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 now of her other corruptions,) it is not in communion with her that any can seek for comfort from this rite.

It would be well for the modern controversialist with Rome, to weigh Bishop Bull's language on this subject (Sermon iii. ed. Burton, and "Corruptions of the Church of Rome, in answer to the Bishop of Meaux' queries," t. ii. p. 260.) lest he involve himself in difficulty for want of making this distinction. Bishop Bull says,

And with these he contrasts

Indeed, as Bishop Bull here implies, the very idea of an intermediate state involves in it a degree of prayer for God's departed servants; since, knowing them to be in a state of imperfect bliss until the resurrection, whenever we pray for the final "coming of God's kingdom," we do in fact (if we have any thought for the departed) pray at the same time for the perfecting of their bliss. And thus, in the service of the burial for the dead, when we pray God

this undoubtedly implies a prayer for the consummation of the bliss of the departed. And we, who so lose out of mind God's departed servants, have also almost lost the notion of the intermediate state. On the other hand, as Bishop Bull also points out, these prayers for the departed servants of God,

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 Rh

The Manifesto of the Communist Party says that "the proletarian class struggle … is a political struggle in the sense that its objective is political—overthrow of the political organizations upon which Capitalist exploitation depends, and the introduction or a proletarian State power." The Program says that the Communist Party "aims to direct this (class) struggle to the conquest of political power, the overthrow of Capitalism, and to the destruction of the bourgeois state." "The Communist Party shall keep in the foreground its consistent appeal for proletarian revolution, the overthrow of Capitalism and the establishment of a dictatorship of the proletariat." But, they say, "it is not a problem of immediate revolution. The revolutionary epoch may last for years and tens of years." Meanwhile the party will engage in political elections to spread the party principles and will nominate candidates for legislative offices only. If the party gains a political office, its representative "shall not introduce or support reform measures," but merely agitate the party principles. The party will participate in strikes for the purpose of agitation, for the development of strikes into general strikes, and for the development of the latter into a proletarian dictatorship. The party constitution says that "its purpose shall be the education and organization of the working class for the establishment of the Dictatorship of the Proletariat, the abolition of the Capitalist system and the establishment of the Communist Society." The Communist society is explained to be a society based on "industrial self-government of the communistically organized producers."

The Communist Labor Party prepared a much briefer platform and program. In the platform it gives as its purpose, "the organization of the workers, as a class

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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day the winter seemed to have gone. The horses' hoofs on the moist, firm road made a clear "cuck-oo" as they rose and fell; and far off, for the first time in the year, a ploughboy, who remembered spring and knew that it would come again, shouted "Cuckoo! cuckoo!"

A warm wind swept over the humid pastures and red sand-pits on the hills and they gleamed in a lightly muffled sun. Once more in the valleys the ruddy farm-houses and farm-buildings seemed new and fair again, and the oast-house cones stood up as prophets of spring, since the south wind had turned all their white vanes towards the north, and they felt the sea that lay—an easy journey on such a day—beyond the third or fourth wooded ridge in the south. The leaves of goose-grass, mustard, vetch, dog's mercury, were high above the dead leaves on hedge banks. Primrose and periwinkle were blossoming. Like flowers were the low ash-tree boles where the axe had but lately cut off the tall rods; flowerlike and sweet also the scent from the pits where labourers dipped the freshly peeled ash poles in tar. In the elms, sitting crosswise on a bough, sang thrush and missel thrush; in the young corn, the larks; the robins in the thorns; and in all the meadows the guttural notes of the rooks were mellowed by love and the sun.

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 exclude the false invention of purgatory. Bishop Bull writes—

I may add the following extract from the "Antient Liturgy of the Church of Jerusalem," which formed part of the devotions of Bishop Andrews. As being an antient liturgy, it of course expresses all which could be meant in this reference to "Antient Liturgies."

I have dwelt the longer upon this subject, as being aware that you have reputed it a vulnerable point, and you have served your purpose well, by giving it a prominence, which it did not occupy in our Tracts, nor even in that one of our departed friend, wherein alone it was mentioned, and that but incidentally and of necessity. The object of his tract (and it was a very laudable one) being to point out the agreement as well as the antiquity of the existing liturgies, it would have been dishonest, wilfully to have suppressed any one point, wherein they so agreed. This, therefore, he stated; meanwhile he expressed no opinion on it, attracted no attention to it, but

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Page:The Last Judgement and Second Coming of the Lord Illustrated.djvu/216

 last judgment and the second coming of the Lord, are spoken of in the Scriptures as coeval events. They are referred to in several places in the Gospels, the Epistles, and the Revelation; but in the twenty-fourth chapter of Matthew, they are treated of at greater length and with more discrimination and detail than in any other portions of the Divine Word. That wonderful narrative was delivered by the Lord to His disciples upon the mount of Olives. He having said unto them concerning the temple, "There shall not be left here one stone upon another, that shall not be thrown down," "they came unto Him privately, saying, Tell us, when shall these things be? and what shall be the sign of Thy coming, and of the end of the world?" It is to be observed that the inquiry was made "privately," and that the answer was given to the disciples only. These were remarkable occurrences, intended to suggest that the information involved in the discourse did not so much belong to the outer publicity of the world, as to the inner experience of the Church. The prediction about the temple, and the inquiry respecting its fulfilment, are the key to the whole subject. The temple, it is well known, was a type of the Church, and doubtless its destruction by the enemies of the religion which it represented, was a symbol of the ruin which would be brought upon the Church by a perversion of its principles. However much, therefore, the Lord's discourse may seem to treat of the calamities which were about to overtake Jerusalem, there lay behind the whole narrative a distinct reference to some other disasters, by which the Church was to be destroyed. That was the primary subject respecting which the Lord intended to speak; the other was simply


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 32 for the overthrow of Capitalist rule and the conquest of political power by the workers. The workers, organized as the ruling class, shall through their government make and enforce the laws; they shall own and control land, factories, mills, mines, transportation systems and financial institutions." It declares its adherence "to the principles laid down by the Third International formed at Moscow." The programme states that the only demand of its platform is "the establishment of the Dictatorship of the Proletariat." "The class struggle is essentially a political struggle, that is, a struggle by the proletariat to conquer the Capitalist state … and to replace it by a governmental structure adapted to the Communist transformation." "The Party shall propagandize industrial unionism and industrial union organization, pointing out their revolutionary nature and possibilities," and "shall make the great industrial battles in its major campaigns to show the value of the strike as a political weapon."

When the Communist Party was formed, its secretary said that it had approximately 58,000 members. The secretary of the Communist Labor Party, however, basing his estimate on the dues stamp sales of the preceding six months, said that the Communist Party was composed of about 25,000 Slavs and 3,000 Americans. When the Slavic Federation was suspended from the Socialist Party, three months before the formation of the Communist Party, it was reported to have had between 25,000 and 30,000 members. Since the Michigan group was very small, perhaps 30,000 or 35,000 is a fair stimate of the number affiliated with the Communist Party last September.


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 Rh The Communist Labor Party, according to the Communist Party, had about 10,000 members at the time of the convention. Its own secretary, however, reported an estimated membership of 20,000 Americans, and added 9,000 others of the German, Italian, and Scandinavian Federations without saying definitely that they belonged to the party. But these figures are evidently based on guesses and hopes.

The largest estimate thus for both parties is 68,000. The smallest is 48,000. Another estimate has it that there were 55,000 members of the Communist parties last September in the United States. Perhaps 45,000 or 50,000 is closer to the facts.

But if we go farther and try to find how many real Bolsheviki there were among these, the figures shrink. Most of the members of the Slavic Federation became Socialists during the latter part of 1918 and the early months of 1919. Many of them joined the party because of a feeling of patriotism over the events in their native countries, while others who had been Socialists at an earlier date were not Bolsheviki until the Soviet Revolution had run on for a time. The Michigan section of the Communist Party, it is said, is not really Bolshevik at all. The reports are that it refused to vote in the convention on the program and manifesto of the party.

The Communist Labor Party contains a variety of groups—some Bolshevik, others who say they are, and still others who are merely dissatisfied over certain of the methods of the Executive Committee of the Socialist Party. There are many "wavering centrists" among them who do not know exactly where they. stand. Moreover, the convention was a meeting of leaders; whether the rank and file are Communists is a question.

The gain of the Communists since last. September has been estimated at 55,000. But it is only an estimate and


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 34 nothing certain is known. Other reports have it that the membership of both parties since then has shrunk very much. The men who dominated the organizations have been in Europe for several months; it is said that both parties are disintegrating.

The Socialist Party itself is not a Bolshevik organization. Separating from the Socialist Labor Party in 1901, it has consistently followed a policy in opposition to the theoretically quasi-Bolshevik parent organization. During 1919, it expelled many organizations for being, as it thought, Bolshevik. In so doing, it diminished its own membership by half.

There is one test which decides the question. The Bolshevik believes in the direct seizure of political power. He rejects the ballot and political elections as a method of accomplishing the Socialist revolution. A Socialist, who believes that the revolutionary seizure of political power is the first necessary step towards the common ownership and use of the means of production and distribution, is a Bolshevik. The Socialist Party, however, is committed to the use of the ballot to obtain legislation, reform Capitalism, and to obtain a Socialist majority in the government. It is, therefore, not a Bolshevik organization. This idea was frequently repeated during the recent trial of the Socialist Assemblymen in Albany. Last year, when the Slavic Federation and other Left Wing Socialists were expelled from the party, Seymour Stedman, a member of the Executive Committee, told a reporter that "the differences in the Socialist movement today are between those who believe the political method should be discarded in favor of the physical, and those who believe in political action alone."

Socialists talk much of the revolution. But their revolution does not mean the direct seizure of political power


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 Rh with probable civil war; it means a fundamental change in the use of the government and industry when once the Socialists gain a majority in the government. Political victory at the polls is in their idea the first major step towards this revolution or change.

