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 speculative beliefs are changing sides without the knowledge of the disputants; and he who thinks himself a defender of the faith may have joined the revolt. But if we no longer carry the colours of the troops of the past we shall collect our lessons from its strategies; and for one of these lessons a prelate of the King will give thanks with me, that his supremacy has palsied the arm of the inquisitor to strengthen that of the apostle.

An unsystematic reader of a subject finds it out of his power to make due acknowledgment of the help and advantage derived from expert authors. Much of the matter had seeded itself insensibly in his brain in the course of general reading and conversation; much of it again had been obtained more carefully from sources now forgotten. To the following authors I know I am profoundly indebted, as I am to many others to whose names and works I can now give no reference:

Hauréau, La Philosophie Scolastique, Ed. 1872; Jowett, Dialogues of Plato (vol. 111. p. 523); Jourdain (Amable), Recherches critiques, Paris 1848; Jourdain


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11 (Charles), Excursions historiques, Paris 1888 (and the Philosophie de St Thomas of the same author); Ampère, Histoire litt. de la France avant le xime siècle; Brucker's Historia Critica Philosophia (English Ed., 1791); Renau, Averroès, Paris 1866; the Philosophie périp. apud Syros; and the Peuples Sémitiques dans l'histoire de la civilisation, of the same author; Roger Bacon, Westminster Review, 1864, two Articles (by Thomas Marshall, M.A. Oxon.); Schmmidt, Essai sur les Mys- tiques du xIvme siècle; Benn, A. W., The Greek Philosophers, London 1882 (and many helpful essays in periodical literature); Zeller, Die Philosophie der Griechen, 1881 ; Krische, A. B., Theologische Lehre d. Griechischen Denker, Göttingen 1840; Ueberweg, Grundriss d. Gesch. d. Phil. des Alterthums, Berlin 1867; Gerlach und Traumüller, Gesch. d. physik. Experimentierkunst, Leipzig 1899; Rashdall's History of Universities; Haeser, Geschichte der Medicin, Jena 1875-82; Baas, J. H., Gesch. d. Medicin, Stuttgart 1876; Idem, Die geschichtliche Entwicklung des ärzt- lichen Standes, Berlin 1896; Charles Daremberg (all his works); Rousselot, Études sur la philosophie dans le Moyen Age, 1840; Pattison, Casaubon, 1875; Meunier, Francis, Essai sur la vie et les ouvrages de Nicole Oresme, Paris 1857.

Descartes, Epist. Cartes. 4to. Amst., 1668; Plumpius, Fundamenta Med. Fol. Lovan., 1652; Sylvii Op. Omn., 1679, p. 875; Haller, Elem. Physiol., 1757, 1. 3; Tiede- mann, Physiologie de l'horame, Paris 1831, 1. 41; Delle Chiaja, Instituzione di Anatom. e Fis. Comp., 1832,

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 I. 13. (The six last works are cited as being especially useful, among many others, to show the extent to which modern physiology, from Harvey onwards, is based upon vivisection; and that it could not have arisen or thriven otherwise. It was by the test of many vivisections that Plumpius was led to the honourable withdrawal of his opposition to Harvey.)


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31 in the ardour of research into the nature of being, the modes of individuating principles were distinguished or contrasted with an ingenuity incom- prehensible to Plato or Aristotle, or at any rate undesired by these greater thinkers. Aristotle avoided the question whether form or matter individuate; he held that there is no form and no matter extrinsic to the individual. But by the medieval realist every particular, every thing, was regarded as after some fashion the product of universal matter and individual form. Now "form" might be regarded, and severally was regarded, as a shaping, determinative force or principle, pattern type or mould, having real existence apart from stuff, or, on the other hand, as an abstract principle or pattern having no existence but as a con- ception of the mind of the observer. The realists roundly asserted that form is as actual as matter, and that things arise by their participation-without whiteness no white thing, without humanity no and not individuals only: for the realist, out-platonising Plato, genera and species also had their forms, either pre-existent ("universalia ante rem"), or continuously evolved in the several acts of creation ("universalia in re"). Indeed for the man;


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32 extreme realist every "predicamental modality" was "aliquid ens separatum"; for instance, the soul, the active intellect, the passive intellect, and so on: conversely, by fusing idea with will, for other philosophers realism would get pushed back into efficient reason or divine will, and almost vanish³. By this latter route the Sorbonne, originally opposed to the Thomists, became nominalist after all; as did those once pions realists the Augustinians and Cistercians. Setting aside then the extreme nominalists, who would have dissolved thought by declaring all creatures to be so individual as to be incomparable,-"pulverising existence into de- tached particulars," as some one has put it and that names of kinds are mere nouns, or indeed mere air ("flatus vocis "), the prevalent nominalists were content to deny to ideas, forms, principles, or abstractions any other existence than as functions

1 The opponents of the theory of the Mass are apt to charge the Roman Church with the proposition that therein the ele- ments are changed into "real" flesh and blood. In the nineteenth century, as in the thirteenth, this Church has not, I believe, determinod whether the "real" substance be corporeal or incorporeal, separable or inseparable from the sensible pro- perties of things; whether in a word it be something or, as many of us would say, nothing at all. Spinoza regarded "substance" as intelligent and extended.


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33 of the human mind-as subjective conceptions. For Ockham, says Hauréau, an idea was but a modality of the thinking subject. Abstractions then for these thinkers were but mental machinery for analysis of the concrete. Aristotle was as obscure and inconsistent in his language herein, and often elsewhere, as he was profound and scru- pulous; but when his works came to be studied as a whole, and in the original tongue, the influence of his method, rather than the close consistency of his language, told against realism: virtually he was a conceptualist, and he found reality, where Plato denied it, in the particular object of sense ¹.

1 Thus it was difficult to claim his authority for one side or the other. The metaphysical treatises were not known till the later part of the twelfth century. (See p. 75, note 2.) At the outset of the Physics Aristotle discusses what nature is in itself, and defines first elements; in the Second Analytics on the other hand, although thinking of science as deductive and expository, he strongly opposes the primary existence of ideas, though these are predicable of many individuals. By excess of logical formations, the division of properties, the use of such terms as "yém úrokeipeva," &c. &c., he laid himself open to misconception, and so was readily platonised by his commentators. It would seem indeed that for Aristotle uni- vorsals were not merely propositions obtained by negation of individual variations, but something more active. A vónots became somehow a roinois; e.g. "Sppropyjouru piois." His position may be appreciated briefly thus:--In the Cato- gories Aristotle speaks of individuals as primarily existent, 3 A.


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 Even Francis Bacon, who was deeply indebted to Aristotle, never extricated himself from the tangle of form, cause and law¹.

Now this was a great argument, no empty dispute; the bones of dead controversies cumber the ground, but no controversy was empty which moved profoundly the minds and passions of men : both for ecclesiastical and secular thought the dispute was grave. While realism was essential to the Church-for instance, on realist grounds St Anselm defended the medieval doctrine of the Trinity against Roscellinus; the Church herself

while in Met. Z, and elsewhere, the primary existent is the form. The inconsistency is, however, more apparent than real; for in the Categories it is the individual so far as he represents his natural kind which is primarily oxistent, whilst the form which in the Metaphysics is primarily existent occurs only in the individual. This terse appreciation is one of my many debts to Dr Jackson.

1 It were almost to be desired, for our own lucidity, that we could get rid of the words cause and law, and use language significant of order only. Aristotle's influence has weighed heavily in favour of studying "Causcs" rather than sequences; thus it is hard to clear our own minds, and impossible to clear the minds of our pupils, of a genetic notion of causation- that an effect comes, as it were, from the womb of its causes. Even Ockham taught as if causes contained their effects. Mr Marshall (West. Rev. loc. cit.) is of opinion that Roger Bacon by his "non oportet causas investigare" intended to confine scientific thought to the relations of phenomena.


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 must be the subjects of it. God is not the God of the dead, but of the living.

The Lord, in treating of the judgment which He executed during His residence on earth, said, "Verily, verily, I say unto you, the hour is coming, and now is, when the dead shall hear the voice of the Son of God: and they that hear shall live." In this passage it is distinctly said, not only that the hour is coming, but that it now is, when the dead shall hear the voice of the Son of God. He also said, "The word that I have spoken, the same shall judge him in the last day." Now, who were the dead who are spoken of as then hearing the voice of the Son of God? Doubtless they were not only those who were insensible to His Divine teachings in the world; but those, also, who had passed out of it by natural death,—those living souls, who, being immortal, could not die, and who were then in the process of experiencing their judgment; hence, the scene of that event must have been the world of spirits.

The Lord said to the penitent malefactor, when dying upon the cross, "Verily I say unto thee, to-day shalt thou be with me in paradise." Now where was this? Doubtless it must have been some department in the spiritual world for the reception of souls emancipated from their bodies: both Jesus and the penitent were to enter it that very day. The promise certainly implied that the penitent would still continue to be a conscious living human being, notwithstanding the death of his material body: and where could that existence be enjoyed? The Lord spoke of it under the name of paradise, a name which only occurs in two other places throughout the Word: in one, the apostle


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 may perhaps most correctly be relegated, along with some others, to a class of diseases which may be termed neuro-humoral.

