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 property is situated, the first object of consideration. Local obligations can go no farther than this fall liberty extends,—unless it be really meant that the duty of protection is attached, not to men but to inorganic nature, as to the soil or the houses; or to unsentient life, the woods and forests, and other productions of the vegetable kingdom. It is only on the supposition that these existences are to control the human will, that there can be any necessity for adhering to an electoral system forcibly bound by territorial limits.

A system of individual independence is not only consistent with every territorial view which the elector may entertain, but the method of election which is here proposed does not permit an elector of one constituency to interfere with the electors of another. The distinct and independent action of every constituency is perfectly preserved. No elector for Marylebone can interfere with the electors for Warwickshire, nor the elector of Warwickshire with those of Marylebone. An elector of Marylebone may vote for a candidate who may be a candidate for the county of Warwick, and the votes of electors of Marylebone may furnish a quota who may return him,—but not for Warwickshire. Nothing but a majority in that county could return him as a member for it, as the act of a return of the candidate by votes from Marylebone, in the case supposed, when he had no sufficient majority in Warwickshire, would be the same thing in effect as if he had been at the first a candidate for Marylebone. It would be that borough he would be returned to represent, and not Warwickshire.

The adoption of a rule giving to every unanimous quota of votes the power of electing a representative, would operate in fact as a perfect and self-adjusting system of electoral division, at all times corresponding with the fluctuations of population and wealth. One of the suggested provisions is directed to the object of admitting the separation of the larger


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 into smaller constituencies; but after this has been done so far as this is likely to be sought, there will no doubt still remain counties, cities, and towns, the inhabitants of which will not desire or consent to any division. Liverpool, for example, would probably insist upon remaining—and there is no reason why it would not remain—an entire and undivided constituency. It now contains 17,333 voters, and is increasing in magnitude. The electors of Liverpool, even if the quota were largely increased, might still be sufficient in number to return seven or eight members. It is impossible to foresee the extent of the changes, or the development which any of the great centres of population may undergo. Under a system in which political weight is perpetually regulated by the magnitude and importance of the community, there is no reason for preserving an arbitrary limit prescribed under an obsolete condition of things, and the nominal representation may be determined by, and correspond with, the real position of the electors.

The operation of this law will be explained by supposing that in North Cheshire, after an extended franchise, there should be 11,000 voters, and that the quota be 2,000. The number of electors, divided by the quota, gives a quotient of five, and a fractional number, which will make it the duty of the sheriff to return five, and one for the fractional number,

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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 making together six members for North Cheshire. The arrangement of the number of members to be returned for every constituency, under a system regulated by its magnitude, whilst it gives to every locality an effectual and substantial representation, becomes, so far as relates to form, no more than a question of nomenclature.

The contest in which the nation will, so long as the present system continues, be periodically and more or less fiercely engaged, with reference to the relative importance and right of counties, cities, and towns, and other constituencies, to return severally one or more members, and to the propriety of disenfranchising boroughs, the only fault of whose inhabit ants is, that nature has not placed them on a seaboard, or on some great stream of communication, or enriched them with mineral treasure,—is worthy of the times when laws were made to enable one city or class to exercise privileges hostile to another, and when the statute of Kilkenny was in force. It will not continue for an hour after our leading statesmen and public men shall be able to perceive that there is no more wisdom in incumbering our political institutions with the difficulties, and deteriorating them by the rude and barbarous practices of bygone ages, than there would be in rejecting the aid of modem science in the performance of any other operation.


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LL space is relative. There is no such thing as size. The telescope and the microscope have produced a deadly leveling of great and small, far and near. The only little thing is sin, the only great thing is fear."

For the hundredth time Professor Quierling repeated his statement, and for the hundredth time we listened to him in silence, afraid to enter into a controversy with him. It was not the fact that he knew more than we did that kept us quiet, but it was the haunting fear that filled us when we listened to him or watched him at his work.

Working at an unsolved problem, he seemed a soul detached, a spirit separated from its earthly home, a being, living only in the realm of thought. Motionless, his body sat catatonic; his eyes stared, unwinking, till his mind, satisfied, condescended to return to its bone-bound cell. Then, in magnificent condescension, he would talk in long, limpid language of the things that he had considered and the conclusions that he had deduced. We, chosen scientists, university graduates, hailed him as our master and hated him for admitting the mastery.

We hoped that some evil would befall him, and yet we realized that the success of the expedition depended upon his continued leadership. It was necessary for our future fame: we were struggling young men with all of life ahead of us, and if we failed in our first effort, there would be no other opportunities granted us.

In a specially constructed yacht, a floating laboratory, we were south of Borneo, making a detailed study of the microscopic sea life. In deep-sea nets we gathered the tiny organisms, and then with microscope, photography, and the cinema we observed them for the future instruction of the human race. There were hundreds of species, thousands of varieties, each to be identified, classified, described, studied, and photographed. We gathered in the morning, studied till midnight and restlessly slept till morning. The only thing in which we agreed was ambition. Our solitary united emotion was a dreaded hatred of the professor.

He knew how we felt and enjoyed taunting us.

"I am your leader because I willed it," he would whisper to us. "The will to attain with me is synonymous with the accomplishment of my desire. I believe in myself, and through this belief I succeed. There is nothing that a strong man can not do if he wills to do it and believes in his strength. Our ideas of space, size and time are but the fanciful dreams of children. I am fifty-nine inches tall, and, with my clothes, weigh one hundred and ten pounds. If I desired, I could make myself a colossus and swallow the earth as a child swallows a pill. If I willed it, I could fly through space like a comet or 56


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The most conspicuous figure in this new Dunciad (published March, 1742), is Bentley—taken as the representative of a pedant rampant. Bentley is, I think, the only man of real genius of whom Pope has spoken in terms implying gross misappreciation. With all his faults, Pope was a really fine judge of literature, and has made fewer blunders than such men as Addison, Gray, and Johnson, infinitely superior to him in generosity of feeling towards the living. He could even appreciate Bentley, and had written, in his copy of Bentley's Milton, "Pulchre, bene, recte," against some of the happier emendations in the great critic's most unsuccessful performance. The assault in the Dunciad is not the less unsparing and ignorantly contemptuous of scholarship. The explanation is easy. Bentley, who had spoken contemptuously of Pope's Homer, said of Pope, "the portentous cub never forgives." But this was not all. Bentley had provoked enemies by his intense pugnacity almost as freely as Pope by his sneaking malice. Swift and Atterbury, objects of Pope's friendly admiration, had been his antagonists, and Pope would naturally accept their view of his merits. And, moreover, Pope's great ally of this period had a dislike of his own to Bentley. Bentley had said of Warburton that he was a

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 aries kept their tight grip upon the treasury of the union by drastic expulsions, discriminations, and "re-organizations" thruout the country, culminating in the Boston convention, May, 1924, which spent nine of its ten days exorcising the Communists by means of a reactionary majority built up from appointed delegates, delegates from "newly organized" locals, etc. The left wing was checked in its outward manifestations of power, but in its deep, quiet, intensive work among the rank and file it was tremendously strengthened, so that today the left wing in the I. L. G. W. U. is so firmly rooted and well organized that it is a permanent factor in the life of the union.

It was in the course of this struggle, in August, 1923, that an attempt was made upon the life of William Z. Foster. Three shots were fired at him by a gunman, while he was on the platform speaking to a mass meeting in Ashland Auditorium, Chicago, held in protest against the expulsion of left-wingers.

From the garment industry, the game of expulsion against the left wing spread to other unions, until today there are expelled militants battling for re-admittance to the unions in almost every industry, particularly among the miners, machinists, carpenters, and in the city central bodies.

The official sanction to expulsion as the reactionaries' chief weapon to silence the left wing was given in the dramatic expulsion of Bill Dunne from the Portland convention of the A. F. of L., 1923, which was approved by Sam Gompers and engineered by his successor, William Green. Dunne's speech on that occasion, circulated by the T. U. E. L. thruout the labor movement in more than a hundred thousand copies, has become the classic indictment of the trade union bureaucrats.

Undoubtedly the most bitter and deep-going struggle during the whole second period of the left wing development has been in the United Mine Workers' Union. This


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It is either in republican countries, or in states in which efforts, more or less earnest, are made to carry out the principles of national self-government in their integrity, that the system of proportional and preferential representation has been most enthusiastically received. In no nation has the labour of propagating a knowledge of the method, and of the results which may reasonably be expected horn it, been more vigorously and intelligently undertaken and pursued than in Switzerland. The Association Réformiste, devoted to this object, was inaugurated in 1865, with an address from M. Ernest Naville. This wag followed by several productions by the same eminent writer, by MM. Roget and Morin, and by the establishment of a journal 'The Réformiste,' especially directed to the purpose of making known and advocating a just election system. This journal continued in circulation until shortly before the commencement of the late Continental war, when most domestic discussions were for the time absorbed, and the journal was merged in the 'Indépendence Suisse.' A collected statement of the proceedings of the Sociely was published in the last year, from which the progress of thought on this subject nearly in every part of Europe and America will be gathered. An extract from the 'Réformiste' of the 4th of May, 1869, reviewing the results of the general election of this kingdom in 1868, concludes with the following warning, "pour les hommes qui veulent s'instruire à la grande école de l'expérience."