The Socialist Party has defended the Soviet Revolution, but not because it intends to imitate the Bolshevik methods. In a recent Manifesto it says: "The people of Russia, like the American colonists in 1776, were driven by their rulers to the use of violent methods to secure and maintain their freedom. The Socialist Party calls upon the workers of the United States to do all in their power to restore and maintain our civil rights to the end that the transition from Capitalism to Socialism may be effected without resort to the drastic measures made necessary by autocratic despotism." The Communist, on the other hand, denies that it is possible to introduce Socialism by the exercise of "civil rights." They are a help, he says, in spreading the ideas of Communism, but the revolution itself takes place outside the sphere of "civil rights." Drastic measures are necessary, he maintains, both in autocracies and democracies—in the Russia of the Tsars, in the Russia of the Constituent Assembly, and in the United States.

The attitude of the Socialist Party towards the Moscow, or Communist, International is worthy of special notice. In the August convention referred to above, majority and minority reports upon the international situation of the Socialist Party were made by a committee. The majority report, evading the question of the Moscow International, recommended the formation of another new international association. The minority report recommended that the Socialist Party affiliate with the Moscow International, not for the purpose of supporting the Moscow program and methods in the United States, but because of Moscow's challenge to world imperialism and because of a fraternal feeling towards the So-


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 36 cialist society of Russia. The minority report was adopted by the party, but since the affiliation is made with those reservations, the Socialist Party cannot, in justice, be called Communist. It has joined Bolshevik company, but not as a Bolshevik.

If all four organizations—the Socialist Labor Party with its 3,000 members, the I. W. W. with its 70,000, and the two Communist parties with their 50,000 or 60,000 members, are lumped together as Bolshevik in theory and unanimously Bolshevik in membership, then we had 120,000 or 130,000 Bolsheviki in this country last September. But all four were not completely Bolshevik in theory and membership, and so that number should be greatly diminished. How much it should be diminished can hardly be estimated. Since last September the probabilities are that the Comn1unist parties have declined, that the Socialist Labor Party has stood stationary, and that the I. W. W. has retained its somewhat mythical membership. The conclusion is that Bolshevism in this country is of insignificant proportions when one remembers that its grandiose aim is to seize the political power of the United States.

Bolshevism has lately been used very much as an epithet. Organizations and individuals of all varieties of radical and progressive thought and action have at one time or another during the past year found then1selves listed as Bolsheviki.

Even the united labor movement has been accused of Bolshevism. Still when it is recalled that collective bargaining and the strike are not Bolshevik, and that not one of the leaders is a Bolshevik, while only a very few are Socialists, the accusation is seen to be groundless. Others say that many of the rank and file of the labor movement are Bolsheviki, but this is only an assumption.


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 Making deep brown ruts across the empty green fields came the long waggons piled high with faggots; the wheels rumbled; the harness jingled and shone; the horses panted and the carters cracked their whips.

Soon would the first chiff-chaff sing in the young larches; at evening the calm, white, majestic young clouds should lie along the horizon in a clear and holy air; and climbing a steep hill at that hour, the walker should see a window, as it were, thrown open in the sky and hear a music that should silence thought and even regret—as when, on the stage, a window is opened and some one invisible is heard to sing a heavy-laden song below it.

But as I walked and the wind fell for the sunset, the path led me under high, stony beeches. The air was cool and still and moist and waterish dark, and no bird sang. A wood-pigeon spread out his barry tale as he ascended perpendicularly to a hidden place among the branches, and then there was no sound. The waterish half-light seemed to have lasted for ever and to have an eternity ahead. Through the trees a grassy, deeply rutted road wound downwards, and at the edge the ruts were broad and full of dark water. Still retaining some corruption of the light of the sky upon its surface, that shadowed water gave an immense melancholy to the wood. The reflections of the beeches across it were as the bars of a cage that imprisoned some child of light. It was but a few inches deep of rain, and yet, had it been a legendary pool, or had a drowned woman's hair been stamped into the mud at its edge and left a green forehead exposed, it could not have stained and filled the air more tragically. The cold, the silence, the leaflessness found an expression

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 Rh The Communist parties would like very much, of course, to get control of the rank and file of the A. F. L. and the whole labor movement, but they have been far from successful.

That many of the people of this country are deeply discontented with Capitalism goes without saying. That many more are opposed to certain of the effects of Capitalism is also true. But Bolshevism is not only opposition to Capitalism, nor only opposition to some of the effects of Capitalism. Bolshevism is revolutionary Socialism. The Bolshevik is opposed to the effects of Capitalism and to Capitalism itself. More than that, he is opposed to private ownership in the means of production and distribution, and not merely to the particular type of private ownership called Capitalism. He holds, too, that the means of production and distribution should be owned and controlled by a new kind of industrial State. But above all, for so far a Socialist might go, he declares that the first step towards the new society is necessarily the seizure of political power by the militant section of the propertyless.

It is to be expected that there are many organizations and individuals in the United States who, without being Bolsheviki, hold that changes of various kinds by various methods should be made in Capitalism. The labor movement has many angles; Bolshevism is only one of its angles.

The official political policy of the American Federation of Labor during the coming political campaign is "to reward its friends and punish its enemies" by swinging the labor vote at the polls to one or other of the candidates of the two major parties. Its political policy is the reflection of economic collective bargaining; it is


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74 with the sanction of the board of control, replied as follows:—

“The ends proposed in the institution of the Hindu college, and the same may be affirmed of the Mohammedan, were two: the first, to make a favourable impression, by our encouragement of their literature, upon the minds of the natives; and the second, to promote useful learning. You acknowledge, that if the plan has had any effect of the former kind, it has had none of the latter; and you add, that ‘it must be feared that the discredit attaching to such a failure has gone far to destroy the influence which the liberality of the endowments would otherwise have had.’

“We have from time to time been assured, that these colleges, though they had not till then been useful, were, in consequence of proposed arrangements, just about to become so; and we have received from you a similar prediction on the present occasion.


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 in that clouded shining surface among the ruts. Life and death seemed to contend there, and I recalled a dream which I had lately dreamed.

I dreamed that someone had cut the cables that anchored me to such tranquillity as had been mine, and that I was drifted out upon an immensity of desolation and solitude. I was without hope, without even the energy of despair that might in time have given birth to hope. But in that desolation I found one business: to search for a poison that should kill slowly, painlessly and unexpectedly. In that search I lost sight of what had persuaded me to it; yet when at last I succeeded, I took a draught and went out into the road and began to walk. A calm fell upon me such as I had sometimes found in June thunderstorms on lonely hills, or in midnights when I stepped for a moment after long foolish labours to my door, and heard the nightingales singing out from the Pleiades that overhung the wood, and saw the flower-faced owl sitting on the gate. I walked on, not hastening with a too great desire nor lingering with a too careful quietude. It was as yet early morning, and the wheat sheaves stood on the gentle hills like yellow-haired women kneeling to the sun that was about to rise. Now and then I passed the corners of villages, and sometimes at windows and through doorways, I saw the faces of men and women I had known and seemed to forget, and they smiled and were glad, but not more glad than I. Labouring in the fields also were men whose faces I was happy to recognise and see smiling with recognition. And very sweet it was to go on thus, at ease, knowing neither trouble nor fatigue. I could have gone on, it seemed, for ever, and I wished to

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 live so for ever, when suddenly I remembered the poison. Then of each one I met I begged a remedy. Some reminded me that formerly I had made a poor thing of life, and said that it was too late. Others supposed that I jested. A few asked me to stay with them and rest. The sky and the earth, and the men and women drank of the poison that I had drunken, so that I could not endure the use of my eyes, and I entered a shop to buy some desperate remedy that should end all at once, when, seeing behind the counter a long-dead friend in wedding attire, I awoke.

Even so in the long wet ruts did the false hope of spring contend with the shadows: even so at last did it end, when the dead leaves upon the trees begin to stir madly in the night wind, with the sudden, ghastly motion of burnt paper on a still fire when a draught stirs it in a silent room at night; and even the nearest trees seemed to be but fantastic hollows in the misty air.

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Rh our colleges. The money spent on the Arabic and Sanskrit colleges was, therefore, not merely a dead loss to the cause of truth; it was bounty money paid to raise up champions of error, and to call into being an oriental interest which was bound by the condition of its existence to stand in the front of the battle against the progress of European literature.

In the five districts named in the margin, one of which contains the former Mohammedan capital of Bengal, Mr. Adam found only 158 students of Arabic learning. In the single government college of Calcutta there are 114 students. Although supported and patronised by the British government, this college differs in no respect from the Mohammedan colleges at Constantinople and Bokhara. It is as completely a seminary of genuine unmitigated Mohammedanism as the Jesuits’ college at Rome is a seminary of Roman Catholicism. It is considered by the Moslems as the head quarters of their religion in Bengal, and it has made Calcutta the radiating centre, not of civilization, as it ought only to be, but, to a lamentable extent, of bigotry and error.

The Sanskrit college was a still more desperate


text: The Heart of England/Chapter 6

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text: The World Significance of the Russian Revolution/Section 11


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498

''Capsule turgid, the septum across the broadest diameter. Small depressed pulvinate herbs. Leaves minute, densely imbricated all round the branches. Flowers solitary and terminal. Corolla-limb 5-lobed or rarely abnormally 6-lobed.''

''Capsule laterally compressed, the septum across the narrowest diameter. Perennial herbs, sometimes woody at the base. Stems prostrate or decumbent or suberect. Leaves toothed or serrate, rarely entire. Flowers in axillary racemes or solitary. Corolla-tube short.''


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Veronica.]

1. V. speciosa, ''R. Cunn. in Bot. Mag.'' sub. t. 3461.—A stout glabrous shrub 2–5 ft. high with numerous spreading leafy branches; branchlets thick, angled, ¼–⅓ in. diam. Leaves spreading, sessile or on very short thick petioles, 2–4 in. long, 1–1¾ in. broad, obovate or obovate-oblong, rounded at the tip, truncate or slightly cordate at the base or narrowed into the petiole, thick and coriaceous, dark-green and glossy, midrib downy above, lateral veins obsolete, margins entire. Racemes axillary and opposite, near the tips of the branches, not much longer than the leaves, very stout and dense-flowered, sometimes exceeding 1½ in. diam.; rhachis puberulous; pedicels short, spreading. Flowers large, ⅓ in. diam., dark reddish-purple or violet-purple. Calyx 4-partite; segments ovate, subacute or obtuse, ciliolate. Corolla-tube broad, funnel-shaped, half as long again as the calyx; limb 4-lobed; lobes oblong, obtuse, the dorsal lobe rather larger than the lateral, anterior the smallest. Capsule ¼–⅓ in. long, ovate, compressed, more than twice as long as the calyx.—''A. Cunn. Precur. n. 373; Raoul, Choix, 43; Hook. f. Fl. Nov. Zel. i. 191; Handb. N.Z. Fl. 206; Bot. Mag. t. 4057; Armstr. in Trans. N.Z. Inst. xiii. (1881) 351. V. Kermesina, Loud. Encyc. Pl.'' 1546.