On reviewing these several propositions, I am, at this distance of time, disposed to be less dogmatic respecting some of them. I stand firmly by the position that gout owns a nervons as well as a humoral pathogeny. I am not now so strongly disposed to insist on that part of the theory which tended to localize defi- nitely the actual centre of disturbance in a limited portion of the cerebro-spinal axis. Nor am I prepared to shift my ground, and claim any other definite tract of the nervous mass as the affected and unstable centre. must freely admit my inability to do so, and would express myself more cautiously in deference to the opinion of the eminent Parisian professor who did me the honour to criticize my theory. Te reproached me for seeking to localize "at too limited a point the primordial lesions of a nalady essentially general, one which is, and always will be, typical of one of the best-marked of all diathetic conditions." While, how- over, ceasing to insist on this part of my theory, I still look kindly upon it, because many of the features of arthritic diseases afford support to it, and none can doubt that the medulla oblon- gata consists of series of centres, some amongst them possess- ing intimate relations to the most distant and varied organs and structures of the body.

I think it not only helpful, but absolutely essential, to add to the purely humoral views which have chiefly prevailed respecting the nature of gout a conception of the presiding nervous element. In accepting this, we greatly enlarge our point of view, and explain some of the most difficult points which have hitherto per- plexed careful inquirers. For y part, I cannot dissever the two ideas, and, hence, I affirm that gout is a neuro-hnmoral disease.¹

It is, without doubt, the case that, hitherto, no theory has been set forth which appears to embrace all the multiform pheno- mena of gouty disease. The greatest advance of modern research has been to establish the certainty of some special relation to it, in the greater number of instances, of uric acid, and so far there is clear warrant for retaining a measure of humoral pathology in our conception of the malady,

I propose to discuss, first, the arguments which lend support to the view that the nervous system is largely involved in gouty pathogeny; and in doing so, I shall have to refer to many points which inust later on engage our attention more in detail.

1 In respect of rheumatism, I am prepared to affirm the same, thus explaining the manifestations of that branch of the basic arthritic diathesis.


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 says, he knew a man who was caught up into paradise, but leaves the place without a description; and in the other it is called the paradise of God. In this latter case, it is, no doubt, employed as a designation for heaven; and although an idea of heaven must have been included in the promise with which the penitent was encouraged, yet it could not be the full enjoyment of that kingdom, which he was about to realize on that day. The Lord, who had so frequently made use of a word signifying heaven, would surely not have employed another term on so peculiar an occasion, if He had not intended by it to express some distinct idea: hence we believe that the paradise promised for that day, is that position in the world of spirits, where the faithful are gathered with a view of raising them to heaven. Surely the malefactor did not pass on to the final residence of the blessed without the experience of a judgment. Besides, the Lord on the third day after the crucifixion, told Mary that He Himself had not yet ascended; and, therefore, it appears plain that the paradise spoken of could not have been the full enjoyment of the angelic kingdom, but rather that position in the intermediate spiritual world where the good are gathered together for their judgment, and whence they are raised into heaven. There, indeed, the Lord was; there, also, was the penitent, and there he would have to remain until the period of his judgment; for without that he could not pass on to his final destination: how plain is it, then, that the world of spirits must be the scene of its execution. John, indeed, expressly tells us that it is so. He saw the souls of those who had been slain for the word of God and for the testimony which they held; and they were living in the hope of judgment, for they cried with a loud voice, saying, "How long, O Lord, holy and true, dost Thou not


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 the crowd, and the old gentleman pressed forward. When he got near, he smiled at me, and then proceeded to address to me a lengthy, but no doubt kindly meant, speech in Scandinavian.

Of course, it was all utterly unintelligible to me from beginning to end, and my face clearly showed this. I can grasp a word or two of Scandinavian here and there, if pronounced slowly and distinctly; but that is all.

The old gentleman regarded me with great surprise. He said (in Scandinavian, of course):

"You speak Norwegian?"

I replied, in the same tongue:

"A little, a very little—very."

He seemed not only disappointed, but indignant. He explained the matter to the crowd, and they all seemed indignant.

Why everybody should be indignant with me I could not comprehend. There are plenty of people who do not understand Scandinavian. It was absurd to be vexed with me because I did not. I do know a little, and that is more than some people do.

I inquired of the old gentleman about B. He did understand me. I must give him credit for that. But beyond understanding me, he was of no more use than the others; and why they had taken so much trouble to fetch him, I could not imagine.

What would have happened if the difficulty had con- tinued much longer (for I was getting thoroughly wild with the lot of them) I cannot say. Fortunately, at this moment I caught sight of B. himself, who had just entered the room.

I could not have greeted him more heartily if I had wanted to borrow money of him.


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FROM time to time during the last twelve years, I have been engaged in the study of Gout, and have published some contributions to the subject in certain volumes of the St. Bartholomew's Hospital Reports. Five or six years ago, I determined to write a treatise on Gout, and had made some progress with the work. Various causes, however, led me to falter in this resolution, and 1 laid aside my manuscripts. Yet this subject has always had interest for me, and I have never ceased to study and make notes of it as opportunities offered. Two years ago, I was urged, by those whose opinion I value, to complete the work I had begun, and, with some misgivings, I resumed it. The result I now venture to lay before the Profession.

In doing so, I cannot but feel that some apology is due for intruding myself into the company (already too large) of authors on this well-worn subject-especially since the attempt to write a work that should be worthy of all that is now demanded from an author who ventures to publish a treatise on a special disease, is confessedly difficult.

In the case of a malady like Gout, the task is, in my opinion, beyond the powers of any one Physician, if he seeks to write a complete work, and to bring to each part of it fresh contributions and new light. It would require no less than that he should be, at once, a good Anatomist, Physiologist, Pathologist, and Chemist, as well as a trained and accomplished clinical observer.-One may well ask, therefore, who is sufficient for all this? My own stand-point throughout the present work is that of a Physician


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 who, as a Hospital Teacher, has to study and treat all forms of disease, and deduce from them such lessons as may be illustrated by them. My point of view is, therefore, very different from that of a so-called specialist, whose thoughts and practice must necessarily be narrowed and warped by devotion to any one subject.

While the experience of a disease like Gout attained in twenty years of service in London in a great general Hospital, like St. Bartholomew's, is necessarily very large, it is one of the privi- leges attaching to the office of a Physician in such an Institu- tion, that it absolutely prevents the holder of it from becoming a specialist.

Inasmuch as London practice affords probably the largest field of observation in the world for the study of Gout and gonty ailments, it is only right that such opportunities should be utilized for the benefit of the Profession everywhere. Hospitals in London also present fuller opportunities for the study of the morbid anatomy of Gout than are elsewhere available, and in this volume will be found some results of this particular inquiry, for many of which I have to thank my friend and colleague, Dr. Norman Moore, who has paid much attention to the matter.

The classical and epoch-making work of Sir Alfred Garrod on Gout still holds, and will long continue to hold, the foremost place in the English language on the whole subject of Gout, and I must hore express my indebtedness to that work, and, no less, to many suggestions kindly afforded me by my friend, its distinguished author, while writing this volume.

I may state that while a large part of my experience has come from many years' observation of Gont amongst the patients, both at the Royal General Dispensary and St. Bartholomew's Hospital, yet a more complete knowledge of the disease, as a whole. is due to an experience of it gained in another line of prac- tice, and amongst such classes as do not frequent hospitals. With many of the phases of Gout and gonty disease, no sort and no amount of hospital practice avail to render the Physician familiar.

I am of opinion that many of our modern text-books occa-


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 occasionally fall short of completeness and lucidity, because so much of their experience is drawn from the hospital side alone. F'ew can donbt that, if the notes of private case-books were subjected to the same discipline as obtains in those drawn up for hospital- purposes, some new chapters in clinical medicine and prognostics would have to be written. Some of the greatest clinical masters have in this way added greatly to the value of their writings, in proof of which I would only adduce the names of Graves, Bright, Watson, Latham, and Todd.

I have endeavoured to point out the relations of Gout to other morbid states, and its modifying influence on many of these. As will be found, I am old-fashioned enough still to believe in the existence of distinct diathetic habits of body, and venture to think that such conceptions are not only true, but also very helpful in guiding towards a better treatment of patients suffer- ing from the disorders attaching to such habits. This teaching is not in vogue at the present moment, and is believed by some rather to hinder than advance the progress of our art. I am altogether of a different opinion.

Many of the views expressed in this work are such as have long held sway in the French School of Medicine. I have to confess myself mnch imbued by these, and would here express my indebtedness to the acumen and discrimination which have been brought to bear in France by a long succession of eminent teachers on the whole subject of arthritic disorders. I do not find myself so often in accord with the teaching of German authorities in respect of Gout audl gouty diseases, but I gladly claim for Virchow and Ebstein that they have each thrown light on parts of the subject which were previously wrapped in obscu- rity. I should fail in my duty if I did not acknowledge how much I have learned from my distinguished colleague, Sir James Paget, whose contributions to this, as to all subjects on which he has written and taught, are amongst the most lucid and accurate in our possession. To the teaching of my former naster, Professor Laycock of Edinburgh, and to the writings of Mr. Jonathan Hutchinson, MM. Charcot, Lecorché, Rendu. Dr.


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 Latham, of Cambridge, Dr. Ord, and many others, I am also under obligation.

