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163 THE PLAIN OF PHASAELIS. 1G3

Wady el Bukei'a and the Ghor, that they might be super- ficially considered to be quite distinct. But 110 one will deny the connection of Wady Far'ah with the Ghor, in the fertile and well- watered tract of Kurawa, which is at once the mouth of Wady Far 'ah, and a noted part of the Ghor. Nor can the commencement of the series of parallel valleys which include Far'ah, fail to be seen in Wady el Bukei'a.

For five miles south of Wady Abu Sidreh, the Ghor west of Jordan is hemmed in by the end of the range that divides Wady el Bukei'a from Wady Far'ah ; and here the Ghor nowhere exceeds two miles in width. The range terminates in a point at el Makhruk, near ruins which are probably the site of Archelaus ; and the Ghor at once expands into the Kurawa at the mouth of Wady Far'ah, and attains a width of four miles. The Kurawa runs up north-west of Makhruk for four miles, and there terminates in a rocky chasm, through which the Wady Far'ah descends from the broad valley above.

Next to the Valley of Jezreel, the Wady Far'ah forms the most open and important avenue between the Jordan and the West ; and a full description of it has been given in pages 76 to 81.

The southern or south-western side of the Kurawa and Wady Far'ah, is the range which divides them from Wady Ifjim, which enters the plain as Wady Zakaska, and crosses it as Wady el Humr. The range terminates in a spur from the remarkable peak of Kurn Surtabeh (alt. 1,244 feet or 2,390 feet above the Jordan). At the southern base of this mountain, the Ghor expands to a width of five miles, and runs up into a tapering recess for about three miles on the south-west of Kurn Surtabeh. The recess is a mile and a half wide at its mouth. It is bounded opposite Kurn Surtabeh, by lofty cliffs which form the northern termination of the long line w r hich, like a wall, forms the base of the western mountains, and extends with little inter- ruption, to the ascent of Akrabbim, at the south of the Dead Sea, a distance of about 80 miles.


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164 164 THE PLAINS OF THE JORDAN.

Into the recess descends the third in the series of parallel valleys, the Wady Ifjim. The passage has a peculiarity rivalling that of the outlet of el Bukei'a, the first of these valleys. The head of the recess is divided into two by a narrow spur about a mile long, which projects southward from the mountain, and has a gorge on both sides, the western being a rocky chasm, one side of which is the beginning of the long line of cliffs already mentioned. The Wady Ifjim comes down from a beautiful plain about two miles north of the chasm, through a rocky cleft, as if it were going to descend through the chasm, or parallel gorge on the east of the spur. But instead of doing so, the wady deflects slightly to the westward, and comes out into the plain by a chasm from the west, which meets the northerly chasm at its outlet. A Eoman road which passes from the Ghor, ascends by the spur aforesaid, and skirts the eastern side of the wady into the Sahel or Plain of Ifjim, and so onward to the Plain of Salim and Nablus.

In another respect the Wady Ifjim is a counterpart of the Bukei'a. For as the head of the latter is overlapped by an expansion of Wady Far'ah towards the north, so is Wady Ifjim overlapped by another expansion towards the south, as follows : From the Sahel or Plain of Ifjim, there is a continuous ascent by the Wady el Kerad to the elevated Plain of Salim, which runs in the same line, but drains in a contrary direction to the Wady Far'ah. See page 78. Another ascent from the Plain of Ifjim proceeds westward by Wady Zamur to Yanun, and thence by a valley in the same line, but draining in the opposite direction, to the Plain of Mukhnah, which is a continuation of the Plain of Salim, but in another basin.

About a mile and a half south of the base of Kurn Surtabeh are the remains of the Herodian City of Phasaelis, now Khurbet Fusail. The site is on a wady of the same name which joins Wady el Humr in the Zor. The wadys on the south belong to the basin of Wady el 'Auj ah, which drains the southern divi- sion of this part of the Ghor, up to the commencement of the Plain of Jericho.

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165 THE PLAIN OF PHASAELIS. 165

The mountains maintain their uniform direction south- wards for three or four miles below Fusail. Low hills then advance eastward into the Ghor, up to a frontage corresponding with the eastern side of Kurn Surtabeh. Between five and six miles from Fusail, the mountains recede westward for about two miles from their former line, and become separated from the low hills by an enclosed plain, varying in width up to about two miles. The low hills run southward for about seven miles, and their termination is distinguished by a prominent summit called 'Osh el Ghurab or the Eaven's Nest. The Ghor now recovers its full width, and becomes the Plain of Jericho. Towards the end of the hills, the mountains also gradually advance up to their former line with rocky precipices at their base ; and leaving only a narrow entrance between the enclosed plain and the Plain of Jericho. In the entrance is the noted fountain of 'Ain Duk and ' Ain en Nuei'a- meh. The length of the enclosed plain is about four miles. Within this brief distance, the plain is crossed by Wady el 'Aujah, Wady el Abeid, and Wady Umm Sirah, and these also intersect the hills on the east in proceeding to the Jordan by the Wady el 'Aujah. It seems probable that the Vale or Plain (Emek) of Keziz, belonging to the tribe of Benjamin (Josh, xviii, 21), may be identified with this enclosed tract.

To the Ghor itself, the name of " the Plain of Phasaelis " has been applied. Among the features which particularly characterise this part, may be noted the remarkable manner in which the Wady Far'ah as Wady el Jozeleh, and the Wady el Mellahah, a branch of Wady el 'Aujah, both advance across the Gh6r from the west, to within a mile and less of the Jordan, and then turn southwards, pursuing a parallel course to the main stream for six or seven miles, before the confluence of each is effected. Observations are wanting to denote the relative altitude of the tributary beds to the bed of the main stream, or to the surface of the Ghor ; but it is evident that these parallel passages of the tributaries produce a considerable disturbance of the surface of the Ghor, degrading or wearing it away to a much greater extent than

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166 166 THE PLAINS OF THE JORDAN.

is found along the ordinary embankment of the Zor. Perhaps the unusual course of these river beds may have been originally due to artificial channels made for the purpose of irrigation. The narrow tongues of land between the tributaries and the Jordan are called in Arabic, Monkattat or Mankatta'at, which according to Professor Palmer appropriately means " strips."

On the south of the outlet of Wady el 'Aujah, the Ghor is watered by the branches of Wady Mesa'adet 'Aisa, which rises in the low hills crowned by 'Osh el Ghurab.

The Arabic name of this wady means the " Ascension of Jesus," so called with reference to the conical hill of 'Osh el Ghur&b (Eaven's Nest), the traditional site among the Arabs for the mountain of the Temptation.* Christian tradition originating in the time of the Crusaders, places the same event at Jebel Kuruntul or Mount Quarantana. On the north of the wady are two groups of ruins with extensive sandstone quarries, called es Sumrah, which are commonly identified with Zemaraim, a Benjamite City. Josh, xviii, 22.

The next watercourse is Wady en Nuei'arneh, which crosses the Ghor from 'Ain Duk, and divides the Plain of Phasaelis from the Plain of Jericho.

2. The Plain of Jericho.

The Ghor acquires a comparatively unbroken surface in the Plain of Jericho. Its commencement on the north is at Wady en Nuei'ameh, and its termination on the south is defined by the embankment of the Zor, which also comes to an end on the north of the Dead Sea. At Kusr el Yehud or Jews' Castle, about two miles below the confluence of the Nuei'ameh, and nearly eight miles from the Dead Sea, the embankment begins to slope away from the Jordan in a south- westerly direction towards the foot of the western moun- tains, narrowing as it goes, till it ends in a point at Khurbet Kumran, which is ten miles south of the north-west angle of the plain.

 * Gender's " Tent Work," ii, 13.


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167 THE PLAIN OF JERICHO. 167

At its mouth the Jordan prolongs its western bank into a point advanced into the sea for half a mile farther south than its eastern bank. From this point the coast recedes north-westward into a bay, and bending round to the south- west contracts the Zor, here forming the sea-shore, to a width of a mile, and finally brings it to a point at Eas Feshkah, about two miles south of the end of the Ghor at Khurbet Kumran.

The lofty and precipitous rocky base of the western mountains enters the plain from the north-west, and preserves that direction as far as Jebel Kuruntul or Mons Quarantana, the reputed scene of Our Lord's Forty Days' Fast. This mountain is about a mile south of the north-west corner of the plain, and from thence the line of cliffs takes a more southerly course for a mile and a half, when Wady Kelt comes down through them. The modern village of Jericho (Eriha) lies two miles east of the gorge of the Kelt, and the ruins of the successive sites of ancient Jericho extend towards the gorge, and also towards the north-western extremity of the plain, especially about 'Ain es Sultan, a great fountain not quite a mile east of Jebel Kuruntul. Wady Kelt is identified with Elijah's Brook Cherith ; and 'Ain es Sultan is deemed to be the fountain which Elisha healed. 2 Kings ii.

On the south of Wady Kelt, the cliffs subside, and while the foot of the hills, in running southward, advances slightly towards the east, the summits retire in a semicircle towards the west, giving an easier slope to the spurs as far as the Pass of Kueiserah. At the pass, the cliffs reappear, and run on with a slight ogival curve to Ras Feshkah, where they enter the sea, and divert the passage along the shore to a path over the cliff.

Although the Glhor appears to be perfectly level, the. instrumental observations of the Survey have proved that it has a slope of some 500 feet between the foot of the cliffs, on the west of Jericho, and the edge of the descent to the Zor, near the ford of el Henu, a distance of six miles. At Kh.

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168 168 THE PLAINS OF THE JORDAN.

Kakun near Wady Kelt, the alt. is 585 feet. At Kusr Hajlah, the alt. is 1,066 feet. The Kusr Hajlah is a mile and a half from the descent to the Zor. The channel of the river at el Henu, a mile from the descent, is 1,254 feet, or about 150 feet below the edge of the Ghor.

Except at its north-west angle, the plain of Jericho is now for the most part in a desert state; and yet it is naturally one of the most fertile and productive in the world, well watered by the rains of heaven, and having every facility for abundant irrigation, a soil that is described as " fertility itself," and a climate so favourable that Dr. Eobinson found the barley fully gathered and threshed by the 22nd of April, and the wheat, of fine quality, was nearly harvested on the 13th of May.* Dr. Thomson found the barley harvest over on the 1st of April, and he notes that it comes on about the middle of March, f

Besides Wady Nuei'ameh on its northern boundary, the Plain of Jericho is crossed by Wady el Kelt, with an affluent from 'Ain es Sultan, which unites with the Kelt on its left bank, about half a mile from Eriha, the present village of Jericho. Half a mile lower, another branch called Khaur Abu Dhahy, rises at the foot of the hills near Wady Kelt, and joins the Kelt on its right bank. Opposite the junction on the left bank of the Kelt, are the remains, called Jiljulieh, which are regarded as the site of Gilgal. At the foot of the descent into the Zor, the Kelt also receives a stream from 'Ain Hajlah, a fountain which rises about a mile and a half from the edge of the Ghor, and is identified with the site of Bethhogla. About half a mile south-west of the spring is Kusr Hajlah, being the remains of a monastery, on the verge of the more ancient site. On the edge of the Ghor, less than a mile north of the Kelt, is Kusr el Yehud or Jew's Castle, the ruin of a great monastery dedicated to St. John the Baptist, that dominated one of the Pilgrims' bathing places on

f Thomson's " Land and Book," 619.
 * See Robinson's " Bib. Kes.," i, 534^568.