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500

2. V. Dieffenbachii, Benth. in D.C. Prodr. x. 459.—A robust much-branched shrub; branches widely divaricating, 2–5 ft. long or more; branchlets stout, green, terete, ⅙–¼ in. diam., glabrous or puberulous. Leaves spreading, often recurved, sessile and semiamplexicaul, 2–4 in. long, ½–1 in. broad, linear-oblong, rarely broader and almost oblong, acute or subacute, coriaceous or almost fleshy, pale-green, midrib stout, prominent beneath, lateral veins very indistinct, margins slightly recurved when fresh. Racemes pedunculate, suberect, exceeding the leaves, 2½–5 in. long, ¾–1 in. diam., dense-flowered; rhachis stout; pedicels spreading, $1⁄10$–$1⁄8$ in. long, with a minute subulate bract at the base. Flowers ¼ in. diam., usually lilac-purple. Calyx small, 4-partite; segments ovate-oblong or ovate-lanceolate, acute, ciliolate. Corolla-tube funnel-shaped, exceeding the calyx; limb 4-lobed; dorsal and lateral lobes broadly oblong, anterior narrower. Capsule ⅕–¼ in. long, ovate, acute, glabrous, about 2½ times as long as the calyx.—''Hook. f. Fl. Nov. Zel. i. 191; Handb. N.Z. Fl. 206; Bot. Mag. t. 7656; Armstr. in Trans. N.Z. Inst. xiii. (1881) 351; Kirk in Trans. N.Z. Inst. xxviii. (1896) 531; Gard. Chron.'' ii. (1898) p. 154, t. 41. V. Forsteri, ''F. Muell. Veg. Chat. Is.'' 46 (in part).

3. V. Barkeri, Cockayne in Trans. N.Z. Inst. xxxi. (1899) 421.—A stout branching shrub; branches erect, not divaricating, terete, the younger ones brownish-purple. Leaves spreading, sessile, 2 in.


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January 15: New official American one-man duration record of 8 hours 53 minutes set by Lt. B. Q. Jones in a Martin tractor biplane at San Diego, Calif.

 * First transcontinental telephone conversation, New York to San Francisco, by Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas A. Watson.

January 19-20: First German aerial bombing of Britain, by two Zeppelins, thereby opening up a new era in the exploitation of aeronautics. During World War I, a total of 56 tons of aerial bombs was dropped on London and 214 tons on the rest of Britain.

During January: First air-to-air combat, German airman killed by rifle fire from Allied aircraft. In February a machine gun mounted on a French aircraft, Lieutenant Garros as pilot, first shot down a German aircraft.

February 24: Macy automatic pilot tests were begun at San Diego, Calif.

During February-March: Anthony H. G. Fokker perfected synchronizing gear to allow machinegun to be fired through rotating propeller.

March 3: The Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (later the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics or NACA) was established by a rider to the Naval Appropriations Act, "…to supervise and direct the scientific study of the problems of flight, with a view of their practical solution." The sum of $5,000 a year was appropriated for 5 years. The total appropriation for naval aeronautics was $1 million.

March 4: Congress passed an appropriation bill of $300,000 for Army aeronautics for fiscal year 1916.

April 2: President Wilson appointed the first 12 members of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). Throughout the entire history of the NACA until October 1958, members served without compensation.

April 16: Navy AB-2 flying boat successfully catapulted from a barge, Lt. P. N. Bellinger as pilot.

April 23: The Secretary of War called the first meeting of the NACA in his office. Brig. Gen. George P. Scriven, Chief Signal Officer, was elected temporary Chairman, and Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, was elected first Chairman of the important NACA Executive Committee.

 * American altitude record of 10,000 feet for seaplanes was established in Burgess-Dunne AH-10 by Lt. P. N. Bellinger over Pensacola, Fla.

May 31: First German Zeppelin raid on London. British employed rockets in their defenses around London.

June 1: Navy let first contract for lighter-than-air craft in ordering one nonrigid airship from Connecticut Aircraft (later the DN-1).

June 8: U.S. Patent Office granted patent (No. 1142754) to Glenn H. Curtiss covering the arrangement of a step or ridge incorporated in the hull of flying boats.

During June: First year of formal graduate study in aeronautical engineering was completed at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and one master of science degree was awarded.

July 7: Secretary of the Navy, Josephus Daniels, in a letter to Thomas A. Edison said that the Navy required "machinery and facilities for utilizing the natural inventive genius of Americans to meet the new conditions of warfare." This letter prompted creation of Naval Consulting Board of civilian advisers which functioned throughout World War I, and which included in its organization a "Committee on Aeronautics, including Aero Motors."

July 10: Naval Aeronautic Station, Pensacola, tested sextant equipped with a pendulum-type artificial horizon and reported that pendulum type was unsatis 3


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 factory for aircraft use, but that a sextant with a gyroscopically stabilized artificial horizon might be acceptable.

August 11: Naval Observatory requested Eastman Kodak to develop an aerial camera with high-speed lens suitable for photography at 1,000 or 2,000 yards' altitude.

September 1: Congress supplemented appropriation of Army aeronautics to $13,281,666 from $300,000 of previous fiscal year.

October 15: Secretary of the NACA was instructed by the committee to communicate with the Government departments, the result of investigation with regard to aeronautical activity, and to recommend or advise the Secretaries of the separate departments of the Government to continue and foster experimental development.

November 6: First catapult launching from a ship underway, made from the U.S.S. North Carolina in Pensacola Bay, by Lt. Cmdr. H. C. Mustin.

December 3: Lt. R. C. Saufley reached 11,975 feet over Pensacola in a Curtiss AH-14, an American altitude record for hydroaeroplanes.

December 9: NACA Report No. 1 was issued, a two-part "Report on Behavior of Aeroplanes in Gusts," by Jerome C. Hunsaker and E. B. Wilson of MIT.

December 12: An all-steel frame, fabric-covered combat plane successfully flown, one designed by Grover C. Loening and built by Sturtevant Aeroplane Co.

During December: All-metal fully cantilever-wing monoplane produced by Hugo Junkers in Germany, the J-1 powered by a 120-hp Mercedes, made its first successful flights.

During 1915: Elmer A. Sperry developed and demonstrated his drift indicator for which he received the Robert J. Collier Trophy for 1916.

 * General Vehicle Co., Long Island City, contracted with French Government to build Gnome engines, the first radial engine produced in the United States.

 * Robert H. Goddard proved validity of rocket propulsion principles in a vacuum at Clark University, Worcester, Mass.

March 15: First U.S. tactical air unit in the field, the 1st Aero Squadron commanded by Capt. B. D. Foulois, began operations with General Pershing's expedition into Mexico.

April 2: American altitude record of 16,072 feet set by Lt. R. C. Saufley in a Curtiss hydroaeroplane.

During April: French employed first air-to-air combat rockets, four Le Prieur rockets attached to each strut of Nieuport fighter, credited with downing of German hydrogen-inflated Zeppelin LC-77. The Belgian, Willy Coppens, and Briton, Albert Ball, reportedly used rockets effectively against German balloons until incendiary bullets were developed.

May 22: French airmen successfully destroyed five of six German balloons using Le Prieur rockets on their Nieuport fighters.

June 8: The NACA called the first meeting of representatives of the aircraft industry and of interested Government agencies.

July 19: Navy Gallauder 59A, an airplane with propeller mounted amidships in the fuselage, made preliminary flights at Norwich, Conn., Lt. (jg) G. D. Murray as pilot.

July 22: Navy requested Aluminum Co. of America to develop a suitable alloy for fabrication into Zeppelin-type girders.

August 22: President Wilson signed Navy appropriation bill, which included $3,500,000 for naval aviation.

August 29: The NACA requested $85,000 and received $82,515.70 for fiscal year 1917 as a part of the naval appropriation bill. $68,957.35 later went toward laboratory construction at Langley Field.

 * U.S. Army appropriations approved, which included $14,281,766 to the Signal Corps for military aeronautics.

September 2: Plane-to-plane radio demonstrated over North Island, Calif., at a distance of about 2 miles.

September 2-3: First German Zeppelin shot down by RFC aircraft over Britain; five Zeppelins were brought down over Britain during 1916.

September 12: Piloted hydroaeroplane equipped with automatic stabilization and direction gear developed by the Sperry Co. and P. C. Hewitt was demonstrated by Amityville, Long Island, before naval observers.

September 21: The National Research Council, formed at the request of President Wilson by the National Academy of Sciences, held its first meeting in New York.

During September: Wright-Martin Aircraft Corp. contracted with French company to manufacture the Hispano-Suiza engine in the United States.

October 5: The NACA first recommended inauguration of airmail service, and William F. Durand was elected Chairman of the NACA.

October 9: Subcommittee of the NACA appointed to consider the needs of the committee as to a site for experimental work, with authority to visit and inspect sites, and to secure the cooperation of the War and Navy Departments and the Weather Bureau.

November 23: The NACA recommended purchase of land north of Hampton, Va., for use as an aircraft proving ground by the Army and Navy. This site became known as Langley Field, and the location of the first NACA laboratory.

November 28: First airplane raid on London, by a German seaplane.

During November: "Design Requirements for Airplanes" (A.P. 970), a basic six-page pamphlet, was issued by the British Royal Aircraft Factory of Farnborough.

December 20: Army Balloon School established at Fort Omaha, Nebr.

During 1916: Radio-controlled pilotless monoplane, the "Aerial Target," designed by H. P. Folland with radio gear by A. M. Low, flown at the British Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough.

 * Development work on air cooling of aircraft engines by means of spacing, depth and thickness of fins, and the effects of airflow, were conducted by Professor Givson at Royal Aircraft Factory at Farnborough.