The chapters on Treatment have been expanded to greater proportion than is common in treatises of this kind. I offer no apology for this, inasmuch as I conceive the duty of the Physician to consist as inuch in averting disease and treating his patient, as in discovering the nature of his maladies. Few can deny that studies in pathogeny, morbid anatomy, and diagnosis have of late years rather overridden those in practical thera- peutics. Progress is demanded in all, and not in one only; but may be affirmed that the tendency in modern times is rather in the direction of a helpless expectancy than in a strenuous effort to apply, for the patient's comfort, the clinical art in treatment, an art which was, with some exceptions, in many ways better practised half a century ago. I am disposed, indeed, to think that Medicine as an Art is now in some danger of being lost amidst futile efforts to exalt it into an exact Science. I main- tain that a great Physician is, and must be, a great Artist. it

I must, further, acknowledge various kinds of help afforded me by Mr. D'Arcy Power in our Hospital Museum, and state that I have had the advantage of the skill of Mr. Mark, and of my present senior house-physician, Dr. Wynne, in illustrating this volume, their original drawings having been admirably engraved by Mr. Danielsson.

In the preface to his famous Tractatus de Podagra, addressed by Sydenham two hundred and six years ago to the most learned Dr. Short," he remarked : It is my nature to think where others read; to ask less whether the world agrees with me than whother I agree with the truth; and to hold cheap the rumour and applause of the multitude. . . . Why should I be anxious about the judgment of others?" Such words are rarely to be found in any modern preface, but they well-illustrate the moral elevation of that most eminent man, and convey a lesson which much needs to be learned by authors in our own time. I could wish to repeat every word of it in respect of this present effort;


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 judge and avenge our blood on them that dwell on the earth? and it was said unto them, that they were to rest for a little season." This passage was before cited in evidence of the existence of an intermediate region in the spiritual world: it is now again produced because it clearly proves that region to have been the scene of judgment; for white robes were given to the parties treated of as an assurance that their judgment would result in future happiness.

Again; the Lord, speaking of His judgment, said, "Marvel not at this: for the hour is coming, in the which all that are in the graves shall hear His voice." The phrase "is coming," evidently contemplated the event as near; certainly not as one to be postponed for some thousands of years: doubtless it came within the meaning of His statement, "now is the Judgment of this world," that being one of the purposes for which He came. And where could have been the scene of such an occurrence? It did not transpire in the natural world; and, therefore, it must have been the spiritual. By "the graves," of which the Lord spoke, are not to be understood material sepulchres. He employed the term with another meaning. When denouncing the hypocrisy of the Pharisees, He said unto them, "Ye are as graves which appear not, and men walk over them and are not aware of them." The graves, therefore, signify of those states of mind in which goodness lay interred. He also spoke of such as "whited sepulchres, which indeed appear beautiful without, but are within full of dead men's bones, and of all uncleanness." So that external professions which do not agree with the internal states, and which at the same time conceal them,


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 but, with full consciousness of the many imperfections in this volume, I will yet dare to affirm that I have sought to be guided in writing it by those high traditions which have come down to our Profession, and which the English School of Medicine will ever have cause to veuerate as emauating from the illustrious Sydenham.

The delay which has occurred in issuing this work has, at all events, enabled me to profit by the Horatian maxim :-" Nonum prematur in annum membranis intus positis;" for I have, happily, surpassed that period.

Lastly, I will express my thanks to my publishers for much consideration and many courtesies.

LONDON, St. Bartholomew's Day, 1889.


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NOTHING is more difficult than the task of forming an exact definition of a morbid state. It is notoriously easier to criticize than to propound one. The besetting danger, or fallacy, that must always underlie attempts in this direction consists in the tendency to take typical or exquisite examples, and to formulate from them theories which are insufficiently comprehensive.

"Definitions, if they are to be more than convenient helps to arrangements, belong only to sciences more exact than pathology can be. It is better at present to think of diseases as in groups with borders that are not clearly marked; or as of nations with ill-defined frontiers, and with inhabitants intermingling, and even intermarrying. We may find typical examples, as of peoples, . and may call them by distinct namies, ... but we must use them very cautiously in the real study of pathology."1

In attempting to define what, in the existing state of our knowledge, constitutes gout, I shall take heed to the caution thus expressed. In my study of this disease, I have for long been trying to discover how, and on what lines, the changes proper to it work themselves ont, and thus to be able to say in any given case, this is, and this is not, a manifestation or product of gout. It is of the last importance to seek to be thus exact in the case of a disorder such as this, beenuse other pathological conditions certainly run on lines alımost parallel with it; and what is of more consequence, as will be shown, is that some of these conditions are occasionally mixed up with those proper to gont, thus pro- ducing hybrid states very difficult to unravel. Throughout this

Sir J. Paget, Morton Lecture, Roy. Coll, of Surgeons, 1887. 106 al


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 are the graves to which the Lord refers; and this may be evident from the circumstance that those who are spoken of are to hear His voice. Dead corpses in natural graves do not hear. The body that has been mingled with its kindred earth for unnumbered years—from which every trace of its organization has disappeared, and which has been converted into other forms and put to other uses, has no capability of hearing. When, therefore, the Lord said, that those who "are in the graves shall hear His voice," He did not merely speak of the conversion of those who were dead in trespasses and sins, but of those also who had passed into the world of spirits, but whose external professions of good did not agree with their internal state of evil. They, in that world, and at the time of judgment, would be sure to hear His voice: for it is there, and then, that "there is nothing covered that shall not be revealed; neither hid, that shall not be known;" where "whatsoever has been spoken in darkness will be heard in light, and that which has been spoken in the ear, in closets, will be proclaimed upon the housetops." It is in that world, and not in this, where those terrifying disclosures will be made: it is there where those who have known and professed, but have not loved and lived, will say unto "the mountains and rocks, Fall on us and hide us from the face of Him that sitteth on the throne, and from the wrath of the Lamb. For the day of His wrath is come; and who shall be able to stand?" He said, "Many will say unto me in that day, Lord, Lord, have we not prophesied in Thy name? and in Thy name have cast out devils? and in Thy name done many wonderful works? And then will I profess unto them, I never knew you: depart from me, ye that work iniquity." Such persons have buried their


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 real character in the grave of a profession; their grave, when they die, they take with them into the world of spirits; and it is in this grave that they hear the voice of the Judge, and learn their sentence. The word that He speaketh, the same will judge them in the last day.

The external character, which does not agree with a man's internal life, is spoken of in the Scripture as a grave. Not only is this the case with those who simulate a virtue which they do not possess, but also with those who are beset with unfavourable surroundings and yet have within them nobler sentiments and a purer love. Thus when David was delivered from some affliction which distressed him, he exclaimed, "O Lord, Thou hast brought up my soul from the grave;" and here it is important to notice that it is the rescue of the soul, and not the body which is spoken of. When the Israelites were enduring captivity in Babylon, that also is spoken of as a grave; for the Lord, in promising deliverance, said, "Behold, O my people, I will open your graves, and cause you to come up out of your graves, and bring you into the land of Israel. And ye shall know that I am the Lord, when I have opened your graves, O my people, and brought you up out of your graves, and shall put my Spirit in you, and ye shall live." Hence it is quite plain, that there are other graves besides those of pits in the earth, or holes in the rocks, in which dead bodies are interred.

This fact will aid us in understanding a very remarkable case, which is related to have occurred at the time of the Lord's resurrection. It is written, "that the graves were opened; and many bodies of the saints which slept arose, and went into the holy city, and appeared unto many."


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 It is usual to consider this as a visible occurrence, of which the natural city of Jerusalem was the locality: but a little reflection will show this to be a mistake. Those who believe that view of the case know it to be full of difficulties; they suppose many things, in order to avoid them, and yet acknowledge that conjecture is but a poor interpreter. We hold that the natural world could not have been the scene of the transaction, and that the carnal Jerusalem was not "the holy city." There are no parallels between this case, and the raising of Lazarus and the widow's son. These were restored to their friends, and were known to their enemies; and they died again. They were the subjects of wonder among men, and testified to the love and the power of Him by whom their raising was effected. But at the coming of the saints out of their graves, which is a much more extraordinary occurrence than either of these, no astonishment whatever is recorded. Matthew is the only evangelist by whom it is related; it is not alluded to in any of the epistles, nor in any other portion of the Scriptures. It is simply mentioned as an incidental occurrence connected with the resurrection of the Lord, and left without remark or reflection. Surely this could hardly have been the case, if many who had been dead and buried had walked out of their sepulchres into Jerusalem, and were seen by many! It cannot be reasonably supposed that such an amazing event would have been observed in silence: there could have been no motive for secrecy; the obvious result of such an occurrence must have been great excitement and publicity. The apostles must have been acquainted with it; and, doubtless, they would have made use of it as an argument in favour of the mission in which they were engaged, had it been a transaction in the natural world, to which they could have referred;


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Page:Lorna Doone - a romance of Exmoor (IA lornadooneromanc691blac).pdf/28

 at it. The great boys stood in a circle around, being gifted with strong privilege, and the little boys had leave to lie flat and look through the legs of the great boys. But while we were yet preparing, and the candles hissed in the fog-cloud, old Phœbe, of more than fourscore years, whose room was over the hall-porch, came hobbling out, as she always did, to mar the joy of the conflict. No one ever heeded her, neither did she expect it; but the evil was that two senior boys must always lose the first round of the fight, by having to lead her home again.

