how it is that it's never come out?" he went on, turning eagerly to Pratt, who had risen again. "It's easily explained. The will's witnessed by those two men who were killed at the same time as John Mallathorpe! So, of course, there was nobody to say that it was in


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 for half-a-crown. Aided by a shilling 'Guide to Oil-painting,' he went on working in his leisure hours, and gradually acquired a better knowledge of his materials. He made his own easel and palette, palette-knife, and paint-chest; he bought his paint, brushes, and canvas, as he could raise the money by working over-time. This was the slender fund which his parents consented to allow him for the purpose; the burden of supporting a very large family precluding them from doing more. Often he would walk to Manchester and back in the evenings to buy two or three shillings' worth of paint and canvas, returning almost at midnight, after his eighteen miles' walk, sometimes wet through and completely exhausted, but borne up throughout by his inexhaustible hope and invincible determination. The further progress of the self-taught artist is best narrated in his own words, as communicated by him in a letter to the author:—

"The next pictures I painted," he says, "were a 'Landscape by Moonlight,' a 'Fruitpiece,' and one or two others; after which I conceived the idea of painting 'The Forge.' I had for some time thought about it, but had not attempted to embody the conception in a drawing. I now, however, made a sketch of the subject upon paper, and then proceeded to paint it on canvas. The picture simply represents the interior of a large workshop such as I have been accustomed to work in, although not of any particular shop. It is, therefore, to this extent, an original conception. Having made an outline of the subject, I found that, before I could proceed with it successfully, a knowledge of anatomy was indispensable to enable me accurately to delineate the muscles of the figures. My brother


text: Page:Poems on slavery (IA poemsonslavery00long).pdf/29


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 Peter came to my assistance at this juncture, and kindly purchased for me Flaxman's 'Anatomical Studies,'—a work altogether beyond my means at the time, for it cost twenty-four shillings. This book I looked upon as a great treasure, and I studied it laboriously, rising at three o'clock in the morning to draw after it, and occasionally getting my brother Peter to stand for me as a model at that untimely hour. Although I gradually improved myself by this practice, it was some time before I felt sufficient confidence to go on with my picture. I also felt hampered by my want of knowledge of perspective, which I endeavoured to remedy by carefully studying Brook Taylor's 'Principles'; and shortly after I resumed my painting. While engaged in the study of perspective at home, I used to apply for and obtain leave to work at the heavier kinds of smith work at the foundry, and for this reason—the time required for heating the heaviest iron work is so much longer than that required for heating the lighter, that it enabled me to secure a number of spare minutes in the course of the day, which I carefully employed in making diagrams in perspective upon the sheet iron casing in front of the hearth at which I worked."

Thus assiduously working and studying, James Sharples steadily advanced in his knowledge of the principles of art, and acquired greater facility in its practice. Some eighteen months after the expiry of his apprenticeship he painted a portrait of his father, which attracted considerable notice in the town; as also did the picture of 'The Forge,' which he finished soon after. His success in portrait-painting obtained for him a commission from the foreman of the shop to paint a family group, and


text: Page:Poems on slavery (IA poemsonslavery00long).pdf/30


text: Author:William Horsley

title: Author:William Horsley


text: Page:Poems on slavery (IA poemsonslavery00long).pdf/31


text: Author:Rowland Huw Prichard

title: Author:Rowland Huw Prichard


text: Page:Poems on slavery (IA poemsonslavery00long).pdf/32


text: Author:Heinrich Isaac

title: Author:Heinrich Isaac


text: Page:Poems on slavery (IA poemsonslavery00long).pdf/33


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 Sharples executed it so well that the foreman not only paid him the agreed price of eighteen pounds, but thirty shillings to boot. While engaged on this group, he ceased to work at the foundry, and he had thoughts of giving up his trade altogether and devoting himself exclusively to painting. He proceeded to paint several pictures, amongst others a head of Christ, an original conception, life-size, and a view of Bury; but not obtaining sufficient employment at portraits to occupy his time, or give him the prospect of a steady income, he had the good sense to resume his leather apron, and go on working at his honest trade of a blacksmith; employing his leisure hours in engraving his picture of 'The Forge,' since published. He was induced to commence the engraving by the following circumstance. A Manchester picture-dealer, to whom he showed the painting, let drop the observation, that in the hands of a skilful engraver it would make a very good print. Sharples immediately conceived the idea of engraving it himself, though altogether ignorant of the art. The difficulties which he encountered and successfully overcame in carrying out his project are thus described by himself:—

"I had seen an advertisement of a Sheffield steel-plate maker, giving a list of the prices at which he supplied plates of various sizes, and, fixing upon one of suitable dimensions, I remitted the amount, together with a small additional sum for which I requested him to send me a few engraving tools. I could not specify the articles wanted, for I did not then know anything about the process of engraving. However, there duly arrived with the plate three or four gravers and


text: Page:Poems on slavery (IA poemsonslavery00long).pdf/34


text: Page:Poems on slavery (IA poemsonslavery00long).pdf/35


text: Author:Melchior Vulpius

title: Author:Melchior Vulpius


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 taining soda, and afterwards rubbing the engraved parts with a tooth-brush; and to my delight found the plan succeeded perfectly. My greatest difficulties now over, patience and perseverance were all that were needed to bring my labours to a successful issue. I had neither advice nor assistance from any one in finishing the plate. If, therefore, the work possess any merit, I can claim it as my own; and if in its accomplishment I have contributed to show what can be done by persevering industry and determination, it is all the honour I wish to lay claim to."

It would be beside our purpose to enter upon any criticism of 'The Forge' as an engraving, its merits having been already fully recognized by the art journals. The execution of the work occupied Sharples's leisure evening hours during a period of five years; and it was only when he took the plate to the printer that he for the first time saw an engraved plate produced by any other man. To this unvarnished picture of industry and genius we add one other trait, and it is a domestic one. "I have been married seven years," says he, "and during that time my greatest pleasure, after I had finished my daily labour at the foundry, has been to resume my pencil or graver, frequently until a late hour in the evening, my wife meanwhile sitting by my side and reading to me from some interesting book,"—a simple but beautiful testimony to the thorough common sense as well as the genuine right-heartedness of this most interesting and deserving workman.

The same industry and application which we have found to be necessary in order to acquire excellence in painting and sculpture are equally


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text: Page:Poems on slavery (IA poemsonslavery00long).pdf/37


text: Author:Joseph Mainzer

title: Author:Joseph Mainzer


text: Page:Poems on slavery (IA poemsonslavery00long).pdf/38


text: Page:Poems on slavery (IA poemsonslavery00long).pdf/39


text: Author:Johann Anastasius Freylinghausen

title: Author:Johann Anastasius Freylinghausen


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 required in the sister art of music—the one being the poetry of form and colour, the other of the sounds of nature. Handel was an indefatigable and constant worker; he was never cast down by defeat, but his energy seemed to increase the more that adversity struck him. When a prey to his mortifications as an insolvent debtor, he did not give way for a moment, but in one year produced his 'Saul,' 'Israel,' the music for Dryden's 'Ode,' his 'Twelve Grand Concertos,' and the opera of 'Jupiter in Argos,' among the finest of his works. As his biographer says of him, "He braved everything, and, by his unaided self, accomplished the work of twelve men."

Haydn, speaking of his art, said, "It consists in taking up a subject and pursuing it." "Work," said Mozart, "is my chief pleasure." Beethoven's favourite maxim was, "The barriers are not erected which can say to aspiring talents and industry, Thus far and no farther." When Moscheles submitted his score of 'Fidelio' for the pianoforte to Beethoven, the latter found written at the bottom of the last page, "Finis, with God's help." Beethoven immediately wrote underneath, "O man! help thyself!" This was the motto of his artistic life. John Sebastian Bach said of himself, "I was industrious; whoever is equally sedulous, will be equally successful." But there is no doubt that Bach was born with a passion for music, which formed the mainspring of his industry, and was the true secret of his success. When a mere youth, his elder brother, wishing to turn his abilities in another direction, destroyed a collection of studies which the young Sebastian, being denied candles, had copied by moonlight; proving the strong


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 natural bent of the boy's genius. Of Meyerbeer, Bayle thus wrote from Milan in 1820:—"He is a man of some talent, but no genius; he lives solitary, working fifteen hours a day at music." Years passed, and Meyerbeer's hard work fully brought out his genius, as displayed in his 'Roberto,' 'Huguenots,' 'Prophète,' and other works, confessedly amongst the greatest operas which have been produced in modern times.