1°. La lutte exclusive de deux partis, qui résulte forcément du principe des majorités, fausse la représentation du peuple anglais, et ne permet pas aux divers éléments de la vie nationale de se manifester.

2° La mesure adoptée pour la représentation des minorités (dont on ne saurait trop louer l'intention) est en elle-même un palliatif insuffisant qui ne saurait tener lieu d'une vraie réforme, même dans le cas où la mesure serait généralisée.

3° Si l'Angleterre n'adopte pas et ne réalise pas sérieusement le principe de la représentation vraie, elle dérivera de plus en plus vers les écueuils trop connus de cette fausse démocratie qui abaisse les parlements et les peuples.

The Report presented by M. Ernest Naville to the Association Ré-


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 man of monstrous appetite and bad digestion. The remark hit Warburton's most obvious weakness. Warburton, with his imperfect scholarship, and vast masses of badly assimilated learning, was jealous of the reputation of the thoroughly trained and accurate critic. It was the dislike of a charlatan for the excellence which he endeavoured to simulate. Bolingbroke, it may be added, was equally contemptuous in his language about men of learning, and for much the same reason. He depreciated what he could not rival. Pope, always under the influence of some stronger companions, naturally adopted their shallow prejudices, and recklessly abused a writer who should have been recognized as amongst the most effective combatants against dulness.

Bentley died a few months after the publication of the Dunciad. But Pope found a living antagonist, who succeeded in giving him pain enough to gratify the vilified dunces. This was Colley Cibber—most lively and mercurial of actors—author of some successful plays, with too little stuff in them for permanence, and of an Apology for his own Life, which is still exceedingly amusing as well as useful for the history of the stage. He was now approaching seventy, though he was to survive Pope for thirteen years, and as good-tempered a specimen of the lively, if not too particular, old man of the world as could well have been found. Pope owed him a grudge. Cibber, in playing the Rehearsal, had introduced some ridicule of the unlucky Three Hours after Marriage. Pope, he says, came behind the scenes foaming and choking with fury, and forbidding Cibber ever to repeat the insult. Cibber laughed at him, said that he would repeat it as long as the Rehearsal was performed, and kept his word. Pope took his revenge

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Page:William Z. Foster, James P. Cannon and Earl Browder - Trade Unions in America.djvu/34

 struggle has crystallized around the Progressive Miners' International Committee, of which the T. U. E. L. militants and the Communists are the leading spirits.

When Lewis succeeded in fraudulently expelling Howat, in the convention of March, 1922, just before the last great miners' strike, the lines within the union were not yet clearly drawn. At that time the oustandingoutstanding [sic] champion of Howat's rights in the union was still Frank Farrington of Illinois, an arch-faker who was using Howat's case as a club in his fight for position against Lewis. The beginning of clarification came in the latter part of 1922, after the main strike was settled, and Lewis betrayed the miners of Fayette County, Pennsylvania. This began a big struggle in which the T. U. E. L. militants were the only organized leadership of the left wing in the U. M. W. A. During that period, also, the miners of District 26, Nova Scotia, Canada, elected a complete left-wing slate of officers and engaged in a bitter struggle against the mine operators, the British Empire Steel corporation.

A tendency among hot-headed and impatient elements in the rank and file to split away from reactionary unions has been one of the things the left wing has had to fight against everywhere. This fight has been very successful so that today the only splitters of any influence are the reactionary bureaucrats. In the beginning of the miners' left wing a serious struggle was required against the splitting idea, however, and it was the T. U. E. L. that carried it out successfully. A threatening split in the anthracite region in 1923 was overcome by the T. U. E. L. influence; while in Canada the pernicious influence of the O. B. U., a small dual union, has been successfully overcome.

The Progressive Committee, the center thru which the strigglestruggle [sic] has been carried on for a fighting miners' union and to correct the mistakes of the militants and unify them upon a realistic program, was launched at a conference in Pittsburgh, Pa., in February, 1923. This pre-


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 by many incidental hits at Cibber, and Cibber made a good-humoured reference to this abuse in the Apology. Hereupon Pope, in the new Dunciad, described him as reclining on the lap of the goddess, and added various personalities in the notes. Cibber straightway published a letter to Pope, the more cutting because still in perfect good-humour, and told the story about the original quarrel. He added an irritating anecdote in order to provoke the poet still further. It described Pope as introduced by Cibber and Lord Warwick to very bad company. The story was one which could only be told by a graceless old representative of the old school of comedy, but it hit its mark. The two Richardsons once found Pope reading one of Cibber's pamphlets. He said, "These things are my diversion;" but they saw his features writhing with anguish, and young Richardson, as they went home, observed to his father that he hoped to be preserved from such diversions as Pope had enjoyed. The poet resolved to avenge himself, and he did it to the lasting injury of his poem. He dethroned Theobald, who, as a plodding antiquarian, was an excellent exponent of dulness, and installed Cibber in inin [sic] his place, who might be a representative of folly, but was as little of a dullard as Pope himself. The consequent alterations make the hero of the poem a thoroughly incongruous figure, and greatly injure the general design. The poem appeared in this form in 1743, with a ponderous prefatory discourse by Ricardus Aristarchus, contributed by the faithful Warburton, and illustrating his ponderous vein of elephantine pleasantry.

Pope was nearing the grave, and many of his victims had gone before him. It was a melancholy employment for an invalid, breaking down visibly month by month;

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Human, All Too Human is the eighth volume of the Library of Science for the Workers, a series of popular scientific books of which the following are now ready:

Any one of these books will be sold separately at 50 cents. Catalog of sociological works and sample copy of the International Socialist Review mailed free on request.


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 formiste, in March, 1871, introduces the question by a review and logical analysis of the various amendments which were proposed in the rude electoral machinery of earlier times. Their differences and several results are thus accurately described:—

"La revue générale du mouvement réformiste dans le monde fait reconnaître, à des signes manifestes, les progrès rapides de notre cause. Cette revue a, de plus, l'avantage de signaler les voies diverses qui se sont offertes à la pensée des publicistes et des législateurs pour réaliser le principe de la représentation vraie. Le nombre des travaux a été si grand que toutes les voies possibles paraissent avoir été signalées et explorées ; et nous avons à recueillir, pour les mettre à profit, les résultats d'une étude faite dans toutes les parties du globe par des hommes de toutes les opinions.

"Les plans de réforme proposés supposent tous des collèges élisant plusieurs députés, parce que pour une élection unique la loi de la majorité est nécessairement maintenue. Ces plans forment un nombre considérable de procédés divers, mais plusieurs de ces procédés sont de simples variantes d'un même système, parce qu'ils réalisent, avec quelques modifications de détail, le même principe fondamental.

"Les systèmes peuvent être réunis en deux classes, celles des systèmes empiriques et celle des systèmes rationnels.

"Systèmes empiriques

"Les systèmes empiriques cherchent à établir la représentation des minorités, sans se préoccuper du système proportionnel de cette représentation. Ils sont au nombre de trois :—

"Pluralité simple.—L'électeur dépose dans l'urne le nom d'un seul candidat. Sont élus, dans le nombre voulu, les candidats qui ont obtenu le plus grand nombre de suffrages. Un minimum peut être fixé. Ce système a été proposé en France depuis longtemps par M. Emile de Girardin, et en dernier lieu, par M. le Baron de Layre.

"Vote limité.—L'électeur inscrit sur son bulletin un nombre de candidats moindre que celui des députés à élire, les deux tiers ou les trois quarts par exemple. Les candidats qui obtiennent le plus grand nombre de suffrages sont élus. Un minimum peut être fixé. Ce système a été établi et pratiqué an Angleterre pour les collèges nommant trois députés.

"Vote cumulatif.—L'électeur dispose d'un nombre de suffrages égal à celui des députés à élire. Il peut cumuler tous ses suffrages sur un seul candidat, ou les répartir, à son gré, sur un nombre de candidats quelconque et dans la proportion qui lui convient. Les candidats qui ont réuni le plus de suffrages sont élus. Un minimum peut être fixé. Ce système a été adopté en Illinois pour la représentation politique, et pratiqué en Angleterre pour l'élection des Conseil d'École.


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 said, forced for a time towards the mysterious philosophy of dress. "Beauty? That isn't their concern."

"Then what are they after?"

"My dear man! What is all my world after?"

I should come to our third talk with a great curiosity to hear of the last portion of the Rule, of the things that the samurai are obliged to do.