 * Nine U.S. aircraft companies delivered only 64 out of 336 aircraft ordered by the Army, the performance of which compared unfavorably with European aircraft.

January 10: Comptroller of the Treasury Department ruled that the NACA was an independent agency and was not an appendage of the Navy Department in spite of the fact it was originally funded under the naval appropriations bill.

During January: The NACA, after considering high-cost complaints of Army and Navy, recommended creation of Manufacturers Aircraft Association to effect cross-licensing of aeronautic patents. This was a milestone in preventing a virtual deadlock in aircraft construction because of patent infringement suits.

February 2: The NACA recommended to the President, for transmittal to Con 4


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 gress for approval, that the Government acquire basic aeronautical patents.

February 13: Aircraft Manufacturers Association formed, Frank H. Russell as president.

March 8: Naval Act carried appropriation of $1 million for purchase of basic aeronautical patents by the Federal Government.

March 29: The NACA recommended preparation of 3-year programs for aircraft production to the Secretaries of War and the Navy.

April 6: The United States declared war on the Central Powers. The Aviation Section of the Signal Corps consisted of 35 pilots, 1,987 enlisted men, and 55 training airplanes. Navy Aviation and Marine Corps combined had 48 officer-pilots, 239 men, 54 airplanes, 1 airship, 3 balloons, and 1 air station.

April 10: The NACA recommended the organization of an Aircraft Production Board, to be appointed by the Council of National Defense. Such was created on May 16.

April 14: Naval Consulting Board recommended to the Secretary that $50,000 be granted to carry on experimental work on aerial torpedoes in the form of automatically controlled aeroplanes or aerial machines carrying high explosives. This was origin of the Navy N-9 "flying bomb," later considered the Navy's first guided-missile effort.

May 7: First aerial bombing of London by German bombers at night.

May 12: Capt. W. A. Robertson established new American altitude record of 17,230 feet over North Island Flying School, San Diego, Calif.

May 20: First aircraft sinking of a submarine, the German U-36, in the North Sea by a British flying boat.

June 2: Aviation Section became the Airplane Division of the Army Signal Corps, and Maj. B. D. Foulois was appointed officer-in-charge on July 23.

June 4: Aircraft Production Board and the Joint Technical Board on Aircraft authorized the construction of five prototype models of 8- and 12-cylinder Liberty motors. Engine designs had been worked out in a Washington hotel room by J. G. Vincent of Packard Motor Car Co. and E. J. Hall of the Hall-Scott Motor Car Co. during the previous week, applying current engineering practices to mass production techniques.

July 4: First 8-cylinder Liberty aircraft engine arrived in Washington, D.C., for test by the National Bureau of Standards. Design, manufacture, and assembly of this motor had required less than 6 weeks.

July 24: Manufacturers Aircraft Association formed to handle cross-licensing patents between all manufacturers.

 * $640 million aviation bill became law, the largest U.S. appropriation for aviation to date.

July 27: Secretary of the Navy authorized a naval aircraft factory in Philadelphia.

 * First British DH-4 arrived in United States and became model for the first combat aircraft produced in volume in the United States.

August 17: Field Marshal Jan Christian Smuts, Chairman of a Sub-committee on Imperial Defence, submitted classic proposal for creation of an autonomous air force in the British military structure.

August 21: First airplane powered by Liberty engine successfully flown, the L. W. F. Engineering Co.'s "Model F" biplane.

August 25: Navy "NC" flying boat development was initiated by Chief Constructor of the Navy, D. W. Taylor, in a memo outlining general requirements of such an aircraft to combat the submarine menace and "to fly across the Atlantic to avoid difficulties of delivery, etc." Acting Secretary of the Navy, F. D. Roosevelt, authorized development of "NC" flying boats capable of flying the Atlantic.

 * 12-cylinder Liberty motor passed a 50-hour test with power output of over 300 hp prior to being ordered into mass production.

During August: The NACA recommended funds be given Weather Bureau to promote safety in aerial navigation.

September 3: Brig. Gen. W. L. Kenly appointed Chief of the Air Service, AEF, the first time control of Army air activities was placed under a single head.

September 7: Radio signals sent from a Navy R-6 seaplane flying from NAS Pensacola, were received by Naval Radio Station New Orleans, 140 miles distant, in tests.

October 1: Congress created the Aircraft Board.

October 16: Final tests of Army's airplane radiotelephone at Langley Field, Va., achieved 25 miles for plane-to-plane communication and 45 miles airplane-to-ground.

October 18: McCook Field, Dayton, Ohio, was established as an aeronautical experimental station by the Signal Corps.

 * British De Havilland DH-4 ordered into series production in the United States 6 months after U.S. entry into World War I. By the end of the war, about 4,500 had been built, and of the total of 1,216 American-built planes to reach the Western Front, all but three (two Le Peres and one experimental DH-9) were DH-4's.

 * The Aviation Medical Research Board was established by the Signal Corps.

October 21: First flight test of 12-cylinder Liberty engine in Curtiss HS-1 flying boat at Buffalo, N.Y.

October 29: First DH-4 completed, flown at Dayton, Ohio.

November 15: Committee on Light Alloys established within NACA to intensify efforts to develop new metals for aeronautical use, Constructor Jerome C. Hunsaker was Navy member.

November 21: A modified Navy N-9 "Flying Bomb" was demonstrated to Army, Navy and civilian observers at Amityville, Long Island.

December 15: U.S. Navy airplane design placed under LCdr. W. Starling Burgess, Bureau of Construction and Repair.

December 26: First test-run of altitude laboratory constructed at the Bureau of Standards for the NACA, one capable of testing engine performance up to one-third an atmosphere.

During 1917: U.S. Weather Bureau aerological specialist, William R. Blair, prepared NACA Report No. 13, "Meteorology and Aeronautics," which was widely circulated as a basic handbook.

 * At request of War Department, a member of NACA technical staff assigned to supervise altitude performance tests of the first Liberty engines at Detroit, Mich., and Pikes Peak, Colo.

 * Development work at the British Royal Aircraft Factory at Farnborough included a measured-injection carburetor, prototype design of 14-cylinder, double-row, static-radial, air-cooled engine (RAF-8), and design and construction of the SE-5 fighter.

 * Curtiss JN-4 "Jenny" became basic training airplane for thousands of American pilots.

January 19: U.S. School of Aviation Medicine began operations under Maj. Williams H. Wilmer, Signal Corps, Hazelhurst Field, Mineola, N.Y. A low-pressure tank was constructed to simulate altitudes up to 30,000 feet, and some studies were conducted at Pikes Peak.

January 23: First American military balloon ascension in the AEF took place at Cuperly, Marne, France.

During January: The NACA established Office of Aeronautical Intelligence at the suggestion of the Aircraft Board to col 6


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 lect and distribute scientific and technical data on aeronautics.

February 7: The Joint Army and Navy Technical Aeronautical Board (JAN-TAB) passed resolution on Instrument Standardization in Army and Navy planes for incorporation in general specifications.

February 16: Plant for assembly of American-made airplanes began operations at Romorantin, France.

March 6: Navy unmanned "flying bomb" successfully launched by catapult and flown for 1,000 yards at Sperry Flying Field, Long Island.

March 8: Majs. E. C. Schneider and J. L. Whitney (USA) reached an artificial altitude of 34,000 feet in 24 minutes, at Signal Corps Laboratory, Mineola, N.Y.

March 21: "Dunkirk fighter" or Navy HA seaplane made its first flight at Port Washington, Long Island, with Curtiss pilot Roland Rohlfs as pilot.

March 27: First aircraft built at the Naval Aircraft Factory, the H-16 seaplane, was flown for the first time, and was later used for the antisubmarine patrol from United States and European stations.

March 29: Curtiss 180-T or "Kirkham" triplane fighter ordered by Navy from Curtiss Engineering.

April 6: Night aerial photographs taken with use of magnesium flares by Lt. J. C. McKinney (USA) and civilian pilot Norbert Carolin.

April 15: First Marine Aviation Force formed at NAS Miami, commanded by Capt. A. A. Cunningham.

April 23: First oversea shipment of Liberty motors arrived at assembly and repair station at Pauillac, France.

April 25: Loening M-3 first flown, equipped with Lawrence three-cylinder, air-cooled engine.

April 27: French-built airship AT-1, commanded by Lt. F. P. Culbert (USN), completed a 25-hour 23-minute flight out of Paimboeuf, France, longest flight on record for airship of this type.

April 29: Plans approved for construction of first wind (5-foot) tunnel at Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory of NACA.

May 11: First American-made DH-4, with Liberty engine, received in the AEF.

May 15: Navy Bureau of Steam Engineering reported that Marconi SE-I100 radio transmitter designed for use on H-16 flying boat, had proven capable of reliable voice communications from plane to shore up to 50 nautical miles and code communications up to 120 nautical miles.

 * The Post Office's first regular airmail route, Washington to New York, was inaugurated by Army pilots.

May 17: First flight made in France of an American-built military aircraft, a DH-4, built by Dayton Wright Co. adapted from English design.

May 20: Army Aeronautics was divorced from the Signal Corps and two air departments were created: Bureau of Military Aeronautics and Bureau of Aircraft Production.

May 24: First consignment of American-built flying boats, six HS-1's, arrived at Pauillac, France.

During May: At instigation of Dr. W. F. Durand, Chairman of the NACA, General Electric assembled an experimental turbo supercharger on a Liberty engine at Dayton.

June 19: Naval Air Station Pensacola began taking upper atmosphere weather soundings to provide wind velocity and direction. Recording instruments were carried aloft by a kite balloon, a technique developed by the station meteorological officer Lt. W. F. Reed.

During July: Standard Aircraft Corp. requested to build Italian Caproni and English Handley-Page bombers.

August 17: American-designed bomber, Army Martin MB-1, made its first flight with T. E. Springer as pilot. It became the first standard bomber of the Air Service but did not enter combat, while later modifications of it were used by the Post Office Department.

September 18: Altitude world record of 28,899 feet established by Maj. R. W. Schroeder (USA) at Dayton, Ohio.

September 23: Flywheel catapult used successfully to launch Navy "flying bomb" at Copiague, Long Island, a development undertaken by Sperry Co.