I marvel how Robin Snell felt. Very likely he thought nothing of it, always having been a boy of an hectoring and unruly sort. But I felt my heart go up and down as the boys came round to strip me; and greatly fearing to be beaten, I blew hot upon my knuckles. Then pulled I off my little cut jerkin and laid it down on my head cap, and over that my waistcoat, and a boy was proud to take care of them, Thomas Hooper was his name, and I remember how he looked at me. My mother had made that little cut jerkin, in the quiet winter evenings, and taken pride to loop it up in a fashionable way, and I was loth to soil it with blood, and good filberds were in the pocket. Then up to me came Robin Snell (mayor of Exeter thrice since that), and he stood very square, and looked at me, and I lacked not long to look at him. Round his waist he had a kerchief busking up his small-clothes, and on his feet light pumpkin shoes, and all his upper raiment off. And he danced about in a way that made


text: On the Education of the People of India

title: On the Education of the People of India


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Page:Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. (IA mobot31753002412044).pdf/92

 The Kota Kapur (Western Bangka) Inscription.

In Part 67 of the Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land-, en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië Professor Kern has edited and discussed the above-named document, which though discovered some 21 years ago had not previously been explained. It is on a stone pillar which was removed to the Batavia Museum shortly after its discovery. The writing, which is well preserved, is in an early Southern form of the Indian alphabet presenting no serious difficulty to the decipherer. The language is an archaic form of speech allied to Malay. The date, given in the inscription itself, falls probably in the year 608 Saka expired (A.D. 686-7); but the first of the numeral figures in which it is expressed is somewhat doubtful. The form of the alphabet generally is however quite consistent with this relatively high antiquity, and assuming the date to be correctly read, this inscription ranks among the oldest Indonesian records that have been discovered hitherto.

The interpretation offers many difficulties, for there are a number of words in the inscription which have not been identified with modern equivalents. But the general purport is pretty clear and amounts, in short, to this. Sri Wijaya, ruler of a country named Parāwis, wherever that may have been, after having as it appears punished or raided the rebellious land of Jāwa (which may be Java or else some part of Sumatra, perhaps), sets up this inscription to warn his subjects against treason, disobedience, and various other offences (including sundry forms of evil-working charms, poisoning, etc.). On those who do such things or who damage the inscribed stone he invokes a deadly curse. On his loyal and faithful subjects of the land of Parāwis he calls down various blessings.

The chief interest, however, of the document consists in the language in which it is framed. I extract a number of words by way of illustration, most of which may be readily compared with Malay. Of the spelling I need only say that n = our ng; ñ = our ny; s is a Sanskrit sibilant pronounced like the English sh; h = final h.

Nouns (simple): hamba, kāyet (= kait, "hook"), uran (= orang), sumpah, dātu (=dato’), wā̄tu (= batu), tuwa (= tuba), wulan (= bulan); (in phrases): di dalanña (=di-dalam-nya), wanuaña (= běnua-nya); (compound): kasīhan (= "love-charm"), kadatuan (="kingdom"), parsumpahan. Note the use of the formatives -an, ka—an, and par—an (modern kĕ—an, and pĕr—an). The prefix ka- is also used by itself, like the kĕ- of the modern kĕhĕndak, kĕkaseh.


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 Verbs (simple): pulan, wuatña (= buat-nya); (compound): in m-, mulan (from pulan, as modern minta’ from pinta’, mohon from pohon); in ma-, masākit (= "to make sick "); in man-, etc. (= modern meng-, etc.), mañuruh (= menyuroh), mañapik (from a word tāpik also found in this inscription and apparently meaning "chastise" or something of that kind); in man—i, manujāri (= "to speak with"); in mar—i, marjjahāti (= "to do harm to." from jahat, "evil," which also occurs; mar- is more or less represented by the modern běr-, which occasionally survives in the more archaic form měr-, as in mĕrapi, though here its force is rather adjectival); in maka-, makagila (= "to make mad"), makamatai (either from mata or else from matai, an older form of mati). Even more interesting are the passive verbs: in n-, nwari (probably a passive from wari modern běri) ;in ni-, niujāri (= "to be spoken to"), nisuruh, nipāhat (= "was chiselled"), miwunuh (= "was killed," from wunuh modern bunoh), nigalarku (= "were appointed by me"); in -in-, winunu (for winunuh, from wunuh).

Articles: di, diy, "in, to, at" (also din = di + the article n, which is found in Old Javanese, etc.); ka; dnan (= dengan) ; tīda (= modern tidak: apparently the -k in this word is not original, any more than in datok = dātu); jānan (= jangan).

Pronouns: āku, -ku (enclitic), 1st. person; kita (used apparently for the 2nd. person plural); iya, ya, -ña (enclitic), 3rd. person; yan, iyan, relative, the former also used as a definite article (ya appears to be similarly used); ini, "this," inan, "that."

Note also sawañakña (= sa-banyak-nya) which occurs in the phrase tathāpi sawañakña yan wuatña jāhat, "but as many of them as do evil"; and the word gran, which may be the stem of the modern gĕrangan.

It will be noticed that many of the above words have w which modern Malay has replaced by b. Javanese often retains the old w, as in watu, wulan. Another point of interest is the shifting of the stress in consequence of the addition of a suffix (or even an enclitic), as shown by the long vowels of the forms kasihan, manujāri, wanuāña, etc. This is an old Indonesian law which has been somewhat obliterated in modern Malay as spoken in the Peninsula, but the standard Malay spelling attests its former prevalence.

The inscription contains a large proportion of Sanskrit words, showing that Hindu influence was already pretty strong at this period. Some of these words are still current in Malay: the following are examples:—bhakti, dewata, mahardhika (now used in a modified form with the sense of "free"), mūlāña (= mula-nya with the enclitic pronoun), drohaka, tathāpi, mantrā (for mantra), dosāña (= dosa-nya), tatkālāña (= tatkala-nya), wala (= "army, forces," cf. modern balatantěra), bhūmi. But perhaps the most


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Page:Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. (IA mobot31753002412044).pdf/94

 remarkable feature of the language of the inscription is the peculiar passive in ni-, which is completely wanting or lost in Malay. The Malay passive in di- is however somewhat analogous, for both di and ni are found as prepositions in various Indonesian languages. The passive in -in-, though hardly traceable in Malay, has of course a very wide range in Indonesia and is evidently a very ancient formation.


text:
Author:Charles Edward Trevelyan

Works

 * On the Education of the People of India (1838)
 * Report on the Organisation of the Permanent Civil Service (1854)

title: Author:Charles Edward Trevelyan


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Page:The Necromancer, or, The Tale of the Black Forest Vol. 1.djvu/19

 my end may be as happy as this hour of bliss."

Hellfried related now, after the first ecstacy of rapture was over, how anxiously he had ever been enquiring after his dear friend; told him how many letters he had written to get informed of his abode, and of his being well, and was going to chide his faithful Herrman for his negligence, when he fetched a letter from an old acquaintance of his, who had wrote to him, that

"Hellfried had left the service of the Muses, enlisted under the banners of Pallas during the war of seven years, and, very likely, had fallen a victim of his martial spirit."

"Thy turn of mind" thus Herrman proceeded, after his friend had read that letter, "seemed always to make such a manner of life far more eligible to thee, than the peace and homely pleasure of a private


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Page:The Heart of England.djvu/41

nobly the ploughman and the plough and three horses, two chestnuts and a white leader, glide over the broad swelling field in the early morning! Under the dewy, dark-green woodside they wheel, pause and go out into the strong light again, and they seem one and glorious, as if the all-breeding earth had just sent them up out of her womb—mighty, splendid and something grim, with darkness and primitive forces clinging about them, and the night in the horses' manes.

The ship, the chariot, the plough, these three are, I suppose, the most sovereign beautiful things which man has made in his time, and such that were his race to pass away from the earth, would bring him most worship among his successors.

All are without parallel in nature, wrought out of his own brain by unaided man; and yet, during their life, worthy by their beauty, their purpose and their motion to challenge anything made by the gods on the earth or in the sea; and after their life is done, sublime and full of awe, so that when we come upon them neglected and see their fair, heroic curves, the dirge at their downfall passes inevitably into a pæan to their majesty. And they are very old. Probably the beasts and the birds, the winds

title: Page:The Heart of England.djvu/41


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 the cloisters of the Mathurins to the faubourg of St Denis; and, in respect of our theme of this day, we shall see that even Harvey was embarrassed by certain aspects of it.

For, to resume, closcly allied to the argument concerning universals was that concerning "form and matter." Whether the terms used were "form and matter," force or energy or "pneuma" and matter, "soul or life " and "body," "determinative essence and determinate subsistence," "male principle and female element," "archæus and body," the potter and the clay of the potter; or whether again they were "type and individual," "cause and effect," "law and nature," "becoming and being," or even the thought and extension" of Descartes, the riddle lay in the contrast of the static and dynamic aspects of things; in the incessant formation of variable and transitory individuals in the eternal ocean of existence²."

"Spiritus intus alit, totamque infusa per artus Meus agitat molem, et magno corpore miscet."