There would be many precise directions regarding his health, and rules that would aim at once at health and that constant exercise of will that makes life good. Save in specified exceptional circumstances, the samurai must bathe in cold water, and the men must shave every day; they have the precisest directions in such matters; the body must be in health, the skin and muscles and nerves in perfect tone, or the samurai must go to the doctors of the order, and give implicit obedience to the regimen prescribed. They must sleep alone at least four nights in five; and they must eat with and talk to anyone in their fellowship who cares for their conversation for an hour, at least, at the nearest clubhouse of the samurai once on three chosen days in every week. Moreover, they must read aloud from the Book of the Samurai for at least ten minutes every day. Every month they must buy and read faithfully through at least one book that has been published during the past five years, and the only intervention with private choice in that matter is the prescription of a certain minimum of length for the monthly book or books. But the full Rule in these


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now to describe one of the most singular series of transactions to be found in the annals of literature. A complete knowledge of their various details has only been obtained by recent researches. I cannot follow within my limits of space all the ins and outs of the complicated labyrinth of more than diplomatic trickery which those researches have revealed, though I hope to render the main facts sufficiently intelligible. It is painful to track the strange deceptions of a man of genius as a detective unravelaunravels [sic] the misdeeds of an accomplished swindler; but without telling the story at some length, it is impossible to give a faithful exhibition of Pope's character.

In the year 1726, when Pope had just finished his labours upon Homer, Curll published the juvenile letters to Cromwell. There was no mystery about this transaction. Curll was the chief of all piratical booksellers, and versed in every dirty trick of the Grub-street trade. He is described in that mad book, Amory's John Buncle, as tall, thin, ungainly, white-faced, with light grey goggle

title: Page:Alexander Pope (Leslie).djvu/149


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Page:Clarence S. Darrow - Realism in Literature and Art (1899).djvu/32

A volume of ten popular lectures explaining the relation of modern evolutionary science to the International Socialist movement. The titles of the lectures are:

It is impossible to understand modern socialism without some knowledge of modern Science, and this book is one that nearly every socialist needs to read. It is, the 25th volume of the Standard Socialist series, tastefully bound in cloth, price 50 cents postpaid.


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 minor compulsory matters is voluminous and detailed, and it abounds with alternatives. Its aim is rather to keep before the samurai by a number of sample duties as it were, the need of, and some of the chief methods towards health of body and mind, rather than to provide a comprehensive rule; and to insure the maintenance of a community of feeling and interests among the samurai through habit, intercourse, and a living contemporary literature. These minor obligations do not earmark more than an hour in the day. Yet they serve to break down isolations of sympathy, all sorts of physical and intellectual sluggishness and the development of unsocial preoccupations of many sorts.

Women samurai who are married, my double told me, must bear children—if they are to remain married as well as in the order—before the second period for terminating a childless marriage is exhausted. I failed to ask for the precise figures from my double at the time, but I think it is beyond doubt that it is from samurai mothers of the Greater or Lesser Rule that a very large proportion of the future population of Utopia will be derived. There is one liberty accorded to women samurai which is refused to men, and that is to marry outside the Rule, and women married to men not under the Rule are also free to become samurai. Here, too, it will be manifest there is scope for novels and the drama of life. In practice, it seems that it is only men of great poietic distinction outside the Rule, or great commercial leaders, who have wives under it. The tendency of such unions is either to bring the husband under the Rule, or take the wife


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170 up the burden of our sins. Now the angel who appeared to Balaam was the Word Himself; and in His hand He held a sword, to indicate the power which He had from above.

"God is not as a man." He thus shows that all men are indeed guilty of falsehood, inasmuch as they change from one thing to another ; but such is not the case with God, for He always continues true, perfecting whatever He wishes.

"To inflict vengeance from the Lord on Midian." For this man (Balaam), when he speaks no longer in the Spirit of God, but contrary to God's law, by setting up a different law with regard to fornication, is certainly not then to be counted as a prophet, but as a soothsayer. For he who did not keep to the commandment of God, received the just recompense of his own evil devices.

Know thou that every man is either empty or full. For if he has not the Holy Spirit, he has no knowledge of the Creator; he has not received Jesus Christ the Life; he knows not the Father who is in heaven; if he does not live after the dictates of reason, after the heavenly law, he is not a sober-minded person, nor does he act uprightly: such an one is empty. If, on the other hand, he receives God, who says, "I will dwell with them, and walk in them, and I will be their God," such an one is not empty, but full.


text: Realism in Literature and Art

title: Realism in Literature and Art


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Rh

"And he laid his hands upon him." The countenance of Joshua was also glorified by the imposition of the hands of Moses, but not to the same degree [as that of Moses]. Inasmuch, then, as he had obtained a certain degree of grace, [the Lord] said, "And thou shalt confer upon him of thy glory." For [in this case] the thing given does not cease to belong to the giver.

But he does not give, as Christ did, by means of breathing, because he is not the fount of the Spirit.

"Thou shalt not go with them, neither shalt thou curse the people." He does not hint at anything with regard to the people, for they all lay before his view, but [he refers] to the mystery of Christ pointed out beforehand. For as He was to be born of the fathers according to the flesh, the Spirit gives instructions to the man (Balaam) beforehand, lest, going forth in ignorance, he might pronounce a curse upon the people. Not, indeed, that [his curse] could take any effect contrary to the will of God; but [this was done] as an exhibition of the providence of God which He exercised towards them on account of their forefathers.

"And he mounted upon his ass." The ass was the type of the body of Christ, upon whom all men, resting from their labours, are borne as in a chariot. For the Saviour has taken


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294 "Systèmes Rationnels.

"Les systèmes rationnels ne cherchent pas seulement à accorder une représentation aux minorités, mais à établir, d'une manière proportionnelle, qui est la seule représentation vraie. Ils sont au nombre de trois :—

"Représentation personnelle des électeurs.—L'électeur désigne sur son bulletin le candidat qu'il désire en première ligne, puis celui qu'il désire en seconde ligne, si le premier est élu déjà, et ainsi de suite, en joignant à son premier et principal suffrage une série de suffrages éventuels. Le nombre de bulletins divisé par le nombre des candidats à élire détermine le nombre de suffrages nécessaires pour l'élection (quotient électoral). Un candidat est élu dès qu'il a réuni le quotient électoral. Chaque bulletin ne compte que pour un seul candidat, pour le premier d'abord, pour le second si le premier est élu déjà, et ainsi de suite.

"Représentation proportionelle des partis.—Divers partis librement formés, et en nombre indéterminé, présentent leurs listes de candidats. Les électeurs choisissent le parti auquel ils se rangent, et chaque parti obtient un nombre de députés proportionnel au nombre de suffrages qu'il a réunis.

"Suffrage uninominal.—Chaque candidat publie une liste indiquant, selon l'ordre de sa préférence, les autres candidats auquel il veut transmettre les suffrages superflus ou insuffisants qu'il pourra obtenir. L'électeur désigne le nom d'un seul candidat. Les suffrages superflus (ceux qui dépassent le quotient électoral), puis les suffrages insuffisants (ceux dont le nombre est inférieur au quotient), sont transférés selon les listes d'indication que les candidats ont déposés. Le résultat de l'opération est qu'on obtient le nombre voulu de députés qui ont tous, directement ou par suite de transfert, un nombre de suffrages égal au quotient électoral."

"Telle est la classification général des divers plans de réforme. Je crois que tous les procédés proposés, soit en Europe soit en Amérique, se rattachent à l'un des six systèmes indiqués. La pluralité simple, le vote limité et le vote cumulatif forment la classe empirique des projets de réforme ; la représentation proportionnelle et le suffrage uninominal en forment la classe rationnelle.

"L'adoption des systèmes empiriques constitue un succès réel pour l'œuvre de la réforme, non-seulement parce qu'ils rompent avec le principe de la majorité, mais parce que leurs défenseurs proclament hautement les principes de la représentation vraie. Mais ces systèmes restent fort loin du but qu'il faut atteindre, et en vue duquel on les recommande et les adopte. En effet, ils offrent tous les caractères suivants :


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168 Simeon in the temple: through Zebulon He was believed in among the Gentiles, as says the prophet, "the land of Zabulon;" and through Benjamin [that is, Paul] He was glorified, by being preached throughout all the world.

And this was not without meaning; but that by means of the number of the ten men, he (Gideon) might appear as having Jesus for a helper, as [is indicated] by the compact entered into with them. And when he did not choose to partake with them in their idol-worship, they threw the blame upon him: for "Jerubbaal" signifies the judgment-seat of Baal.

"Take unto thee Joshua the son of Nun." For it was proper that Moses should lead the people out of Egypt, but that Jesus (Joshua) should lead them into the inheritance. Also that Moses, as was the case with the law, should cease to be, but that Joshua, as the word, and no untrue type of the Word made flesh , should be a preacher to the people. Then again, [it was fit] that Moses should give manna as food to the fathers, but Joshua wheat; as the first-fruits of life, a type of the body of Christ, as also the Scripture declares that the manna of the Lord ceased when the people had eaten wheat from the land.


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 "Les suffrages qui s'accumulent sur un candidat au-delà du quotient électoral, et les suffrages qui restent au-dessous de ce nombre, peuvent être sans influence sur le résultat de l'opération électorale ; ce sont des suffrages perdus.