September 28: One JN4 aircraft maneuvered another JN4 in flight solely by means of radio at Langley Field, Va.

October 1: First bombing using electrical releases, Allied bombers in an attack on German infantry counterattack.

October 2: First successful flights of Army's Kettering pilotless aircraft with preset controls, "The Bug," at Dayton, Ohio; often called a "guided missile" in later years.

October 3: Flight refueling demonstrated in a seaplane by Lt. Godfrey L. Cabot (USNR), by snatching 155 pounds of weight from a moving sea sled.

October 4: Navy NC-1 flying boat, designed by Hunsaker, Richardson & Westervelt, was successfully test flown.

October 19: Pilotless Navy N-9 training plane, converted to automatic flying machine, flew prescribed course although distance gear failed to land the airplane at preset range of 14,500 yards.

November 6-7: Robert H. Goddard fired several rocket devices before representatives of the Signal Corps, Air Service, Army Ordnance, and others at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Md.

November 11: With the signing of the Armistice, the Army Air Service had a total of 195,024 personnel, of which 20,568 were officers, and the AEF had 3,538 airplanes while 4,865 were in service in the United States. Naval aviation consisted of 6,716 officers and 30,693 men, with 282 officers and 2,189 men in Marine Corps units with a total of 2,107 airplaines, of which 1,172 were flying boats.

November 17: NAS Hampton Roads reported that H-16 flying boat equipped with radio direction finder using British six-stage amplifier had received signals from Arlington, Va., a distance of 150 miles.

November 25: NC-1 flying boat established new world record by taking off from Rockaway Beach, N.Y., with 51 persons aboard.

During November: The NACA first recommended enactment of Federal legislation for civil aviation, enforcement to be under the Department of Commerce.

December 4: First Army transcontinental flight by four Curtiss JN4's began at San Diego, reaching Jacksonville, Fla., on December 22.

December 31: Altitude laboratory at Bureau of Standards completed a full year of detailed analysis of various engine performances up to 30,000-foot altitutdes, which yielded many results of basic importance.

During 1918: Medical Research Laboratory of the Signal Corps published a manual on aviation medicine.

 * Ballistic Branch of the Army Ordnance Corps, in conjunction with the National Bureau of Standards, conducted wind tunnel tests to determine optimum shapes for artillery projectiles.

January 21-31: Second Army transcontinental flight by Maj. T. C. Macauley in DH-4 Liberty, Fort Worth-San Diego-Miami-Fort Worth, which he repeated in April.

February 5: First civil airline with passenger service, Germany's Deutsche Luftreederei which operated between Berlin, Leipzig, and Weimar. 8


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 February 18: Navy Bureau of Ordnance (BuOrd) continued wartime experimental work begun by Sperry Gyroscope in 1917 on the unmanned "Flying Bomb."

February 19: The NACA recommendations on regulating air commerce, the licensing of pilots, the inspection of aircraft, and the use of landing fields were transmitted to Congress through the Secretary of the Treasury.

During February: First flights of Thomas-Morse MB-3, first U.S.-designed fighter procured in quantity, which reached speed of 164 mph in early flights exceeding that of contemporary European aircraft.

March 19: The Aircraft Board was abolished by Presidential Executive Order.

March 21: First recorded flight test of gyrocompass, a Sperry instrument, by the Navy, which was unsuccessful.

April 26: World duration unofficial record attained by Navy F5L flying boat of 20 hours 19 minutes, with Lt. H. B. Grow as pilot.

April 28: Naval Observatory requested by LCdr. Richard E. Byrd to supply bubble levels for attachment to navigational sextants, thereby providing an artificial horizon for astronomical observations from aircraft.

 * Unofficial seaplane record made by Navy F5L piloted by Lt. H. B. Grow out of Hampton Roads, which completed a flight of 20 hours and 19 minutes, a distance of 1,250 nautical miles.

During April: Curtiss 18-T two-place fighter powered by a Curtiss-Kirkham K-12-350, made first flights, reached speed of 162 mph.

May 8-29: First transatlantic flight by LCdr. Albert C. Read and crew in Navy plane NC-4.

May 26: Date of Dr. Robert H. Goddard's progress report to the Smithsonian Institution entitled "A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes." It was published by the Smithsonian in January 1920.

June 14-15: First nonstop Atlantic flight from Newfoundland to Ireland, 1,936 miles, was accomplished by Capt. John Alcock and Lt. A. W. Brown of England in a Vickers-Vimy-2 Rolls 400, in 15 hours 57 minutes.

June 25: NAS Anacostia reported on measurement of temperature and humidity at altitudes made by special instruments on aircraft.

June 28: Signing of Treaty of Versailles disarmed Germany of a military air force but did not include rockets as potential weapons, thus leaving Germany free under international law to develop them.

During June: Paris office of the NACA opened with William Knight in charge to collect and disseminate aeronautical information in Britain, France, and Italy.

July 2-6: First airship crossing of the Atlantic, by British R-34.

July 24-November 9: "Around the rim" circuit flight of the United States, covering 9,823 miles, completed by Lt. Col R. L. Hartz and Lt. E. E. Harmon in a Martin bomber.

July 28: First aerial observations of schools of fish made by U.S. Bureau of Fisheries with cooperation of naval aircraft, at Cape May, N.J.

August 1-September 14: First International Aircraft Exposition since Armistice, at Amsterdam, Holland.

August 14: First airmail delivered at sea, by Aeromarine flying boat to the White liner Adriatic (Br.).

August 25: First daily commercial air service, London to Paris, begun by British Airco DH-4a.

September 6: New unofficial world altitude two-man record of 28,250 feet was set by Maj. R. W. Schroeder and Lt. G. A. Elfrey in a Le Pere Liberty 400 at Dayton, Ohio. On October 4, Schroeder reached new record of 31,796 feet in same airplane.

September 12: The NACA coordinated the replies of the executive departments regarding provisions of the International Convention on Air Navigation meeting in Paris.

September 18: World altitude official record of 31,420 feet flown by Roland Rohlfs in Curtiss triplane-Curtiss-Kirkham K12-350.

October 8-31: Army transcontinental reliability and endurance flight from New York to San Francisco and return: 44 aircraft completed westbound; 15 eastbound; and 10 planes made round trip.

October 9: Charles D. Walcott, Secretary of the Smithsonian, elected Chairman of the NACA; Joseph S. Ames was elected Chairman of the Executive Committee, a post he held until October 7, 1939.

October 13: International Convention on Air Navigation signed in Paris, which reaffirmed the principle of national sovereignty in airspace and established a Commission for Aerial Navigation under the League of Nations to regulate international air commerce.

October 30: Reversible-pitch propeller tested at McCook Field, Dayton, Ohio.

November 12-December 10: Ross McPherson Smith completed 11,500-mile intercontinental flight in a Vickers-Vimy from Heston, London, to Port Darwin, Australia.

December 8: The Aeronautical Engineering Society was organized at MIT.

December 29: American Meteorological Society founded at St. Louis, Mo., for the development and dissemination of knowledge of meteorology in all its phases and applications.

December 31: Notable technical achievements of the year according to McCook Field were: development of leakproof tanks; reversible- and variable-pitch propellers; a siphon gasoline pump; fins and floats for emergency water landings; and the turbocompressor or supercharger developed by Sanford A. Moss of General Electric.

During 1919: Adolph Rohrbach of Germany developed smooth-surface, metal-surfaced wings, combined with metal boxspar internal construction, the beginning of the stressed-skin concept.

 * Weather Bureau expended $100,000 to improve meteorological observations to support increasing aviation requirements, an appropriation granted by Congress in 1917 upon the recommendation of the NACA.

 * Junkers of Germany produced J-13 low-set, cantilever-wing transport, which carried a crew of two and four passengers.

January 20: Navy Bureau of Steam Engineering was allocated $100,000 to contract for the development and purchase of 200-hp radial aircooled engines from the Lawrance Aero Engine Corp.

February 5: Navy-sponsored project of developing radio-loop antennas for navigational purposes.

February 27: World altitude record of 33,113 feet set by Maj. R. W. Schroeder (USA) in a LePere-Liberty 400, at McCook Field, Dayton, Ohio.

March 1: The NACA proposed a national aviation policy establishing a Bureau of Aeronautics in the Commerce Department, authorizing airplane competition to stimulate new designs, increasing Army and Navy air appropriations, expanding the Air Mail Service, and expanding research at the Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory.

March 27: Successful test of Sperry gyrostabilized automatic pilot system in an F5L was completed at NAS Hampton Roads.

April 1: The NACA approved the publication of Technical Report No. 91, "Nomenclature for Aeronautics," to assist use of uniform technical terms and symbols.

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RV 38 (Chap IV.) soning, Knowing, Willing, and all the different actings of our own Minds; which we being conscious of, and observing in our selves, do from these receive into our Understanding, as distinct Ideas, as we do from Bodies affecting our Senses. This Source of Ideas, every Man has wholly in himself: And though it be not Sense, as having nothing to do with external Objects; yet it is very like it, and might properly enough be call'd internal Sense. But as I call the other Sensation, so I call this REFLECTION, the Ideas it affords being such only, as the Mind gets by reflecting on its own Operations within it self. By REFLECTION then, in the following part of this Discourse, I would be understood to mean, that notice which the Mind takes of its own Operations, and the manner of them, by reason whereof, there come to be Ideas of these Operations in the Understanding. These two, I say, viz. External, Material things, as the Objects of SENSATION; and the Operations of our own Minds within, as the Objects of REFLECTION, are, to me, the only Originals, from whence all our Idea's take their beginnings. The term Operations here, I use in a large sence, as comprehending not barely the Actions of the Mind about its Ideas, but some sort of Passions arising sometimes from them, such as is the satisfaction or uneasiness arising from any thought.

