text:
User talk:Weppens

Welcome!
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title: User talk:Weppens


text:
Talk:Juggling convention

Not a copyvio
This was listed as a copyvio from - that article is taken from Wikipedia under GFDL, and clearly states so, rather than the other way round. OpenToppedBus - My Talk 16:26, July 21, 2005 (UTC)

List
Why the list of some conventions at the bottom of the page? If a convention is large enough or notable enough they should have their own wiki page, with a list (if appropriate) of all of the venues so far. Saying "Four best attended conventions" is very vague and just wrong. The numbers for last few years are: 648 Portland 2006 674 Davenport 2005 808 Buffalo 2004 And from the same source I found out that the Portland number includes 123 day passes, and who knows if those people were returning (duplicate) attendees. Meanwhile, the Berlin Convention has a show venue of 600 which is always sold out to people who have pre-registered! On top of that there are (even last year when it clashed with 4 other conventions in Europe) about 150-200 extra people who watch the show on video screens in the gym. The Berlin convention is growing and the IJA is shrinking, why not list the Berlin at the bottom of the page? And there are conventions in France that get more than 600 people turn up year after year. Why not list these? If a list is needed, just move it to the page about that particular festival if it has one. Maybe a section at the top or bottom of the page that lists notable conventions is needed, but I think an encyclopedia entry on conventions should be more about conventions in general, rather than just lists of "big" conventions. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.160.159.14 (talk) 06:52, 13 February 2007

Sydney Convention
I took out the sentence about the Sydney Juggling Convention being "the only juggling convention in Australia" as an annual Melbourne Juggling Convention is starting this year. Popstar dave 05:00, 19 September 2007 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Juggling convention


text:
Talk:Pablo Amaringo

Biography assessment rating comment
The article may be improved by following the WikiProject Biography 11 easy steps to producing at least a B article. -- HornandsoccerTalk 04:16, 18 March 2007 (UTC)

Birth date of Pablo Amaringo
The birthdate listed as 1943 is incorrect. This should be 1938.

thanks & regards

H G Charing (talk) 09:48, 23 January 2011 (UTC)H G CharingH G Charing (talk) 09:48, 23 January 2011 (UTC)

 * Half the sources I see say 1938, half 1943. I've added a 'citation needed' tag to the article.  --CliffC (talk) 15:55, 23 January 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pablo Amaringo


text:
1944 in archaeology

Below are notable events in archaeology that occurred in 1944.

Excavations

 * August - Excavations in the bombed area of Canterbury, England, are begun.
 * "Caesar's Camp" (pre-Roman) site at location of London Heathrow Airport.

Publications

 * Paul Jacobsthal's Early Celtic Art published in Oxford.

Finds

 * First find of 12th century Kilwa Sultanate copper coins on Marchinbar Island off the north coast of Australia.

Events

 * 31 May - Nemi ships destroyed by fire.
 * The Council for British Archaeology is formed.
 * Mortimer Wheeler is appointed Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India.

Births

 * 1 March - Dai Morgan Evans, British archaeologist (d. 2017)
 * 6 July - Timothy W. Potter, English archaeologist (d. 2000)
 * 10 July - Norman Hammond, British Mayanist
 * 15 July - Nigel Williams, British conservator (d. 1992)
 * 25 July - David Breeze, British archaeologist notable for work on Hadrian's Wall, the Antonine Wall and the Roman Army
 * 19 December - Richard Leakey, Kenyan palaeoanthropologist (d. 2022)
 * Gabriel Barkay, Hungarian-born Israeli archaeologist

title: 1944 in archaeology


text:
Central African Democratic Union

The Central African Democratic Union (Union Démocratique Centrafricaine, UDC) was a political party in the Central African Republic.

History
The UDC was established by David Dacko in March 1980 at a congress. Dacko claimed that the UDC was the continuation of Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa (MESAN). The party was banned on 2 September 1981, following the 1981 Central African Republic coup d'état.

title: Central African Democratic Union


text:
Treaty of Hopewell

Three agreements, each known as a Treaty of Hopewell, were signed between representatives of the Congress of the United States and the Cherokee, Choctaw, and Chickasaw peoples. They were negotiated and signed at the Hopewell plantation in South Carolina over 45 days during the winter of 1785–86.