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169 THE PLAIN OF JERICHO. 169

the Jordan. Its crypt and other substructures exist, and were found by Dr. Tristram tenanted by flocks of rock doves.*

The Wady Kelt crosses the Zor for rather more than half a mile to its junction with the Jordan. Near the junction on the south, is the Hajlah Ford, the Pilgrims' bathing place of the present day. According to Lieutenant Conder, both the Latin and Greek Churches regard it now as the scene of Our Lord's Baptism.f Dr. Robinson, and also Dr. Thomson, make this ford the Greek site ; and place the Latin site near Kusr el Yehud.J This is reversed in Baedeker's Guide. In the sixteenth century, the pilgrims resorted to the Ford of El Ghoraniyeh, where Wady en Nuei'ameh joins the Jordan on the right bank, and Wady Nimrin on the left. This position is preferred as the site of Our Lord's Baptism, by M. Guerin, and by Dr. Trisfcram.||

The Khaur el Thumrar, rises in many branches on the western hills on the eastern side of Wady Talat ed Dumm. It crosses the Plain of Jericho on the south of the Hajlah road, near the Kusr Hajlah. On descending to the Zor, it bends to the south, and follows a course parallel to the Jordan into the Dead Sea. The Wady Makarfet Kattum, and the Wady Joreif Ghuzal come down from the same range and cross the plain in courses parallel to the foregoing. They are succeeded by Wady el Kaneiterah, which rises on the eastern side of the Mount of Olives, and meets the head waters of Wady Kelt, near Shafat, on the north of Jerusalem. The Kelt again meets the head waters of Wady Nuei'ameh at Bethel, and the Nuei'ameh Basin reaches up to Tell 'Asur. Thus the wadys which cross the Plain of Jericho, are found to form an important part of the watershed, including several roads to the highland between Jerusalem and the north of Bethel, as already explained in treating on the basins.

Further south, the Wady Kumran crosses the plain, where the Ghor comes to a point at the ruins of Kumran,

 * " Land of Israel," 225. t " Tent Work," ii, 17.

+ Eobinson, " Bib. Kes.," i, 536. Thomson, " Land and Book," 615.

"Samarie," i, 114, 115. || "Bible Places," 333, 331.


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170 170 THE WESTERN SHORE OF THE DEAD SEA.

between the mountains and the Dead Sea, near 'Ain Feshkah. The wady descends from the elevated Plain of el Bukei'a, which contains other names like Kumran, which are severally and together very suggestive of a connection with Gomorrah.

THE WESTERN SHORE OF THE DEAD SEA.

Has Feshkah to Ras Mersid.

Dr. Tristram's description of his bold examination of the coast between Kas Feshkah and Eas Mersid is hardly con- current with the new Survey.* At Eas Feshkah, the plain is brought to an absolute termination by the descent of the head- land into deep waters, rendering a passage impracticable even to an adventurous cragsman like Dr. Tristram, who had to scramble up and down the rocks and gullies away from the water line to reach the south side.f Lieutenant Conder pays high compliments to Dr. Tristram's map of the Dead Sea ; but there are discrepancies between the two maps which claim some explanation. In the older map, there is first, the bold bank projected into the sea on the south of Eas Feshkah, and next is the advance of the cliff to the shore on the north of Wady Derejeh, neither of which are supported by the New Survey. If these may be explained by a difference in the level of the waters, or otherwise, it would be well to^do so.

From Eas Feshkah to Eas Mersid, a distance of 15 miles, the shore of the Dead Sea is restored, and gradually becomes about half a mile in width, at the foot of overhanging cliffs rising to a height of 2,000 feet. Eight miles south of Eas Feshkah, the strand projects into the sea, and becomes a mile wide, apparently from the detritus brought down from the mountains by Wady ed Derajeh (meaning steps), and Wady Husasah (meaning gravel). Between the two great head- lands, the cliffs form a slight curve which recedes for a mile and a half at Wady ed Derajeh, from a chord line stretched

 * "Land of Israel," 276, 277. f Ibid., 254.


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171 THE WESTERN SHORE OF THE DEAD SEA. 171

between the heads. The projection of the shore at this part, advances to the same chord line.

South of Wady Husasah, the shore becomes narrow, and on the north of Ras Mersid, after passing Wady esh Shukf, a sulphur spring was discovered by Dr. Tristram on the shore at the foot of Eas esh Shukf (alt. of the Ras 1,227 feet, or 2,520 feet above the Dead Sea). The headland of Ras Mersid is only to be rounded with difficulty, and there is no track. Still it does not appear to be obstructive to all passage like Ras Feshkah, and it is presumed that deep water does not wash its base. A mile beyond Ras Mersid, another headland occurs on the north of Wady Sideir, and is crossed by the Nukb or Pass of Sideir, leading to the Plain of 'Ain Jidy (Engedi). Lieutenant Conder visited the sulphur spring from 'Ain Jidy. He appears to have got as far as Nukb Sideir on horseback, and then he had to dismount, "scrambling over cliffs or walking in the water round promontories," to reach the place.*

The principal wadys which cross the shore, and enter the Dead Sea between the headlands of Feshkah and Mersid, are Wady en Nar and Wady Derajeh. The Wady en Nar (Kidron) rises at Jerusalem, passes the monastery of Mar Saba in a profound ravine, and reaches the Dead Sea on the south of Ras Feshkah. The Wady Derajeh rises at Bethlehem, passes Jebel Fureidis, the site of the fortress of Herodium, and empties itself into the Dead Sea at the widest part of the shore, midway between the headlands.

The Plain of Engedi is about half a mile broad, and a mile in length. It has the cliffs of Wady Sideir on the north, and those of Wady el 'Areijeh on the south, while on the west rises terraced slopes on the top of which, 600 feet above the sea, is the plateau where the famous spring rises under a great boulder, and then falls down over the rocks to the plain below. Six hundred feet still higher, is another plateau in the form of a pentagon, on the summit of vast cliffs standing out with a salient angle to the south-east, like a bastion at the end of

 * " Tent Work," ii, 137.


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172 172 THE WESTERN SHORE OF THE DEAD SEA.

the mountain. This is the cliff of Zor (2 Chron. xx, 16). Plundering bands from the east, still use the pass on their incursions to the western highland. The plateau is surrounded by precipices on all sides, except at its throat on the north- west, where two roads unite, coming down the mountain side from the north and from the west, or from Bethlehem and Hebron. From this upper plateau, " the path descends to the seashore by ziz-zags, often at the steepest angle practicable for horses, and is carried partly along ledges or shelves on the perpendicular face of the cliff, and then down the almost equally steep ddbris." Thus the lower plateau is reached. The further descent to the plain follows the course of the cascade derived from the spring. The water is almost hidden among the trees and shrubs and canes that nourish on its banks. The whole of this lower slope was once built up for terraced cultivation, and at its foot are the remains of ancient Engedi one among the oldest of cities.

The Wady Areijeh which bounds Engedi on the south is one of the principal drains of these mountains, and rises along the Hebron road, about Hulhul, and northward as far as Breikut and Tekua, which are the existing names of ruined sites corresponding to the Berachah and Tekoa of Jehoshaphat's deliverance. 2 Chron. xx, 20, 26. The Wady Sideir only comes from the heights above Eas Shukf, but the extreme beauty of the fairy scene in the lower part of the gorge is too attractive to be passed without notice. Dr. Tristram is enthusiastic in its praise.*

Shore of the Dead Sea^-Eas Mersid to Sebbeh.

South of the Plain of Engedi, the shore is narrow, and follows the direction of the cliffs for two miles, with interrup- tions from gullies and boulders. At Wady el Kuberah, the line of cliffs inclines a little to the west of south, as far as Sebbeh, and the coast line becomes a mile distant from the great cliffs. The survey displays the projection of a considerable terrace extending between the foot of the cliffs and the sea,

 * " Land of Israel," 289, 290, 297.


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173 RAS MERSID TO SEBBEH. 173

but Dr. Tristram mentions " four great rows of eroded terraces one above the other, and heaps of debris forming a slope at the foot of each."* The coast line recedes and advances in easy curves) from Wady Kuberah to Sebbeh, where the Survey ends ; and the plain gradually increases in width, until on the north of Sebbeh, it is two miles from the cliffs to the sea.

The isolated rock of Sebbeh rises midway between the line of cliffs on the west, and the sea on the east, and in the latter direction the summit of the rock is elevated above the plain for 1,500 feet. The altitude above the Dead Sea, according to the survey, is 1,702 feet, or 500 feet less than Dr. Tristram's barometrical measurement. The summit is a plateau 2,070 feet long by 1,050 feet broad; it beais the remains of the ancient Jewish fortress of Masada, built by Jonathan Maccabseus, completed by Herod the Great, and finally defended as the last refuge of the Jews under Eleazar.f Captain (now Lieutenant Colonel) Warren ascended by the remains of a zigzag track on the eastern face of the cliff, now almost impassable, which must be the remains of the " Serpent " path mentioned by Josephus. The easier ascent is by the western side, from which a ledge of rock is thrown off, and joins the western cliffs. A ravine runs along the southern scarp of this ledge, which slopes towards the north. Another ravine runs northward, dividing the slope of the ledge in that direction from the foot of Sebbeh. On the ledge, a great mound was piled up by the Roman besiegers against the western side of the fortress, for the purpose of planting their battering machines against the walls. This mound still affords access to the western entrance. To prevent assist- ance or the escape of the desperadoes in the garrison, the Romans built a fortified wall entirely around the base of the hill, and this, with the Roman camps outside, remains, and is traced on the survey.

Of the wadys which enter the Dead Sea in this part, the

 * " Land of Israel," 302.

f Josephus, " Wars," vii, 8, 9.


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174 174 THE WESTERN SHORE OF THE DEAD SEA.