§. 5. The Understanding seems to me, not to have the least glimmering of any Ideas, which it doth not receive from one of these two: Eternal Objects furnish the Mind with the Ideas of sensible qualities, which are all those different perceptions they produced in us: And the Mind furnishes the Understanding with Ideas of its own Operations. These, when we have taken a full survey of them, and their several modes, and the Compositions made out of them, we shall find to contain all our whole stock of Ideas; and that we have nothing in our Minds, which did not come in, one of these two ways. Let any one examine his own Thoughts, and throughly search into his Understanding, and then let him tell me, Whether all the original Ideas he has there, are any other than of the Objects of his Senses, or of the Operations of his Mind, considered as Objects of his Reflection: and how great a mass of Knowledge soever he imagines to be lodged there, he will, upon taking a strict view, see that he has not any Idea in his Mind, but what one of those two have imprinted; though, perhaps, with infinite variety compounded and enlarged, by the Understanding, as we shall see hereafter.

§. 6. He that attentively considers the state of a Child, at his first coming into the World, will have little reason to think him stored with plenty of Ideas, that are to be the matter of his future Knowledge. 'Tis by degrees he comes to be furnished with them: And though the Ideas of obvious and familiar qualities, imprint themselves, before the Memory begins to keep a Register of Time and Order, yet 'tis often so late before some unusual qualities come in the way, that there are few Men that cannot recollect the beginning of their acquaintance with them: And if it were worth while, no doubt a Child might be so ordered, as to have but a very few, even of the ordinary Ideas, till he were grown up to a Man. But being surrounded with Bodies, that perpetually and diversly affect us, variety of Idea's, whether care be taken about it, or no, are imprinted on the Minds of Children. Light, and Colours, are busie and at hand everywhere, when the Eye is but open; Sounds, and some tangible Qualities, fail not to sollicite their proper Senses, and force an entrance to the Mind; but yet, I think, it will be granted easily, That if a Child were kept in a place, where he never saw any other but Black and White, till he were a Man,


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RV 39 (Chap I.) he would have no more Ideas of Scarlet or Green, than he that from his Childhood never tasted an Oyster, or a Pine-Apple, has of those particular Relishes.

§. 7. Men then come to be furnished, with sewer or more simple Ideas from without, according as the Objects, they converse with afford greater or lesser variety; and from the Operation of their Minds within, according as they more or less reflect on them. For, though he that contemplates the Operations of his Mind, cannot but have plain and clear Ideas of them; yet unless he turn his Thoughts that way, and considers them attentively, he will no more have clear and distinct Ideas of all the Operations of his Mind, and all that may be observed therein, than he will have all the particular Ideas of any Landscape, or of the Parts and Motions of a Clock, who will not turn his Eyes to it, and with attention heed all the Parts of it. The Picture, or Clock may be so placed, that they may come in his way every Day; but yet he will have but a confused Idea of all the Parts they are made up of, till he applies himself with attention, to consider them each in particular.

§. 8. And hence we see the Reason, why 'tis pretty late before most Children get Ideas of the Operations of their own Minds; and some have not any very clear, or perfect Ideas of the greatest part of them all their Lives. Because, though they pass there continually; yet like floating Visions, they make not deep Impressions enough, to leave in the Mind clear and distinct, lasting Ideas, till the Understanding turn inwards upon its self, and reflect on its own Operations, and make them the Object of its own Contemplation. Whereas Children at their first coming into the World, seek particularly after nothing, but what may ease their Hunger, or other Pain: but take all other Objects as they come, are generally pleased with all new ones, that are not painful; and so growing up in a constant attention to outward Sensations, seldom make any considerable Reflection on what passes within them, till they come to be of riper Years; and some scarce ever at all.

§. 9. To ask, at what time a Man has first any Ideas, is to ask, when he begins to perceive, having Ideas and Perception being the same thing. I know it is an Opinion, that the Soul always thinks, and that it has the actual Perception of Ideas in its self constantly, as long as it exists; and that actual thinking is as inseparable from the Soul, as actual Extension is from the Body; which if true, to enquire after the beginning of a Man's Idea's, is the same, as to enquire after the beginning of his Soul. For by this Account, Soul and Ideas, as Body and Extension, will begin to exist both at the same time.

§. 10. But whether the Soul be supposed to exist antecedent to, or coeval with, or some time after the first Rudiments of Organisation, or the beginnings of Life in the Body, I leave to be disputed by those, who have better thought of that matter. I confess my self, to have one of those dull Souls, that doth not perceive it self always to contemplate its Ideas, nor can conceive it any more necessary for the Soul always to think, than for the Body always to move: the perception of Idea's, being (as I conceive) to the Soul, what motion is to the Body, not its Essence, but Operation: And therefore, though thinking be supposed never so much the proper Action of the Soul; yet it is not necessary, to suppose, that it should be always thinking, always in Action. That, perhaps, is the Privilege of the infinite Author and Preserver of all things, who never slumbers nor sleeps; but is not competent to any finite Being, at least not to the Soul of Man. We know certainly by Experience, that we sometimes


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RV 40 (Chap IV.) think, and thence draw this infallible Consequence, That there is something in us, that has a Power to think: But whether that Substance perpetually thinks, or no, we can be no farther assured, than Experience informs us. For to say, that actual thinking is essential to the Soul, and inseparable from it, is, to beg what is in Question, and not to prove it by Reasons; which is necessary to be done, if it be not a self-evident Proposition. But whether this, That the Soul always thinks, be a self-evident Proposition, that every Body assents to at first hearing, I appeal to Mankind.

§. 11. I grant that the Soul in a waking Man is never without thought, because it is the condition of being awake: But whether sleeping without dreaming be not an Affection of the whole Man, Mind as well as Body, may be worth a waking Man's Consideration; it being hard to conceive, that any thing should think, and not be conscious of it. If the Soul doth think in a sleeping Man, without being conscious of it, I ask, whether, during such thinking, it has any Pleasure or Pain, or be capable of Happiness or Misery? I am sure the Man is not, no more than the Bed or Earth he lies on. For to be happy or miserable without being conscious of it, seems to me utterly inconsistent and impossible. Or if it be possible, that the Soul can, whilst the Body is sleeping, have its Thinking, Enjoyments, and Concerns; its Pleasure or Pain apart, which the Man is not conscious of, nor partakes in, It is certain, that Socrates asleep, and Socrates awake, is not the same Person; but his Soul when he sleeps, and Socrates the Man consisting of Body and Soul when he is waking, are two Persons: Since waking Socrates, has no Knowledge of, or Concernment for that Happiness, or Misery of his Soul, which it enjoys alone by it self whilst he sleeps, without perceiving any thing of it, no more than he has for the Happiness, or Misery of a Man in the Indies, whom he knows not. For if we take wholly away all Consciousness of our Actions and Sensations, especially of Pleasure and Pain, and the concernment that accompanies it, it will be hard to know wherein to place personal Identity.

§. 12. The Soul, during sound Sleep, thinks, say these Men. Whilst it thinks and perceives, it is capable certainly of those of Delight or Trouble, as well as any other Perceptions; and it must necessarily be conscious of its own Perceptions. But it has all this a part: The sleeping Man, 'tis plain, is conscious of nothing of all this. Let us suppose then the Soul of Castor, whilst he is sleeping, retired from his Body, which is no impossible Supposition for the Men I have here to do with, who so liberally allow Life, without a thinking Soul to all other Animals. These Men cannot then judge it is impossible, or a contradiction, That the Body should live without the Soul; nor that the Soul subsists and thinks, or has Perception, even Perception of Happiness or Misery, without the Body. Let us then, as I say, suppose the Soul of Castor separated, during his Sleep, from his Body, to think apart. Let us suppose too, that it chooses for its Scene of Thinking, the Body of another Man, v.g. Pollux, who is sleeping without a Soul: For if Castor's Soul, can think whilst Castor is asleep, what Castor is never conscious of, 'tis no matter what Place it chooses to think in. We have here then the Bodies of two Men with only one Soul between them, which we will suppose to sleep and wake by turns; and the Soul still thinking in the waking Man, whereof the sleeping Man is never conscious, has never the least Perception. I ask then, Whether Castor and Pollux, thus, with only one Soul between them, which thinks and perceives in one, what the other is never conscious of, nor is not concerned for, are not two as distinct Persons, as Castor and Hercules; or, as Socrates, and Plato


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128 age; but I consulted several doctors on the point before I got my elder son married, and they one and all agreed with me and said that after eighteen is the proper age for a boy born and bred under a tropical sun to enter on married life.

For girls I should think that marriage after the completion of 14 years at least cannot be considered to be too late. Of course, among Brahmins and others who foolishly adopt the Brahminic custom, girls have to be betrothed before they are grown up. I use the word marriage here in the European sense of the word, which thus includes the nuptial ceremony as well as the betrothal.

Even amongst Brahmins and such peo- ple, no girl should be betrothed before the eighth year; and the nuptials should take place after the completion of the fourteenth year. Amongst the other castes, who are more fortunate than Brahmins


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 using candle-lighted free balloons at Hampton Roads in flights since January, announced by the Navy.

June 4: Army Air Service (AAS) was created in the Army reorganization bill signed by President Wilson. AAS consisted of 1,516 officers and 16,000 enlisted men.

June 8: Lt. J. H. Wilson (USA) made a series of high-altitude jumps, parachuting from a record altitude of 19,861 feet over San Antonio, Tex.

June 11: The NACA's own program of aeronautics research, conducted by its own staff in its own facilities, was begun with the first operation of the first NACA 5-foot wind tunnel at Langley Laboratory.

June 21: Because development of military rigid airships by the Navy was considered proper, and one logically leading to the development of commercial types, the NACA urged adequate funding of the Navy program in spite of recent airship disasters.

 * Navy approved installation of J. V. Martin retractable landing gear on VE-7 Vought airplane, but no evidence indicates it was done. First U.S. retractable landing gear was used by J. V. Martin K-III in 1918-19 period.

June 28: The NACA formally encouraged the Army and Navy to detail officers to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for aeronautical engineering study and offered use of its facilities and personnel to further research and experimental work outside of Government.

July 1: Wright Aeronautical produced a French Hisso "cannon engine" which fired 37-mm shells through the propeller shaft.

July 7: Navy F5L seaplane flown by means of radiocompass from Hampton Roads to U.S.S. Ohio at sea.

July 13: Cdr. J. C. Hunsaker (USN) elected Honorary Fellow of Royal Aeronautical Society of England, the first time this distinction was conferred on one not a British subject.