Although musical composition is not an art in which Englishmen have as yet greatly distinguished themselves, their energies having for the most part taken other and more practical directions, we are not without native illustrations of the power of perseverance in this special pursuit. Arne was an upholsterer's son, intended by his father for the legal profession; but his love of music was so great, that he could not be withheld from pursuing it. While engaged in an attorney's office, his means were very limited, but, to gratify his tastes, he was accustomed to borrow a livery and go into the gallery of the Opera, then appropriated to domestics. Unknown to his father he made great progress with the violin, and the first knowledge his father had of the circumstance was when accidentally calling at the house of a neighbouring gentleman, to his surprise and consternation he found his son playing the leading instrument with a party of musicians. This incident decided the fate of Arne. His father offered no further opposition to his wishes; and the world thereby lost a lawyer, but gained a musician of much taste and delicacy of feeling, who added many valuable works to our stores of English music.

The career of the late William Jackson, author


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 of 'The Deliverance of Israel,' an oratorio which has been successfully performed in the principal towns of his native county of York, furnishes an interesting illustration of the triumph of perseverance over difficulties in the pursuit of musical science. He was the son of a miller at Masham, a little town situated in the valley of the Yore, in the north-west corner of Yorkshire. Musical taste seems to have been hereditary in the family, for his father played the fife in the band of the Masham Volunteers, and was a singer in the parish choir. His grandfather also was leading singer and ringer at Masham Church; and one of the boy's earliest musical treats was to be present at the bell-pealing on Sunday mornings. During the service, his wonder was still more excited by the organist's performance on the barrel-organ, the doors of which were thrown open behind to let the sound fully into the church, by which the stops, pipes, barrels, staples, keyboard, and jacks were fully exposed, to the wonderment of the little boys sitting in the gallery behind, and to none more than our young musician. At eight years of age he began to play upon his father's old fife, which, however, would not sound D; but his mother remedied the difficulty by buying for him a one-keyed flute; and shortly after a gentleman presented him with a flute with four silver keys. As the boy made no progress with his "book learning," being fonder of cricket, fives, and boxing than of his school lessons—the village schoolmaster giving him up as "a bad job"—his parents sent him off to a school at Pateley Bridge. While there he found congenial society in a club of village choral singers at Brighouse Gate, and with them he learnt the sol-faing gamut


text: Author:Hugh Wilson

title: Author:Hugh Wilson


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 WORKS

PUBLISHED BY JOHN OWEN,

CAMBRIDGE.

I.

VOICES OF THE NIGHT,

HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW.

6th Edition. 16mo, Boards.

II.

THE SAME.

Royal 8vo. Fine paper. Boards.

III.

BALLADS AND OTHER POEMS.

BY

HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW,

AUTHOR OF "VOICES OF THE NIGHT," "HYPERION," ETC.

4th Edition. 16mo. Boards.

IV.

THE SAME.

Royal 8vo. Fine paper. Boards.


text:
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 V.

THE

HISTORY

OF

HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

Br JOSIAH QUINCY, LL, D.,

PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY,

2 Vols. Royal 8vo. Cloth. 21 Engravings.

VI.

AN INQUIRY

INTO THE

FOUNDATION, EVIDENCES, AND TRUTHS

OF

RELIGION.

By HENRY WARE, D. D.,

LATE HOLLIS PROFESSOR OF DIVINITY IN HARVARD COLLEGE.

2 Vols. 12mo. Cloth.


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 VII.

THE CLOUDS OF ARISTOPHANES.

WITH NOTES.

By C. C. FELTON,

ELIOT PROFESSOR OF GREEK LITERATURE IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

12mo. Cloth.

VIII.

PROF. LIEBIG'S REPORT ON ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.

PART I. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.

CHEMISTRY

IN ITS

APPLICATION TO AGRICULTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY.

BY

JUSTUS LIEB1G, M.D., Ph. D., F. R. S., M. R. I. A.,

PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GIESSEN, ETC.

EDITED FROM THE MANUSCRIPT OF THE AUTHOR,

By LYON PLAYFAIR, Ph.D.

WITH VERY NUMEROUS ADDITIONS, AND A NEW CHAPTER ON SOILS.

THIRD AMERICAN, FROM THE SECOND ENGLISH EDITION,

WITH NOTES AND APPENDIX,

By JOHN W. WEBSTER, M.D.,

ERVING PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

12mo. Cloth.


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 IX.

PART II. ANIMAL CHEMISTRY,

ANIMAL CHEMISTRY,

OR ORGANIC CHEMISTRY IN ITS

APPLICATION TO PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY.

BY

JUSTUS LIEDIG, M D., Ph. D., F. R. S, M. R. I. A.,

PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GIESSEN, ETC.

EDITED FROM THE AUTHOR'S MANUSCRIPT,

By WILLIAM GREGORY, M. D., F R.S E., M. R. I. A.,

PROFESSOR OF MEDICINE AND CHEMISTRY IN THE UNIVERSITY AND KING'S COLLEGE, ABERDEEN.

WITH ADDITIONS, NOTES, AND CORRECTIONS,

By DR. GREGORY,

AND OTHERS

By JOHN W. WEBSTER, M. D.,

ERVING PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

12mo. Cloth.

X.

A NARRATIVE OF VOYAGES

AND

COMMERCIAL ENTERPRISES.

By RICHARD J. CLEVELAND.

2 Vols. 12mo. Cloth.


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 XI.

LECTURES ON MODERN HISTORY,

FROM

THE IRRUPTION OF THE NORTHERN NATIONS

TO THE

CLOSE OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.

By WILLIAM SMYTH,

PROFESSOR OF MODERN HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE.

FROM THE SECOND LONDON EDITION,

WITH A PREFACE, LIST OF BOOKS ON AMERICAN HISTORY, &c.,

By JARED SPARKS, LL. D.,

PROFESSOR OF ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

2 Vols. 8vo. Cloth.

XII.

HENRY OF OFTERDINGEN:

A ROMANCE.

FROM THE GERMAN OF

NOVALIS (FRIEDRICH VON MARDENBERG).

12mo. Cloth.


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 WORKS IN PRESS.

I.

A TREATISE ON MINERALOGY,

ON THE BASIS OF THOMSON'S OUTLINES,

WITH NUMEROUS ADDITIONS;

COMPRISING

THE DESCRIPTION OF ALL THE NEW AMERICAN AND FOREIGN MINERALS, THEIR LOCALITIES, &c.

DESIGNED AS A TEXT-BOOK FOR STUDENTS, TRAVELLERS, AND PERSONS ATTENDING LECTURES ON THE SCIENCE.

By JOHN W. WEBSTER, M. D.,

ERVING PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY IN MARVARD UNIVERSITY.

8vo.

II.

THE EVIDENCES

OF THE

GENUINENESS OF THE GOSPELS.

BY ANDREWS NORTON.

Vols. II. & III.

BEING THE COMPLETION OF THE WORK.

8vo.


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 III.

THE SPANISH STUDENT.

A DRAMA: IN THREE ACTS.

BY

HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW,

AUTHOR OF "VOICES OF THE NIGHT," "HYPERION," ETC.

16mo.


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Rh are in this vicinity, all of them in the ancient Indian style of signs and picture writing. One of these pictures represents four men rolling a heavy circular stone, by a stick placed through a hole in the centre, back and forth over a quantity of corn, and described as the Wampanoag national grinding mill, where corn was ground for war parties or for any large public gathering of the people.

"The locality of the place was so plainly stated that Mr. Loring had no difficulty in finding it. It is at the place called King's Rocks" in Warren, near the Swansea line about two miles from the village. On the west side of the mass of rocks is a nearly level smooth surface of rock about twenty-five feet by eight feet in width. In this level place are three regular, narrow, straight depressions. They appear evidently to have been worn into the rock by some forcible attrition, and are, in fact, just such hollows as might be made by the cause assigned.

"These worn places have heretofore attracted notice and speculation, but the true cause of their existence has not before been known by late generations, and the idea of a national grinding mill, or of pulverizing corn by a rolling stone in connection with Indian history will probably be new to every one.