Kuberah and the Seiyal rise on the waterparting that divides the tributaries of the Dead Sea from those of the Mediterra- nean, namely, Wady el Khulil, afterwards Wady Ghuzzeh. Along the ridge which gives rise to the sources of the Kuberah, are the noted sites of Beni Nairn on the east of Hebron, Ziph, Carmel, and Maon. The basin of Wady Seiyal succeeds, and comes to a termination with the Sur- vey at the biblical site of Arad.

In these pages, little more than a bare topographical description, explanatory of the Survey, is given of the Plains of Palestine. Their precise and accurate geography affords, however, scarcely any cue to the interest which belongs to them. That has already elicited the eloquence and learning of Dean Stanley, in his comparison of them with those of other countries,* and in his elaborate commentaries on the Maritime Plain, the Plain and Terraces of Jordan, and the Plains of Esdraelon, Hattin, and Gennesareth. These will be read with fresh zest in the light thrown upon the localities by the new maps.

 * " Sinai and Palestine," 136.


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175 PART IY. THE HIGHLANDS OF WESTEKN PALESTINE.

The Streams or Watercourses, together with the Water- partings of a country, form the primary foundation of its delineation, and the proper basis of its study. The Plains require the next consideration, for they form the threshold of the mountains, and often determine their limits. The intricacies of the relief, and the complicated forms of the Elevated Ground, are thus be'sieged by regular approaches, leading up to and denning the base of the outer walls, and penetrating the interior by exact drainage lines, which, in order to ! fulfil their functions, should not only define hori- zontal direction, but should also express by altitude, the vertical changes which they undergo.

The next step is the elimination from the highland mass of its Culminating Summits and the Ranges which are crowned by them. It is necessary to consider not only those ranges which form waterpartings, but also those which are intersected by rivers and watercourses, and make the edges of plateaus, often indeed, displaying a regularity, an altitude, and important consequences to nature, and par- ticularly to mankind, transcending in effect the waterparting ranges.

To eliminate from the tangled maze of the western high- lands of Palestine, the main ranges and groups that form a key to the whole mass, is the object of the following notes.

The rivers which define the limits of the survey under review, are singularly adapted to palliate the disadvantage of


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176 176 THE HIGHLANDS OF WESTERN PALESTINE.

considering only an intermediate portion of the mountain system that extends in three directions beyond those bounds. The Kasmiyeh on the north is indeed a curt divider, as the name implies, separating the white and lofty Lebanon from the humbler summits that are its continuation southward through Galilee, if not also through Samaria, Judea, and onwards.

So also the Jordan cuts off the western highlands by a well-defined line from the eastern portions of the same general mass. But still it is necessary in treating on a separated portion to bear in mind its proper adjuncts.

Before the present Survey, a considerable number of observations for altitude had been made by various travellers. These were carefully collected, arranged, and more or less critically examined by Lieutenant Van de Velde, in his "Memoir to accompany the. Map of the Holy Land."* Additions were afterwards made to the list, in a pamphlet by the same author, entitled " Notes on the Map of the Holy

Land."t

The map of the Palestine Exploration Fund includes a large number of hypsometrical observations, and this series has the great advantage of having been taken on a uniform system, and by trained observers throughout, an advantage that is fully displayed by a comparison of the discrepancies exhibited in Van de Velde's lists. It cannot, however, be justly con- cluded that the new series supplies all that is wanted by the hypsometrical student. The observations appear to have been made casually rather than systematically. It would have been possible with a due regard to the horizontal continuity of the vertical development of the ground, especially with reference to leading features, to have contributed much more to an intelligible apprehension of the main factors of the relief, without incurring the labour of contouring. These remarks are consequent upon an experience of the difficulties arising from the occasional want of observations for altitude,

f Published also at Gotha, 1865.
 * Published by J. Perthes, Gotha, 1858.


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177 THE MOUNTAINS OF UPPER GALILEE. 177

in the following attempt to elucidate the orography of Western Palestine on the basis of the new survey. The defects are not organic, and may be supplied hereafter in this instance, and provided for in future operations.

THE MOUNTAINS OF UPPER GALILEE.

This mass of highland is bounded on the north by the Kasimiyeh Eiver. The eastern and western boundaries are the Jordan and the Mediterranean Sea ; the southern bound- ary is the foot of a Range which begins opposite Acre and runs eastward to the Jordan. From these bases, which will be more distinctly denned, the slopes ascend with much variety of feature, to culminating ranges on the south, the east, and west; enclosing an extensive plateau, broadest and highest on the south, and contracting to a narrow neck on the north- east.

The Southern Range.

The southern boundary is formed by a range of moun- tains commencing on the west in the Plain of Acre on the east of the city, and running eastward to the Jordan, below the Jisr Benat Y'akub. It is distinguished by Kurn el Hennawy (ait. 1,872 feet) ; Neby Heider (alt. 3,440 feet) ; Jebelet el Arus (alt. 3,520 feet) ; Es Semunieh (alt. 2,235 feet) ; Safed (alt. 2,750 feet) ; Jebel Kan'an (alt. 2,761 feet). From the last-named point, the range descends to the gorge of the Jordan between Jisr Benat Y'akub and the Sea of Galilee, where the river descends from 43 feet to 682 feet below sea level.

The summit of this southern range is thus easily defined by means of the observations for altitude made by the survey and the concurrent remarks of travellers. The base of the range is not so distinctly made out, for want of altitudes at the junctions, and other notable features along the water- courses. In one point of view, the base of the range is traced from the Plain of Acre along the Wady el Waziyeh,


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178 178 THE MOUNTAINS OF UPPER GALILEE.

Wady esh Shaghur, Wady el Khashab, and Wady en Nimr, including the Plain of Kameh. But the proper base of this part of the slope is undoubtedly the Wady el Halzun and Wady Shaib, up to Wady el Khashab and Wady en Nimr. The last leads eastward to the waterparting of the Jordan and the basin "of Wady er Kubudiyeh, the head of which is crossed by the footing of the range along Wady Said, and a valley on the south of Kefr Anan. Thus the base of the range is traced to Wady Maktul, a watercourse on the north of Kh. el Bellaneh, which falls into Wady 'Amud, and by that stream the base is carried to the northern shore of the Sea of Galilee, and up to the influx of the Jordan. See p. 148.

It may be remarked by the reader who pursues this de- scription with the map before him, that the Wady et Tawahin intersects the range on the west of Safed. This is quite a common occurrence in mountain ranges, and is merely an indentation of the mass, without interrupting the continuity of the total elevation. The great range of perpendicular cliffs along the western side of the Dead Sea, is constantly rifted from summit to base, and the chasms, sometimes only scoring the face of the cliff, often run far back into the mass without affecting the continuity of its general aspects. In the case of the Safed gorge, although it has indented the summit of the range to the depth of a thousand feet, it has still to drop 1,500 feet to reach the base line coming from the west, and then has to fall another 900 feet to reach the Sea of Galilee. The distance of Safed from the mouth of the wady is about nine miles.

The Eastern Range.

The mountain range which bounds Upper Galilee on the south is continued along the eastern face of the highland to the top of the map. Commencing at the south-east with Jebel Kan'an (alt. 2,761 feet), the next observations along the summit occur in a group around Delata (alt. 2,740 feet). Northward, none are found either at Eas el Ahmar, or at Alma, or at Jebel el Ghabieh, or along the waterparting south


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179 THE EASTERN RANGE. 179

of Kh. el Menarah (alt. 2,806 feet). Further north, obser- vations are found at Jebel Hunin (alt. 2,951 feet), Odeitha (alt. 2,215 feet), and Neby 'Aueidah (alt. 2,814 feet). On some future occasion it would be desirable to fix the cul- minating points on the west of the Merj Ayun, also around the curious quadrilateral basin which is deficient of outfall, and includes the villages of Meis. The height of the culminating point along that part of the waterparting range between Kades and Aitherun is wanted ; and also the altitudes that connect Delata with Jebel el Ghabieh, where the range is intersected by the remarkable rocky chasm, that communi- cates between the upper and lower parts of the Hindaj Basin.

The slope by which this Eastern Eange descends to its base is varied and interesting, but the facts are inadequately demonstrated. The altitude of the base line is fixed at the Sea of Galilee at 682'5 below sea level ; it is also expressed near the Jisr Benat Y'akub, where the river is 43 feet below sea level. But at the Huleh Lake, the altitude of the surface is not inserted on the maps, and the Memoirs on sheet iv, while reporting that the observations made the surface of the lake seven feet above the Mediterranean, add that " they were not very good." In the Huleh Plain there is an ob- servation excellently placed at the junction of the Jordan with all of its affluents, before the river enters the Huleh Marsh. This altitude is 140 feet above sea level. Others are given at El Mansurah (alt. 245 feet) ; at Kh. Dufnah (alt. 390 feet) ; at Tell el Kady (alt. 505 feet) ; at Kh. Dahr es Saghir (alt. 660 feet). This is the extent to which the altitudes partially elucidate the inclination of the base line of the eastern slope of Upper Galilee. It is an unfinished work. The course of the Jordan itself is cut short in the midst of its descent from the elevated hollow of Coele Syria to the much lower Plain of Huleh. Dr. Eobinson called attention to the six successive terraces, by which the descent is made,* with a drop between each, generally not less than

 * " Bib. Ees.," iii, 391. " Phys. Geog. H. Land," 68.


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180 180 THE MOUNTAINS OF UPPER GALILEE.

50 feet, and sometimes more. The same authority also alludes to the curious way in which the channel of the Has- bany Eiver forms a deep and narrow chasm along an upper terrace of the mountain side, instead of following the lowest ground. These distinct features are scarcely made out on the maps, and attention will no doubt be paid to them in the continuation of the Survey from its present limits to the east of the Jordan. It would be useful to define the base of the slopes, or the line of lowest depression in the upper part of the Jordan Valley, where the Hasbany departs from that line, and cuts its channel through the higher portion of the basaltic bank on the west of the valley. This base line seems to follow the Nahr el Leddan up to Wady en Nimr, and the latter wady till it forks at the foot of the slope which gives rise to 'Am el Tineh. The line, doubtless, ascends the branch from the north, but the survey does not at present assist in carrying it farther This part of the base line is of import- ance, as it divides the western slope of Mount Hermon, from the eastern slope descending from the Mediterranean waterparting, and it is an essential element in an attempt to understand the form of the ground in this interesting locality.

The slopes around the northern end of Huleh Plain may be resolved into three divisions. (1) Up to the northern termination of the Merj 'Ayun, the slope from the Mediterranean waterparting may be considered to terminate in the stream which proceeds within the map from 'Am Derderah, and runs to the Jordan as Kahr Bareighit. (2) The range on the east of Merj 'Ayun, dividing that plain from the Hasbany, may be conveniently regarded as the summit of the slope, along the eastern side of which, the channel of the Hasbany is cut, on its way to the Huleh Plain ; the base being found in a line along Wady Leddan and Wady Nimr to the Hasbany before it passes on to the slope ; (3) The slopes of Hermon, ending in the base line before men- tioned.