During July-September: Inaccessible parts of Alaska mapped from the air by Army Air Service pilots, headed by Capt. St. Clair Streett (USA).

November 1: First U.S. international passenger service started by Aeromarine West Indies Airways between Key West, Fla., and Havana, Cuba.

November 25: First Pulitzer race won by Lt. C. C. Mosely in a Verville-Packard 600 at Mitchel Field, N.Y., flying a distance of 132 miles at a speed of 156.54 mph.

During 1920: NACA Report No. 84, entitled "Data on the Design of Plywood for Aircraft," by Armin Elmendorf of the Forest Service, provided basic guidance for aircraft design as well as broader applications.

 * New aircraft engine laboratory, the second, was completed at the National Bureau of Standards capable of testing 800-hp engines. Work carried out under the direction of L. J. Briggs provided new data on the viscosity of air.

 * Wind tunnel at Leland Stanford Aerodynamic Laboratory devoted entirely to propeller tests under direction of W. F. Durand, while NACA's George DeBothezat carried on aerodynamic studies at McCook Field.

 * Secretaries of War and Navy appointed joint Aeronautical Board to consider military questions regarding use of aeronautics by both services. Having no connection with the NACA, the Aeronautical Board replaced the Joint Army and Navy Technical Aircraft Board established during the war to expedite military procurement and exploitation of aviation.

 * The NACA formulated and recommended reservations regarding the Convention on International Air Navigation (1919) to the State Department prior to U.S. ratification.

 * New aircraft engines of this year included the French Hisso-design 180- and 300-hp engines by Wright; the Aeromarine 120 and 180; the Parckard 300- and 600-hp types; and the Lawrance 60- and 200-hp air-cooled engines.

 * Moon eclipse observed by Lts. J. H. Tilton and W. H. Cushing from height of 3 miles at NAS Rockaway, N.Y.

During 1920-22: Robert H. Goddard experimented with liquid oxygen and various liquid hydrocarbons, including gasoline and liquid propane as well as ether, as rocket fuel, under a grant by Clark University. He concluded that although oxygen and hydrogen possessed the greatest heat energy per unit mass, that liquid oxygen and liquid methane offered greatest heat value of combinations which could be used without considerable difficulty. But, he said, "the most practical combination appears to be liquid oxygen and gasoline."

January 10: 700-hp aircraft engine having 18 cylinders arranged in three banks of six, tested at Engineering Division, McCook Field.

January 25: Committee on Law of Aviation, American Bar Association, filed initial report on the necessity of aerial law. On August 25, the ABA recommended Federal aerial legislation.

January 26: Post Office Department operated regular daily airmail routes over a distance of 3,460 miles.

February 21: First transcontinental flight within 24 hours, made by Lt. W. D. Coney in a DH-4B from San Diego, Calif., to Jacksonville, Fla., in 22 hours and 27 minutes.

 * School for Flight Surgeons at Mitchell Field recognized as a Special Service School in War Department General Order No. 7.

March 16: U.S. Public Health Service initiated aerial survey of the Mississippi Valley watershed.

March 23: Parachute jump from 23,700 feet made by Lt. A. G. Hamilton (USA) at Chanute Field, Ill.

April 1: President Harding directed NACA to organize an inter-departmental subcommittee to recommend Federal regulation of air navigation. After a series of meetings this committee's report was approved by the Executive Committee of NACA on April 9, and transmitted to the President.

April 12: President Harding recommended establishment of a Bureau of Aviation within the Department of Commerce, in his address to Congress.

April 18: John J. Ide appointed as technical assistant in charge of the Paris office of the NACA, a post he held until 1940 and resumed after the end of World War II.

April 23: Aerial photo survey of Dominican Republic coastline completed by First Air Squadron of the USMC; and in June, it completed aerial survey of Haitian coastline.

June 8: First flight of an Army Air Service pressurized cabin airplane was made, a D-9-A aircraft piloted by Lt. Harold R. Harris.

June 9: The NACA authorized construction of compressed-air wind tunnel (20 atmospheres) with a 5-foot test section at Langley Aeronautical Laboratory.

July 9-11: Aerial study of San Andreas rift, the line of earthquakes of 1857 and 1906 in California Coast Range, made by Prof. Bailey Willis of the Seismological Society of America.

July 13-21: In a series of Army-Navy bombing tests off the Virginia Capes, airplanes sank the captured German destroyer G-102, light cruiser Frankfort, and battleship Ostfriesland.

July 29: Brig. Gen. William Mitchell led 17 bombers in "raid" over New York.

August 1: World War I high-altitude bombsight mounted on a gyrostabilized base tested by Navy Torpedo Squadron at Yorktown, Va., marking completion of first phase of Carl L. Norden's development of a bombsight for BuOrd. 12


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129 in this respect, after the completion of the fourteenth year at least is the proper age for girls to be married. But amongst ourselves if we put off the marriage till the sixteenth year, so much the better.

For the sake of the mental and bodily health of the offspring of marriages, and in the interests of purity in family life, marriages are prohibited between the children of a brother and a sister. In the Hindu Shastras it is laid down as a general rule that no man should marry the daughter of his father's sister or of his mother's brother. It is only for secondary considerations that a man is allowed to marry the daughter of his mother's brother. But a man is never allowed to marry the daughter of his father's sister. Anyhow it is a very good thing to avoid consanguineous marriages, i.e., marriages between close relations.

Now let me turn again to the subject


text:
The Temper

 * The Temper, a poem by George Herbert (How should I praise thee, Lord! how should my rymes)
 * The Temper, a poem by George Herbert (It cannot be. Where is that mightie joy)

title: The Temper


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130 of the training of the young. After the eighteenth year, you should train your boy gradually in estate work. First entrust to him some routine work, so that he may become acquainted with the different branches of the work of an estate. Later on give him a somewhat responsible work of management, subject to your own supervision. Gradually make him look after the greater part of your work, taking care that even then his decisions are liable to be appealed against to you on all important matters. I should like to say that this is the proper and suitable way of training a young Zamindar.

I must also tell you now how you should train your boys in money matters. From the tenth or the eleventh year begin to give a boy a few rupees every Sunday, and holiday, as pocket-money. If the tutor recommends him saying that he has learnt his lessons well in that week, give him a


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131 little more. Give him something more, if he passes well in the monthly examination. Gradually increase the weekly pocket-money and make it a monthly allowance starting from ten rupees. Then gradually increase the allowance according to the age of the boy and the status of the Zamindary. Between the years, say, the fourteenth and the eighteenth, make him keep a regular account of what he spends and let it be open to his tutor's inspection. After he is married, you had better not ask him for an account of his pocket-money, but watch him to a certain extent, so that he may not get into the habit of spending more than his income. We should train our boys in somewhat like the above said manner, till the end of the twenty-first year. The most important period in the life of a boy, when we should take much care of him, is from the beginning of the thirteenth to the end of the eighteenth


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132 year of his age. If there is no proper paternal care over him, he is certain to be spoilt.

Your responsibility over the boy ends after the completion of twenty-one years. With the above said treatment and training, the boy will certainly turn out a promising ruler. But there may be an exceptional case. Then the bad result is not the fault of father, mother or elder brother; but it is the bad fate of the boy and the misfortune of the people who happen to come under his care. In conclusion, you see, it is the duty of the parents to treat and train their boys in the above said manner.


text:
Sinne

 * Sinne, a poem by George Herbert (Lord, with what care hast thou begirt us round!)
 * Sinne, a poem by George Herbert (O that I could a sinne once see!)

title: Sinne


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 August 4: 5,000 catalpa trees successfully sprayed from an airplane in 15 minutes, at Troy, Ohio.

August 10: The Navy Bureau of Aeronautics was established with Rear Adm. William A. Moffett as first chief.

September 18: Lt. J. A. Macready (USA) broke world altitude record in a Packard LePere fighter plane by reaching 34,508 feet.

September 23: Day and night bombardment test flights by the U.S. Air Service were begun, which resulted in the sinking of the battleship Alabama in the Chesapeake Bay by a 2,000-pound bomb.

September 30: During forest fire season, 47 Air Service aircraft discovered 832 forest fires in 396 patrols from Pacific coast bases, flying 148,113 miles over national parks.

 * Pointing out the virtual U.S. monopoly of known sources of helium, the NACA passed a special resolution addressed to the President and the Secretaries of War and Navy urging the continuance of the U.S. airship development program.

October 18: A world speed record of 222.96 mph for 1 kilometer was set by Brig. Gen. William Mitchell in a Curtiss R6 Curtiss D12 375, at Mount Clemens, Mich.

November 12: First air-to-air refueling made when Wesley May stepped from wing of one aircraft to that of another with a 5-gallon can of gasoline strapped to his back.

November 15: Initial U.S. flight of airship Roma was made at Langley Field, Va.

November 28: NACA Report 116, "Applications of Modern Hydrodynamics to Aeronautics," by Ludwig Prandtl of Gottingen University in Germany, a major contribution to the basis of the theory governing fundamental aerodynamical applications, was published. His famous 1904 paper on boundary layers was translated and issued in NACA Technical Memorandum No. 452 in 1928.

December 1: Nonrigid Navy dirigible C-7, first to use nonflammable helium, made flight from Hampton Roads, Va., to Washington, D.C.

December 7: In its annual report, the NACA recommended establishment of a Federal airways system to include provision of extended weather service "indespensable to the success and safety of air navigation." It also recommended that Government policy be formulated "to sustain and stabilize the aeronautical industry."

December 29: World endurance record of 26 hours 18 minutes 35 seconds set at Roosevelt Field, N.Y., by Edward Stinson and Lloyd Bertaud in a Junkers-Larsen BMW 185 (imported German Junkers J-13).

During December: The NACA cooperated with private organizations in the formulation of an air safety code.

During 1921: The NACA's Office of Aeronautical Intelligence distributed 13,080 copies of technical reports and 7,108 copies of technical notes to governmental, industrial, and educational institutions.

February 7: Completion of a 50-hour test of the Lawrance J-1, 200-hp radial air-cooled engine, by the Aeronautical Engine Laboratory, Washington Navy Yard, foreshadowed the successful use of radial engines in naval aircraft.