"As confirmatory of the locality, Mr. Loring says the picture has upon it another hill of somewhat peculiar appearance (a large rock upon the summit) situated about a mile east of the grinding place, named, he thinks Wigwam Hill. Leading from this hill towards the setting sun are two hundred and forty human steps, the line of steps terminating in three skulls which denotes a burial place. Mr. Loring visited the hill (now called Margaret's Hill from the last Indian woman who resided there) and pacing off 240 steps


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26 to the Narragansett country. The government decided to deal peremptorily with him and, accordingly, Josias Winslow, then Major Commandant of the Colonial militia, was depatched to bring him to Plymouth by force. Winslow and his party came upon the sachem, suddenly, at a hunting lodge near Munponset Pond in the present town of Halifax, Mass.; and, when Alexander declined to accede to the Court's demand, Winslow presented a loaded pistol at his breast threatening him with instant death if he persisted in his refusal. Alexander and followers were almost helpless, their guns which had been stacked outside the lodge having been seized by the English before entering, and consequently, after a parley, and at the earnest entreaty of his people, the sachem yielded to the inevitable and, accompanied by his wife and a long train of warriors and squaws began the march towards Plymouth. Upon reaching Duxbury he was entertained at Major Winslow's house, pending the arrival of orders from Governor Prince who resided at Eastham. But the haughty spirit of the Wampanoag king could ill brook the humiliation of arrest and imprisonment, and Alexander was soon smitten with a raging fever induced by grief and anger. The best medical skill was summoned to attend him, but he sank rapidly, and his terrified followers, believing him poisoned by the English, entreated to be allowed to carry him to Mt. Hope, promising to return with him as soon as he should recover and offering to send his son as a hostage. Their request was granted and with all possible speed they started on the homeward journey. They bore their chief on a litter until they reached Titicut where they embarked in canoes, but had proceeded only a short distance down the river ere they perceived that he was dying. They immediately drew their frail barks to the shore, lifted him


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22 to "sell his birthright," is a question more easily asked than answered; gratitude probably influenced him, in part. He never forgot that he owed his life to his English allies. Possibly, too, the wise statesman, realizing the superiority of the white man's civilization, believed his people would be benefitted by closer relationship with them. He is said to have warned his sons that if they ever engaged in war against the English they would meet with defeat.

The Sowams proprietors did not immediately enter into possession of their entire purchase. By a clause in the "Grand Deed of Saile," they were restrained from occupying "the neck" (i. e. Mount Hope Neck ) until such time as the Indians should remove therefrom, the term "neck" as used, however, really signifying only the "uplands," or central portion of what now constitutes Warren and Bristol. The meadows (i. e. marshes) on either side the "great river," (Sowams River), Kickemuit River, and in and about Poppasquash and Chachacust were the only portions of the territory which actually passed into their hands at the date of sale. These they at once proceeded to divide. The boundaries of the several "lots" are plainly described in the "Records of Sowams and Parts Adjacent" and may be easily traced on a map of Bristol County, R. I. The lots apportioned within the limits of Indian and English Sowams fell to the share of Captain Miles Standish, Experience Mitchell, Resolved and Peregrine White, Thomas Willett, John Adams, Thomas Prince, and John and Josiah Winslow.

The lot of Captain Standish included the marshes on both sides of Kickemuit River from the source of the stream to "the passage where they have usually gone over with canoes"


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20 muit Spring. The soil in the vicinity of this spring is mixed with oyster, clam, and quahaug shells to the depth of several feet, and from it various aboriginal implements have at different periods been exhumed. It is evident that an Indian village once occupied the locality.

The main trail winding from Kickemuit to Sowarns was intersected by shorter paths leading to various sections of Pokanoket. The Metacom Avenue of today, familiarly known as the "Back Road," is identical with the trail worn by moccasined feet in travelling to and from Mount Hope. Another trail closely following the lines of the present Kickemuit Road, School House Road, and Swansea Road, led to what is now North Swansea, and passed the "national grinding mill" of the Wampanoags, a large flat rock located on the west side of the Swansea Road at a point very near the


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 Chesterfield did when he wrote, "ADAM de Stanhope—EVE de Stanhope." No class is ever long stationary. The mighty fall, and the humble are exalted. New families take the place of the old, who disappear among the ranks of the common people. Burke's 'Vicissitudes of Families' strikingly exhibits this rise and fall of families, and shows that the misfortunes which overtake the rich and noble are greater in proportion than those which overwhelm the poor. This author points out that of the twenty-five barons selected to enforce the observance of Magna Charta, there is not now in the House of Peers a single male descendant. Civil wars and rebellions ruined many of the old nobility and dispersed their families. Yet their descendants in many cases survive, and are to be found among the ranks of the people. Fuller wrote in his 'Worthies,' that "some who justly hold the surnames of Bohuns, Mortimers, and Plantagenets, are hid in the heap of common men." Thus Burke shows that two of the lineal descendants of the Earl of Kent, sixth son of Edward I., were discovered in a butcher and a toll-gatherer; that the great grandson of Margaret Plantagenet, daughter of the Duke of Clarence, sank to the condition of a cobbler at Newport, in Shropshire; and that among the lineal descendants of the Duke of Gloucester, son of Edward III., was the late sexton of St. George's, Hanover Square. It is understood that the lineal descendant of Simon de Montfort, England's premier baron, is a saddler in Tooley Street. One of the descendants of the "Proud Percys," a claimant of the title of Duke of Northumberland, was a Dublin trunk-maker; and not many years since one of the claimants for the title


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36 sachem of Seaconnet (Little Compton, R. I.), sold "land in Swansea called Towsett," to Nathaniel Paine. In the early records of Swansea Touiset is generally termed "The Sheep Pasture." It was laid out in 106 lots which were divided among the Swansea proprietors in 1686. In July 1675, a great concourse of Philip's warriors gathered at Touiset, near the "narrows" of the Kickemuit River, "to eat clams, other provisions being scarce." Captain Benjamin Church, then at Pocasset (Tiverton), greatly desired to surprise and capture this body of the enemy; but, as he had peremptory orders to proceed from Pocasset directly to Mt. Hope, he was compelled to allow them to remain unmolested.

After the close of Philip's war, the remnant of the Wampanoags fled to Maine, and ultimately became merged in the Penobscot tribe. Up to half a century ago, parties of Penobscot Indians were in the habit of making periodical visits to Warren, camping for several days in various parts of the town. Before returning to Maine, they invariably paid a visit of a few hours to what is known as the "Hicks' Farm" on Touiset Neck, though for what purpose this particular locality was visited they never divulged.

, the "National Grinding Mill" of the Wampanoags. The following article, contributed by Gen. Guy M. Fessenden, appeared in the "Warren Telegraph" issue of June 2, 1860.

"Mr. Editor: An interesting discovery in reference to the aboriginal history of this town has recently been made. Mr. Francis Loring, an intelligent Indian, and a member of the Penobscot tribe, who has been in this vicinity for several weeks, informed the writer that the tribe had in their possession, and which they carefully preserved among their national archives, an ancient book made of skins, containing many descriptions of important historical localities, some of which


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Rh In Roger Williams' "Key" occurs the word "paponaumsuog" which is thus denned: "A winter fish which comes up in the brooks and rivulets; some call them frost fish from their coming up from the sea into fresh brooks in time of frost and snow." Every one familar with Warren River is aware of the fact that, with the arrival of cold weather, great quantities of frost fish appear in its waters, swarming close to both the Barrington and Warren shores. The similarity of the two words " Popanomscut " and "paponaumsuog" suggests the question: May not the former word have been derived from the latter, and may not its meaning be "place of frost fish" or some

Popanomscut was laid out and divided among the proprietors between 1676 and 1680.

Chachapacaset. Rumstick Neck in Barrington. The name Rumstick was applied to the neck in 1697, and at first only to a locality as "Rumstick on Chachapacaset." Some authorities believe the word Rumstick to be of Norse origin.

. The south-west point of Barrington.

. It runs from the brickyard at Nayatt into Narragansett Bay.

. That section of Barrington now known as Drownville.

. Located at the upper end of Chachapacasset.

. This flows into Bullock's Cove at Riverside.

. Poppasquash, though originally used to indicate the entire western part of Bristol, is now only applied to a small peninsula surrounded by the waters of Bristol harbor on the east and Narragansett Bay on the west.

The "." The swamp at Mount Hope where King Philip was slain August 12, 1676.


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38 west came to an Indian cemetery, which he verified by digging, and finding human remains. "

Mr. Francis Loring, known also by the name " Big Thunder" is now living, at an advanced age, on Indian Old Town Island, Maine, and is the custodian of the Penobscot tribe. The writer recently learned from him that the "ancient book made of skins" alluded to by General Fessenden was, a few years ago, accidentally destroyed by fire.