It is the slope of the second division which Dr. Robinson


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181 THE EASTERN RANGE. 181

found divided into distinct terraces ; and the following is an endeavour to trace them on the new map. (1) The upper- most or first terrace appears to extend from the summit range on the east of Merj 'Ayun down 1 to a narrow and parallel edge on the east of the Hasbany. This terrace was formerly known as Ard Serada, and it includes the* village of that name, alsd Kh. Jammul, the village el Ghajir, and the channel of the Hasbany. Judging from the height of Abl (alt. 1,024 feet) that place should be included, but there is no clue to the southern edge. (2) The second terrace extends to Wady en Mmr. The direction of the first and second terraces, is from north-east to south-west, till the Hasbany bends due south near Kh. Jarnmul, when the terraces take the same course. The third terrace shows a tendency to a more easterly front, and the remainder run east and west. (3) The third terrace is east of the base line formed by Wady Nimr, and at the foot of Mount Hermon. (4) The fourth excludes Tell el Kady, which is said to rise about 40 feet above the edge of this terrace and to drop about 80 feet to its southern base in the terrace below. The edge of the fourth terrace appears to run eastward as far as Tell Ilia at the foot of Banias. (5) The fifth terrace follows the Eiver Banias as it curves westward from Tell Ilia, and leaves that river where it bends more to the south ; the edge of the terrace then stretches across westward to Wady el 'Asl and Wady el Leddan. It foUows the Leddan below Kh. Dufnah (alt. 390 feet); and crosses a stream from the second terrace, and the Eiver Hasbany, between KL el Heit and Kh. es Sanbariyeh, west of the Hasbany ; the edge of the fifth terrace seems to be defined by the course of an aqueduct, but in the absence of any altitude corresponding to that of Kh. Dufnah, there is nothing to follow. (6) The edge of the sixth terrace is probably found on the east of the Eiver Banias, which the Survey barely touches. On the west of the river it seems to be indicated by an altitude of 302 feet at Baiket Francis, and follows the river to el Mansurah (alt. 245 feet), then stretches westward to a mill between the Leddan and

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182 182 THF MOUNTAINS OF UPPER GALILEE.

the Hasbany, and pursues the same direction towards the Nahr Bareighit, above the village of Zuk et Tahta. Two or three altitudes westward of el Mansurah and corresponding with it, would have helped this attempt.

The structure of this slope is an orographical curiosity, and the notice it has received from such an eminent and exemplary observer as Dr. Kobinson, makes it necessary in a Survey like the present, to meet it distinctly, either by adequate delineation or positive disavowal.

The connection of this slope with that between the Mediterranean waterparting and the Nahr Bareighit should also be elucidated. The following is a case in point. From Jebel Hunin (alt. 2,951 feet) the waterparting runs to the north-east, and bears on its summit the village and ruined castle of Hunin. Half a mile beyond Hunin, the water- parting takes a northerly direction, but a spur continues north-easterly to Nahr Bareighit, and has upon its brow the ruin of el Kuneiseh (alt. 1,064 feet). On the opposite bank of the river, in a more northerly direction, is Abl (alt. 1,074 feet). It seems probable that el Ghajir on the Hasbany is about the same height, but there is no observation. One or two altitudes near this level, on the east of Abl, would enable a hypsometrical connection to be traced between Jebel Hunin, Abl, and Banias (alt. 1,080 feet).

Eecurring to Jebel Hunin, the waterparting on the north of that summit, appears to have its highest points at Odeitha (alt. 2,215 feet), and at Neby 'Aueidah (alt. 2,814 feet). For rather more than three miles south of Jebel Hunin, the slope from the waterparting to the Huleh Plain, is rapid and some- times rocky and precipitous, with an average fall of one in two. This aspect terminates at the distance mentioned, in a summit without a special name, but connected with Jebel esh Shakarah, and having five or six spurs diverging from it in all directions. The altitude is unknown. The waterparting which has reached this point from the north, here bends abruptly to the west, for about half a mile, then south-west


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183 THE EASTERN RANGE. 183

and again westerly, to reach Neby Muheibib. This westerly diversion of the Jordan or Mediterranean waterparting is the southern limit of the isolated basins of Meis and Tufeh, and the northern limit of a great recession to the westward, both of the waterparting and of the summit of the eastern slope also, which run together from Neby Muheibib only as far south as Deir el Ghabieh. From the last place the water- parting again turns abruptly westward as far as Jebel Marun, but the Eastern Eange continues southward to Delata (alt. 2,740 feet).

Eeturning now to the northern end of this Eastern Eange, it will be found to have a parallel range on the west, which runs from Jebel Hunin to the Kasimiyeh Eiver, and is in the same line with the range on which the great castle of Kulat esh Shukif or Belfort (alt. 2,345 feet) is situated. The valley between the waterparting and the parallel range on the west, is now called Wady 'Aizakaneh, instead of Wady Hunin, as on former maps. The Wady 'Aizakaneh is in the same line with the Kasimiyeh before it turns to the west, though sloping in an opposite direction. At their confluence occurs the rectangular bend of the Kasimiyeh, which diverts that river from a southerly to a westerly course, to become the northern base of the highland of Upper Galilee. The want of an altitude at this confluence, leaves the inclination of this northern base in obscurity, and prevents any comparison between the relative levels of the eastern and western bases of this portion of the Mediterranean waterparting.

The Wady 'Aizakaneh, although of small extent, becomes of further interest in connection with a succession of other features along the summits and slopes of the Eastern Eange. That range has been seen to bend suddenly to the west as far as Neby Muheibib, when it turns again to the south. This inner or western parallel range will be found to be in con- tinuation northward with the range on the west of Wady 'Aizakaneh. Starting in that direction from Neby Muheibib, this range forms the western boundary of the isolated basins of Meis and Tufeh ; the northern limit of which begins at

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184 184 THE MOUNTAINS OF UPPER GALILEE.

Ras edh Dhahr and runs on through Jebel Husein, and Dahruj, to the Eastern Range, at a point rather more than half a mile on the south of Kh. el Menarah (alt. 2,805 feet). Meis is a favourite camping place for travellers, but none appear to have noticed its hydrographic isolation. From Ras edh Dhahr, the western range is intersected by Wady el Jemel and runs on to Jebel er Rueis. The Wady el Jemel drains a plateau on the north of the basin of Meis, and but for this outlet the plateau would form a similarly isolated basin. Beyond Jebel er Rueis, the range from the south, appears to meet the western range from the north, in Jebel Hunin ; but when the height of Rubb Thelathin (alt. 2,292 feet) is compared with that of Merkebeh (alt. 2,290 feet), and of el Hola (alt. 2,470 feet), it may be inferred that the con- tinuity of the elevation between Rubb Thelathin, Merkebeh, el Hola, and Ras edh Dhahr, calls for an accentuation of the hill drawing expressing those indications better than that of the present map. At all events, the continuity of the western range from Kulat esh Shukif to Deir el Ghabieh is made out, whether it joins Jebel Hunin or runs through Merkebeh and Hola.

The interval, properly so called, which has been traced from the Litany and Wady 'Aizakaneh on the north, to the basin of Meis on the south, does not stop at Meis, but is prolonged further south in the well known terrace or plateau of Kades (alt. 1,587 feet), the only altitude that is found from one end to the other of this intramontane tract. The eastern edge of the plateau of Kades is the prolongation of the lower part only of the Eastern Range in the line maintained by the upper part also, up to the northern end of the plateau. The plateau of Kades occupies the space caused by the westward recession of the waterparting along with the upper part of the Eastern Range. But it should not be overlooked that be- tween Kades and the waterparting lies a still higher terrace, running parallel with the waterparting and above Kades, from el Malkiyeh to Belideh, Kh. el Maserah, and up the Khallet Ghazaleh to the unnamed summit, where the westerly


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185 THE EASTERN RANGE. 185

recess of the Eastern Eange begins. This is not a new feature, but it has never been delineated before with the precision of the New Survey.* These terraces of Malkiyeh, Belideh, and Kades, are drained into the Huleh Marsh by the steep descent of Wady 'Arus. But the plateau itself seems to have a more gradual passage to the base of the mountain by the Ard el Dawamin, which forms a step downwards to Ard el Kheit and the shores of Lake Huleh. This step is included in a. small basin, the western limit of which is in a line with the eastern edge of Kades plateau. There is indeed in this succession of natural features, confined between parallel ranges, a prolonged line of elevated lateral communication, extending from the Ard el Kheit, through the Kades plateau, Meis and 'Aizakaneh, to the Kasimiyeh ; and if the Survey extended further north the line might be pursued to the fork of Wady Jermuk with the Litany, and so continued either by Coele Syria or by the Wady Jermuk, the Upper Zaherany, and the Upper Auwaly to the latitude of Beirut.

There is one more occasion to recur again to Wady 'Aizakaneh, Parallel to that valley, but much more extensively developed both in length and breadth, is another affluent of the Kasimiyeh, coming from the south and rising at Marun er Ras (alt. 3,083 feet), in the midst of the higher plateau of Upper Galilee. Its principal channel is Wady Selukieh, the name of Wady Hajeir which formerly assumed that dis- tinction, being now applied to a tributary. Although Wady Selukieh belongs to the northern slope, and wijl have to be considered in connection with that part of the subject, it is also related to a portion of the eastern slope, in connection wit!} the upper part of Wady Hindaj, which enters Huleh Lake on the south of Ard ed Dawamin.

The Wady Hindaj marks a fresh and striking change in the features of the Eastern Range. The recess distinguished by the. Plateau of Kades is backed by the Eastern Range and waterparting between Neby Muheibib and Jebel el Ghabieh.

 * Robinsop, "Pib. Res.," itf ; 367.


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186 186 THE MOUNTAINS OF UPPER GALILEE.

The latter point is on the northern edge of the Wady Hindaj basin, the limits of which require attention, as they shed a light on features of the range that have been already noticed, as well as upon those that begin here. Beginning at Lake Huleh, the northern edge of the basin runs in a south- westerly direction to a range of hills that forms a prolongation of the original line of the eastern range. The boundary runs northward along this range to the south-eastern corner of the Kades plateau, where it turns westward along the southern edge of the plateau to Deir el Ghabieh. From this point the waterparting of the Mediterranean and Jordan and of this basin makes a further departure westward, as far as Jebel Marun (alt. 3,050 feet) ; while the Eastern Eange appears to cross the basin, from the same point southward, in the direction of Delata (alt. 2,740 feet). A large basaltic dyke observed by Dr. Tristram between Delata and Alma falls in the line of the range. A large patch of basalt farther north seems to be Jebel Gabieh in the same line. Perhaps the smaller dyke to the eastward is the ridge dividing the plateau of el Malkiyeh from the Merj Kades.* At Jebel Marun the waterparting bends abruptly to the south-south-west as far as a point on the range south-east of Jebel Adather (alt. 3,300 feet). There it turns south-east to Jebel Jurmuk (alt. 3,934 feet), the highest point in Galilee; then it goes off on a general course to the north-east as far as Alma, where the Eastern Eange crosses the basin and makes the waterparting deflect to the south-east in descending to the base of the range in the Ard el Kheit and the Huleh Lake. The wady also descends the range by a rocky and precipitous chasm, in a parallel direction to the waterparting ; but on reaching the plain, the stream bends suddenly to the eastward with a little northing, and so crosses the Ard el Kheit to Lake Huleh.