The treaties were signed at the plantation owned by General Andrew Pickens, which the treaty texts refer to as "Hopewell on the Keowee". Anthropologist James Mooney records that "It was situated on the northern edge of the present Anderson county, on the east side of Keowee River, opposite and a short distance below the entrance of Little River, and about three miles from the present Pendleton. In the sight of it, on the opposite side of Keowee, was the old Cherokee town of Seneca, destroyed by the Americans in 1776."

The chief provision of the treaties was defining boundaries between sovereign tribal lands and lands open to settlement; other boilerplate provisions included exchange of prisoners, prohibition of settlement on tribal lands, rendition of criminals, punishment of crimes against Native Americans, restrictions on retaliation by either side, regulation of trade, and other minor provisions. The order and content of the sections in each Treaty were almost identical with the exception of an article in the Cherokee treaty providing for a Cherokee delegate to congress (reaffirmed in 1835 Treaty of New Echota), a provision that as of Sept. 2022 has yet to be fulfilled by the United States.

Despite affixing their signatures to the treaties, none of the Native American tribes recognized the sovereignty of the United States over their ancestral lands.

Cherokee treaty
On November 28, 1785, the first Treaty of Hopewell was signed between the U.S. representative Benjamin Hawkins and the Cherokee Indians. In addition to circumscribing a large part of the northern and eastern boundary of the Cherokee Nation not already defined by previous treaties and land cessions, the treaty ceded a wedge of land south of the Cumberland river in north central Tennessee around Nashville. A description of the boundary is found in Article 4 of the accord:

"The boundary allotted to the Cherokees for their hunting grounds, between the said Indians and the citizens of the United States, within the limits of the United States of America, is, and shall be the following, viz. Beginning at the mouth of Duck river, on Tennessee; thence running north-east to the ridge dividing the waters running into Cumberland from those running into Tennessee; thence eastward along the said ridge to a north-east line to be run, which shall strike the river Cumberland forty miles above Nashville; thence along the said line to the river; thence up the said river to the ford where the Kentucky road crosses the river; thence to Campbell's line, near Cumberland gap; thence to the mouth of Claud's creek on Holstein; thence to the Chimney-top mountain; thence to Camp-creek, near the mouth of Big Limestone, on Nolichuckey; thence a southerly course six miles to a mountain; thence south to the North-Carolina line; thence to the South-Carolina Indian boundary, and along the same south-west over the top of the Oconee mountain till it shall strike Tugaloo river; thence a direct line to the top of the Currohee mountain; thence to the head of the south fork of Oconee river."

Included in the signatures of the Cherokee delegation were several from leaders of the Chickamauga (Lower Cherokee), including two from the town of Chickamauga itself and one from Lookout Mountain Town. The Cherokee complained at the treaty that some 3,000 white settlers of the de facto State of Franklin were already squatting on the Cherokee side of the agreed line, between the Holston and French Broad Rivers, and they continued to dispute that region until a new border was defined by the 1791 Treaty of Holston.

The Cherokee also signed two extra-legal treaties with the State of Franklin: Treaty of Dumplin Creek, 1785, and Treaty of Coyatee in 1786 ceding lands in east Tennessee occupied by the State of Franklin. Neither treaty was recognized by the United States.

Congressional deputy
Article XII states "That the Indians […] shall have the right to send a deputy of their choice, whenever they think fit, to Congress." In 2019, Cherokee Nation principal chief Chuck Hoskin Jr. cited a provision of the 1835 Treaty of New Echota that states that the Cherokee "shall be entitled to a delegate in the House of Representatives of the United States whenever Congress shall make provision for the same," in announcing that he intended to appoint, for the first time, a Congressional delegate from the Cherokee Nation. Pending a decision of the Cherokee National Council, Hoskin said he would nominate Kimberly Teehee, a member of the Cherokee Nation who formerly served as a policy advisor in the administration of President Barack Obama, to the post.

Choctaw treaty
The US–Choctaw Treaty of Hopewell was signed by the Choctaw at the foothills of the Smoky Mountains on January 3, 1786. The ceded area amounted to 69,120 acres, and the compensation to the Choctaw took the form of protection by the United States. To elaborate, the plenipotentiaries were Benjamin Hawkins, Andrew Pickens and Joseph Martin representing the U.S. while representing the Choctaw were 13 small medals and 12 medal and gorget captains. A description of the boundary is found in article 3: The boundary of the lands hereby allotted to the Choctaw Nation to live and hunt on, within the limits of the United States of America, is and shall be the following, viz. Beginning at a point on the thirty-first degree of north latitude, where the Eastern boundary of the Natches district shall touch the same; thence east along the said thirty-first degree of north latitude being the southern boundary of the United States of America, until it shall strike the eastern boundary of the lands on which the Indians of the said nation did live and hunt on the twenty-ninth of November, one thousand seven hundred and eighty-two, while they were under the protection of the King of Great-Britain; thence northerly along the said eastern boundary, until it shall meet the northern boundary of the said lands; thence westerly along the said northern boundary, until it shall meet the western boundary thereof; thence southerly along the same to the beginning: saving and reserving for the establishment of trading posts, three tracts of parcels of land of six miles square each, at such places as the United [States] in Congress assembled shall think proper; which posts, and the lands annexed to them, shall be to the use and under the government of the United States of America.