The Penobscot language contains several words which are undoubtedly of Wampanoag or Narragansett origin. This tribe regard Warren, R. I., as the former home of Massasoit. They translate the word Sowams, "Place of the Setting Sun."

Wannamoisett. The northern part of Barrington extending into Seekonk, and including Bullock's Point and Riverside. It was purchased of the Indians by John Brown, 1645. Became a part of Swansea, 1668.

. The neck of land lying between Barrington and Warren, or Palmer's Rivers. Called by the English, New Meadow Neck, or the New Meadows. Under the date December 7, 1647, the "New Meadows " are referred to, in the Plymouth Records, as being "on the west side of Sowams River" which proves that Sowams River and Warren River are identical. King Philip claimed that a portion of Chachacust was not included in the sale of "Sowams and Parts Adjacent," and the English purchased his right in 1668.

. The southerly section of Barrington. It was called by the English "Phebe's Neck," and appears to have been the abode of Pebee, or Thebe, a petty Wampanoag sachem, and one of Philip's counsellors. Thebe was killed by the English July 2, 1675. At the close of Philip's war Plymouth Colony claimed Popanomscut as "conquered land," but the Sowams' proprietors succeeded in establishing their right to the tract under the provisions of the "Grand Deed of Saile" of "Sowams and Parts Adjacent."


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 faïence, covered with three varieties of glaze, light green, grey, and greenish white. These were apparently of Chinese manufacture, and may, perhaps, be regarded as genuine examples of the Yueh-yao of the Tang dynasty, the principal varieties of which, as stated above, are compared to jade and ice. Theories founded on fragments of ware thus discovered are, however, open to much doubt. More satisfactory evidence is furnished by a book (Ruishu Zatsuyô-shô) in which the ceremonials observed at the Japanese Court during the ninth and tenth centuries are described. There is seen a coloured plate showing seven rice-bowls with covers (called ha-gatame, or teeth-hardeners) which were used on the first three days of the New Year. Nothing is said of the exact nature of the ware, nor does the plate determine it. But the glaze is light green—a céladon monochrome. Yet another and less uncertain piece of testimony is furnished by a celebrated collection in the Shôsô-in, at Nara, Japan. In this collection are articles used in the Japanese Imperial household between the years 709 and 784 Several keramic specimens of Chinese manufacture are included. They are faïence. The majority have monochromatic céladon glaze, but some have two glazes—céladon and yellowish grey—run in tesselated or scolloped patterns. The pâte is very brittle, and has no pretensions whatever to be called porcelain. Here then are unquestionably authentic examples of Chinese ware potted during the Tang dynasty. It may further be presumed that they are fairly representative examples, inasmuch as a very high standard of refinement was observed at the Japanese Imperial Court, and ample facilities existed for


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Rh

"I SAY, HOW ARE YOU GOING TO EXPLAIN AWAY THE SURRENDER OF YOUR ARMY CORPS IN THE CAUCASUS?"

"NOTHING SIMPLER. I SHALL SAY, 'OUR GALLANT TROOPS DETERMINED TO EMBARRASS THE ENEMY'S COMMISSARIAT, AND CARRIED OUT THEIR OBJECT WITH OVERWHELMING SUCCESS.'"

"SPLENDID! COULDN'T HAVE PUT IT BETTER MYSELF."

"MY DEAR BOY, WE WE WERE IN THE BUSINESS AGES AND AGES BEFORE YOU WERE THOUGHT OF."

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29. Literally, “his teeth.”

230. In the Völuspá, we read of a Hall of Serpents in Naströnd, one of the Icelandic hells, composed of serpents wattled together, with their heads turned inwards, vomiting floods of venom in which wade murderers, perjurers, and adulterers.

271. Literally, “the toads.”

“Seven monarchs’ wealth in that castle lies stowed;

The foul fiends brood o’er them like raven and toad.”(Scott.)

A diabolical creature, half dragon and half frog, is described in a well-known Esthonian story.

427. Tetrao tetrix, known as the Black-cock and Grey-hen.

555. Virsta, a Russian word naturalized in Finnish.

617. This description recalls the serpents of Indian mythology, such as those described in the first book of the Mahabharata.

619. Such a passage might have suggested to Longfellow the following:

“Bigger than the Big-Sea-Water,

Broader than the Gitche Gumee.”

Hiawatha, xxi.

208. Here commences a magical contest somewhat resembling the transformation scenes in the stories of the Second Calendar, and of Nooreddin and Bedreddin, in the 1001 Nights.

326. “I don’t want to have a mess made upon my floor here, or any noise or shooting.” (Tanta Coetzee, in Rider Haggard’s Jess.)

15, 16. His horse and sledge seem to have been transformed, like those of Joukahainen in Runo III.

195. In Finnish and Esthonian tales we often find persons transformed into trees and flowers; sometimes for purposes of concealment.

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January 13, 1915.

House of Lords, Wednesday, January 6th.—Judging from public form, few would imagine that Lord is a wag. Versatility in this direction triumphantly vindicated this afternoon. On approach to Christmas, House of Commons, after exceptionally long and arduous Session, adjourned till first week in February. That all very well for a frivolous miscellaneous assemblage. Under vigorous leadership of dominant opposition by Lord, Peers resolved to set example of higher devotion to public interest. Regardless of private convenience, arranged special sitting opening to-day.

Procedure unprecedented. Not unusual for Commons to sit while Lord make holiday. In long course of Parliamentary history contrary course unknown.

Some embarrassment at first in face of persistent questioning as to Why and Wherefore. Last week official explanation forthcoming. Announcement made that House was summoned primarily with intention of providing with opportunity of making important statement as to actual situation and immediate prospects of the war.

This quite reasonable, indeed very desirable. Country growing increasingly impatient at being kept in the dark as to the progress of affairs in Flanders on the plea of military necessity for secretiveness. Now provided with exceptional opportunity, would sweep away all clouds of doubt and ignorance. Of course with due reticence in hearing of the enemy, would take into his confidence the common people who provide blood and money for carrying on the gigantic struggle.

In anticipation of this lifting of the veil House crowded in measure reached only at great political crises. As usual on such occasions, side galleries flecked with Peeresses. But what ominous change in their appearance! The gay colours of other times are changed for monotony of deepest mourning. Black is the only wear.

K. of K. rose promptly on the stroke of half-past four, when public business is entered upon. Producing a bundle of MS. he bent his head over it and proceeded at the double to get through it. Noble Lords behind him and on back benches opposite found it difficult to follow the story.

Gradually point of little joke dawned upon them. Here were the benches thronged with expectant Peers, and all the world listening at the door for a message. That all very natural. But it was not an affair of K.'s initiative or arrangement. He was expected to make a speech, and it is a soldier's duty to obey orders. But if any supposed he was going to be more communicative that is the fasion established under the rule of the Censor they would find themselves sharply undecived.

Turning to survey the Western theatre of the War, he remarked, "During the month of December the Allied Forces have made progress at various points." Chilling silence following upon enunciation of this familiar generality, he added, "The tide of battle has ebbed and flowed with varying success to either side." Facing about to view the situation Eastward,

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276

242. “Grass-widows” are probably intended.

253-268. Even this old woman did not appeal to him in vain. We might compare with this passage Byron’s Don Juan, VIII., cxxxi., cxxxii.

175, 187. Literally, “nails.”

185. Pakkanen, Puhurin poika. Frost, the son of the North Wind.

389. The unmanly lamentations of the heroes over a fate that has not befallen them may remind us of Grimm’s story of “Die kluge Else.” It will also be noticed that the heroes are only concerned about their mothers; and Tiera has as little thought for his virgin bride as Lemminkainen has for Kyllikki.

1. The tragedy of Kullervo is the favourite episode of the Kalevala in Finland, next to that of Aino. The preamble (lines 1-10) is the same as the opening of the Esthonian Kalevipoeg. The story of the Esthonian hero, though he was a king and not a slave, resembles that of Kullervo in so many respects that he must have been the same character originally.

19. I think the change of style, indicative of different authorship, in this episode is sufficiently obvious even in a translation. Many words used here do not occur earlier in the poem.

91-96. The same story is told of the infant Kalevipoeg.

107. Esthonians call dwarfs “Ox-knee people”; i. e. people as high as an ox’s knee.

137. Like Simple Simon.

337. It is obvious that some of the youthful exploits of Kwasind (slightly varied, after Longfellow’s manner) are imitated from those of Kullervo. (Compare also Runo XXXV., 11-68.)