The elevated part of the Hindaj basin extends so far west as to intercept the heads of Wady Selukieh running north to the Kasimiyeh, and of Wady 'Amud running south by Safed to the Sea of Galilee. The 'Amud, the Upper

 * Tristram'e " Land of Israel," 577.


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187 THE EASTERN RANGE. 187

Hindaj and the Selukieh, with the bridge of K'ak'aiyeh across the Kasimiyeh, thus become a fully developed line of lateral communication connecting the Sea of Galilee and the Lower Jordan with the Sidonian coast. Thus is explained the intimate connection between Sidon and the Upper Jordan. Josephus calls the Huleh "The great Sidonian Plain."* This is the relation of the Wady Selukieh with the eastern slope to which reference was made partially in the eleventh page of this work.

All this division of the eastern slope, excepting its westernmost portion along the Mediterranean waterparting, but including its high plateau as well as the range which crosses the slope, and the descent to the base in the Ard el Kheit, is characterised by rocky precipices and deep chasms. Its base is found only falling back a little from the line which it has maintained from the extremity of the Survey up to the basin of the Hindaj. The ascent from this base no doubt culminates in the Eastern Eange passing through Delata and Alma, across the Hindaj chasm to the range on the west of the Plain of Kades. The descent thus limited is without the intermediate range or the plateaus that characterise this eastern mountain further north, but chasms or precipices crossing the slope, are substituted very prominently.

South of the Hindaj basin, the eastern slope is much restricted in its westerly extent, by the interposition of the 'Amud or Safed basin. At Eas el Ahmar the waterparting is somewhat more westerly than at Deir el Ghabieh on the north, but the highest ground is considered to be further east, in a line between Delata and Alma, where Dr. Tristram's basaltic dyke occurs. At the southern termination in Jebel Kan'an on the east of Safed, the Eastern Eange has quite returned to its former meridian, and the slope is eased off by a terrace containing the villages of Ju'auneh, Feram, el Mughar (alt. 1,670 feet), and Kabba'ah (alt. 1,745 feet), also by spurs advanced into the Ard el Kheit, and raising its level at Kh. el Loziyeh to 487 feet, and at 'Ayun el Wakkas to 365 feet.

 * Ant. v, 3, 1. Judges xviii, 7, 28.


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188 188 THE MOUNTAINS OF UPPER GALILEE.

It is yet too soon to dismiss the features connected with the Hindaj. It is the only part of the eastern slope of Upper Galilee that comes in contact with the Mediterranean water- parting, where the latter throws off its channels cfrrectlyto the westward. On the south of the Hindaj, the plateau of Safed also abuts on the Mediterranean slope, but that plateau is not on the eastern, but on the southern slope of Upper Galilee. The plateau of the' Selukieh which follows that of the Hindaj on the north, belongs to the northern slope.

Another remark on the Hindaj may be made. North of the Hinplaj, the waterparting of the Mediterranean makes a succession of steps to the eastward, so as to become east of the Litany and the Lebanon. The western limit of the Hindaj is the commencement of the meridional direction, along which the Mediterraneo-Jordan waterparting zigzags for the rest of the Survey. Its most westerly point near Sasa is the first of a series of projections to the west, alternating with recesses to tjie east, which mark the progress of the great parting southward. The origin of this configuration will probably engage the attention of future observers.

The .direct orographic continuation of the main water- parting becomes disconnected from its hydrographic accom- paniment, o the north of the Hindaj, and pursues a line on the west, instead of on the east of the Selukieh ; and reaches the Kasimtyeh in a bend of the river northward, below the confluence of tjie .Selukieh, and the K'ak'eiyeh Bridge. It is a line witji successive oscillations, that point to a continuous series of .small elevated plateaus alternating from one basin to another, and which will be noticed hereafter.

The parallelism in the orography of Upper Galilee, which has been already remarked, extends beyond the limits of the eastern slope and its ranges, and includes a part of the western slope. But as the extraneous parallel has a direction in common with tjiose already noticed, and has a dividing line also in common with the Safed, Hindaj, and Selukieh series, it seems desirable to deal with it at once, and to make it the


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189 THE WESTERN SLOPE. 189

beginning of the examination of the western part of Upper Galilee.

The Western Slope and its Upper Plateaus.

The line of waterparting heights that forms the western boundary of the valleys of Safed or 'Amud, Hindaj, and Selu- kieh, divides that series of valleys from another on the west, that in some respects presents similar facilities of lateraj. com- munication through the highland, between north and south.

Eastward of the roadway carried over the plains, and the occasional headlands along the coast, passage in a parallel direction is obstructed for a considerable distance inland, by the constant succession of deep and narrow valleys, and steep ridges descending from the interior. In the direct distance of about 30 miles between the Eiver Kasimiyeh and Acre, there are no less ibhan 30 wadys or rivers and channels which have distinct outlets into the sea, and which have to be crossed in travelling northward or southward. To this number of main channels must be added the valleys of their numerous affluents, and the ridges between them, running for the most part in a more or less parallel direction. These obstructions jln the hills to communication parallel with the maritime plain coyer a belt of country exceeding a dozen or fifteen miles in breadth. Within that belt are found the sources of all the wadys contributing to the 30 outfalls before mentioned, except three. These three are the Hubeishtyeh, the Ezzlyeh, and the Kurn. They pass through the furrowed belt to the s.ea, in deep and narrow gorges like the rest, J)ut in the higher ground beyond, they spread out into consecutive plateaus, and overlap the others, their main streams assuming more or Jess of a meridional direction ; while the branches running north and south, greatly facilitate communication.

The plateaus formed by tl^e upper parts of the Hubeis- friyeh, Ezziyeh, and Kurn basins, include the western division of the highland of Upper Galilee ; the eastern division being embraced mainly by the pfateaus of Safed and Selukieh, supplemented by the smaller series of 'Aizakaneh, Meis, and


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190 190 THE MOUNTAINS OF UPPER GALILEE.

Kades. The edges of the western highland form the Western Eange which will now be made out from the New Survey.

Western Ranye.

The Southern Range will be used as the starting-point of the Western, as it was of the Eastern Eange. Although no intermediate altitude is found on the Southern Range between Neby Heider (alt. 3,440 feet) and Kurn Hennawy (alt. 1,872 feet), yet the height of Kisra (alt. 2,520 feet) on the north of the Southern Range, indicates the junction of the Kisra spur with the Southern Range, as the probable point of departure for the culminating summits of the western slope.

A cue to the course of the Western Range is found in the western-most observations rising above 2,000 feet. That guidance leads from the short spur dominated by Kisra, north- westward to Kh. Jubb Ruheij (alt. 2,320 feet), near Yanuh (alt. 2,200 feet). North of Jubb Ruheij is'Kh. ed Dubsheh (alt. 2,050 feet) near Teirshiha (alt. 1,810 feet). About a mile further north is Malia (alt. 1,800 feet), and about the same distance beyond, this line of heights is intersected by the rocky gorge of Wady el Kurn. Two miles north of the gorge, the line of heights is taken up by Tell Belat (alt. 2,020 feet) in the secondary basin of Wady Kerkera.

Before leaving the line of the western heights on the south of the Wady el Kurn, it should be observed that it corresponds very closely with the waterparting which divides the upper expansion of the Kurn basin, from the heads of a series of five minor basins, that have their outfalls into the sea between Wady el Kurn and Nahr N'amein. On the inner, upper, and eastern side of this part of the Western Range, the principal watercourses are parallel to this range ; while on the outer, lower, and western side the watercourses rising in the range, pass off towards the sea, at right angles to it. The Western Range crosses the Wady el Kurn, where the gorge running from south to north, takes a westerly course* and descends to 495 feet above the sea, at the foot of Kulat


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el Kurein, the remains of the Crusaders' castle of Mont Fort, which commanded the pass. The altitude of the river before it crosses the mountain, compared with its altitude west of the range, would probably indicate a considerable fall, and throw light on the height of the plateau at its lowest point.

Three miles about north-north-east of Tell Belat, the prolongation of the Western Eange is defined by Khurbet Belat (alt. 2,467 feet). The eastwardly direction corre- sponds with the change in the course of the coast line on the north of Ras en Nakurah. From the northern bank of Wady el Kurn to Khurbet Belat, the range crosses the secondary basin of Wady Kerkera. It is a spur from Kh. Belat, which terminates at the sea in the headland of Eas en Nakurah or the ladder of Tyre ; and by the eastern end of that spur the Western Range reaches the summit of the mountain.

The Khurbet Belat is remarkable for the ruins on its summit, and also for one of the grandest panoramic views in the country. It rises on the southern edge of the Ezziyeh Basin, and besides throwing off a spur to Ras en Nakura, it sends off another spur to Ras el Abiad or White Cape. The western range passes from it across the Ezziyeh Basin, to Ras el Bedendy (alt. 2,215 feet), which has the village of Yater close on the west, with an altitude already fallen to 1,589 feet.* About a mile to the north, the range is found at Ras Umm Kabr (alt. 2,341 feet) ; from whence it passes east to Haris (alt. 2,343 feet), then north-east to Kh. el Yadhun (alt. 2,612 feet), Jebel Jumleh (alt. 2,625 feet), and Kh. Selem (alt. 2,219 feet). At the last point the Western Range terminates, and the northern limit of the plateau forms its continuation.

It will be observed that where the range passes from Kh. Belat across the Ezziyeh basin to Ras el Bedendy, the basin contracts from the expansions of the upper part, both on the north and on the south ; and the principal watercourse also bends from a meridional direction suddenly to the westward by a very tortuous channel. Below the mountain, the gorge

 * Robinson's " Bib. Res." Ill, 61.


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192 192 THE MOUNTAINS OF UPPER GALILEE.

becomes a deep and rocky chasm, with branches of the same character.