1 M. Charles Jourdain thus describes the procession of Rector, doctors and disciples of the University of Paris at the beginning of the fourteenth century. At the end of this century its decay began. 2 For Aristotle the principle of individuation was matter and form (vid. note, p. 33); for Averroes it was form; for


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 claimed a real existence apart from the wills of successive generations of individual and variable men; she taught that Man had fallen not only in many or all individual cases, but as a kind having a real existence, and again that in the Mass there is change of hypostasis-while then realism was essential to the Faith, yet if forms pre-exist ("ante rem") then the acts of God must be predetermined-" fatis" non "avolsa voluntas"; or if forms are only "in re" God must be form, living in each and every act and thing, which is Pantheism ("materia omnium Deus"): an impersonal conception and a dissolution of dogma which the Church must and did abhor. "Pessimus error"-there is the abyss, cried Albert, avoiding it by dialectical juggles. Erigena, the bril- liant prophet and protestant of the first period of

1 As St Anselm put it, "Participatione speciei plures homines sunt unus homo." Out of humanity individual men proceed. almost mythical grandeur, arising in the far west, full of new learning, of lyric enthusiasm, and heroic courage. He did not protest, with St Columba, against the Papacy only; he pro- tested against authority, and he protested against mighty ignorance; neither of which should withstand the persuasion of right reason. "Ratio immutabilis...quæ...nullius auctori- tatis adstipulatione roborari indiget." His works were pro- scribed and burned. 3-2
 * Vid. p. 32, note.
 * Erigena, "the miracle of the Holy Ghost"; a figure of


text: Page:Symbolical Methods of Study.djvu/1

title: Page:Symbolical Methods of Study.djvu/1


text: Index:Rubens (IA rubens02roos).pdf

title: Index:Rubens (IA rubens02roos).pdf


text:
Author:Max Rooses

Works

 * 1) Rubens (1904) Vol 1, Vol 2

title: Author:Max Rooses


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Page:The Heart of England.djvu/42

 and waves and hills know us as the creatures who make the ship, the chariot and the plough. These three things, as they go about their work, must have become universal symbols, so that when a man comes in sight, the other inhabitants of the earth say: Here is he who sails in ships and drives the chariot and guides the plough. And the greatest of all is the plough. It is without pride and also without vanity. The ship and the chariot have sometimes tried to conceal their ancient simplicity, though they have never done without it. But the plough is the same—in shape like a running hound, with tail uplifted and muzzle bowed to the scent.

Richard the ploughman is worthy of his plough and team. He moves heavily with long strides over the baked yellow field, swaying with the violent motion of the plough as it cuts the stubborn and knotty soil, and yet seeming to sway out of joy and not necessity. He is a straight, small-featured, thin-lipped man, red-haired and with blue eyes of a fierce loneliness almost fanatical. Hour after hour he crosses and recrosses the field, up to the ridge, whence he can see miles of hill and wood; down to the woodside where the rabbits hardly trouble to hide as he appears, or to the thick hedge with marigolds below and nearly all day the song of nightingales. The furrow is always straight; he could plough it so asleep, and sometimes perhaps he does. The larks sing invisible in the white May sky. The swallows and woodlarks and willow wrens and linnets, with their tenderest of all mortal voices, flit and sing about him. Partridges whirr and twang. A fox steals along the hedge, a squirrel glows and ripples across a bay of the field. And for a little time he notices these

title: Page:The Heart of England.djvu/42


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 the scholastic philosophy, was virtually a pantheist after the pattern of Parmenides¹; as Spinoza was the last great realist. David of Dinan again was such a pantheist, though luckily for him the Church did not find it out till he was dead; and he was martyred only in his bones. Indeed the great Robert of Lincoln barely escaped the accusation of pantheism under the wing of Augustine. The heresies of David, and of Amaury, caused the reaction of the first years of the 13th century against Aristotle. Amaury seems indeed to have cleared out Christian dogma pretty thoroughly, and to have preached the coming of science as the "third age" of the world. Many of his followers were sent to the stake; by the Synod of Paris (1209) the works of Aristotle were proscribed, and many copies of them burned. This proscription was virtually withdrawn by Gregory the Ninth in 1231; and Hales, Albert and St Thomas devoted themselves again to the study of Aristotle, and

The one, to which alone Parmenides and Melissus attri- buted existence, was a material although an incorporeal unity. We must beware of accepting "matter" in the current dualist sense; for Aristotle himself An was hardly distinguishable from dúvauis?


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 established his supremacy. Indispensable then as realism was for the Church, its creed, and

1 With every allowance for the phases of church and school in successive academical generations it seems strange that in 1209 Aristotle should have been forbidden under excommu- nication, and in 1231 restored to such favour that for the dis- ciples of Albert and St Thomas the master almost attained the authority of a father of the church; the explanation probably is that "Aristotle" meant for a time the paynim interpretations of Toledo, particularly of the Physics (the Metaphysics were not translated from the Greek till about 1220); and meant not this only, but also liberal quotation and incorporation of the writings of Arab philosophers. To show how learning, even in the University of Paris, lay under ecclesiastical control, some extracts from the Edicts of the Synod of Paris and of Gregory the Ninth may be cited in illustration :-After direct- ing that "Corpus magistri Amaurici extrahatur e cimiterio, et projiciatur in terram non benedictam " the Synod farther orders that the "Quatcrnuli ["Quaternuli" is translated by Ducange, Quatuor quartæ chartæe, sen octo folia: i.e. the octavos] magistri David de Dinant,...afferantur et comiburantur; nec libri Aristotelis de naturali philosophia, nec Commenta legan- tur Parisiis, publice vel secreto. Et hoc sub poena excom- municationis inhibemus...... De libris theologicis scriptis in romano, præcipimus quod episcopis diocesanis tradautur, et Credo in Deum et Pater noster in romano, præter vitas sanctoruin." The order two years later confirming these prohibitions differs but in form. Even the Bull of Gregory in 1231, relieving the schools of this proscription, says, " Ad hæc jubemus ut magistri artium unam lectionem de Prisciano et unam post aliam ordinarie semper legant, et libris illis natura- libus, qui in concilio provinciali ex certa causa prohibiti fuere, Parisiis non utantur, quousque examinati fuerint, et ab omni errorum suspicione purgati." The pope adds paternally, "Magistri vero et scholares theologiæ, in facultate quam


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 “Here he comes now,” replied the youth, looking up and examining Clyde with keen, gray eyes.

Clyde gazed in the direction indicated, and saw approaching a brisk and dapper and decidedly sophisticated-looking person of perhaps twenty-nine or thirty years of age. He was so very slender, keen, hatchet-faced and well-dressed that Clyde was not only impressed but overawed at once—a very shrewd and cunning-looking person. His nose was so long and thin, his eyes so sharp, his lips thin, and chin pointed.

“Did you see that tall, gray-haired man with the Scotch plaid shawl who went through here just now?” he paused to say to his assistant at the desk. The assistant nodded. “Well, they tell me that's the Earl of Landreil. He just came in this morning with fourteen trunks and four servants. Can you beat it! He's somebody in Scotland. That isn't the name he travels under, though, I hear. He's registered as Mr. Blunt. Can you beat that English stuff? They can certainly lay on the class, eh?”

“You said it!” replied his assistant deferentially.

He turned for the first time, glimpsing Clyde, but paying no attention to him. His assistant came to Clyde's aid.

“That young fella there is waiting to see you,” he explained.

“You want to see me?” queried the captain of the bell-hops, turning to Clyde, and observing his none-too-good clothes, at the same time making a comprehensive study of him.

“The gentleman in the drug store,” began Clyde, who did not quite like the looks of the man before him, but was determined to present himself as agreeably as possible, “was saying—that is, he said that I might ask you if there was any chance here for me as a bell-boy. I'm working now at Klinkle's drug-store at 7th and Brooklyn, as a helper, but I'd like to get out of that and he said you might—that is—he thought you had a place open now.” Clyde was so flustered and disturbed by the cool, examining eyes of the man before him that he could scarcely get his breath properly, and swallowed hard.

For the first time in his life, it occurred to him that if he wanted to get on he ought to insinuate himself into the good graces of people—do or say something that would make them like him. So now he contrived an eager, ingratiating smile, which he bestowed on Mr. Squires, and added: “If you'd like to give me a chance, I'd try very hard and I'd be very willing.”

The man before him merely looked at him coldly, but being the soul of craft and self-acquisitiveness in a petty way, and rather liking anybody who had the skill and the will to be

title: Page:An American Tragedy Vol 1.pdf/45


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 its sacraments, yet therein it found itself in a dilemma between the conceptions of a Creator working under conditions, and of a spirit imma- nent in matter; and when theological philosophy culminated in St Thomas, and was fixed by him as it now rules in Rome, this difficulty was rather con- cealed in his system than resolved'. Every scheme of

profitentur, se studeant laudabiliter exercere, nec philosophos se ostendant, sed satagant fieri theodocti: nec loquantur in lingua populi, et populi linguam hebræam cum azotica con- fundentes" [azotica or arethica means the profane tongue (Ducange); Hebrew being a Sancta lingua] The pantheistic outburst of the later twelfth century, although deriving in part from Erigena, was probably fed by the commentary of Alexander of Aphrodisias. This commentary was widely read in Arabic and Arab-latin translations, the latter of which were made, as we know (v. A. Jourdain, p. 123 and seq.), by Gerard of Cremona (d. 1187). Alexander's more material interpretation of an involved the return of Ali into God; hence no resurrection, no future life. In his followers these doctrines become grosser and grosser, and, fused with other Arabian doctrine, prepared for and afterwards strengthened the Averroism of Padua, in the xv-Xvith century, in which systom it was taught that the universal soul, dipping for the time into the individual man, is at death resnmed into the universal soul. This virtual denial of personal immortality was of course bitterly resented by the Church. (Vid. p. 68, note.) Thus from the thirteenth century onwards pantheistic infidelity survived and even defied the menaces and the punishments of the Church.