"L'existence de suffrages perdus est cause que le résultat de l'élection n'est pas nécessairement proportionnel. Les minorités que l'on cherche à faire représenter, sans le faire d'une manière rationnelle, peuvent obtenir trop ou trop peu de députés. La certitude de la justice fait défaut."

M. Naville then proceeds to show the necessity of an implicit submission to party leaders and party management in designative the candidates who are to be put forward and supported, in order to avoid these consequences.

The report, after stating that the Association had at first "indiqué le système de la représentation personnelle, en modifiant les plans de MM. Andræ et Hare par l'idée émise de M. Rivoire, mais le journalisme genévois l'avait signalé comme une nouveauté étrange, très-éloignée de nos mœurs politiques ;" and thet therefore recommended la liste libre, taking as basis the following method proposed by M. Morin (author of Précis de l'Histoire politique de la Suisse) in 1862:—

"Système électoral proportionnel simplifié.

"Art. 1er. La proportionnalité est admise comme base de l'élection au Grand Conseil.

'Art. 2. Les listes de candidats remises au bureau central, avant la distribution des bulletins, ont seules droit à la répartition proportionnelle des députés.

"Art. 3. Cette répartition s'opère de la manière suivante :

"A. Immédiatement après le dépouillement du scrutin, le bureau arrête, d'après le nombre des bulletins valables, celui des suffrages indispensables pour l'élection d'un représentant. Ce dernier nombre, déterminé par le chiffre des députés à élire dans chaque collège, est 1/44e des bulletins valables dans l'arrondissement de Genève ; 1/38e dans celui de la Rive Gauche ; 1/14e dans celui de la Rive Droite.

"B. L'importance des listes en concurrence est donnée par le chiffre des bulletins compactes qu'elles ont réunis, et l'ordre des noms dans ces listes est déterminé par le nombre de suffrages qu'ils ont obtenus, en tenant compte des bulletins égrenés ou panachés.

"C. Chacune des listes a droit à autant de députés qu'elle renferme de fois le nombre de voix nécessaire pour l'élection d'un représentant.

"D. Les noms portés sur plusieurs listes, ayant droit à la répartition, sont élus d'emblée. Le surplus leur est réparti proportionnellement à leur fo'rce, sans que la part revenant à d'autres groupes soit réduite ou augmentée par ce fait.

"E. Les fractions ne comptent pas.

"Art. 4. Si, après la répartition entre les listes du nombre de députés


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 liminary gathering called a larger conference from all over the continnent, in the same city, in June. At these gatherings the left wing was definitely unified thruout the United States and Canada.

The result was instantaneous. Not only were the left-wingers clarified, but also the reactionaries. Lewis immediately expelled Tom Myerscough, secretary of the Progressive Miners. In a dramatic reconciliation, Farrington and Lewis, the two biggest bureaucrats in the union who had been calling one another thief, traitor, and skunk for years in public print, suddenly found that they really loved one another very much, and that the "red menace" made it possible for them to co-operate together in a common fight against the left. Lewis heaped more fuel upon the fires of revolt, by suspending the Nova Scotia miners to force them to bow to their corporation masters, and to force reversal of a vote to affiliate to the Red International of Labor Unions. Lewis further intensified the struggle by his betrayal of the anthracite strike in October, and by his collusion in the jailing of Jim McLachlan in Canada for his left wing leadership.

Behind the reactionary struggle against the left wing was a definite economic program—based upon the elimination of 200,000 miners from the industry as "unnecessary" to the employers, and upon collaboration with the bosses.

It was in February, 1924, when the U. M. W. A. met in convention in Indianapolis, that the left wing entered the stage of official national gatherings for the first time with a clear-cut program that drew a sharp line that no one could mistake—class struggle on one side and class collaboration on the other. It was a bitter battle and the young left wing made a magnificent showing. On the issue of the reinstatement of Howat, the left had won a large majority of the delegates, and the bureaucrats saved their skins only by adjourning the convention in disorder.


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 The outlaw strikes in the anthracite region of Pennsylvania at the close of 1924 and beginning of 1925 are but symptoms of the deepening resentment at the systematic betrayal that grows more intense daily thruout the miners' union. Leading the struggle there as everywhere else are the T. U. E. L. militants with the program of the Progressive Miners' Committee.

Living and glowing manifestations of how deeply the left wing movement has penetrated the masses are now being given in trade union elections wherever these are taking place. Outstanding among these, and constituting one of the greatest achievements of three years of struggle and organization, is the results of the election in the United Mine Workers.

In the election, running against Lewis and Murray the reactionary bureaucrats who control unlimited financial resources and the machinery of the union, were three unknown rank-and-file Communists, George Voyzey, Arley Staples and Joseph Nearing. The Progressive Committee was so poor that it couldn't even send out an organizer or speaker. It had to content itself with circulating 65,000 copies of its program—among the 400,000 members of the union. It was up against the most notoriously corrupt election machinery in the labor movement.

In spite of these and a thousand other handicaps, the progressive forces were so strong and their vote so big, that even the official returns, certied to by the reactionary bureaucrats themselves, are as follows:

Lewis, 136,209; Murray, 126,800; Green, 138,977.

Voyzey, 62,843; Staples, 66,038; Nearing, 51,686.

It was a tremendous achievement for this ticket of Communist rank and filers to force the corrupt Lewis to count more than one-third of the total vote for it. There is no question that thousands of left wing votes were stolen, and experience has demonstrated many times the ability of these bureaucrats to cast the vote of hun-


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 reds of local unions for themselves when these locals exist only on paper and have not paid a cent of per capita into the union for years. An honest election would probably have shown the Communists elected at the head of the mine workers' union. The election was a profound demonstration of the spirit of class struggle among the miners, of the deep roots of the left wing among them, and the inevitable victory in the not distant future of the program of the Trade Union Educational League.

One more election that is of profound significance as demonstrating the progress of the left-wing in the American labor unions. That is the election in the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners, one of the oldest and most reactionary organizations in the labor movement. Not only is this organization dominated by a most corrupt and reactionary leadership and tradition, but it is also in the bulidingbuilding [sic] industry, which is one of the most prosperous fields of activity today in America, with high wages and comparatively favorable conditions for continued bureaucratic rule.

Yet even in this stronghold of reaction, where there has never before been a left wing, the rank and file are in such revolt against the sickening betrayals and class collaboration of the officialdom, that Morris Rosen, an unknown left winger of New York, was credited with almost 10,000 votes by the official election machinery, against the incumbent Hutcheson, and with another candidate, who traded on left wing sentiment by labelling himself "progressive," also in the field.

The Trade Union Educational League has done even more than to organize and lead the militant workers in the American trade unions for the immediate struggle. It has also inspired them with a revolutionary goal. And above all, it has given them a living connection with the revolutionary labor unionists of the entire world thru the Red International of Labor Unions, of which the T.


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 U. E. L. is the American representative.

Representative delegations of American unionists have been present at the three congresses of the Red International at Moscow. They have participated in formulating the policies and tactics for the world movement, and, in turn, have brought back to America the benefit of the experience of the entire world movement. The T. U. E. L. has, in its magazine and papers, and in numerous pamphlets, brought the Red International intimately into the life of the American left wing.

Already this international connection and inspiration has broken down the insularity of the American trade union left wingers. Internationalism upon a true working-class basis is already finding practical expression. This was shown when a Pan-American left wing was formed in Mexico City on the occasion or the congress of the Gompersian instrument of American imperialism, the Pan-American Federation of Labor ruled formerly by Gompers and now by his Mexican prototype, Morones. At that gathering the left wing delegates, together with representatives of the Trade Union Educational League, the Workers (Communist) Party of America, the Mexican Communist Party, and the Mexican Committee for the Red International, formed the Pan-American Anti-Imperialist League.

Three years of organization, education, and struggle are now behind the Trade Union Educational League. These years have demonstrated beyond doubt to every serious-minded revolutionary worker that the forces have finally been crystallized that will re-make the labor movement of America into the instrument that will, under the leadership of the Communist International, carry on successfully the fight against capitalist exploitation and the capitalist dictatorship, for its final overthrow, and for the establishment of a workers society under the dictatorship of the working class.


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 auquel elles ont droit, il en reste à nommer, ceux-ci sont élus à la majorité relative, à condition toutefois qu'elle ne soit pas inférieure au minimum indispensable pour l'élection d'un député."

Observations sur le système simplifié.

L'exemple suivant, qui présente au premier coup d'œil une objection très-spécieuse au système proportionnel, contribuera à mettre en relief la facilité avec laquelle ce macanisme résout les questions en apparence les plus embarrassantes.

Supposont 1000 bulletins valables et 20 députés à élire. Le minimum indispensable pour l'élection d'un député est 1000∕20, soit 50. Deux listes, A et B, sont en concurrence.

A réunit 400 bulletins compacts et, par le fait de suffrages egrenés, le nom qui est en tête a 700 voix.