Between Eas el Bedendy and Jebel Jumleh, the range crosses the Hubeishiyeh basin, and sends off from Kh. el Yadhun, the spur which has upon it the Crusaders' castle of Tibnin or Toron. This spur lies between two curious divisions of the Hubeishiyeh basin. The uppermost is the heacl of the basin. It is nearly four miles long by two miles broad, and slopes from the south-east towards tl^e base of the Tibnin spur, along which a wady runs to the north-east, and receives several streams from the south-eastern slope. At the north-east comer, the wady discharges the drainage of this enclosed plateau, by passing round the end of the Tibnin spur, and then entering the south-east corner of a similarly enclosed plateau, it skirts the spur along its north-western ba.se, in the reverse direction to its previous course on the other side. The wady is turned abruptly frqm the spur in a northerly direction by the range between Yadhun and Jumleh, which crosses the eastern part of this plateau obliquely. The wady intersects the range, and bein,g then diverted to the westward by a parallel range, takes the name of Wady el Ma, and reaches tfye north-western corner of the plateau, where it receives a tributary from the higher western range, and leaves the plateau, proceeding on a north-westerly course to the sea. In this direction it keeps close along the southern boundary of the basin, and receives all its affluents from the triangular slope between it, the north-western side of the hills enclosing the Wady el Ma, and the spur despendr ing from Jebel Jumleh through Teir Zinbeh, Siiah, and Mahrakah. This spur separates the northern and southern divisions of the Hubeishiyeh basin. The inain channel of the northern division of this basin, called Wady Humraniyeh towards its outlet, also hugs its southern limit in tjie same way, and receives nearly all its affluents from the north, where the waterparting divides the basin from that o,f the Kasimiyeh. There are three of these affluents, rising in succession, and running at first in the same line, parallel with the main


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193 THE WESTEEN RANGE. 193

stream, until each of ' them bends at a right angle, and descends the slope to its confluence. They are perfect examples on a small scale of the lateral communication which is seldom wanting among hills or mountains.

Looking back southward, over the lower part of the western slope of Upper Galilee,, it will be found to present three distinct divisions, in consequence of the elevation of the central division which lies between Wady Ezsiyeh on the ndrth, and Wady Kerkera on the south. Between these basements, the spurs descend to the sea from the Western Range, where it rises up to the summits of Kh. Belat (alt. 2,467 feet), and Tell Belat (alt. 2,020 feet). It is how- ever the former alone that is the centre of the elevated spurs that distinguish this central tract. To Khurbet Belat may be distinctly traced the waterparting ridge which has oh its summit Birket er Rahrah (alt. 1,865 feet), and El Mejdel (alt. 1,375 feet). Near the latter place; the waterparting forks and divides the small Wady el Mansur from the great Wady Ezziyeh, and the minor Wady Shema. As el Mejdel is only two miles from the plain of Tyre, and but three miles from the sea, the descents into the plain of the spurs on either side of Wady el Mansur, must be somewhat abrupt. Another spur is denned by the village of Shihin, and Ktilat Shema (alt, 1,255 feet). It spreads out to a mile in width, west of the Kulat (castle), and concludes in the line of cliffs that has the Ras el Abiad (White Cape) at its southern end, and terminates the Tyrian Plain. About a mile nearer the sea than Castle Shema is Kh. Kermith (alt. 1,290 feet) on another spur apparently free frbm cliffs. Further south, Kh. Umm 'Ofeiyeh (alt. 900 feet) is only a mile from the sea. The spur on which it stands comes down from Kh. Belat through Shihin, El Jubbein, and Teir Harfa. The last spur of this central division is the most important of the series, and passes down from Kh. Belat, under the names of el Menarah, Tell el Kishk, and Jebel Mushakkah ; and finally reaches the sea at the famous headland of Ras en Nakurah, the Hewn Cape, and Ladder of the Tyrians, or Sciala Tyriorum, of the ancients.


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194 194 THE MOUNTAINS OF UPPER GALILEE.

Jebel el Mushakkah may be used as the name of the whole of this range from Eas en Nakurah, to the foot of Kh. Belat, near Birket Eisheh. Its northern base may be found in Wady Zemzem, Wady es Serawat, and Wady es Zerka. Its southern base is Wady Abu Muhammed and Wady Kerkera, as far as the edge of the Plain of Acre, when the base line is carried northward to Wady el Kutayeh, and along the north side of the gardens of el Basseh and el Musheirefeh to the sea. The altitude of 1,192 feet, is given to the trigo- nometrical station on the summit of the mountain between el Basseh and Lebbuna, about two miles from the sea. An altitude of 225 feet at Eas en Nakura, is probably applied to the roadway cut in the face of the cliff. The slope towards the plain of Acre is very rapid, perhaps rugged, but ap- parently devoid of cliffs. East of the plain, the southern slope expands to the south, while the ridge recedes a little to the north, so as to produce a space of nearly two miles in width between the ridge at Tell el Kishk and the base in Wady Kerkera. This space forms a terrace or plateau drained by Wady ed Delem, and bounded on the south by a suc- cession of bold cliffs with ruins above them, among which is Kh. Idmith (altitude 1,810 feet) with others which have been described by Mons. Guerin.* The northern slope spreads out towards the receding shore line, it is more varied, has many interesting ruined sites, and also the existing villages of Alma esh Sh'aub (altitude 1,360 feet), Lebbuna and en Nakura (altitude 221 feet). The slope from Jebel el Mus- hakkah to the sea is limited by a spur from Alma to en Nakura, the northern slope of which gives rise to its own watercourses, partly contributing to the lower course of Wady ez Zerka. This wady was formerly called by Eobinson and others, Wady Hamul, and the Am Hamul is still con- nected with it on the new map. Another spur contributing to the character of this slope, proceeds from the west end of that part of the range called el Menarah, and follows the Wady Zerka on the south as far as Tell esh Shatin.

 * Galilee, II, ch. kxviii.


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195 THE WESTERN RANGE. 195

From the east end of el Menarah, the remainder of the slope descends to the base of the mountain in Wady Zemzem and Wady es Sera at. The archaeology of this division has attracted the attention of MM. de Saulcy, de Vogue 7 , Eenan, and Guerin.* Dr. Thomson notices the coast route. t

The divisions of the western slope on the north and south of the central portion, descend to the plains of Tyre and Acre respectively. The slope of the northern division, in descending from the Western Eange, appears to present features that separate the upper from the lower part. It will be found that all the larger wadys at first run northward, with more or less westing, and that they bend suddenly to the west, at points in their courses that follow in a continuous line, parallel with the coast. On the outer side of the same line, minor streams, both independent and tributary, take their rise. The conclusion is that the slope makes a sudden drop along this line, which forms a kind of retaining wall to the upper part of the streams, and is broken through by the streams in descending to the lower part of the slope. It may also point to some geological fact that has hitherto escaped notice.

In the southern division of the western slope, the course of the main valleys is scarcely at all northerly, and if an intermediate escarpment exists, it must be looked for in another form. Such a point may be noticed as Yerka (alt. 1,200 feet), in comparison with Kefr Yasif (alt. 279 feet), on the same spur. Due north of Yerka, on Wady el Kurn, is found Kulat el Kurein (alt. 1,055 feet), and Kh. Menhatah (alt. 1,405 feet). Perhaps an examination might be fruitful along the connecting line, including additional altitudes at or near Eas KeMn, Kh. el Habai, Kulat Jiddin, and Kh. Zuwei- nita.

f " Land and Book," 302.
 * Guerin, " Galilee," IT, chaps. Ixxvi, Ixxrii.


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196 196 THE MOUNTAINS OF UPPER GALILEE.

The Northern Range.

Between Khurbet Selem and the Kasimiyeh, which is the northern limit of Upper Galilee, it is necessary to look due east for the next altitude of 2,000 feet ; and one is found at Merkebeh (alt. 2,290 feet), on the inner of the two parallel Eastern ranges. The actual junction of the Northern with the Eastern Range, is no doubt further south, and due west of Hunin, which will become evide'nt in tracing the range from Kh. Selem eastward across the valley. Kh. Selem overhangs the deep and precipdtous valley of el Hajeir, and the continuation of the summit of the rarige is found on the opposite bank, in the village of Suwaneh (alt. 1,766 feet), from whence it ta'kes a zigzag course to Mejdel Islim (alt. 1,910 feet). The short slope of this part of the range is towards the south, where it has for its base the Khallet el Dalieh ; while the long outer slope, extends through Tulin and Abrika, to the great bend of the Selukieh, where it joins the Hajeir, and runs on to the itasimiyeh. The Hajeir also gives its name to the main wady below the junction, although it is less thari half the length of the Selukieh. East of Mejdel Islim, the range is intersected by Wady Selukieh, and on the other side of the wady, it is proposed to trace it along the ridge on the north of Wady el Beiyad, up to the Eastern Range. The slope of this part is short to the south, while the northern slope is longer and extends through Tallusah to the bend of Wady Selukieh. Below the Northern Range, the heights descend to a general level of about 1,500 feet, and drop abruptly by rocky precipices to the lowest wadys which are about 600 feet, at the junction of the Hajeir with the Kasimiyeh. There is an observation at the junction of W. Bureik with W. Hajeir (alt. 635 feet). Above the range the country rises up to 3,000 feet.


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197 THE MOUNTAINS OF UPPER GALILEE. 197

The Interior of the Plateau of Upper Galilee.

It is now time to take a glance at the interior of the high plateau of Upper Galilee, within the ranges that form its outer limits.

From Jebel Mugherat Shehab, on the east of Jebelet el 'Arils (alt. 3,520 feet), the latter being the highest point observed on the Southern Eange, another range runs north-westerly, crossing the plateau obliquely to Kh. Belat in the Western Eange. This line of heights has the basins of Kurn and Kerkera on the south-west and those of Safed, Hindaj, and Ezziyeh on the north-east. It is traced through Kh. Zebud (alt. 3,200 feet) ; Jebel Jurmuk (alt. 3,934 feet), the highest point in Galilee; and Jebel 'Adather (alt. 3,300 feet). Northward the range runs between Katamun and Semmukhieh, both of which exceed 2,400 feet, but between Jebel 'Adather and Kh. Belat no observations are found along this line. This range may be called the Jermuk Range, after its culminating summit.

Another line of heights runs obliquely from Deir el Ghabieh on the Eastern Eange, to Kh. el Yadhun (alt. 2,512 feet) on the Western Range. This line exceeds 3,000 feet at Jebel Mafun, and it is 2,675 feet at Ith. Shelabun. It divides the basins of Hindaj and Ezziyeh, from those of Selukieh and Hubeishiyeh. This line may be called the Marun Range. According to abundant observations in the upper part of the Ezziyeh basin, the principal watercourses average about 1,800 feet, and the hills about 2,475 feet above the sea. The observations in the upper part of the Kurn basin are very few, and not sufficient for any purpose.