1 Both Albert and Aquinas were inconsistont. Hauréau points out that St Thomas was a vitalist in physics, an animist in metaphysics, a nominalist in philosophy, and a realist in


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186 one are often represented by closely allied families, genera and species peculiar to the other.

5. The distribution of the organic world in time is very similar to its present distribution in space.

6. Most of the larger and some small groups extend through several geological periods.

7, In each period, however, there are peculiar groups, found nowhere else, and extending through one or several formations.

8. Species of one genus, or genera of one family occurring in the same geological time are more closely allied than those separated in time.

9. As generally in geography no species or genus occurs in two very distant localities without being also found in intermediate places, so in geology the life of a species or genus has not been interrupted. In other words, no group or species has come into existence twice.

10. The following law may be deduced from thesis facts :—Every species has come into existence coincident both in space and time with a pre-existing closely allied species.

This law agrees with, explains and illustrates all the facts connected with the following branches of the subject :—1st. The system of natural affinities. 2nd. The distribution of animals and plants in space. 3rd. The same in time, including all the phenomena of representative groups, and those which Professor Forbes supposed to manifest polarity. 4th. The phenomena of rudimentary organs. We will briefly endeavour to show its bearing upon each of these.

If the law above enunciated be true, it follows that the natural series of affinities will also represent the order in which the several species came into existence, each one having had for its immediate antitype a closely allied species existing at the time of its origin. It is evidently possible that two or three distinct species may have had a common antitype, and that each of these may again have become the antitypes from which other closely allied species were created. The effect of this would be, that so long as each species has had but one new species formed on its model, the line of affinities will be simple, and may be represented by placing the several species in direct succession in a straight line. But if two or more species have been independently formed on the plan of a common antitype, then the series of affinities will be compound, and can only be represented by a forked or many-branched line. Now, all attempts at a Natural classification and arrangement of organic beings show, that both


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 thought must make some declaration on the nature and place of universals; the problem was no hair splitting, it dealt with the very nature and origin of being; it agitated the minds of thinking meu at a time of the most fervid and widespread en- / thusiasm for knowledge which the Western world has ever known,-at a time when Oxford counted its students by thousands, and when in Paris a throng athirst for knowledge would stretch from

theology. "Il a cherché à reconcilier des morts (i.e. Plato and Aristotle) qui, toute leur vie, se sont contredits." But even sceptics contradict themselves; and it is fair to add that St Thomas pushed universals back to immanence in the Divine mind. For Plato the ideas are thoughts of universal mind; for Aristotle God, or Nature by its thoughts or plans determines the lines of phenomena: thus Plato and Aristatle were more alike than Thomas knew, or Hauréau admits. There was no such thing of course as The Scholastic Philo- sophy, of which I read again but the other day in a modern work. Seholasticism is the very various teaching of the schools of the xi-xvth centuries; though its general tendency was to search rather into the origin and nature than into the functions of being. The philosophy of the thirteenth century on the whole was eclectic ;-though perhaps eclectic by con- fusion rather than by reconciliation. The rule of authority prevented an appreciation of the relative values of opinions; the recognised authorities were equally true, and had to be dovetailed together somehow. Critical interpretation had not beguti.

1 The objection should not lie against hair splitting, for thought cannot be too penetrating; but against the splitting of imaginary hairs.


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32 diplomatic, he now put aside an impulse to shake his head negatively, and observed: “But you haven't had any training in this work.”

“No, sir, but couldn't I pick it up pretty quick if I tried hard?”

“Well; let me see,” observed the head of the bell-hops, scratching his head dubiously. “I haven't any time to talk to you now. Come around Monday afternoon. I'll see you then.” He turned on his heel and walked away.

Clyde, left alone in this fashion, and not knowing just what it meant, stared, wondering. Was it really true that he had been invited to come back on Monday? Could it be possible thatHe turned and hurried out, thrilling from head to toe. The idea! He had asked this man for a place in the very finest hotel in Kansas City and he had asked him to come back and see him on Monday. Gee! what would that mean? Could it be possible that he would be admitted to such a grand world as this—and that so speedily? Could it really be?

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4 on a great scale, besides liberally encouraging such undertakings by others; and to employ an accomplished oriental scholar in translating European scientific works into Arabic, upon which undertaking large sums were subsequently expended. English classes were afterwards established in connection with the Mohammedan and Sanskrit college at Calcutta, the Sanskrit college at Benares, and the Agra college; and a separate institution was founded at Delhi in 1829 for the cultivation of western learning, in compliance with the urgent solicitation of the authorities at that place.

The principles which guided the proceedings of the committee throughout this period are explained in the following extract from their printed report, dated in December 1831:—

“The introduction of useful knowledge is the great object which they have proposed as the end of the measures adopted or recommended by them, keeping in view the necessity of consulting the feelings and conciliating the confidence of those for whose advantage their measures are designed.

“The committee has therefore continued to encourage the acquirement of the native literature of both Mohammedans and Hindus, in the institutions which they found established for these


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Rh purposes, as the Madressa of Calcutta and Sanskrit college of Benares. They have also endeavoured to promote the activity of similar establishments, of which local considerations dictated the formation, as the Sanskrit college of Calcutta and the colleges of Agra and Delhi, as it is to such alone, even in the present day, that the influential and learned classes, those who are by birthright or profession teachers and expounders of literature, law, and religion, maulavis and pundits, willingly resort.

“In the absence of their natural patrons, the rich and powerful of their own creeds, the committee have felt it incumbent upon them to contribute to the support of the learned classes of India by literary endowments, which provide not only directly for a certain number, but indirectly for many more, who derive from collegiate acquirements consideration and subsistence amongst their countrymen. As far also as Mohammedan and Hindu law are concerned, an avenue is thus opened for them to public employment, and the state is provided with a supply of able servants and valuable subjects; for there is no doubt that, imperfect as oriental learning may be in many respects, yet the higher the degree of the attainments even in it possessed by any native, the more


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 but also in the admitted influence of the imagination over certain functions of the body. The simple and to us fairly intelligible occurrence of the occasional removal of pain by a concentration of the attention elsewhere, or by the substitution for it of some strong emotion, may account for much that, in the past no less than in the present, has become preposterous and absurd from the lengths to which it has been carried. With such material to work upon, it was and continues to be easy for designing charlatans, or mistaken zealots, to develop the most outrageous hypotheses and practices.

The revival of learning and of the scientific method, whilst lighting up the path for the few, left the masses un- touched; and the superstitions which we somewhat com- placently refer to the dark ages remained unaffected by the results that accurate observation was producing. The prac- tice of the healing art was not yet entirely removed from the hands of the priesthood; and the treatment of disease by supplications, by the laying on of hands, by the power of relics, shrines, and holy wells, found still its administrators and its dupes. The superstition of the curative virtues resi- dent in sacred things was easily extended to objects intrin- sically less reverend in their nature; and talismans of stone, metal, or wood, engraved with cabalistic signs, or phylac- teries which were texts written on scraps of parchment, and, like amulets, intended to be worn on the person-were easily acquired adjuncts to the necessarily limited supply of saintly relics. And yet who shall say that a time which has produced clairvoyance, metallic tractors, and the mind cure,' is free to cast reproach at the deeds of these dark ages?

The whole so-called cabalistic sciences of astrology and alchemy, developed as they were by men of ability like Paracelsus, came to acquire a strength which they would scarcely have possessed if left alone to the ignorance of the people. Jolin French, in a work on alchemy published


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6 intelligent and liberal he will prove, and the better qualified to appreciate the acts and designs of the government.

“But whilst every reasonable encouragement is given to indigenous native education, no opportunity has been omitted by the committee of improving its quality and adding to its value. In all the colleges the superintendence is European, and this circumstance is of itself an evidence and a cause of very important amelioration. In the Madressa of Calcutta and Hindu college of Benares, institutions of earlier days, European superintendence was for many years strenuously and successfully resisted. This opposition has long ceased. The consequences are a systematic course of study, diligent and regular habits, and an impartial appreciation of merits, which no institution left to native superintendence alone has ever been known to maintain.

“The plan of study adopted in the colleges is in general an improvement upon the native mode, and is intended to convey a well-founded knowledge of the languages studied, with a wider range of acquirement than is common, and to effect this in the least possible time. Agreeably to the native mode of instruction, for instance, a Hindu or Mohammedan lawyer devotes the best years of his


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 in 1650, and supposed to have been among the last on the subject, thus enunciates the pretensions of his craft: 'If men did but believe what this art could effect, and what variety of wonder there is in it, they would no longer be bound up to Galen or Aristotle, but would subscribe to be faithful to the principles of Hermes and Paracelsus.'