B compte 600 bulletins pour 19 de ses candidats, mais le 20e n'en a que 300.

Comme suit :

8300+11,700 font 20,000 voix. Donc les 1000 électeurs ont voté. Les 400 de la liste A ont voté d'une manière compacte. Entre les votants de la liste B, 300 se sont séparés des autres, pour un seul nom, et ont porté leurs voix sur l'un des candidats de la liste A.


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Rh scription of the several objects to which they have been directed. Should, then, this humble volume ever reach the Mother Country, it may serve to indicate, that her Sons have not lost sight of her illustrious example, while it will afford a practical refutation of the charge of indifference to the interests of the Natives, which has, oftener than on one memorable occasion, been so precipitately and unjustly urged against the British name in India. But, unfortunately, as has been frequently observed, so great and unnatural is the apathy evinced in England, with regard to Indian affairs, though, almost every family at home, is, in some degree, connected with those sent forth from her bosom, that the attempt to excite some interest beyond the executive authorities, relative to the most important Foreign Possession of Great Britain, and the most singular dominion that was ever exercised by any nation, is nearly hopeless. A momentary and partial attention is, indeed, occasionally roused by discussions respecting the conduct of conspicuous individuals, but this soon subsides, unless the stimulus of an Impeachment keeps it awake, until the question of the renewal of the Charter, provokes periodical excitement. An insurrection of Negroes in a petty Colony of the West Indies, would create a greater general sensation in England, than the news that the British Empire in the East was in imminent danger.

will be perceived, that the present work is avowedly a compilation, a considerable portion of its contents having appeared, though in a more diffuse shape, in separate Pamphlets. In order, however, to secure accuracy, recourse


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Rh has frequently been had to original sources. The labour of its composition, therefore, has, for the greater part, been confined to the condensation of information previously communicated to the public in a more detailed form, or which was scattered in voluminous though authentic documents which have never been published. By the indulgence of the Government, I have had access, among other official papers, to the Re ports of the Public Officers, who have been appointed to mature and digest the plans of the Government for the diffusion of the benefits of Education throughout these Provinces, and to superintend the various Institutions for that purpose supported or aided from the public resources. In this branch of my undertaking, I have necessarily confined myself to what has been fixed and determined, omitting all speculative or unsettled points, which it would have been improper, as well as useless to introduce. The Members of the Committee of Public Instruction will quickly discover the ample use which I have made of their Reports, in some parts of the articles relating to education. Excepting the requisite abridgement, and the adaptation of the materials to the narrative form, I have seldom departed from the language of the original documents. It would indeed have been presumption, unnecessarily to alter, much more to attempt to improve, the productions of superior intellect: consequently, if that portion of the work should prove interesting, the principal cause will at once be ascertained.

To those who may be disposed to criticize my Book with severity, I will say, that I have employed my best endeavours to he accurate


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Rh and impartial, without compromising my own opinions, and that it has cost me much labor. My time, moreover, was very little at my own disposal, and this work has, for several months past, fully occupied every hour which I could spare from an Office of considerable detail, and of much personal communication. It was important, also, to complete the work before the time when the Annual Periodical Reports ot the different Associations should appear, which would furnish new matter not to have been dispensed with, and might have protracted the publication of the work for another year, if not, put a stop to it altogether. As it is, I have been occasionally anticipated by the appearance of detached accounts of some of the subjects which the work comprehends. These considerations will perhaps be allowed to plead with the candid reader for any marks of haste or other faults, either of arrangement or composition which, may be discernable in these pages.

it is possible that the distinction of Benevolent from Charitable Institutions, may at first sight appear fanciful, I would remark, that under the head of “Benevolent” are classed the various Associations for Education, and those Societies, the Members of which, contribute either for the benefit of their families, or of Subscribers requiring assistance beyond the means afforded by their own resources, such as the Upper Orphan School, the General Widow’s Fund, and the Civil Fund. These latter Societies of which the Members derive advantage, either in the persons of their families, or their own, cannot be designated as charitable in the common sense of the word, though they have a benevo-


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 L'importance de celle-ci étant représentée par 400 bulletins compacts, celle de la liste B est réduite à 300, puisque 300 électeurs seulement l'ont portée sans y faire de changement.

D'après l'article 3, lettre C du système simplifié, le nombre de députés qui doit être attribué à la liste A est 400∕50 soit 8, et à la liste B 300∕50 soit 6. Donc la liste B, comptant 11,700 votes, aura moins de députés que la liste A, qui n'en réunit que 8,300. Il y a là une inconséquence, mais elle n'est qu'apparente.

D'abord les 300 électeurs qui ont abandonné un nom de la liste B, pour porter leurs voix sur un candidat de la liste A, ont eu probablement la précaution de remettre au bureau une liste modifiée selon leurs sympathies. Celle 3me liste étant entrée en concurrence, elle a droit à la répartition. Celle-ci doit s'opérer comme suit :

La scission entre les votants de la liste B a donc pour résultat d'écarter le candidat qui en étant l'objet, mais il donne un député de plus à la liste A.

Dans le cas où es électeurs, abandonnant la liste B pour un candidat, négligeraient de remettre au bureau une 3me liste, voilà ce qui se passerait ;

La liste A aurait droit à 8 députés,

La liste B aurait droit à 6 députés,

Les 6 noms qui auraient réunis le plus de voix, après les 14 élus, seraient nommés dans l'ordre de la majorité et pris dans la liste B qui compte le plus de suffrages.

Le système proportionnel simplifié pourvoit donc, par l'addition de l'article 4, à l'objection soulevée dans l'exemple proposé.

Après avoir réparti entre les diverses opinions qui se sont fait représenter par des listes, le nombre de députés qui leur revient, le reste appartient évidemment aux électeurs indépendants, et la majorité peur seule décider entre eux. C'est ce motif qui nous a porté à introduire la disposition contenue dans l'article 4, au moyen de laquelle les intérêts des électeurs indépendants se trouvent complètement sauvegargés.—Pp. 25–29.


text: The Harveian Oration 1881

title: The Harveian Oration 1881


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 the arteries was spirituous and adapted for the heat and vital endowment of the body. The former great anatomist, Vesalius, nearly lost his life from the Inquisition, but Philip II., having interposed, he was compelled, in order to escape a cruel death, to make a penance journey to Jeru- salem, and having been shipwrecked on his homeward journey, died at Zante or Crete; the latter philosopher or enthu- siast, Servetus, was in 1553, burnt at the stake by those from whom more charitable measures might have been expected, whatever wild errors and false doctrines were entertained.

Other anatomists followed, and prepared the way for the fuller investigations of Harvey, Columbus Realdus, Eustachius, Faloppius, and Arantius. Fabricius of Aquapendente, was professor of Anatomy at Padua, when Harvey was a student there in 1598. Fabricius had no correct idea of the circulation, although he rediscovered the valves in the veins; Cosalpinus, born in 1519, had been professor at Rome; he died in 1603, and a remarkable circum-


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 of him at Oxford, with Dr. George Bathurst, watching the development of the chick, more congenial to his peace loving soul than war and bloodshed. The victories of Cromwell and the Parliamentary armies at Marston Moor, and at Naseby indi- cated the waning fortunes of the King, and after 1646, Harvey, who had attained to 68 years of age ceased to follow the King to whom he seemed to have been greatly attached, and he went to reside with his brother. His interest in science did not cease; the same industry in the study of physiology was characteristic of his later as well as of his earlier years, and in 1651, his work on generation was pub- lished; it was imperfect in many respects, but it was an indication of the character of the great philosopher. His manuscript medical observations had been destroyed in the earlier part of the Civil war by a senseless mob, and he never ceased to deplore the loss he sustained.

Harvey retained his mental faculties till an advanced age and died in 1657, aged 80 years; a year before one who had


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 Darwin says, "I believe that animals are descended from at most four or five pro- genitors and plants from an equal or lesser number" (Origin of Species); but is num- ber anything with the Creator, or does He descend to our standard?

The development of higher animals is a gradual process and by successive stages; but, the presence of branchial fissures in the embryonic neck does not necessarily shew, that the animal is at that stage a fish; neither does the imperfect septum in the heart of the mammal during em- bryonic life show, that at that time it was a reptile. These gradations are doubtless the steps by which the end can be best attained; just as in the formation of a sheet of glass, the workman takes a por- tion of molten glass, but he does not roll it into a plate as one might suppose; on the contrary, he blows it into a sphere; then by gentle pressure, whilst he rotates the globe of glass, he moulds it into that which is well known as a glass shade; then, whilst still revolving, he cuts off the upper part and leaves a cylinder of glass;


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 iment, and happily the harriers were not then existing and the obstacles to research had not been devised. With all these observers from the commencement the unfolding of medical science has been a gradual one, as step by step the darkness of ignorance was dispersed by increasing knowledge.