24. The rye-bread, on which the Finnish peasants largely subsist, is described as baked in very hard round loaves, like quoits, which are strung on a pole. But Kullervo’s cake seems to have been prepared to look nice on the outside.

156-162. Does this refer to stories of witches milking cattle?

206. Of juniper wood.

498. Literally, an apple-berry. Probably a small crab-apple is intended.

513. I think wolves are here intended, not dogs.

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Rh 533. In the Esthonian story of the Northern Frog, the monster is secured by an iron stake driven through the jaws. (Kirby’s Hero of Esthonia, II., 253, 256.)

542. These elaborate and ineffectual prayers and incantations may be compared with the prayers of Achilles for the safety of Patroclus, in Iliad, XVI.

40. Wheat is used in the folk-songs as a term of endearment. (K. K.)

61, 62. The Esthonian Kalevipoeg was constantly instructed by the voice of birds.

285-290. In Esthonia this episode occurs in the story of the Royal Herdboy. (Hero of Esthonia, I., pp. 279-305.)

2. Are blue stockings supposed to be an emblem of strength? Ukko is also represented as wearing them. 29. “All with incredible stupendous force,

None daring to appear antagonist.”(Milton.)

65. As Kalervo appears to have been a chief in his own right, it not very clear why, or to whom, he had to pay taxes.

107, 108. The lake of course was frozen.

153. As in several other instances in the Kalevala, this does not appear to be abduction in the modern sense, but merely marriage by capture.

214. There is another celebrated poem written by a Finn, but in Swedish, Runeberg’s Kong (King) Fjalar, in which a similar chance meeting between a brother and sister forms the principal subject.

343. Sea-beasts are very rarely mentioned in the Kalevala, for nearly all aquatic animals referred to are lake- or river-fish. Here the allusion is probably to the story of Jonah.

80. Literally “the rest of his flesh.” Having regard to the supposed powers of Finnish magicians, this passage is not to be taken merely as an impudent rejoinder, but as asserting powers which Kullervo actually claimed to be able to exert.

307. In an old English romance we read concerning the suicide of a sorcerer, “The ground whereon he died was ever afterwards unfortunate, and to this present time it is called in that country, ‘a vale of walking spirits.’” (Seven Champions of Christendom, Part I., chap. xix. )

327. This reminds us of Sir Peter’s “Sword of Vengeance.” (Prior’s Danish Ballads, I., pp. 269-275.)

341. The Esthonian Kalevipoeg was also slain, like Kullervo, by his own sword. (Hero of Esthonia, I., pp. 140, 141.)

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278

56. Literally, their hatless shoulders.

61. Compare the account of the forging of the Sampo in Runo X.

94. This might allude to the Viking practice of carving the Blood-Eagle on the backs of enemies; but Prof. Krohn remarks that this was unknown in Finland.

255. Here it seems that the mere fact of Ilmarinen having carried off the girl, even against her will, was enough to constitute her his lawful wife.

273. Ilmarinen’s sword was less bloodthirsty than that of Kullervo; but it will be noticed that there is as little real chivalry in the Kalevala generally as in old Scandinavian literature.

274. Literally, “at the tips of my ten nails.”

238. Similar incidents are common in folktales. The reader will recollect the decoration of Mama, the Woodpecker. (Hiawatha, IX.)

1-3. Here again we notice a difference of expression, indicating a different authorship.

52. “Mistress of the mighty spell.” (Southey.)

146. Compare Runo XX., lines 17-118.

295. Literally, his finger-bones.

403. Perhaps the cap had ear-flaps to be worn in bad weather.

37, 38. This seems to be meant ironically.

115-120. This, or something similar, is a common device for impeding a pursuer in European fairy tales.

177. Pohjan eukko. Another epithet for Louhi.

383, 384. The Sampo being not only an unfailing corn, salt, and money-mill, but a palladium of general prosperity, Pohjola would naturally fall into famine and misery when nothing remained but an almost worthless fragment of the cover. It is possible that the story may refer to some great and permanent change for the worse of the climate of the North; either during the storms and earthquakes of the fourteenth century, which would connect it with the plague described in Runo XLV.; or perhaps to a much earlier period, when, as old Persian books tell us, the climate of some part of Asia (?) was changed from nine months summer and three months winter, to nine months winter and three months summer.

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LTHOUGH the conclusions hitherto stated have been based chiefly upon written records, and therefore lack the certainty imparted by actual examination of a number of authentic specimens, the student can be reasonably sure that up to the middle of the tenth century the highest achievement of the Chinese keramist was stone-ware or semi-porcelain, and that his glazes were all monochromes, green, white, and muddy yellow, the first two being intended to imitate jade.

Henceforth firmer ground is trodden. Japanese annals and traditions assist, especially as their trustworthiness is established from point to point by a remarkable work which Dr. S. W. Bushell of the British Legation in Peking, recently translated. It is a manuscript entitled Li tai ming ts'u t'ou p'u, or "Illustrated Description of the Celebrated Wares of different Dynastics." The author, Hsiang Yuan-p'ien, was a writer and artist of renown, who flourished during the second half of the sixteenth century. An ardent virtuoso, he devoted much of his time to collecting choice specimens of the wares of the Sung, Yuan, and Ming dynasties. From the pieces which thus came


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Rh

41. Loviatar represents the evil and destructive powers of Nature, as opposed to the beneficent powers, represented in the Kalevala under the twin aspects of Ilmatar and Marjatta.

117. This speech or invocation is not addressed to Loviatar, but apparently to some goddess similar to the Roman Lucina.

168. Dr. Russell says that the itch was more dreaded than the plague in Aleppo in the eighteenth century.

181. Pestilence has often been attributed to the anger of gods or demons; and Finland suffered severely from plague till well into the eighteenth century. But I am inclined to regard the plague described here as the Black Death, which must have ravaged Finland about 1350.

269, 282, 283. All these names have nearly the same significance, and might be rendered by “Dolores, our Lady of Pain.”

13, 14. The pestilence having abated at the approach of winter, the wild beasts naturally overran the devastated country. So I would interpret this passage.

25. Literally, three feathers, but the commentary gives the meaning adopted above.

8l. For an account of bear-hunting in Finland, compare Acerbi’s Voyage to the North Cape, I., pp. 288, 289.

168. Tapio is the lord of the forest here alluded to, according to the commentary.

246. The word here rendered “charge” literally means “bundle” or “package.”

313. Probably the Danish Sound.

377. A honeyed forest perhaps means a forest abounding in honey-dew.

565, 566. These lines are rather musical:

Kuuluvilla karjan kellon,

Luona tiukujen tirinän.

15, 16. There is a Finnish ballad relating how the sun and moon were stolen by German and Esthonian sorcerers, and recovered by the son of Jumala. (Kanteletar, III., 2; translated by Mr. C. J. Billson, Folklore, VI., 343, 344.)

37. Compare the story of Maui stealing the fire in New Zealand legends.

128. Lake Ladoga seems to be intended.

233. Does this refer to tides? Tides can hardly be known in Finland, except by hearsay; the Baltic itself is almost tideless.

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 mens having ornamental designs cut into the paste are the most excellent. Plain pieces are also good. Those which have ornaments worked into (or painted on) the glaze are of the second quality. The best specimens were made during the periods Chêng-ho (1111-1117) and Hsüan-ho (1119-1125); but these are difficult to procure. Brown ware was also made at Ting-chou, and a black variety resembling black lacquer in colour." Dr. Hirth, who gives this extract, quotes further from another Chinese work to the effect that the ornaments of the Ting-yao were (1) engraved, or cut into the paste; (2) worked into the glaze or painted, and (3) printed or pressed on with a mould. It will be well to explain at once that the term "painted" is not to be understood here in its ordinary sense. Keramic decoration by painting with colours under or over the glaze, was not practised by the Ting-chou potters. The process described as "painting" probably meant decoration with slip, whether above or below the glaze, but there are no means of determining this with certainty. The general description of the Sung Ting-yao is that it was semi-porcelain, with fine, greyish pâte, tolerably thin and sonorous, and a creamy glaze, seldom crackled, closely resembling the shell of an egg in colour, but sometimes showing a pronounced tinge of buff. The decorative designs, usually incised in the pâte, consisted, for the most part, of the Fei-fêng (flying phœnix), the dragon, the peony, arabesques and scrolls. The pure white variety was called Pai-ting; that showing a tinge of buff was called Fan-ting. With regard to the "tear-marks" mentioned by the Chinese writers quoted above, they were nothing more or less than technical imperfections. When


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 the glazing material is applied by absorption to ware that has already been fired, a uniform surface is easy to obtain. But when the glazing is effected while the paste is still raw, globules or "tears" are not unlikely to make their appearance. That such a feature should have been esteemed by connoisseurs was doubtless because, in the first place, it pointed to times when technical excellence had not yet been attained; and in the second, the tear-marks would naturally occur upon ware of such exceptionally thin pâte that manipulation before stoving was difficult. Another point to be noted with reference to the manufacture of this early Ting ware was that the cups and bowls were stoved in an inverted position, the consequence being that the upper rims remained without glaze, whereas the bottoms were often completely covered. To correct the unfinished appearance of such pieces, a thin slip of silver or copper was usually applied to their rims.