The plateau on the south-west of the Jermuk Eange, consists of the two main valleys of the Upper Kurn, and the heads of the Kerkera. The latter, and one branch of the Kurn, receive the south-western drainage of the Jurmuk Eange. This branch of the Kurn is situated, according to Dr. Eobinson,* in a " deep and vast valley ; " and the aspect of the
 * " Bib. Kes.," TTI, 75, 76, 77.


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198 198 THE MOUNTAINS OF UPPER GALILEE.

country viewed from Beit Jenn, at the head of the valley in April, is said by the same authority to be " bald, barren, and desolate, in the highest degree." The other branch of the Kurn drains the Bukeiah, which signifies a hollow between mountains, here forming a well-cultivated plain, and includ- ing among its population, who are chiefly Druzes, a few Jews, who are said to be the only Jews in Palestine engaged in agriculture, and who claim descent from families settled in this remote highland from time immemorial. This branch of the Kurn drains the interior slope of the Western Range. Between Teirshiha and Suhmata, the plain or hollow ter- minates in a deep and rocky gorge, at the outlet of which the two branches of the Upper Kurn unite, before descending westward to the sea, through the deep and rocky bottom of the narrow neck, into which the basin contracts on the western slope.

The north-eastern side of the Jurmuk Range seems to be characterised by its plains, forming fine tracts of cultivated land with plenty of pasture, woodlands, and orchards. Pic- turesque hills and valleys, and rocky glens, villages and vestiges of antiquity ; horses, cattle, and camels, sheep and goats, mules and asses, cats and dogs, poultry and game, birds and beasts of prey, contribute to the scene.

The plains spread out over the upper parts of the basins of el 'Amud, Wakkas, Hindaj, and Ezziyeh, and they extend from Meiron to el Jish and Delata, Alma, Salhah, Yarun, and Rumeish. This wide circuit surrounds a higher tier of more undulating ground, backed by the Jurmuk Range, and containing the villages of Kefr Birim and Sasa. On the north, the plains are bounded by the Marun Range, which forms a waterparting summit to a broad expanse of deeply fissured and densely wooded highland, abutting against the Western Range, whic h is indeed its escarpment towards the sea. Aligned between north- west and south-east, the Marun Range extends its spurs 'and valleys to the Upper Ezzlyeh on the south, and to the Upper Selukieh and the Eastern and Northern Ranges. Between Ras el Tireh, and Kh. el Yadhun,


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199 THE MOUNTAINS OF UPPER GALILEE. 199

the range also contributes to the head of the Hubeishiyeh, which lies above the castle of Tibnin. The portion of the Upper Ezziyeh referred to, bears the names of Khallet el Mukeisibeh, Wady el Malek, and Wady el 'Ayftn, on the one- inch map ; and this channel forms so far a common base for the Jurmuk and Marun Eanges.

THE MOUNTAINS OF LOWER GALILEE.

The northern base of the mountains of Lower Galilee is of course identical with the southern base of the mountains of Upper Galilee, which has been already described and explained. It will be sufficient to repeat now that the northern base line runs from the Plain of Acre, along Wady el Halzun, Wady Shaib, Wady el Khashab, Wady en Nimr, Wady Said, Wady Maktul, and Wady 'Amud to the Sea of Galilee. The eastern limit, is the Sea of Galilee and the Jordan. The western and southern limits are formed by the Plains of Acre and Esdraelon, and the Nahr Jaliid.

The difference in altitude between this region and Upper Galilee is relatively considerable ; for while the latter nearly attains to a height of 4,000 feet, the hills of Lower Galilee never rise to 2,000 feet. The general features of the upland of Lower Galilee, are also very different from Upper Galilee. They present a succession of parallel ranges, divided by broad plains ; the ranges running between east and west, with a slight bend towards the north.

The Northern or Shaghdr Range.

The northern range rises from the base line common to Upper and Lower Galilee, which has just been traced in detail. Its southern base is denned by the Wady el Melek ; con- tinued upward as Wady Khalladtyeh, to the Plain of Buttauf and thence along that great plain, and the southern foot of Jebel et Teiyarat, to Wady Sad, and the sinuous, deep and rocky gorge by which the Wady el Hamam reaches the Plain of Genne- saretand the Sea of Galilee, on the north of el Mejdel. About half a-mile above the junction of Wady Sad, with Wady el Hamam,

o 2


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200 200 THE MOUNTAINS OF LOWER GALILEE.

the wady is at the level of the sea, and there the depression of the Jordan Basin commences in this locality, The central part of this upland gives its name to the District of esh Shaghur ; the western is in the District of Shefa 'Amr, and the eastern descends from esh Shaghur, by the Wady er Eubudlyeh to the Plain of el Ghuweir or Gennesaret. The western part of these hills has been noticed on p. 124.

The summit of this upland is a plateau between two ranges, one of which is easily defined, for it is coincident with the waterparting between the N'amein and Eubudiyeh basins on the north, and the Mukutt'a and el Hamam basins on the south. The Survey supplies no altitudes along this range, west of Jebel ed Deidebeh (alt. 1,781 feet). The alti- tude at Kh. Jefat (alt. 1,363 feet), is no doubt inferior to that of the range, which was observed again further east at Eas Kruman (alt. 1,817 feet) and at Eas Hazweh (alt. 1,781 feet). The range lies between Kh. Natef (alt. 635 feet) and Ailbun (alt. 515 feet), and it is doubtless higher. The range continues along Jebel et Teiyarat, and el Muntar, to War 'Atmeh, but no heights have been observed along this waterparting.

The other range did not escape the notice of that masterly observer, Dr. Eobinson, and with his assistance chiefly, the new survey enables it to be distinctly traced. Beginning with Shefa 'Amr ('Omar), Dr. Eobinson remarks that it is " on a ridge overlooking the plain."* The altitude on the map at 'Ain Shefa 'Amr, is 136 feet. But that must represent the edge of the plain at the foot of the ridge, for Captain Mansell, E.IST., ascertained the height of Shefa 'Amr to be 533 feet.f The width of the plateau is here about two miles, or the distance of Shefa ' Amr from the waterparting ridge on the south, which is stated by M. V. Guerin to be 200 metres, or about 650 feet at Jebel Kharouba, a summit occupied by Saladin during his conflict with the Crusaders under Eichard the Lion-hearted, and Philip Augustus.

The range is continued through 'Abellin, two miles north-

f Admiralty Chart.
 * Rob. "Bib. Res." ITT, 103.


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201 THE SHAGHUR RANGE. 201

east of Shefa ' Amr. 'Abellin is " perched upon a high and sharp hill," 526 feet above the sea, according to Captain Mansell, B.N.,* and " also looking over the plain." The range goes on to Eas Tumrah (alt. 1,150 feet) " on the top of the first ridge, affording a noble view," etc, Thence to M'ar (alt. 872 feet) (< on the western brow of the mountains, overlooking the great plain along the coast," The next point is Jebel Khanzireh (alt. 1,320 feet), where the ridge overhangs its base on the deep Wady Shaib. On the east of this mountain, the range is intersected by the gorge of Wady el Jizair, beyond which it is represented by Jebel el Kummaneh, and Jebel Hazzur, both dominating the base line which is here found in the Plain of Eameh. From Jebel Hazzur it proceeds without interruption to Jebel el Bellaneh (alt. 1,150 feet), and terminates on the banks of Wady 'Amud.

On the long plateau between these ranges is found the upper part of Wady 'Abellin; Kaukab (alt. 1,330 feet); Suknin, the ancient Sogan (alt. 910 feet) ; the fertile Plain of 'Arrabeh, the Castle of Deir Hanna (alt. 1,070 feet) ; the Plain of Selameh " covered with olive groves," and contain- ing the ancient site of Selamis, a town fortified by Josephus.

The Toran Eange.

The Jebel Toran commences at Kummaneh, considerably short of the western limits of the Shaghur Mountains. But the eastern development of the range makes amends for this, by its extension along the western shores of the Sea of Galilee and the course of the Jordan, as far as the descent of Wady Fejjas from the Plain or Sahel el Ahma to the Ghor. The northern base of the range coincides with the southern base of the Shaghur Mountains, from the Plain of Buttauf eastward. The southern base is denned by the Wady Bum- maneh and the Plain of Toran, passing eastward by the Hakul el Mugharah to the north of Lubieh ; whence it de- scends by Wady Shubbabeh and Wady Fejjas, through the

 * Admiralty Chart


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Sahel or Plain of El Ahma, and the rocky gorge of Fejjas, to the Ghor and Kiver Jordan at Umm Junieh.

The range describes a bold curve parallel with that on the north, and it culminates in a single ridge throughout. Steep escarpments are displayed towards the Plain of Buttauf and the Sea of Galilee, with rocky cliffs towards el Mejdel, Tiberias, and the Fejjas gorge. The central part of the range expands into a broad plateau, around Hattin and Nimrin. This plateau extends between Jebel Toran on the west, and Hajaret en Nusara on the east ; with the Merj Hattin on the north, and the plain between Hattin and Lubieh on the south, where the decisive victory of Saladin over the Cru- saders took place. The great plain of el Ahma lies on the south-east of this plateau, and is chiefly formed by the western slope of the range where it skirts the Sea of Galilee ; as the slopes on the right bank of the base line ascend steeply to the summit of the next range.

The culminating points of the Toran Eange are Jebel Toran (alt. 1,774 feet); Nimrin (alt. 1,110 feet); Kurn Hattin (alt. 1,038 feet) ; Hajaret en Nusara (alt. 740 feet) ; Tell M'aun (alt. 715 feet) ; el Menarah (alt. 966 feet). To the height of Kurn Hattin and the summits which follow it, the depression of the Sea of Galilee ( 682-5 feet), should be added, in order to represent the actual elevation of those points above their eastern base. Hajaret en Nusara, or Stones of the Christians, is the reputed site of the miraculous feeding of the four thousand with seven loaves and a few fish. M. Guerin, in contending for this site, carefully dis- tinguishes the preceding event from the feeding of the five thousand with five loaves and two fishes, which requires a locality on the eastern shore -of the Sea of Galilee.* But a site on the east of the sea appears to be necessary for both.

The Nazareth Range.

This division of the Hills of Lower Galilee is at first sight, of a complicated character ; but by strictly defining its

 * Chierin, " Galilee," I, 185.


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203 THE NAZARETH RANGE. 203

limits, with regard to its bases, and also to its line of cul- mination, it will be reduced to an intelligible form.

The northern base is, as a matter of course, identical with the southern base of the preceding range, from its eastern end on the Jordan, to its western end at the passage of Wady Kummaneh from the Plain of Toran into the Plain of Buttauf. From that point the more westerly extension of the Nazareth Hills, requires the base line to be continuous along the same channel to Wady el Khalladiyeh and Wady el Melek, up to the junction of the latter with the Mu- kutt'a.