It is the object of science to attain to exactness in knowledge, and the advance of one line of truth reacts upon others in close relation with it; during later years how much has been ascertained as to the character of the blood itself, its more precise composition in varied periods and states of health, not only as to its white corpuscles and the red corpuscles, and perhaps other forms, but as to the migratory character of the leucocytes; chemical science has unfolded much and will do still more, but the microscope and the spectroscope have added immensely to our knowledge in relation to the pathological, as well as the physiological changes of the blood itself. With a better knowledge of the heart and its valves, and


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 THE HARVEIAN ORATION,

1883.

MR. PRESIDENT, AND FELLOWS OF THE COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS:-When I re- ceived from the President the request that I would, during the present year deliver the Oration which is associ- ated with the name of the illustrious Harvey, I felt great distrust in my own capabilities of rightly performing the duty allotted to me; and that feeling has be- come more intense as the work has gradu- ally opened before me. The eloquent words that fell from previous orators, the learning and research that have been displayed, the talented vindication of the memory of Harvey, and the substantiation of those claims, which have most justly been awarded to him, as the discoverer of the circulation of the blood, have added to my consciousness of the difficulty of my


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 all; and, the lessons we have sought to establish from the works of Galen, from Harvey, and from Darwin are, that we must seek to unfold the mysteries of science by patient research and experiment, and, that we must not accept as truth any theory which is the result of our own reasoning unless it can be proved by observation. To every humble minded investigator there is an ample reward, and the fault is not in nature, it we do not enrich ourselves from the stores laid before us.

“Accuse not nature; she has done her part “Do thou but thine; and be not diffident “Of wisdom; she deserts thee not, if thou “Dismiss not her, when most thou needest her nigh.”


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 It would be as reasonable to infer that Cesalpino had, without a microscope, anticipated the great discovery of the capillaries by Malpighi because he accidentally uses the term "capillamenta" to designate the minute divisions of the vena cava and the aorta, as it is to regard him as the true discoverer of the circulation of the blood. Every- body, as Cesalpino says, knew in his day that the artcries took their origin from the heart, in order that they might distribute the vital spirit through- out the body; and, again, he maintains that a continuous movement is propagated throughout the different parts of the body, because there is a continuous generation of spirit, which, by its in- crcase (amplificatione), is fitted very rapidly to be diffused everywhere.

Cesalpino argues that the heart is manifestly the chief organ of sensation (primum sensorium), because it is associated with every sense of joy or sadness, which are first perceived to exist in the heart. The heart, therefore, is the origin of the 11 crves. And what, he asks, could such a struggle about the heart effect, unless there were a con- tinuous passage from the heart to the instruments of movement, by which a large amount of spirit (spiritus multus) could be conveycd? There is not much in the foregoing passage that we can utilise ; but in the following there is a mixture of truth and error which is more suggestive, although it


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170 the whole amphitheatre re-echoed with laughter, and Formosanta herself could not help smiling.

His high almoner approached him:

"Let your majesty give up this idle honor, which depends entirely upon the nerves and muscles. You will triumph in everything else. You will conquer the lion, as you are possessed of the favor of Osiris. The princess of Babylon is to belong to the prince who is most sagacious, and you have solved enigmas. She is to wed the most virtuous; you are such, as you have been educated by the priests of Egypt. The most generous is to marry her, and you have presented her with two of the handsomest crocodiles, and two of the finest rats in all the Delta. You are possessed of the bull Apis, and the books of Hermes, which are the scarcest things in the universe. No one can hope to dispute Formosanta with you."

"You are in the right," said the king of Egypt, and resumed his throne.

The bow was then put in the hands of the king of India. It blistered his hands for a fortnight; but he consoled himself in presuming that the Scythian king would not be more fortunate than himself.

The Scythian handled the bow in his turn. He united skill with strength. The bow seemed to have some elasticity in his hands. He bent it a little, but he could not bring it near a curve. The spectators, who had been prejudiced in his favor by his agreeable aspect, lamented his ill success, and concluded that the beautiful princess would never be married.


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 will not bear comparison with the clear and prac- tical deductions, based upon observation in the dead and living body, which Harvey has laid before us in language as free from hypothetical jargon as anything known in science. In dis- cussing the question of suffocation, Cesalpino* says: "It appears worthy of inquiry why veins swell on the distal side of a ligature, and not on the opposite side, which those know from expe- rience who open a vein, for they apply the ligaturc above the point of section, and not below, because the veins swell below, and not above the ligature. But the opposite result ought to happen if the movement of the blood and spirit passed from the bowels to the body at large; for, if the passage be intercepted, no further progress is possible; there- fore the swelling of the veins ought to have been above the ligature."

After inquiring into Aristotle's view on the subject, Cesalpino goes on to say: "The passages of the heart have been so prepared by Nature that the vena cava opens into the right ventricle of the heart, from which a passage opens into the lung; from the lung there is another passage into the left ventricle of the heart; from which, finally, an outlet opens into the aorta, certain membrancs being placed at the mouths of the vessels to prevent a return; for there is a certain continuous

Loc. cit., p. 234.


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INTRODUCTION.

Ill sound judgment, gave him a more complete mastery over the whole range of Sanskrit learning,— its religion, its law and its philosophy, its language and its literature, its algebra and its astronomy,— than any other scholar has since acquired. A ll Colebrooko’s papers may bo read both with interest and advantage.

In the first year of this century he gave translations of Visala Deva’ s inscriptions on the Delhi pillar. Theso were followed by other translations in the 9th volume of the Re5barch.es in 1807, and in the 1st volume of the Royal Asiatic Society’s Translations in 1824, which exhibit the same critical scholarship and sound judgment. But a more valuable contribution is his “ Essay on the Vedas,” * which first gave to the European world a full and accurate account o f the gacred volumes of the Hindus. Other essays followed at intervals,— on the Sanskrit and Prakrit languages; on the Philosophy of the H indus; on the Indian and Arabian divisions of the Zodiac; on the notions of Hindu astro nomers concerning the Precession; and on the Algebra of Brahma Gupta and BMskara. The mere titles of these essays are sufficient to show the wido range of his studies. But the grasp is as firm as tlio range is wide, and theso essays still remain our standard works on the subjects of which they treat.

Colebrooko left India in 1815. Eor several years after his return to England he continued his studies and gave to the world some of the essays which have already been noticed. But his latter years were clouded by family bereavements and continued ill health, under which he at last sank on the 10th March 1837, in his 72nd year.t

In the year 1800 D r. B uchanan (who afterwards took the name of Hamilton) was deputed by the Marquis of Wellesley to make an agricultural survey o f Mysore. This particular duty he performed with much ability; but the value of his work is greatly increased by several interesting notices which he has given of the antiquities of the country, and of the various races of people in Southern India. Tho best acknowledgment o f the value of this work was the

 * Asiatic Researches, Vol. IX.

t The main facts of this brief sketch are taken from a deeply interesting and instructive memoir written by hiB son.—See Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. V,


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IV

INTRODUCTION. appointment o f Buchanan, in 1807, by the Court o f Direc tors, to make a statistical survey of the Bengal Presidency.

For seven years Buchanan pursued his survey through the provinces of Bihar, SkaMbad, Bliagalpur, Gorakhpur, Dinajpur, Puraniya, Kangpur, and Assam, when his labours were unfortunately brought to an abrupt close. The results of the survey were transmitted to England in 1816, where they remained unnoticed until 1838, when Mr. Montgomery Martin “ obtained permission to examine the manuscripts, which eventually led to their publication.” To him*we certainly owe the publication o f this valuable ,work ; but I must confess that the warmth o f my gratitude for this welcome service is absolutely frozen by the coolness o f appropriation displayed on the title-page, where the name o f Buchanan is entirely omitted, and the districts of ^Eastern India are stated to have been “ surveyed under the orders of the Supreme Government, and collated from the original documents at the East India Office by Montgomery Martin.” This singular proceeding has not escaped the notice ' i M. Vivien de St. Martin, who remarks that the three volumes had been published “ sans y mettre le nom de M. Buchanai It is, however, but fair to say that full credit is given :<> Buchanan in the introduction, and that the work appears to be satisfactorily edited.

Although the instructions given to Buchanan included neither the history nor the antiquities of the country, yet both were diligently explored by h im ; and when, alter a lapse of upwards of twenty years, a great mass of the matter collected by the survey was found to have bccomo useless, the value o f the traditional or recorded history, and of the monuments and relics of antiquity, remained unchanged. All this part of the work has been published by the editor with a fair proportion o f plates, from which we lgarn that Buchanan was amongst the first to perceive the value and importance o f detailed plans and exact measurements of remarkable buildings and ancient sites. His notices of the Buddhist remains at Gaya and Baragaon in Bihar, o f Kasia and Kahaon in Gorakhpur, and at many other places, are not less creditable to him because, through delay in the publication of his work, they were partly anticipated by James Prinsep. llis historical and archaeological researches in the districts of Eastern India arc specially valuable for


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11

PREFACE. traversable, and as Englishmen are led to give more thought to India than such as barely suffices to hold it and govern it, will assuredly occupy, more and more, the attention of the intelligent and enquiring classes in European countries.