In the Illustrated Catalogue of H'siang, mentioned above, forty-two specimens of Sung ware are depicted. Twelve of these specimens belong to the Ting-yao class, six being white; of the rest five are purple, or the colour of ripe grapes; and one is black. From the pictures of these pieces and from the descriptions given by H'siang himself, as translated by Dr. Bushell, it is seen at once that there is question of keramic productions exhibiting an advanced condition of expert skill. If the Sung Ting-yao has been spoken of above as semi-porcelain, it is rather because of the softness and comparative opacity of the pâte than with any reference to the rank which the ware ought to occupy. It is probable that the manufacture of hard porcelain was within the competence of the Pechili


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280

137, 138. Neptune’s trident?

169. Here a different epithet is applied to Väinämöinen.

283. Probably Polyporus igniarius or P. fomentarius, both of which are much used for tinder.

302. He appears to have thought that Panu was in league with the Fire.

83. This is Rhabdomancy, or divination by rods.

417. Literally, at the end of our thumbs.

1. Marjatta korea kuopus.

Literally, Marjatta the elegant darling; an expression occurring nowhere else in the Kalevala. The story in the present Runo seems to exhibit a veneer of Christianity over Shaman legends. Even the name Marjatta, notwithstanding its resemblance to Maria, seems to be really derived from the word marja, a berry. An old writer says that the favourite deities of the Finns in his time were Väinämöinen and the Virgin Mary.

188. That is, a criminal who deserves to be burnt at the stake.

199, 200. She already recognizes her unborn son as an Avatar.

289. The word here rendered “hapless” properly means “little.”

465. This is the only passage in the Kalevala, in which Väinämöinen is spoken of as ever having been young; though he is occasionally called young in variants.

465-468. This passage apparently alludes to Väinämöinen having sent Ilmarinen to Pohjola by a trick.

471-474. This must allude either to the fate of Aino, or to some story not included in the Kalevala.

501. In Esthonian legends, Vanemuine is not an Avatar and culture-hero, but the God of Music, who withdrew from men on account of the ribaldry with which some of his hearers received his divine songs. (Hero of Esthonia, II., pp. 80-85.) Longfellow also makes Hiawatha depart in a boat after the conclusion of his mission.

613, 614. These expressions remind us of the Buddha “breaking down the rafters and the roof-tree” preparatory to reaching Nirvano.

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 keramists under the Sung dynasty, but that, like many of their successors, to be by and by spoken of, they preferred the artistic qualities of a soft, tender pâte. Only with the latter as a basis was it possible to produce the lustrous, translucid, and yet solid glaze so much valued by connoisseurs, who compared it to mutton fat or fine jade.

In addition to the white, purple, and black varieties of the Ting-yao, tradition says that a red glaze was manufactured. It was called Hung-ting. Julien, in his translation of the Tao-lu, says that the red Ting-yao was much valued, but no specimens of it appear to have survived, nor is subsequent mention made of it.

It need scarcely be observed that genuine specimens of the original Ting-yao are very difficult to procure. It was, however, imitated with success in subsequent eras. During the Yuan dynasty (1260-1369) an expert called Pêng Chün-pao, whose factory was at Ho-chou in the province of Kiang-nan, distinguished himself by such imitations. His ware was known as Hsin-Ting-yao (New Ting-yao). It is said to have been exceedingly fragile, so that few pieces are likely to have been handed down to late generations. The Ting-yao chiefly known to collectors is a product of the Ching-tê-chên factories during the Ming (1367-1644) and early part of the present dynasty. This is not necessarily an imitation of the early Ting-yao, being usually of superior technique. The potter of the Ming and Tsing eras was not so faithful to his models that he deemed it necessary to reproduce their blemishes as well as their beauties. He may have been occasionally baffled by the richness, lustre, and tone of the early glazes, but the wares themselves he could easily excel, and in


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 nine cases out of every ten, the clay required to imitate their pâte exactly was not procurable. The Ting-yao of Ching-tê-chên resembles the Sung ware of Pechili in having tender pâte, soft lustrous glaze of the colour of rice-flour (white with a tinge of buff), and decorative designs incised or in relief. But, for the rest, it may be regarded as a special and independent manufacture of great beauty and high artistic quality. Precisely by what characteristics—except excellence of technique and generally harder pâte—it may be distinguished from the Sung ware, there is no possibility of explaining. The species of Ting-yao chiefly manufactured at Ching-tê-chên was the Fan-Ting-yao, or "rice-flour" glaze. The grape-coloured and black varieties were not produced, so far as is known.

Among the keramic manufactures of the Sung dynasty, a ware of some importance was the Ki-chou-yao, produced at Kichou, in the province of Kiang-si. It does not, however, deserve to be separately classified, since it was virtually nothing more than an inferior variety of Ting-yao. The pâte is said to have been thick and somewhat coarse, but the glaze was rich and lustrous, showing the same white and grape-purple colours as the Ting-yao. Associated with its production are the names of a potter, Shu Hung, and his daughter, Shu Chiao, who were noted for their skill. Vases made by the latter were valued, according to the Tao-lu, at several ounces of silver each.

There is some reason to suppose that the celebrated "transmutation," or flambé, ware—to be spoken of by and by—had its origin at the Ki-chou potteries. For a tradition is handed down to the effect that a batch of vases, which happened to be in the oven just as a


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 high official passed, were changed into jade, whereupon the workmen closed the kiln and fled in trepidation.

In addition to the choice varieties of Ting-yao described above, there was also produced at the same factory (in Pechili) during the Sung dynasty, a coarser species called Tu-Ting-yao, which term literally signifies "Ting pottery." The difference between this and the fine Ting-yao is that the pâte of the former has much greater thickness and solidity, and that the glaze is invariably crackled, sometimes in small meshes, sometimes in large. Occasionally the glaze is entirely without lustre, closely resembling the shell of an egg. The colour of this Tu-Ting-yao has a distinctly deeper tinge of yellow than that of the fine Ting-yao, and it belongs altogether to an inferior order of manufacture. Considerable quantities of it found their way to Japan, where they were erroneously regarded, and are still regarded, as Cochin-Chinese products. The origin of the misconception is obscure. Possibly the Tu-Ting-yao reached Japan in the first place via Siam or Canton, and was thus associated with southern potteries. At all events, specimens of this so-called Kôchi-yaki (Kôchi is the Japanese term for Cochin China) are frequently found in Japanese collections, where they constitute a source of persistent error. So far as is known, nothing resembling them in any respect was ever produced at the Annamese or Siamese factories. Dr. Hirth, in his interesting brochure, "Ancient Chinese Porcelain," adduces evidence from a Chinese work (the Chu-fan-chih, by Chao Ju-kua) published in the early part of the thirteenth century, to the effect that the nearest of the foreign places to which porcelain was shipped from the Middle Kingdom soon after


text: The Clergyman's Wife and Other Sketches

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, the cold spring East Wind.

, a name of Lemminkainen.

, the God of the Sea and of the Waters.

, the dominions of Ahto.

, the father of Iku-Turso.

, Lemminkainen’s sister.

, a Lapp maiden, Joukahainen’s sister.

, name of a lake.

, Ilmarinen’s sister.

, a primeval giant or Titan, whom some commentators suppose to be the same as Kaleva.

, the goddess of the South Wind.

, name of a waterfall.

, Tavastland.

, name of a cow.

, ''the same as Lempo, the Evil Power, somewhat resembling the Scandinavian Loki in character. His name is often used as a term of reprobation''.

, the dominions of Hiisi.

, the goddess of the Fir-trees.

, name of a mountain.