Chickasaw treaty
On January 10, 1786, the Treaty of Hopewell was signed between U.S. representatives Benjamin Hawkins, Andrew Pickens, and Joseph Martin and the Chickasaw leaders Taski Etoka, Piomingo, and Lotapaia. A description of the boundary is found in Article 3: The boundary of the lands hereby allotted to the Chickasaw nation to live and hunt on, within the limits of the United States of America, is, and shall be the following, viz. Beginning on the ridge that divides the waters running into the Cumberland, from those running into the Tennessee, at a point in a line to be run north-east, which shall strike the Tennessee at the mouth of Duck river; thence running westerly along the said ridge, till it shall strike the Ohio; thence down the southern banks thereof to the Mississippi; thence down the same, to the Choctaw line or Natches district; thence along the said line, or the line of the district eastwardly as far as the Chickasaws claimed, and lived and hunted on, the twenty-ninth of November, one thousand seven hundred and eighty-two. Thence the said boundary, eastwardly, shall be the lands allotted to the Choctaws and Cherokees to live and hunt on, and the lands at present in the possession of the Creeks; saving and reserving for the establishment of a trading post, a tract or parcel of land to be laid out at the lower port of the Muscle shoals, at the mouth of Ocochappo, in a circle, the diameter of which shall be five miles on the river, which post, and the lands annexed thereto, shall be to the use and under the government of the United States of America.

title: Treaty of Hopewell


text:
Duala people

The Duala (or Sawa) are a Bantu ethnic group of Cameroon. They primarily inhabit the littoral and southwest region of Cameroon and form a portion of the Sawabantu or "coastal people" of Cameroon. The Dualas readily welcomed German and French colonial policies. The number of German-speaking Africans increased in central African German colonies prior to 1914. The Duala leadership in 1884 placed the tribe under German rule. Most converted to Protestantism and were schooled along German lines. Colonial officials and businessmen preferred them as inexpensive clerks to German government offices and firms in Africa. They have historically played a highly influential role in Cameroon due to their long contact with Europeans, high rate of education, and wealth gained over centuries as slave traders and landowners. The Duala are related to several ethnic groups (or tribes) in the Cameroon Coastal areas, with whom they share a common traditional origin, and similar histories and cultures. These include the Ewodi, the Bodiman, the Pongo, the Bakole, the Bakweri (or Kwe), the Bamboko, the Isubu (Isuwu or Bimbians), the Limba (or Malimba), the Mungo, the Wovea and the Oroko (or Balondo), they are generally known as the SAWA PEOPLE.

The Batanga of the region of Kribi could be added to the preceding list as they claim they are descendants of Mbedi and they report some degree of mutual comprehension between their own language and Malimba.

Moreover, the Oroko language is classified as a Duala language, seems to be closely related to Bakweri (Mokpwe), which is a Duala language. Thus the Kundu, Lue, Mbonge, Ekombe, Londo ba Nanga, Londo ba Diko, Ngolo, Bima, Tanga and Koko are Duala(sawa)people. The Duala have dominated the others historically, and these other groups all profess some sort of kinship to them.

In addition, many other coastal ethnic groups such as Balong, Bakossi and so on – who are culturally and historically more or less related to the Duala – are under Duala influence, and most of these people speak Duala to some extent. Duala is also spoken by a great part of the Bakoko people. The word "Duala" may refer to the Duala "proper" or to the whole set of Duala-like tribes or even possibly to some "duala-ized" Bakoko or Manenguba tribes.