“ It will not ho to our credit, as an enlightened ruling power, if we continue to allow such fields of investigation,, as the remains of the old Buddhist capital in Behar, the vast ruins of Kanouj, the plains round Delhi, studded with ruins more thickly than even the Campngna of Borne, and many others, to remain without more examination than they have hitherto received. Every tiling that has hitherto bden done in this way has been done by private persons, imper fectly and without system. It is impossible not to feel that there are European Governments, which, if they had held our rule in India, would not have allowed this to be said.

“ It is true that in 1811, on a representation from the Boyal Asiatic Society, and in 1817, in accordance with detailed suggestions from Lord Hardinge, the Court of Directors gave a liberal sanction to certain arrangements for examining, delineating, and recording some of the chief antiquities of India. But for one reason or another, mainly perhaps owing to the officer entrusted with the task having other work to do, and owing to his early death, very little seems to have resulted from this endeavour. A few drawings of antiquities, and some remains, were transmitted to the India House, and some 15 or 20 papers were contributed by Major Ivittoe and Major Cunningham to the Journals of the Asiatic Society; but, so far as the Government is con cerned, the scheme appears to have been lost sight of within two or three years of its adoption.

“ I enclose a memorandum drawn up by Colonel Cunning ham, who has, more than any other officer on this side of India, made the antiquities of tho country his study, and who has here sketched the course of proceeding which a more complete and systematic archaeological investigation should, in his opinion, take.

“ I think it good,— and none the worse for being a begin ning on a moderate scale. It will certainly cost very little in itself, and will commit the Government to no future or unforeseen expense. Eor it does not contemplate the spend ing of any money upon repairs and preservation. This,


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Rh The unknown youth leaped into the arena and, addressing himself to the king of Scythia, said:

"Your majesty need not be surprised at not having entirely succeeded. These ebony bows are made in my country. There is a peculiar method in using them. Your merit is greater in having bent it than if I were to curve it."

He then took an arrow, and placing it upon the string, bent the bow of Nimrod, and shot the arrow beyond the gates. A million hands at once applauded the prodigy. Babylon re-echoed with acclamations; and all the ladies agreed it was fortunate for so handsome a youth to be so strong.

He took out of his pocket a small ivory tablet, wrote upon it with a golden pencil, fixed the tablet to the bow, and presented it to the princess with such a grace as charmed every spectator. He then modestly returned to his place between his bird and his valet. All Babylon was in astonishment; the three kings were confounded; while the stranger did not seem to pay the least attention to what had happened.

Formosanta was still more surprised to read upon the ivory tablet, tied to the bow, these lines, written in the best Chaldæan:


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172
 * [The bow of Nimrod is that of war;
 * The bow of love is that of happiness
 * Which you possess. Through you this conquering God
 * Has become master of the earth.
 * Three powerful kings, three rivals now,
 * Dare aspire to the honor of pleasing you.
 * I know not whom your heart may prefer,
 * But the universe will be jealous of him.]

This little madrigal did not displease the princess; but it was criticised by some of the lords of the ancient court, who said that, in former times, Belus would have been compared to the sun, and Formosanta to the moon; his neck to a tower, and her breast to a bushel of wheat. They said the stranger had no sort of imagination, and that he had lost sight of the rules of true poetry, but all the ladies thought the verses very gallant. They were astonished that a man who handled a bow so well should have so much wit. The lady of honor to the princess said to her:

"Madam, what great talents are here entirely lost? What benefit will this young man derive from his wit, and his skill with Nimrod's bow?"

"Being admired!" said Formosanta.

"Ah!" said the lady, "one more madrigal, and he might well be beloved."

The king of Babylon, having consulted his sages, declared that though none of these kings could bend the bow of Nimrod, yet, nevertheless, his daughter was to be married, and that she should belong to him who could conquer the great lion, which was purposely kept in training in his great menagerie.

The king of Egypt, upon whose education all the


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Rh wisdom of Egypt had been exhausted, judged it very ridiculous to expose a king to the ferocity of wild beasts in order to be married. He acknowledged that he considered the possession of Formosanta of inestimable value, but he believed that if the lion should strangle him, he could never wed this fair Babylonian. The king of India held similar views to the king of Egypt. They both concluded that the king of Babylon was laughing at them, and that they should send for armies to punish him—that they had many subjects who would think themselves highly honored to die in the service of their masters, without it costing them a single hair of their sacred heads—that they could easily dethrone the king of Babylon, and then they would draw lots for the fair Formosanta.

This agreement being made, the two kings sent each an express into his respective country, with orders to assemble three hundred thousand men to carry off Formosanta.

However, the king of Scythia descended alone into the arena, scimitar in hand. He was not distractedly enamored with Formosanta's charms. Glory till then had been his only passion, and it had led him to Babylon. He was willing to show that if the kings of India and Egypt were so prudent as not to tilt with lions, he was courageous enough not to decline the combat, and he would repair the honor of diadems. His uncommon valor would not even allow him to avail himself of the assistance of his


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174 tiger. He advanced singly, slightly armed with a shell casque ornamented with gold, and shaded with three horses' tails as white as snow.

One of the most enormous and ferocious lions that fed upon the Antilibanian mountains was let loose upon him. His tremendous paws appeared capable of tearing the three kings to pieces at once, and his gullet to devour them. The two proud champions fled with the utmost precipitancy and in the most rapid manner to each other. The courageous Scythian plunged his sword into the lion's mouth; but the point meeting with one of those thick teeth that nothing can penetrate, was broken; and the monster of the woods, more furious from his wound, had already impressed his fearful claws into the monarch's sides.

The unknown youth, touched with the peril of so brave a prince, leaped into the arena swift as lightning, and cut off the lion's head with as much dexterity as we have lately seen, in our carousals, youthful knights knock off the heads of black images.

Then drawing out a small box, he presented it to the Scythian king, saying to him:

"Your majesty will here find the genuine dittany, which grows in my country. Your glorious wounds will be healed in a moment. Accident alone prevented your triumph over the lion. Your valor is not the less to be admired."

The Scythian king, animated more with gratitude than jealousy, thanked his benefactor, and, after hav-


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Rh ing tenderly embraced him, returned to his seat to apply the dittany to his wounds.

The stranger gave the lion's head to his valet, who, having washed it at the great fountain which was beneath the amphitheatre, and drained all the blood, took an iron instrument out of his little bag, with which having drawn the lion's forty teeth, he supplied their place with forty diamonds of equal size.

His master, with his usual modesty, returned to his place; he gave the lion's head to his bird. "Beauteous bird," said he, "carry this small homage, and lay it at the feet of Formosanta."

The bird winged its way with the dreadful triumph in one of its talons, and presented it to the princess, bending with humility his neck, and crouching before her. The sparkling diamonds dazzled the eyes of every beholder. Such magnificence was unknown even in superb Babylon. The emerald, the topaz, the sapphire, and the pyrope, were as yet considered as the most precious ornaments. Belus and the whole court were struck with admiration. The bird which presented this present surprised them still more. It was of the size of an eagle, but its eyes were as soft and tender as those of the eagle are fierce and threatening. Its bill was rose color, and seemed somewhat to resemble Formosanta's handsome mouth. Its neck represented all the colors of Iris, but was still more striking and brilliant. Gold, in a thousand shades, glittered upon its plum-


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176 age. Its feet resembled a mixture of silver and purple. And the tails of those beautiful birds, which have since drawn Juno's car, did not equal the splendor of this incomparable bird.

The attention, curiosity, astonishment, and ecstasy of the whole court were divided between the jewels and the bird. It had perched upon the balustrade between Belus and his daughter Formosanta. She petted it, caressed it, and kissed it. It seemed to receive her attentions with a mixture of pleasure and respect. When the princess gave the bird a kiss, it returned the embrace, and then looked upon her with languishing eyes. She gave it biscuits and pistachios, which it received in its purple-silvered claw and carried to its bill with inexpressible grace.

Belus, who had attentively considered the diamonds, concluded that scarce any one of his provinces could repay so valuable a present. He ordered that more magnificent gifts should be prepared for the stranger than those destined for the three monarchs. "This young man," said he, "is doubtless son to the emperor of China; or of that part of the world called Europe, which I have heard spoken of; or of Africa, which is said to be in the vicinity of the kingdom of Egypt."

He immediately sent his first equerry to compliment the stranger, and ask him whether he was himself the sovereign, or son to the sovereign of one of those empires, and why, being possessed of such sur-


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The idea of the following Work was suggested by a book published in London in the year 1810, entitled “,” by, Esquire. It presents an honorable record of British humanity and munificence, so manifest in the numerous benevolent Institutions, which grace our native land and exalt our national character in the estimation of the civilized world. In contemplating the noble Charities described in that volume, it was natural to advert to the efforts of our countrymen in this quarter of the Globe, to benefit their fellow creatures, more especially the Natives of these regions, by the creation of Charitable Institutions, by the establishment of Hospitals, the formation of benevolent Societies, the encouragement of moral and literary Instruction, and by the circulation of the Holy Scriptures. That these endeavours have not been inactive nor unsuccessful, it is the purpose of the following Treatise to prove, by an enumeration and de-


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Rh prising treasures, he had come with nothing but his valet and a little bag?