Perhaps among the most curions of all the superstitions The royal that have debased our profession is that of the royal gift of healing. Commencing with Edward the Confessor, the touch continued to be practised by our sovereigns, though with many exceptions, until the days of the first George. Nor was it limited to this country. France claims Clovis as the originator, and the ceremony was certainly per- formed by many of his successors. In no reign,' says Dr. Pettigrew, did the practice prevail to such an extent as in that of Charles II., and it is not a little remarkable that more people died of scrofula, according to the bills of mortality, during this period than in any other." It may be further observed that surgeons did not disdain to re- commend this treatment to their patients. It was at the instigation of Sir John Floyer, a physician of eminence, that Samuel Johnson was twice 'touched' by Queen Anne; and, as Boswell remarked, evidently without success. This power has not been held to be limited to royalty: 'Even to-day,' wrote the late Dr. Meryon, 'in Scotland the seventh male child in a family has the gift of curing the king's evil by touch.'

The existence of these and a thousand other supersti- Credulity. tions, the record of which excites alike our amusement and amazement, could not have been sustained for a moment except for the credulity of those on whom they were practised. (4) The kind of credulity,' said Sir James Simpson, which the public thus show daily in relation to medicine, they show in relation to no other practical art or science. Indeed, if a similar species of charlatanry


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Rh life to the acquirement of law alone, and is very imperfectly acquainted with the language which treats of the subject of his studies. In the Madressa and Sanskrit college the first part of the course is now calculated to form a really good Arabic and Sanskrit scholar, and a competent knowledge of law is then acquired with comparative facility and contemporaneously with other branches of Hindu or Mohammedan learning.

“Again, the improvements effected have not been limited to a reformation in the course and scope of native study, but, whenever opportunity has favoured, new and better instruction has been grafted upon the original plan. Thus in the Madressa, Euclid has been long studied and with considerable advantage: European anatomy has also been introduced. In the Sanskrit college of Calcutta, European anatomy and medicine have nearly supplanted the native systems. At Agra and at Delhi the elements of geography and astronomy and mathematics are also part of the college course. To the Madressa, the Sanskrit college of Calcutta, and the Agra college, also, English classes are attached, whilst at Delhi and Benares distinct schools have been formed for the dissemination of the English language. Without offering therefore any violence to native prejudices,


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 were attempted in relation to most other arts and sciences, the delusion would be at once detected, and the imposture duly denounced; whilst, in medicine, the delusion would, on the other hand, probably make the propounder's fame and fortune, and in the course of years be forgotten.

'Truly we may say with Crabbe - This love of life, which in our nature rules, To vile imposture makes us dupes and fools."

So widespread and importunate were these errors that we find even our own College gravely testing men in their knowledge of astrology (1593-96), deputing members of our body to inspect bewitched people, and, summoning those who assumed the power of cure by touch, requiring them to exercise their skill in the presence of the College.

It is not to be forgotten that Harvey himself, following on the lines of Galen and Aristotle, adopted a view as to the nature of life which is a phase of the almost universal conception held in one form or another up to our own day. It appeared as the animism' of Hoffmann and Stahl, who bequeathed to us as a consequence what is known as expectant medicine.' Another development of the same idea is the theory of a vital principle, the 'vitalism of Haller and Barthez, from which even now we cannot be said to be entirely free.

Scarcely more than a century ago the medical world was divided by the contending schools of Cullen and Brown: the latter with his sthenic and asthenic diseases and tonic and depressant treatment; the former, in hot hostility, advocating the hypothesis that disease was the result of opposite conditions of spasm and debility. Soon after this appeared in France the doctrine of Broussais, who held that gastro-enteritis is the basis of pathology, and local depletion the proper remedy for fever. There is yet another


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 late Sir Robert Carswell, the first pathologist of his day, whose drawings of morbid appearances remain a monument of accuracy and skill, never used a microscope in his course of lectures, and that his only reference to microscopic ap- pearances was to mention that pus consists of a clear fluid and globules-some idea may be formed of the change which has taken place.

And now during a few moments let me indicate to you the direction in which this change has been effected, seek- occurred. ing meanwhile if we can find therein data which may any help us to reply to my second question, What are our hopes for the future? Clearly the direction was towards a better comprehension of the nature of life, and inferen- tially of disease; together with a more accurate knowledge of the body both in its structure and its functions. The halt to which observers had come was largely compelled by limited methods of experiment; and it is particularly to improvement in the methods and instruments of research that much of our advance is to be attributed, as it is also from such improvement that still more is to be expected.

First, in respect to gross anatomy-the science of structure little could be added to the knowledge which has been continuously accumulated since the days I have previously referred to; but it was Bichat who in 1801, by his treatise on the minute anatomy of the tissues, opened up a new branch of inquiry which but for the microscope could not have existed, and for which the microscope has done what the reflecting telescope did for astronomy. It would not seem, however, that the work of himself and his followers had borne much practical fruit even in my early days. I have told you what was then the relation of the microscope to the study of morbid anatomy. Its position in respect to healthy histology was scarcely better and it is only since then that the impetus for inves- tigation has arisen, and the application this impetus to


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 notion of the four elements, and of alchemy interspersed with streaks of the new chemistry which was then arising, is now pursued on lines in harmony with those of every- day laboratory investigation. To mention but one prac- tical result thence obtained, I would refer to the artificial digestive juices and prepared foods which have become most valuable remodies. On the physical side are the study of the phenomena of muscular contractility, and the expression of the work done in such terms that it may be calculated with the same accuracy as the fuel value of a pound of coals; the study of the laws of osmosis which underlie all the physiology of absorption and nutrition: the conditions affecting and determining gaseous inter- change which explain the process of respiration: the nature of elasticity and the important share it takes in the physics of the circulation: turn which way we will, we see now in our physiological laboratories--themselves the creation of the last twenty years experimenter and in- strument maker competing in a demand and supply of the apparatus by which such work as I have indicated has been rendered possible.

To speak of the advance of physiology is to imply a progress in pathology, since the latter is but the application of the former under the conditions of disease. Mutually aiding each other as they have done, it was not until phy- siology rested on a secure foundation that pathology could claim the title of rational. Although healthy structure came to be known, and the dependence upon it of function to be recognised, it was long before the same idea prevailed in respect to disease. It is the especial glory of Virchow's work on cellular pathology that he applied consistently to morbid structure and action the same principles which had already made considerable advance in regard to healthy.

Proceeding on such lines, lines that we feel assured are


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 may be, been employed in certain infectious diseases, such as Cholera, Scarlet Fever, Typhoid Fever, and Diphtheria. To isolate the sick and such persons as have been in relation with them, until the very end of the period of infection, to thoroughly disinfect the secretions and other products from the patient at the earliest possible moment; to properly dispose of the dead; to cut off from the public all sources of contaminated supply, whether of water, milk, or other kind of food-these are a few of the principal measures which the experience of a compara- tively recent period has taught us to practise in contagious diseases with results so satisfactory as to encourage us in their further extension. We have, indeed, rational grounds for the belief that if the spread of infection were restricted by law, this class of diseases would soon be effectually extinguished. The result of such measures in reference to cholera poison are particularly striking. Many of us remember the invasions of this country by cholera, and its fatal progress, in the years 1831, 1847, and 1854. When sanitary measures were yet in their infancy, the epidemic of 1866, though grave in certain districts-Swan- sea, for example-was rendered harmless in other places. From that period to the present there has taken place no serious outbreak of cholera in this country, although there have been infectious arrivals on our shores on several occasions, as in 1873 and 1884 at Southampton, Swansea, Liverpool, and in the Thames. This satisfactory result is entirely due to the efficient arrangements made by the proper authorities to limit the spread of the disease. In this matter they acted under, and carried out, the judicious counsel given by that wise administrator Mr. Simon, when acting as medical adviser to the Privy Council and the Local Government Board. I need scarcely add that this teaching has not been lost upon Mr. Simon's former colleagues and able successors.


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 foundation, and that the progress of our Art and of our Science has been greater during the last half-century than during all the preceding centurios. Nay, more: that recent progress gives promise of still more rapid progress in the future.

It is not necessary to recount an elaborato list of dis- coveries in support of this assertion. Ono may truly say that there is no organ, no structure, no function of the body in health or disease which has not received the stamp of improved knowledge during the period referred to.

In our knowledge of the structural changes which occur in disease, accuracy is now replacing with great strides the previous uncertainty and vagueness; and I feel it is due in this connection to refer to the good work of the Pathological Society of London, whose forty volumes of Transactions are a brilliant monument of labour and research, and a bright exemplar to future years. It is but justice to say, in memory of one long since dead, that the society was established in 1843 by the intelligent zeal of a member of our College, the late Dr. Edward Bentley, a name which is remembered and honoured by those amongst us his friends and colleagues who still survive, although unheard of or forgotten by many who yet fully appreciate the value of the Society which he was the chief means of establishing. (6)

I need but remind you how extensive has become our knowledge within the past few years of the facts of structure revealed by the microscope in connection with new growths, with regard not only to their distinctive characteristics, but also those which connect apparently diverse forms and indicate their relation to the tissues in which they occur. The structural lesions comprised in the term ' degeneration' are now clearly recognised and defined, and, without pre- tending to a complete knowledge of these morbid conditions, that which we do know about them possesses a character


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2 course of study at these institutions was purely oriental, and the object of it was to provide a regular supply of qualified Hindu and Mohammedan law officers for the judicial administration. The next step taken was at the renewal of the Company’s charter in 1813, when 10,000l., or a lac of rupees a year, was set apart “for the revival and promotion of literature, and the encouragement of the learned natives of India, and for the introduction and promotion of a knowledge of the sciences among the inhabitants of the British territories.” The subject was however regarded at that time in India with so much apathy, that no measures were adopted to fulfil the intentions of the British legislature till 1823. On the 17th of July in that year the governor general in council resolved, that “there should be constituted a general committee of public instruction for the purpose of ascertaining the state of public education, and of the public institutions designed for its promotion, and of considering, and from time to time submitting to government, the suggestion of such measures as it may appear expedient to adopt with a view to the better instruction of the people, to the introduction among them of useful knowledge, and to the improvement of their moral character.” Corresponding instructions were addressed to the


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Rh gentlemen who were to compose the committee, and the arrears of the annual lac of rupees were accounted for to them from the 1st May 1821. From this period the general committee of public instruction must be regarded as the sole organ of the government in every thing that concerns that important branch of its functions.