, a water-giant; the name is doubtless connected with the icelandic word Thurs, which means a giant, and which is also the name of the letter þ, called þa in Old English.

, name of Ilmarinen’s homestead.

, the Daughter of the Air; the Creatrix of the world, and the mother of Väinämöinen.

, a name of Louhi.

, the great falls or rapids in the river Vuoksi.

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''This book is composed on the Linotype in Bodoni, so-called after its designer, Giambaitista Bodoni (1740-1813) a celebrated Italian scholar and printer. Bodoni planned his type especially for use on the more smoothly finished papers that came into vogue late in the eighteenth century and drew his letters with a mechanical regularity that is readily apparent on comparison with the less formal old style. Other characteristics that will be noted are the square serifs without fillet and the marked contrast between the light and heavy strokes.''


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—a christening in Broad Street!

All, everything is there that was dreamed of by Madame Permaneder in the days of her expectancy. In the dining-room, the maid-servant, moving noiselessly so as not to disturb the services in the next room, is filling the cups with steaming hot chocolate and whipped cream. There are quantities of cups, crowded together on the great round tray with the gilded shell-shaped handles. And Anton the butler is cutting a towering layer-cake into slices, and Mamsell Jungmann is arranging flowers and sweets in silver dessert-dishes, with her head on one side, and both little fingers stuck out.

Soon the company will have seated themselves in the salon and sitting-room; and all these delicacies will be handed round. It is to be hoped they will hold out, since it is the whole family which has gathered here, in the broader, if not quite in the broadest sense of the word. For it is, through the Överdiecks, connected distantly with the Kistenmakers, and through them with the Möllendorpfs—and so on. One simply must draw the line somewhere! But the Överdiecks are represented, and, indeed, by no less a personage than the head of the family, the venerable Doctor Kaspar Överdieck, reigning Burgomaster, more than eighty years old.

He came in a carriage, and mounted the steps leaning on his staff and Thomas Buddenbrook’s arm. His presence enhances the dignity of the occasion—and, beyond a question, this occasion is worthy of every dignity!

For within, in the salon, there is a flower-decked small table, serving as an altar, with a young priest in black vestments and a stiff snowy ruff like a millstone round his neck,

RV 3 (3)


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RV 4 (BUDDENBROOKS) reciting the service; and there is a great, strapping, particularly well-nourished person, richly arrayed in red and gold, bearing upon her billowing arms a small something, half smothered in laces and satin bows: an heir—a first-born son! A Buddenbrook! Do we really grasp the meaning of the fact?

Can we realize the thrill of that first whisper, that first little hint that travelled from Broad Street to Mengstrasse? Or Frau Permaneder’s speechless ecstasy, as she embraced her mother, her brother, and—very gently—her sister-in-law? And now, with the spring—the spring of the year 1861—he has come: he, the heir of so many hopes, whom they have expected for so many years, talked of him, longed for him, prayed to God and tormented Dr. Grabow for him; at length he has come—and looks most unimposing.

His tiny hands play among the gilt trimmings of his nurse’s waist; his head, in a lace cap trimmed with pale blue ribbons, lies sidewise on the pillow, turned heedlessly away from the preacher; he stares out into the room, at all his relatives, with an old, knowing look. Those eyes, under their long-lashed lids, blend the light blue of the Father’s and the brown of the Mother’s iris into a pale, indefinite, changeful golden-brown; but bluish shadows lie in the deep corners on both sides of the nose, and these give the litlle face, which is hardly yet a face at all, an aged look not suited to its four weeks of existence. But, please God, they mean nothing—for has not his Mother the same? And she is in perfectly good health. And anyhow, he lives—he lives, and is a son; which was the cause, four weeks ago, for great rejoicing.

He lives—and it might have been otherwise. The Consul will never forget the grip of good Dr. Grabow’s hand, as he said to him, four weeks ago, when he could leave the mother and child: “Give thanks to God, my dear friend—there wasn't much to spare.” The Consul has not dared to ask his meaning. He put from him in horror the thought that his

RV 4 (4)


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Missing words
c.f. https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.505621/page/325/mode/2up for words covered up on this scan. Piney5000 (talk) 13:04, 25 February 2024 (UTC)


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RV 5 (BUDDENBROOKS) son—this tiny creature, yearned for in vain 30 many years—had slipped into the world without breath to cry out, almost—almost—like Antonie’s second daughter. But he knows that that hour, four weeks ago, was a desperate one for mother and child; and he bends tenderly over Gerda, who reclines in an easy-chair in front of him, next his Mother, her feet, in patent-leather shoes, crossed before her on a velvet cushion.

How pale she still is! And how strangely lovely in her pallor, with that heavy dark-red hair and those mysterious eyes that rest upon the preacher in half-veiled mockery! Herr Andreas Pringsheim, pastor marianus, succeeded thus young to the headship of St. Mary’s after old Kölling’s sudden death. He holds his chin in the air and his hands prayerfully folded beneath it. He has short, curly blond hair and a smooth-shaven, bony face, with a somewhat theatrical range of expression, from fanatical zeal to an exalted serenity. He comes from Franconia, where he has been for some years, serving a small Lutheran community among Catholics; and his effort after a clear and moving delivery has resulted in exaggerated mannerisms; an r rolled upon his front teeth and long, obscure, or crudely accented vowel-sounds.

He gives thanks to God, in a voice now low and soft, now loud and swelling—and the family listen: Frau Permaneder, clothed in a dignity that hides her pride and her delight; Erica Grünlich, now almost fifteen years old, a blooming young girl with a long braid and her father’s rosy skin; and Christian, who has arrived that morning, and sits letting his deep-set eyes rove from side to side all over the room. Pastor Tiburtius and his wife have not shrunk from the long journey, but have come from Riga to be present at the ceremony. The ends of Sievert Tiburtius’ long, thin whiskers are parted over his shoulders, and his small grey eyes now and then open wider and wider, most unexpectedly, and grow larger and more prominent till they almost jump out of his head. Clara’s gaze is dark and solemn and severe, and she sometimes lifts her hand to a head that always seems to ache. But

RV 5 (5)


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282

, usually known as Ingermanland.

, the land of Joukahainen.

, God.

, name of a cow.

, ''a name probably derived from Judas. It is used as a name for Hiisi, and also as a term of reprobation.''

, name of a waterfall. , a chieftain, the brother of Untamo, and the father of Kullervo. , epithet of Kullervo. , the ancestor of the heroes, who does not appear in person in the Kalevala. , the land of Kaleva. , a descendant of Kaleva. , or, the daughter of Kaleva. , Death personified; he is more often called Tuoni or Mana.

, a rock, the father of Kimmo. , the goddess of Weaving.

, the Finnish harp or zither.

, the daughter of the harp; name given by Lönnrot to his published collection of Finnish ballads.

, Carelia. , the nymph of the Juniper.

, a Laplander, skilled in making snowshoes. , the Contemptible One, one of the names of the Evil Power. , name of a river.

, (1) a stone; (2) name of a cow.

, Maiden of Pain.

(variegated, or dappled), name of a cow.

, Daughter of Pain.

, a name of Tapio.

, a name of Tiera.

, the daughter of the moon.

, a reckless adventurer.

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Holiday

Plays

 * Holiday (1928), a play by Philip Barry

Poems

 * "A Holiday" (1876, "Out of the city, far away"), a poem by William Allingham
 * "Holidays" (1847, "From fall to spring, the russet acorn"), a poem by Ralph Waldo Emerson
 * "A Holiday" (1886, "Is the age sordid, impotent, and cold?"), a poem published anonymously in Littell's Living Age
 * "Holidays" (1881, "Once more, once more again"), a poem published anonymously in Littell's Living Age

Short stories

 * "A Holiday" (1904), a short story by Kenneth Grahame
 * "The Holiday" (1903), or "A Holiday", a short story by Edith Nesbit

title: Holiday


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 GAUSS'S ABSTRACT OF THE DISQUISITIONES GENERALES CIRCA SUPERFICIES CURVAS, PRESENTED TO THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF GOTTINGEN.

On the 8th of October, Hofrath Gauss presented to the Royal Society a paper:

Disquisitiones generales circa superficies curvas.