Early population movements
Early Duala history may only be conjectured from oral traditions. The Duala trace their ancestry back to a man named Mbedi, who lived in an area called Bakota in what is today Gabon or the Republic of the Congo. His sons, Ewale and Dibombo, migrated north and reached a place called Pitti on the Dibamba River. Here, the brothers parted ways after a row. Ewale moved to the mouth of the Dibamba with his followers and then northwest to the east bank of Wouri River estuary. Meanwhile, Dibongo and his companions migrated southeast to the Sanaga River and then split up, some heading upstream with Dibongo and others moving downstream with a man named Elimbe. Ewale's people became the Duala, and Dibongo's the Limba.

According to Duala traditions, the Bakoko and Bassa ethnic groups occupied the Wouri estuary when the Duala arrived. The Duala then drove them inland, a displacement that likely occurred in the late 17th or early 18th century.

Early history

The Duala emerged by the 16th century as the leading traders on the Cameroonian coast, though the Isubu and Limba did not trail far behind. The earliest Duala merchants were likely chiefs or headmen.

The Duala had long kept and traded slaves, who lived in separate settlements and performed menial tasks such as cultivation. Slave owners could only trade their slaves to other Duala, however, and owners were responsible for paying their slaves' debts and arranging their marriages. With the Europeans providing such a hungry market, however, these customs gave way. The main Duala villages soon grew into a prospering township named Douala for the people who lived there. The coastal Duala purchased goods and slaves from interior groups such as the Bakweri, Mungo, Bassa and Bakoko. In turn, they sold these entities (including slaves) to the Europeans, typically aboard their ships (and later at mainland factories or stores). In exchange, the Europeans provided alcohol, gunpowder, guns, mirrors, shoes, textiles, and tools. Ndumb'a Lobe of the Bell lineage propped himself up in the 19th century as King Bell. Heads of rival sub-lineages soon rivalled him, including the self-styled King Akwa (Ngando Mpondo) in 1814, King Deido (Jim Ekwalla) of the Deido (an Akwa splinter group), and Prince Lock Priso (Kum'a Mbape) of the Bonaberi.

By the mid-19th century, the British had taken the lead in trade with the Duala. This coincided with the abolition movement, and the Crown employed the traders to end slavery in the Gulf of Guinea. On 10 June 1840 and 7 May 1841, Akwa and Bell became the first to sign anti-slavery treaties. In exchange, the Europeans provided these rulers with annual gifts of alcohol, guns, textiles, and other goods. In addition, the rulers outlawed practices the British viewed as barbaric, such as sacrificing a chief's wives upon his death.

The British also wanted to mould the Duala to their own concepts of civilization. This meant educating them in Western learning and converting them to Christianity. Alfred Saker opened a mission in Douala in 1845. By 1875, numerous missions and schools sprung up in Douala and other settlements. The early missionaries learned the Duala language and invented a written form for it, as Bible translation was one of their earliest priorities. Cameroonian Pidgin English began to develop at this time.

Trade dramatically altered Duala society. European goods became status symbols, and some rulers appointed Western traders and missionaries as advisors. A high proportion of Duala grew wealthy through the new trade, and tensions arose between the haves and have-nots. Competition escalated between coastal groups and even between related settlements. Traders exploited this atmosphere and beginning in 1860, German, French, and Spanish merchants had established contacts and weakened the British monopoly. The Duala had gained a virtual hegemony over trade through the Wouri estuary.

In response to the threat from foreign merchants, the British put pressure on the Duala kings to request British annexation. In 1879, King Akwa sent such a request; Bell followed suit in 1881 (some historians believe that these documents were faked, however). When King Pass All of the Limba ceded his territories to the French, British traders expressed the urgency of annexing the Duala territories to the Crown. In July 1884, however, German explorer Gustav Nachtigal staged a coup by signing land-cessation treaties with Kings Akwa, Bell, and Deido. The British arrived too late and on 28 March 1885 ceded Victoria to Germany.

German administration
Opposition to German rule followed the annexation. Prince Lock Priso still favored the British and staged a rebellion in December 1884. Around this same time, King Bell faced off against his own people, who were largely opposed to the German rule. Bell then found himself up against the other Duala chiefs in the Duala War, which was fought over the killing of a Bonaberi Duala and Bell's alleged refusal to share his profits with the other sub-lineages. Germany stopped the conflict when one of its nationals was killed. Bell survived, but his power had diminished significantly.

Realising that the Duala would never again follow the rule of a single king, the Germans instead played the competitors against one another. They supported the weaker King Bell to counter the powerful King Akwa. The Germans initially ruled from Douala, which they called Kamerunstadt, but they moved their capital to the Bakweri settlement of Buea in 1901.