March 20: Navy's first aircraft carrier, U.S.S. Langley, was commissioned at Norfolk, Va., a converted collier, Jupiter.

March 23: NACA Report No. 159 on "Jet Propulsion for Airplanes," by Edgar Buckingham of the Bureau of Standards, pointed out that jet fuel consumption would be four times that of propeller engine at 250 mph, but that efficiency of jet increased at higher speeds.

April 25: Stout ST-1 successfully test flown by Eddie Stinson, first all-metal airplane designed for the Navy.

May 31: First use of helium in a free balloon in Navy balloon flown by Lt. Comdr. J. P. Norfleet in National Elimination Balloon Race at Milwaukee, which did not place in the race.

June 10: Guglielmo Marconi of Italy stated that an apparatus could be designed to transmit radio waves from one ship in any desired direction and pick up reflections from another ship in a receiver, a device which would "thereby immediately reveal the presence and bearing of the other ship in fog or thick weather." Christian Huelsmeyer of Germany received a patent in 1904 on boat equipment which used reflected radio waves for navigational use on the Rhine River.

June 12: Capt. A. W. Stevens (USAS) made record parachute jump from 24,200 from a supercharged Martin bomber over McCook Field.

 * Smithsonian Institution scientists utilized Navy seaplanes in mollusk research in Florida waters, completing in days what would otherwise have required a year.

June 16: Helicopter flight made by Henry Berliner at College Park, Md.

 * Lt. C. L. Bissell (USAS) began a series of night cross-country flights between Bolling Field, D.C., and Langley Field, Va.

June 26: ZR-3 rigid airship ordered from the Zeppelin Co., Friedrichshafen, Germany, as part of World War I reparations under terms approved by the Allied Conference of Ambassadors on December 16, 1921.

During June: Wright E-2 engine operated continuously for 250 hours at wide-open throttle, demonstrating improved durability of intake and exhaust valves; Navy BuAer later increased engine suitability tests from 50 to 300 hours' endurance.

July 1: Eight naval medical officers were first to report for flight training, at NAS Pensacola, having previously completed flight surgeon's course at the Army Technical School of Aviation Medicine.

July 16: Berliner helicopter rose 12 feet and hovered before military observers at College Park, Md.

July 17: Aerial photos taken from naval aircraft to aid in location of reefs at Hahaina, Maui, Hawaii.

August 2: An unofficial three-man altitude record of 23,350 feet was set at McCook Field, Dayton, Ohio, by Lt. L. Wade, Capt. A. W. Stevens, and Sergeant Longham in a supercharged Air Service bomber.

August 18: AGA beacon (American Gas Accumulator) began operations at NAS Hampton Roads, with 6,000 candlepower, 18 flashes per minute, and an optical range of 20 miles horizontally.

August 21: Lawrence Sperry dropped landing wheels from plane in flight and landed it on a skid device at Farmingdale, Long Island.

September 4: First transcontinental flight within a single day, by Lt. J. H. Doolittle (USAS) in a modified DH-4B Liberty 400, from Pablo Beach, Fla., to Rockwell Field, San Diego, a distance of 2,163 miles in 21 hours 20 minutes.

September 27: Observations on overflying aircraft made by Navy scientists ultimately aiding development of radar, by Albert Hoyt Taylor and Leo C. Young of the Naval Aircraft Radio Laboratory, Anacostia, D.C.

October 17: First USN carrier takeoff by Lt. V. C. Griffin in Vought VE-7SF, from U.S.S. Langley.

October 19: Variable-density wind tunnel placed into operation at Langley Laboratory, although lack of adequate electric power prevented concurrent operation of both wind tunnels this year.

October 23: Reversible propeller demonstrated at Bolling Field, D.C., by American Propeller Co. 14


text:
Employment

 * "Employment" (If as a flowre doth spread and die), a poem by George Herbert
 * "Employment" (He that is weary, let him sit), a poem by George Herbert

title: Employment


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 October 26: First USN carrier landing made by Lt. Comdr. G. Chevalier in Aeromarine 39B on U.S.S. Langley off Cape Henry.

November 1: First engineer-in-charge appointed for NACA Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, Leigh M. Griffith.

November 8: Air Service Medical Research Laboratory and School for Flight Surgeons was designated School of Aviation Medicine.

November 18: First catapult launching from carrier U.S.S. Langley (CV-1) by Comdr. Kenneth Whiting flying a PT seaplane.

December 4: President Harding requested there commendations of the NACA as to the most promising program for the Air Mail Service in the expenditure of its limited funds. The NACA, on December 20, recommended that $2,300,000 be appropriated to demonstrate feasibility of night flying on the mail service and to establish regular New York-San Francisco mail service in 36 hours or less.

December 18: DeBothezat helicopter, built by the Engineering Division of the Air Service at McCook Field, successfully testflown for 1 minute 42 seconds by Maj. F. H. Bane.

During 1922: Two wind tunnels (4 by 4 foot, and 8 by 8 foot) at the Washington Navy Yard, under the direction of A. F. Zahm, made tests on naval designs, the important results of which were usually published by NACA as technical reports.

 * As a result of Army-Navy conference, policy established that manufacturers and designers should be invited to compete in the design and construction of military aircraft, with engineers given a free hand. The only requirement was that the airplane have military utility and have a speed of more than 190 mph.

 * National Aeronautic Association was formed with Howard E. Coffin elected president.

 * U.S. Weather Bureau first prepared a "standard atmosphere" showing the relationship between pressure and temperature based on average conditions over the United States at 40° N. latitude.

1920-22: Goddard developed and unsuccessfully tested first liquid propellant engine, using liquid oxygen, and devised small high-pressure pumps to force fuel into the combustion chamber.

January 5: Cloud seeding over McCook Field, Dayton, accomplished by Prof. W. D. Bancroft of Cornell University, from Air Service aircraft.

February 6: Aeronautical Engine Laboratory transferred from Washington Navy Yard to the Naval Aircraft Factory, establishing the Naval Aircraft Factory as the center of naval aeronautical development.

February 21: DeBothezat helicopter achieved sustained altitude of 15 feet for 2 minutes and 45 seconds in flight tests at McCook Field.

March 5: Auxiliary jettisonable belly tank fitted to bomb rack of MB3A at Selfridge Field, Mich., increased flying radius to about 400 miles.

March 8: Lunar radiation observations at an altitude of 19,000 feet made by Russell M. Otis in DH-4B over San Diego, Lt. F. W. Seifert as pilot.

March 29: Lt. R. L. Maitland attained world speed record of 239.95 mph in Curtiss R-6 at Dayton, Ohio.

April 2: First flight of all-metal pursuit monoplane, Wright H-3, 400-hp engine, at Curtiss Field.

April 15: Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) reported equipment for radio control of an F5L was satisfactory to a range of 10 miles, and that radio control of aircraft during landing and takeoff was feasible.

April 20: First aerial refueling with hose, at Rockwell Field, San Diego, between two DH-4B aircraft, under the direction of Henry H. Arnold (USAS).

May 2-3: First nonstop transcontinental flight of 2,520 miles from New York to San Diego flown by Lts. O. G. Kelly and J. A. Macready, in a Fokker T2-Liberty 375 in 26 hours 50 minutes.

May 26: Chief of Navy BuAer agreed with Chief of Army Air Service that identical aeronautic specifications would be advantageous to both the aviation industry and the military services. Lt. R. S. Barnaby was ordered to McCook Field as BuAer representative on interservice committee on standardization in December, the first of a series of annual meetings held until 1937.

June 9: Juan de la Cierva made first successful autogiro flights in a rotary wing aircraft, at Madrid, Spain.

June 20: Initial flight of all-metal airplane (Gallaudet) designed by Engineering Division at Wright Field.

June 25: First International Air Congress, London, England, 450 delegates from 17 nations attended.

June 26: First complete midair pipeline refueling between two airplanes, made by Lts. L. H. Smith and J. P. Richter (USA) at San Diego.

August 22: World's largest airplane, the six-engine Barling bomber, underwent first tests at McCook Field, Lt. H. R. Harris as pilot.

August 27-28: Capt. L. H. Smith and Lt. J. P. Richter flew a DH-4B-Liberty 400 to a world refueled duration record of 37 hours and 15 minutes, as well as a distance record of 3,293 miles at Rockwell Field, San Diego, Calif.

September 4: Navy airship Shenandoah (ZR-1) made its first flight at NAS Lakehurst, the first of the Zeppelin type to use helium gas.

September 5: Army bombers sank two obsolete battleships, the U.S.S. Virginia and the U.S.S. New Jersey, off Cape Hatteras.

September 28: Navy aircraft won first and second places in Schneider Cup international seaplane races at Cowes, England, and established new world record for seaplanes with a speed of 169.89 mph for 200 kilometers. Flying CR-3's powered by Curtiss D-12 engines, Lt. David Rittenhouse achieved 177.38 mph in the race, while Lt. Rutledge Irvine placed second with 173.46 mph.

October 1: Goodyear Tire & Rubber acquired Zeppelin rights for manufacture of rigid airships.

October 6: Lt. A. J. Williams (USN) set new world speed records of 243.8 mph for 100 kilometers, and 243.7 mph for 200 kilometers over a closed circuit, flying a Curtis R2C-1 Racer in the Pulitzer Trophy Race, at St. Louis, Mo.

November 1: Robert H. Goddard successfully operated a liquid oxygen and gasoline rocket motor on a testing frame, both fuel components being supplied by pumps installed on the rocket.

November 2: Flexural fatigue machine for testing sheet duralumin stopped after 200 million alterations, on a 389-day nonstop run at the Bureau of Standards. Check calibration gave same reading as the original calibration on October 5, 1922.

November 4: Lt. Alford J. Williams (USN) established world speed record of 266.59 mph in Navy-Curtiss Racer over Mitchel Field, Long Island, which remained U.S. record until 1930.

November 5: Series of tests demonstrating feasibility of stowing, assembling, and launching a seaplane from a submarine were completed, which involved assembling a Martin MS-1 and launching it by submerging the submarine.

November 23: Concluding sentence of the annual report of the NACA for 1923 was: "Progress in aeronautics is being made at so rapid a rate that the only way to keep abreast of other nations is actually to keep abreast, year by year, never falling behind." [Italic in original.] 16