The southern base proceeds on the east from the Jordan, up Wady el Bireh and Wady esh Sherrar, to the south- western foot of Mount Tabor or Jebel et Tur, where it ap- proaches the waterparting of the Mukutt'a ; and the Wady then receives affluents from Iksal on the north-west, and from Jebel Duhy on the south. From this confluence the base is followed across the waterparting to the affluent of the Mukutt'a which descends by Bir el Hufiyin and Wady el Muweily to the Nahr el Mukutt'a, which it follows to its confluence with Wady el Melek, or so far as the hills extend into the Plain of Acre.

The main summits of the hills within these limits, may be traced from the Plain of Acre, by a spur which rises from the plain near el Harbaj, and which forms a portion of the waterparting between the tributaries of the Mukutt'a and those of its affluent, the Wady el Melek. This waterparting, which will be more fully elucidated hereafter, leads eastward to a summit (alt. 1,548 feet), about a mile on the west of Nazareth, and this is the first observation for altitude so far along the waterparting. Observations on either side seem to imply that on the west of Nazareth it does not descend below 700 feet, until its final decline into the Plain of Acre. The lowest depression, which forms a notable point in the further description of the range, will probably be found between the southern end of Wady el Khalladiyeh, and Zebdah (alt. 350 feet), in the Plain of Esdraelon, on the west of Semunieh.


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At Neby Sain, immediately on the north of Nazareth, the alt. is 1,602 feet. About a mile east of Nazareth, the water- parting between Mukutt'a and Melek joins the main water- parting between the Mediterranean and the Jordan, and it would be desirable to ascertain the altitude there.

The main range now follows the Mediterranean water- parting to Jebel es Sih (alt. 1,838 feet), and pursues it on a north-easterly course to esh Shejerah (alt. 795 feet), and Lubieh (alt. 920 feet). About half-a-mile north of esh Shejerah, the waterparting deflects to the south-east, and divides the basins of Wady Fejjas and Wady el Bireh. Judging from the observations on either side, as others are wanting, the altitude of the waterparting does not diminish between esh Shejerah and Sarona (alt. 892 feet). The range, however, proceeds from esh Shejerah to Lubieh, whence it follows a spur south-eastward to the cliffs on the north of Wady Mu'allakah. The wady intersects the range, which is taken up again at Kefr Sabt (alt. 650 feet), and runs on to Sarona. Two miles or more south-east of Sarona, the range passes el Hade- theh (alt. 735 feet), at the southern end of bold cliffs ; and pro- ceeds along the summit of the Kulah Cliffs (alt. 1,179 feet), which overhang the Fejjas gorge. The range now passes south and south-east to the junction of Wady el Bireh with the Ghor of Jordan.

The Divisions of the Nazareth Range, 1. The Western Division,

Having traced the main range throughout, it may be examined more in detail under three divisions. The Western Division embraces the picturesque and quadrangular block of upland covered with oak forest, that lies between the Mu- kutt'a and the Melek. The boundary between this division and the next on the east, is to be found in the lowest de- pression or saddle that connects the Melek where it bends to the west, with the recess which the Plain of Esdraelon here makes northward towards the Melek and the Plain of


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205 THE NAZARETH RANGE. 205

Buttauf. This depression would be better defined by one or two altitudes, which would be ample if taken in the right place or places.

The waterparting between the Mukutt'a and the Melek passes over this quadrangular block between its south-western and north-eastern corners. The Melek drainage has the longer slopes facing the north-east and north-west, and it forms a compact parallelogram, having the shorter slopes descending towards the Mukutt'a from its south-eastern and south-western sides. All the villages are on the south- eastern slope. The highest summit probably lies about half a mile north-west of Kuskus (alt. 575 feet), but its altitude is unknown,

2. The Central Division.

The central division of this range extends eastward to Wady el Mady, which descends to the southern base line on the east of Mount Tabor or Jebel et Tur. From the head of the perennial stream that washes Wady el Mady, the eastern limit of this division may be tracked northward along the Damascus Eoad, which runs nearly along the waterparting to the Ard ed Darun, in the direction of the village of Lubieh and the Hakul el Mugharah, a watercourse which descends to the Plain of Toron, and connects it with Wady Shubbabeh, parts of the northern base line of this division. The ground around Lubieh does not fit well, either with the Toron or the Nazareth ranges, but on the whole it is found to fall in better with the latter, and the symmetry of the former is left undisturbed.

Between the northern and southern bases of the range, and the eastern and western limits of this division, the Nazareth Eange presents its most complex features. The main range has been already traced. Looking at the one- inch map, it may be inferred that the main range runs to Semunieh, whereas Semunieh (alt. 623 feet), is situated at the end of a spur given off from the waterparting on the south of 'Ailut. There can be no doubt that more relative prominence is due to the hill shading of that waterparting


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206 206 THE MOUNTAINS OF LOWER GALILEE.

range. On the south of Semunieh, another prominent spur runs into the Plain of Esdraelon, and bears upon it the villages of Yafa and Mujeidil (alt. 780 feet), with the smaller hamlets of Jebata (alt. 355 feet), and Ikhneifis at its base. The isolated mound of el Warakany (alt. 277 feet), on the banks of the Mukutt'a, seems to be an outlier of this spur. The occurrence of this mound taken in connection with a similar elevation on the opposite bank of the river, accounts for the passage of a main road across this part of the plain, and also for the ancient prominence of Megiddo and Lejjun, as strongholds commanding the entrance into Samaria by this route.

Further east, the main range descends to the plain by gradually shortening slopes. About a mile and a half due south of Nazareth, the mountain descends to the plain by the rocky precipice of Jebel Kafsy (alt. 1,286 feet), which is represented by the Latin Church as the " Mountain of the Precipitation."* On the east of Iksal, the edge of the plain is nearly within a mile of the summit of the range at Kujm el 'Ajamy. The head of the recess is about a mile and a half further east, near Deburieh, and at this point, Mount Tabor (alt. 1,843 feet), is abruptly projected into the plain for more than two miles. A ridge from Mount Tabor towards the north-west, connects it with the main range at a point about half a mile north-east of the village of 'Ain Mahil, and the range soon makes an abrupt and short bend towards the north, and then another short bend to the north-east, where it throws off a spur towards the Wady el Mady, quite parallel to the ridge which connects Mount Tabor with the main range. The wadys which descend from the eastern side of the ridge, and from the main range between it and the spur, are all directed to a bed running along the western foot of the spur, which unites them in one outlet that joins Wady el Mady. The wooded flanks of Mount Tabor and the con- necting ridge, skirt the Wady el Mady for about four miles

II, 335. LieVin, "Guide des Sanctuaires," 484.
 * St. Luke iv, 29. Guerin, "Galilee" I, 93 to 97. Rob. "Bib. Res."


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207 THE NAZARETH RANGE. 207

and terminate the south-eastern part of this division, in strik- ing contrast with the bare chalky downs spread out between Mount Tabor and the Sea of Galilee.

On its northern side, the main range sends out only one important spur westward from Jebel es Sih, (alt. 1,838 feet), on which stands el Meshhed (alt. 1,254 feet), and Seffurieh (alt. 813 feet). This spur gradually spreads out like a fan, and throws off its lower ramifications from Kummaneh to el Khalladiyeh ; its lateral limits being the Wadys Kefr Kenna and Kummaneh on the east, and a wady on the south, that has its sources in 'Ain el Jinnan and 'Ain el Jikleh, and descends by er Eeineh, and Kustul Seffurieh, which is an outwork on the south of the ancient town, the Sepphoris of Josephus. Thus the outlet of the Plain of Buttauf is gradu- ally contracted to a narrow vale passing southward on the west of Seffurieh.

Between Jebel es Sih (alt. 1,838 feet), and esh Shejerah (alt. 795 feet), the northern side of the main range descends to the Plain of Toran, with a slope that gradually abbreviates east- ward from Wady Kefr Kenna to el Merhan, its breadth being three miles at the former, and only half-a-mile at the latter. On the north of esh Shejerah, the main range runs on to Lubieh, which has the northern base of the Nazareth range imme- diately below the village in the Hakul el Mugharah, which descends to the head of the Plain of Toron, where the western slope on the south of Lubieh, also falls. The 'eastern slope between Lubieh and esh Shejerah, forms the head of a plateau between Mount Tabor, including its north-western ridge, and the eastern division of the main Nazareth range, the description of which follows.

3. The Eastern Division.

The eastern division of the Nazareth Eange has its eastern base in the Ghor of the Jordan, and the north-eastern in the Wady Fejjas and Wady Shubbabeh. The western boundary meets the slope from the central division of the range between Lubieh and esh Shejerah and runs by Ard ed


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208 208 THE MOUNTAINS OF LOWER GALILEE.

Damn southward to the Wady el Mady and the Wady esh Sherrar. The last finally becomes Wady el Bireh, and forms the south-western base of this division.

An inspection of the features which dominate the right bank of the Wady Shubbabeh and Wady Fejjas and bound the Plain of Ahma in that direction, will bring into view a long line of interrupted basaltic cliffs, which stands in advance of the Fejjas and el Bireh waterparting, as far as from Lubieh to Damieh and towards Sarona ; while from Sarona towards the Jordan, the cliffs and the waterparting coincide. This is the eastern division of the Nazareth Eange. It will also be observed that the base line formed by Wady Shubbabeh and Wady Fejjas is remarkable for its depression below sea level. As far up as Damieh the depression is 84 feet, and no doubt it will be found to be still greater below that ruin, at the confluence of Wady el Mu'allakah with Wady Shubbabeh. The depression is 300 feet at Kh. Seiyadeh, near the junction of Wady Sarona with Wady Fejjas. It is about 640 feet below sea level at the junction of Wady Fejjas with the Jordan. The observation of a few points on the sea level around the Plain of Ahma, including especially Wady Shubbabeh, would be an interesting con- tribution to the study of the Jordan Basin. At present the depression of this base line, and of the plain through which it passes, has only to be considered in relation to the summit of the eastern division of the Nazareth Eange. The depression will be found to be in remarkable contrast to the com- paratively elevated character of the Plateau of Sh'arah, which extends from the summit of the range to Wady el Mady and Wady esh Sherr&r. The range is indeed a steep escarpment with rocky cliffs and precipices of basalt, repeatedly inter- rupting the smoother parts of the descent from the Plateau of Sh'ar&h to the depressed Plain of Ahma. From Lubieh to Sarona, the range must be identified with a spur extending from Lubieh to the cliffs on the north of Wady Mu'allakah. That wady intersects the range between Kefr Sabt (alt. 650 feet) and Damieh. The descent of the wady from the