Years of contact with Westerners and a high level of literacy had allowed a literate upper class of clerks, farmers, and traders to emerge. This class were familiar with European law and conventions, which allowed them to pressure the German colonial government with petitions, legal proceedings, and special interest groups to oppose unpopular or unfair policies. A series of these began in 1910, when the German administration initiated a new poll tax, attempted to seize lands in Douala township, and then tried to oust the native population from the town completely. King Bell's successor, King Rudolf Duala Manga Bell tried to rally resistance by sending emissaries to visit the leaders of island groups. Duala Manga Bell had many allies. Cameroonian kings held together. King Bell's closest ally, kindred and best friend was King Ekandjoum Joseph, whom he visited when he was persecuted by the Germans. The latter king resisted and refused until his death to cooperate with the German administration, which he did not trust.

German pretended that Ibrahim Njoya of the Bamum tipped the Germans off, and Bell and his collaborators were executed in 1914 for high treason.

British and French administrations
In 1918, Germany lost World War I, and her colonies became mandates of the League of Nations. France became the new steward of Duala territories.

The Duala continued to prosper. Though the French had largely stripped their kings of power, almost half of the ethnic group's 15–20,000 members were important traders, plantation managers or owners, chiefs, or clerks in the civil service by the 1930s. The rest of the people were fishermen and farmers. By the 1940s, many Duala had attained prominence as builders, as well, servicing the growing cities of Douala and Victoria. The new colonials maintained the German policies of ousting uncooperative rulers and of impressing workers for the plantations. Individuals could opt to pay a fine to avoid the labour, however, which led to a dearth of workers from the wealthier areas. The French thus encouraged people from the interior to move to the coast and work the plantations (settled well away from the influence of the Duala chiefs). These immigrants were primarily Bamileke. The newcomers grew numerically and economically dominant over time, leading to ethnic tensions with the indigenes. By the early 1930s, the Duala were a minority in the town named for them.

On 19 December 1929, four paramount chiefs sent a petition to the League of Nations asking for independence for the Cameroons. Their largest concern, however, was the return of seized Duala lands. This Duala land problem reached a head in 1925 when the French sold lands on the Joss Plateau that the Germans had appropriated. In response to pressure from the Bell clan, the French offered other territory in compensation. The Bells initially refused, but the Great Depression eventually prompted them to accept the French compromise. The Bells gained land in Bali district, and the French promised not to take any of the Akwa or Deido clans' holdings.

In the late 1930s, Alexandre Duala Manga Bell had emerged as the unofficial leader of the Duala proper. In 1937, the French expelled the Duala from Akwa town (an area of Douala), although they allowed them to maintain ownership of the land. During World War II, the French and British showed favouritism toward white-owned plantations, and many Duala-owned farms became unprofitable. Meanwhile, other Cameroonian ethnic groups had caught up to the Duala's lead in education and Westernisation.

At war's end, the United Nations set in motion the decolonisation of Africa. The Duala remained important in this process. For example, many Duala supported the pro-independence Union des Populations du Cameroun party (UPC) when it first formed. Other parties that had either Duala founders or significant backing include the Bloc Démocratique Camerounais (BDC), and Action Nationale (AN).

Geography
The Duala are primarily concentrated in Cameroon's Littoral Province in the Moungo, Nkam, and Wouri divisions. Their settlements lie largely along the coast or just inland. The Wouri estuary, where the Wouri, Mungo, and Dibamba Rivers empty, forms the centre of Duala country. Douala is their traditional capital, and many Duala live in and around the city, although today it has come to reflect the diversity of Cameroon as a whole.

Culture
The Duala today are divided into the urban and rural. Those who live in the cities, particularly Douala itself, earn a living at a number of skilled and unskilled professions. Many Duala still own parts of the city, allowing them to live off rents and development. The rural Duala, in contrast, work as fishermen and farmers, mostly at the subsistence level. Fishing is the trade of choice.

Traditional Duala society was divided into three strata. At the top were the Wonja, native Duala, with full rights of land ownership. The next tier consisted of the Wajili, either non-Duala peoples or the descendants of slaves. Finally, the Wakomi, or slaves, made up the bottom rung. Chiefs and headmen sat at the pinnacle of this hierarchy in the past, though today such figures have very little power in their own right. Instead, such individuals are more likely to own property and to have inherited wealth. Councils of elders and secret societies allow communities to decide important issues.