Whilst the equerry advanced toward the amphitheatre to execute his commission, another valet arrived upon a unicorn. This valet, addressing himself to the young man, said: "Ormar, your father is approaching the end of his life; I am come to acquaint you with it."

The stranger raised his eyes to heaven, whilst tears streamed from them, and answered only by saying, "Let us depart."

The equerry, after having paid Belus' compliments to the conqueror of the lion, to the giver of the forty diamonds, and to the master of the beautiful bird, asked the valet, "Of what kingdom is the father of this young hero sovereign?"

The valet replied:

"His father is an old shepherd, who is much beloved in his district."

During this conversation, the stranger had already mounted his unicorn. He said to the equerry:

"My lord, vouchsafe to prostrate me at the feet of King Belus and his daughter. I must entreat her to take particular care of the bird I leave with her, as it is a nonpareil like herself."

In uttering these last words he set off, and flew like lightning. The two valets followed him, and in an instant he was out of sight.

Formosanta could not refrain from shrieking.

 * Vol. 3—12


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The conception of this Work, and my resolution to inscribe it to you, were almost co-instantaneous. This Community, intimately acquainted with your character, would, I doubted not, at once recognize the propriety of conspicuously associating your name with a Commemoration of virtuous and beneficent undertakings; but my more immediate impulse was publicly to testify, how deeply I feel the value of the friendship in which we have been so long united, and which, as it has eminently contributed to the happiness of my life, confers also upon me a distinction which it is my pride to acknowledge.

Your’s most faithfully,

C. LUSHINGTON.

Calcutta, the 10th of December, 1824.


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178 The bird, turning toward the amphitheatre where his master had been seated, seemed greatly afflicted to find him gone; then viewing steadfastly the princess, and gently rubbing her beautiful hand with his bill, he seemed to devote himself to her service.

Belus, more astonished than ever, hearing that this very extraordinary young man was the son of a shepherd, could not believe it. He despatched messengers after him, but they soon returned with the information that the three unicorns upon which these men were mounted could not be overtaken, and that, according to the rate they went they must go a hundred leagues a day.

Every one reasoned upon this strange adventure, and wearied themselves with conjectures. How can the son of a shepherd make a present of forty large diamonds? How comes it that he is mounted upon a unicorn? This bewildered them, and Formosanta, whilst she caressed her bird, was sunk into a profound reverie.

Princess Aldea, Formosanta's cousin-german, who was very well shaped, and almost as handsome as the king's daughter, said to her:

"Cousin, I know not whether this demi-god be the son of a shepherd, but methinks he has fulfilled all


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The conception of this Work, and my resolution to inscribe it to you, were almost co-instantaneous. This Community, intimately acquainted with your character, would, I doubted not, at once recognize the propriety of conspicuously associating your name with a Commemoration of virtuous and beneficent undertakings; but my more immediate impulse was publicly to testify, how deeply I feel the value of the friendship in which we have been so long united, and which, as it has eminently contributed to the happiness of my life, confers also upon me a distinction which it is my pride to acknowledge.

Your’s most faithfully,

C. LUSHINGTON.

Calcutta, the 10th of December, 1824.


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 this dogma, when, immediately after the article about the Tradition, there was revealed to me Art. 29, and as the crown of the whole: The relation of the dogma about the Trinity of the persons in one God to common sense,—“we shall now take the liberty to say a few words about its relation to common sense, in order, on the one hand, to overthrow the false opinions in respect to this subject, and, on the other, to point out and elucidate to ourselves the true opinion. Since antiquity there have existed two false opinions in respect to this matter. Some have asserted that the teaching of the triune God is contrary to common sense, because it is contradictory in itself, but they assert so without any foundation: (a) Christianity teaches that God is one and trine not in the selfsame relation, but in different relations, that he is one in essence, but trine in person, and gives us one conception about the divine essence, and another about the divine persons, so that these concepts in no way exclude each other: where then is the contradiction?”

Christianity gives us one conception about the essence, and another about the divine persons. That is precisely what I have been looking for, namely, what these different conceptions about the persons and the essence are, but that is not to be found anywhere. Not only is it absent, but there can be no answer, because the words ουσία and ὑπόστασις now mean something different, and now mean one and the same, and are used indiscriminately.

“If Christianity taught that God is one in essence and trine in essence, or that there are in him three persons and one, or again, that person and essence in God are identical, then there would indeed be a contradiction. But, we repeat, Christianity does not teach that, and he who does not intentionally mix the Christian conceptions of the essence and the persons in God will never think of looking for an internal contradiction in the teaching about the Holy Trinity.” (p. 204.)


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Rh the conditions stipulated for your marriage. He has bent Nimrod's bow; he has conquered the lion; he has a good share of sense, having written for you extempore a very pretty madrigal. After having presented you with forty large diamonds, you cannot deny that he is the most generous of men. In his bird he possessed the most curious thing upon earth. His virtue cannot be equalled, since he departed without hesitation as soon as he learned his father was ill, though he might have remained and enjoyed the pleasure of your society. The oracle is fulfilled in every particular, except that wherein he is to overcome his rivals. But he has done more; he has saved the life of the only competitor he had to fear; and when the object is to surpass the other two, I believe you cannot doubt that he will easily succeed."

"All that you say is very true," replied Formosanta, "but is it possible that the greatest of men, and perhaps the most amiable too, should be the son of a shepherd?"

The lady of honor, joining in the conversation, said that the title of shepherd was frequently given to kings; that they were called shepherds because they attended very closely to their flocks; that this was doubtless a piece of ill-timed pleasantry in his valet; that this young hero had not come so badly equipped, but to show how much his personal merit alone was above the fastidious parade of kings. The princess made no answer, but in giving her bird a thousand tender kisses.


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180 A great festival was nevertheless prepared for the three kings, and for all the princes who had come to the feast. The king's daughter and niece were to do the honors. The king distributed presents worthy the magnificence of Babylon. Belus, during the time the repast was being served, assembled his council to discuss the marriage of the beautiful Formosanta, and this is the way he delivered himself as a great politician:

"I am old; I know not what is best to do with my daughter, or upon whom to bestow her. He who deserves her is nothing but a mean shepherd. The kings of India and Egypt are cowards. The king of the Scythians would be very agreeable to me, but he has not performed any one of the conditions imposed. I will again consult the oracle. In the meantime, deliberate among you, and we will conclude agreeably to what the oracle says; for a king should follow nothing but the dictates of the immortal gods."

He then repaired to the temple; the oracle answered in few words according to custom: "Thy daughter shall not be married until she hath traversed the globe." In astonishment, Belus returned to the council, and related this answer.

All the ministers had a profound respect for oracles. They therefore all agreed, or at least appeared to agree, that they were the foundation of religion; that reason should be mute before them; that it was by their means that kings reigned over their people;


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Rh that without oracles there would be neither virtue nor repose upon earth.

At length, after having testified the most profound veneration for them, they nearly all concluded that this oracle was impertinent, and should not be obeyed; that nothing could be more indecent for a young woman, and particularly the daughter of the great king of Babylon, than to run about, without any particular destination; that this was the most certain method to prevent her being married, or else engage her in a clandestine, shameful, and ridiculous union; that, in a word, this oracle had not common sense.

The youngest of the ministers, named Onadase, who had more sense than the rest, said that the oracle doubtless meant some pilgrimage of devotion, and offered to be the princess' guide. The council approved of his opinion, but every one was for being her equerry. The king determined that the princess might go three hundred parasangs upon the road to Arabia, to the temple whose saint had the reputation of procuring young women happy marriages, and that the dean of the council should accompany her. After this determination they went to supper.


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182

ROYAL FESTIVAL GIVEN IN HONOR OF THE KINGLY
 * VISITORS—THE BIRD CONVERSES ELOQUENTLY WITH
 * FORMOSANTA.

In the centre of the gardens, between two cascades, an oval saloon, three hundred feet in diameter, was erected, whose azure roof, intersected with golden stars, represented all the constellations and planets, each in its proper station; and this ceiling turned about, as well as the canopy, by machines as invisible as those which direct the celestial spheres. A hundred thousand flambeaux, inclosed in rich crystal cylinders, illuminated the gardens and the dining-hall. A buffet, with steps, contained twenty thousand vases and golden dishes; and opposite the buffet, upon other steps, were seated a great number of musicians. The two amphitheatres were decked out: the one with the fruits of each season, the other with crystal decanters that sparkled with the choicest wines.

The guests took their seats round a table divided into compartments that resembled flowers and fruits, all in precious stones. The beautiful Formosanta was placed between the kings of India and Egypt, the amiable Aldea next the king of Scythia. There were about thirty princes, and each was seated next one of the handsomest ladies of the court. The king of Babylon, who was in the middle, opposite his