The first measures of the new committee were to complete the organization of a Sanskrit college, then lately established by the government at Calcutta, in lieu of two similar institutions, the formation of which had been previously contemplated at Nuddea and Tirhoot; to take under their patronage and greatly to improve the Hindu college at Calcutta, which had been founded as far back as 1816, by the voluntary contributions of the natives themselves, for the instruction of their youth in English literature and science; to found two entirely new colleges at Delhi and Agra for the cultivation of oriental literature; to commence the printing of Sanskrit and Arabic books


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 life, how could I then doubt the authenticity of the intelligence given me by honest Erich? I have bemoaned thy untimely fate, what more could I have done?"

Hellfried was satisfied with what his friend said in his defence, and found now an additional reason of being pleased with his having seen him once more.

"Brother!" exclaimed he, "let us forget our age and let us live together, as long as I can remain with thee, as if the thirty years since we have seen each other never had existed, and be as merry as we have been in our youthful days."

Herrman's cheek glowed with pleasure, he squeezed his Hellfried's hand, and both of them were as happy as it is possible to be in this vain world.

Six days were now passed in mutual joy: Herrman resided at a country seat, situated on


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 the banks of the Elbe, and enclosed with an antient forest, which made it the most pleasant abode to Kellfried, who was passionately fond of hunting. Every morning they were rambling through the woods, and the two robust aged friends pursued the fleet game with juvenile ardour, 'till the dinner bell summoned them to a substantial meal, and a bottle of old Rhenish wine; when the cloth was removed the goblet went cheerfully round, and the two happy friends were drinking and talking 'till night came on, and the chimney fire illuminated the dusky room; the pipes were filled with aromatic canaster, the chairs put nearer to the fire, blazing briskly aloft, and they began to relate the atchievements of their juvenile days, and whatever had happened during their separation. Thus the days rolled on like hours, and Hellfried did not yet think of parting.

The hurricane was howling (as I said before) and the hail stones beating against the windows in so uncivil a manner, that the two


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 my head swim on my shoulders, and he stood some inches over me. But I, being muddled with much doubt about John Fry and his errand, was only stripped of my jerkin and waistcoat, and not comfortable to begin.

"Come now, shake hands," cried a big boy, jumping in joy of the spectacle, a third-former nearly six feet high; "shake hands, you little devils. Keep your pluck up, and show good sport, and Lord love the better man of you."

Robin took me by the hand, and gazed at me disdainfully, and then smote me painfully in the face, ere I could get my fence up.

"Whutt be 'bout, lad?" cried John Fry; "hutt un again, Jan, wull 'e? Well done then, our Jan boy."

For I had replied to Robin now, with all the weight and cadence of penthemimeral cæsura (a thing, the name of which I know, but could never make head nor tail of it), and the strife began in a serious style, and the boys looking on were not cheated. Although I could not collect their shouts when the blows were ringing upon me, it was no great loss; for John Fry told me afterwards that their oaths went up like a furnace-fire. But to these we paid no heed or hap, being in the thick of swinging, and devoid of judgment. All I know is, I came to my corner, when the round was over, with very hard pumps in my chest, and a great desire to fall away.

"Time is up," cried head-monitor, ere ever I got my breath again; and when I fain would have lingered a while on the knee of the boy that held me. John Fry had


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 "Well, I am glad to see you again!" I cried. "Well, this is pleasant! I thought I had lost you!"

"Why, you are English!" cried out the old gentleman in the white hat, in very good Saxon, on hearing me speak to B.

"Well, I know that," I replied, "and I'm proud of it. Have you any objection to my being English?"

"Not in the least," he answered, "if you'd only talk English instead of Norwegian. I'm English myself;" and he walked away, evidently much puzzled.

B. said to me, as we sat down:

"I'll tell you what's the matter with you, J.—you know too many languages for this continent. Your linguistic powers will be the ruin of us if you don't hold them in a bit. You don't know any Sanscrit or Chaldean, do you?"

I replied that I did not.

"Any Hebrew or Chinese?"

"Not a word."

"Sure?"

"Not so much as a full stop in any of them."

"That's a blessing," said B., much relieved. "You would be trying to palm off one or other of them on some simple-minded peasant for German, if you did!"

It is a wearisome journey, through the long, hot hours of the morning, to Cologne. The carriage is stifling. Railway travellers, I have always noticed, regard fresh air as


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 poison. They like to live on the refuse of each other's breath, and close up every window and ventilator tight. The sun pours down through glass and blind and scorches our limbs. Our heads and our bodies ache. The dust and soot drift in and settle on our clothes, and grime our hands and face. We all doze and wake up with a start, and fall to sleep again upon each other. I wake, and find my neighbour with his head upon my shoulder. It seems a shame to cast him off; he looks so trustful. But he is heavy. I push him on to the man the other side. He is just as happy there. We roll about; and when the train jerks, we butt each other with our heads. Things fall from the rack upon us. We look up surprised, and go to sleep again. My bag tumbles down upon the head of the unjust man in the corner. (Is it retribution?) He starts up, begs my pardon, and sinks back into oblivion. I am too sleepy to pick up the bag. It lies there on the floor. The unjust man uses it for a footstool.

We look out, through half-closed eyes, upon the parched, level, treeless land; upon the little patchwork farms of corn and beetroot, oats and fruit, growing undivided, side by side, each looking like a little garden dropped down into the plain; upon the little dull stone houses.

A steeple appears far away upon the horizon. (The first thing that we ask of men is their faith: "What do you believe?" The first thing that they show us is their church: "This we believe.") Then a tall chimney ranges


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 an experienced man all he knows to sleep in it; and gets out and camps on the floor.

At least, that is what I did. B. is accustomed to German beds, and doubled himself up and went off to sleep without the slightest difficulty.

We slept for two hours, and then got up and went back to the railway-station, where we dined. The railway refreshment-room in German towns appears to be as much patronised by the inhabitants of the town as by the travellers passing through. It is regarded as an ordinary restaurant, and used as such by the citizens. We found the dining room at Cologne station crowded with Cologneists.

All classes of citizens were there, but especially soldiers. There were all sorts of soldiers—soldiers of rank, and soldiers of rank and file; attached soldiers (very much attached, apparently) and soldiers unattached; stout soldiers, thin soldiers; old soldiers, young soldiers. Four very young soldiers sat opposite us, drinking beer. I never saw such young soldiers out by themselves before. They each looked about twelve years old, but may have been thirteen; and they each looked, also, ready and willing to storm a battery, if the order were given to them to


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 employed. It is extremely hard, and gives forth a curious musical sound when struck sharply with a bone.)

After this he lies perfectly still for a while, wondering where he is going to be hit next. Finding that nothing happens, he begins to regain confidence, and ventures to gently feel around with his left leg and take stock of his position.

For clothes, he has only a very thin blanket and sheet, and beneath these he feels decidedly chilly. The bed is warm enough, so far as it goes, but there is not enough of it. He draws it up round his chin, and then his feet begin to freeze. He pushes it down over his feet, and then all the top part of him shivers.

He tries to roll up into a ball, so as to get the whole of himself underneath it, but does not succeed; there is always some of him left outside in the cold.

He reflects that a "boneless wonder" or a "man serpent" would be comfortable enough in this bed, and wishes that he had been brought up as a contortionist. If he could only tie his legs round his neck, and tuck his head in under his arm, all would yet be well.

Never having been taught to do any really useful tricks such as these, however, he has to be content to remain spread out, warming a bit of himself at a time.


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 It is, perhaps, foolish of him, amid so many real troubles, to allow a mere æsthetical consideration to worry him, but as he lies there on his back, looking down at himself, the sight that he presents to himself considerably annoys him. The puffed-up bed, resting on the middle of him, gives him the appearance of a man suffering from some monstrous swelling, or else of some exceptionally well-developed frog that has been turned up the wrong way and does not know how to get on to its legs again.

Another vexation that he has to contend with is, that every time he moves a limb or breathes extra hard, the bed (which is only of down) tumbles off on to the floor.

You cannot lean out of a German bed to pick up anything off the floor, owing to its box-like formation; so he has to scramble out after it, and of course every time he does this he barks both his shins twice against the sides of the bed.

When he has performed this feat for about the tenth time, he concludes that it was madness for him, a mere raw amateur at the business, to think that he could manage a complicated, tricky bed of this sort, that must take even