Although geometers have given much attention to general investigations of curved surfaces and their results cover a significant portion of the domain of higher geometry, this subject is still so far from being exhausted, that it can well be said that, up to this time, but a small portion of an exceedingly fruitful field has been cultivated. Through the solution of the problem, to find all representations of a given surface upon another in which the smallest elements remain unchanged, the author sought some years ago to give a new phase to this study. The purpose of the present discussion is further to open up other new points of view and to develop some of the new truths which thus become accessible. We shall here give an account of those things which can be made intelligible in a few words. But we wish to remark at the outset that the new theorems as well as the presentations of new ideas, if the greatest generality is to be attained, are still partly in need of some limitations or closer determinations, which must be omitted here.

In researches in which an infinity of directions of straight lines in space is concerned, it is advantageous to represent these directions by means of those points upon a fixed sphere, which are the end points of the radii drawn parallel to the lines. The centre and the radius of this auxiliary sphere are here quite arbitrary. The radius may be taken equal to unity. This procedure agrees fundamentally with that which is constantly employed in astronomy, where all directions are referred to a fictitious celestial sphere of infinite radius. Spherical trigonometry and certain other theorems, to which the author has added a new one of frequent application, then serve for the solution of the problems which the comparison of the various directions involved can present.


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 If we represent the direction of the normal at each point of the curved surface by the corresponding point of the sphere, determined as above indicated, namely, in this way, to every point on the surface, let a point on the sphere correspond; then, generally speaking, to every line on the curved surface will correspond a line on the sphere, and to every part of the former surface will correspond a part of the latter. The less this part differs from a plane, the smaller will be the corresponding part on the sphere. It is, therefore, a very natural idea to use as the measure of the total curvature, which is to be assigned to a part of the curved surface, the area of the corresponding part of the sphere. For this reason the author calls this area the integral curvature of the corresponding part of the curved surface. Besides the magnitude of the part, there is also at the same time its position to be considered. And this position may be in the two parts similar or inverse, quite independently of the relation of their magnitudes. The two cases can be distinguished by the positive or negative sign of the total curvature. This distinction has, however, a definite meaning only when the figures are regarded as upon definite sides of the two surfaces. The author regards the figure in the case of the sphere on the outside, and in the case of the curved surface on that side upon which we consider the normals erected. It follows then that the positive sign is taken in the case of convexo-convex or concavo-concave surfaces (which are not essentially different), and the negative in the case of concavo-convex surfaces. If the part of the curved surface in question consists of parts of these different sorts, still closer definition is necessary, which must be omitted here.

The comparison of the areas of two corresponding parts of the curved surface and of the sphere leads now (in the same manner as,  e.g. , from the comparison of volume and mass springs the idea of density) to a new idea. The author designates as measure of curvature at a point of the curved surface the value of the fraction whose denominator is the area of the infinitely small part of the curved surface at this point and whose numerator is the area of the corresponding part of the surface of the auxiliary sphere, or the integral curvature of that element. It is clear that, according to the idea of the author, integral curvature and measure of curvature in the case of curved surfaces are analogous to what, in the case of curved lines, are called respectively amplitude and curvature simply. He hesitates to apply to curved surfaces the latter expressions, which have been accepted more from custom than on account of fitness. Moreover, less depends upon the choice of words than upon this, that their introduction shall be justified by pregnant theorems.

The solution of the problem, to find the measure of curvature at any point of a curved surface, appears in different forms according to the manner in which the nature of the curved surface is given. When the points in space, in general, are distinguished by


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Page:General Investigations of Curved Surfaces, by Carl Friedrich Gauss, translated into English by Adam Miller Hiltebeitel and James Caddall Morehead.djvu/61

 three rectangular coordinates, the simplest method is to express one coordinate as a function of the other two. In this way we obtain the simplest expression for the measure of curvature. But, at the same time, there arises a remarkable relation between this measure of curvature and the curvatures of the curves formed by the intersections of the curved surface with planes normal to it. Euler, as is well known, first showed that two of these cutting planes which intersect each other at right angles have this property, that in one is found the greatest and in the other the smallest radius of curvature; or, more correctly, that in them the two extreme curvatures are found. It will follow then from the above mentioned expression for the measure of curvature that this will be equal to a fraction whose numerator is unity and whose denominator is the product of the extreme radii of curvature. The expression for the measure of curvature will be less simple, if the nature of the curved surface is determined by an equation in $x,$  $y,$  $z.$ And it will become still more complex, if the nature of the curved surface is given so that $x,$  $y,$  $z$  are expressed in the form of functions of two new variables $p,$  $q.$  In this last case the expression involves fifteen elements, namely, the partial differential coefficients of the first and second orders of $x,$  $y,$  $z$  with respect to $p$  and $q.$  But it is less important in itself than for the reason that it facilitates the transition to another expression, which must be classed with the most remarkable theorems of this study. If the nature of the curved surface be expressed by this method, the general expression for any linear element upon it, or for $\sqrt{dx^{2} + dy^{2} + dz^{2}},$ has the form $\sqrt{E\, dp^{2} + 2F\, dp. dq + G\, dq^{2}},$ where $E,$  $F,$  $G$  are again functions of $p$  and $q.$  The new expression for the measure of curvature mentioned above contains merely these magnitudes and their partial differential coefficients of the first and second order. Therefore we notice that, in order to determine the measure of curvature, it is necessary to know only the general expression for a linear element; the expressions for the coordinates $x,$  $y,$  $z$ are not required. A direct result from this is the remarkable theorem: If a curved surface, or a part of it, can be developed upon another surface, the measure of curvature at every point remains unchanged after the development. In particular, it follows from this further: Upon a curved surface that can be developed upon a plane, the measure of curvature is everywhere equal to zero. From this we derive at once the characteristic equation of surfaces developable upon a plane, namely,

$$\frac{\partial^{2} z}{\partial x^{2}} \cdot \frac{\partial^{2} z}{\partial y^{2}} - \left(\frac{\partial^{2} z}{\partial x . \partial y}\right)^{2} = 0,$$

when $z$  is regarded as a function of $x$  and $y.$ This equation has been known for some time, but according to the author’s judgment it has not been established previously with the necessary rigor.


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Page:General Investigations of Curved Surfaces, by Carl Friedrich Gauss, translated into English by Adam Miller Hiltebeitel and James Caddall Morehead.djvu/62

 These theorems lead to the consideration of the theory of curved surfaces from a new point of view, where a wide and still wholly uncultivated field is open to investigation. If we consider surfaces not as boundaries of bodies, but as bodies of which one dimension vanishes, and if at the same time we conceive them as flexible but not extensible, we see that two essentially different relations must be distinguished, namely, on the one hand, those that presuppose a definite form of the surface in space; on the other hand, those that are independent of the various forms which the surface may assume. This discussion is concerned with the latter. In accordance with what has been said, the measure of curvature belongs to this case. But it is easily seen that the consideration of figures constructed upon the surface, their angles, their areas and their integral curvatures, the joining of the points by means of shortest lines, and the like, also belong to this case. All such investigations must start from this, that the very nature of the curved surface is given by means of the expression of any linear element in the form $\sqrt{E\, dp^{2} + 2F\, dp. dq + G\, dq^{2}}.$ The author has embodied in the present treatise a portion of his investigations in this field, made several years ago, while he limits himself to such as are not too remote for an introduction, and may, to some extent, be generally helpful in many further investigations. In our abstract, we must limit ourselves still more, and be content with citing only a few of them as types. The following theorems may serve for this purpose.

If upon a curved surface a system of infinitely many shortest lines of equal lengths be drawn from one initial point, then will the line going through the end points of these shortest lines cut each of them at right angles. If at every point of an arbitrary line on a curved surface shortest lines of equal lengths be drawn at right angles to this line, then will all these shortest lines be perpendicular also to the line which joins their other end points. Both these theorems, of which the latter can be regarded as a generalization of the former, will be demonstrated both analytically and by simple geometrical considerations. The excess of the sum of the angles of a triangle formed by shortest lines over two right angles is equal to the total curvature of the triangle. It will be assumed here that that angle ($57^{\circ}\, 17'\, 45''$ ) to which an arc equal to the radius of the sphere corresponds will be taken as the unit for the angles, and that for the unit of total curvature will be taken a part of the spherical surface, the area of which is a square whose side is equal to the radius of the sphere. Evidently we can express this important theorem thus also: the excess over two right angles of the angles of a triangle formed by shortest lines is to eight right angles as the part of the surface of the auxiliary sphere, which corresponds to it as its integral curvature, is to the whole surface of the sphere. In general, the excess over $2n - 4$  right angles of the angles of a polygon of $n$  sides, if these are shortest lines, will be equal to the integral curvature of the polygon.