Language
The Duala language is a member Bantu group, closely related to other Duala languages, a dialect continuum including Malimba. Duala is part of the Niger–Congo language family. Duala is used as a trade languages, due largely to the spread of the tongue by early missionaries. This is particularly true among the neighbouring Wovea, many of whom speak Duala in lieu of their native tongue, and the Isubu, many of whom are bilingual in Duala.

In addition, individuals who have attended school or lived in an urban centre usually speak French, although English and German were more common in historical periods. The rate of literacy is relatively high among the Duala, though this is for reading and writing European languages.

At least until the German period, Duala men used a kind of "drum language", tapping out coded messages to communicate news over long distances.

Marriage and kinship patterns
Duala inheritance is patrilineal; upon the father's death, his property is split among his male heirs. The Duala have traditionally practiced polygamy, although with the introduction of Christianity, this custom has become rarer.

Religion
The Duala have been mostly Christianized since the 1930s. Evangelical denominations dominate, particularly the Baptist church. Nevertheless, remnants of a pre-Christian ancestor worship persist. As might be expected for coastal peoples, the sea also plays an important role in this faith. For example, Duala belief holds that their ancestors live in the sea. In this worldview, demi-human water spirits known as Miengu (singular: Jengu) live in the waters and mediate between worshippers and God. Traditional festivals held each year serve as the most visible expression of these traditional beliefs in modern times.

Sports

Pirogue racing has traditionally been the most important sport among the Duala. The sport reached its peak during the German colonial period, when organisers held races annually on 27 January (the Kaiser's birthday). Under the French, they became semiannual, occurring on 14 July (Bastille Day) and 11 November (Armistice Day). A typical Duala racing pirogue is 20–28 metres long with no keel and a bow carved with intricate designs. A team of 40-50 canoeists, mostly men who make their livings as fishermen, mans each vessel. In the past, diviners used the results of these races to predict the future, but today a Christian priest presides instead. Up to the late 1930s, a family on Jebale Island claimed to be able to summon the Miengu water spirits to help favoured participants.

Beginning in the 1930s, football has grown to eclipse other sports in popularity.

Institutions
Assemblies, secret societies, and other groups play an important role in keeping the Duala unified, helping them set goals, and giving them a venue to find solutions to common problems. Chief among these is the Ngondo, an assembly of important chiefs. Another of these is the muemba (plural: miemba), a grouping of all Duala of a certain age range or tribal clan. The miemba serve to let their members network and socialise. Other secret societies include the Ekongolo, Jengu, Losango, and Munji.

Classification
The Duala are Bantu in language and origin. More narrowly, they fall into the Sawa, or the coastal peoples of Cameroon.

Subgroups
In addition to the tribal distinctions already noted, the Duala further sort themselves into a number of lineages or clans. Among the Duala proper, these are the Bonanjo (including the Bonapriso), the Bonaku, the Bonabela, and the Bonaberi. These names represent the principal families in each clan: Njo, Priso, Akwa, Ebele-Deido, and Bell, respectively. In addition, the Duala sometimes include the Bodiman, Pongo, and Wuri among their ranks, but not as sub-lineages.

Notable Personalities: -Dany Priso -Jean Pierre Nsame -Christopher Wooh -Nicolas Elame -Dinos -Killamel -Mina Eyango -Engelbert Beleck Bell -Karl Etta Eyong -Felix Eboa Eboa -William Eyang -Eric Junior Dina Ebimbe -Gael Ebongue Makoube -Steve Mike Eyango -Kelly Anne Douala Edimo -Franck Dipita Njoh -Karl Toko Ekambi -Jacques Eyoum -Paul Roland Bebey Kingue -Blaise Eyong -Luderic Etonde -Henri Bedimo Nsame -Rose Mbenga Eyango -Nico Njalla -Marvin Elimbi -Karsten Ayong -Pierre Alexandre Douala Dipita -Prosper Mbongue-Muna -Thierry N'Joh-Eboa -Irene Bell Bonong -Cedric Doumbe -Alain Eyenga -Mike Priso -Henry Njalla Quan

title: Duala people


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Angels and Insects

Angels and Insects (sometimes styled as Angels & Insects) is a 1995 romantic drama film directed by Philip Haas and starring Mark Rylance, Patsy Kensit, and Kristin Scott Thomas. It was written by Philip and Belinda Haas with A. S. Byatt after her 1992 novella Morpho Eugenia (included in her book Angels and Insects). The film received an Academy Award nomination for Best Costume Design.

Plot
William Adamson (Mark Rylance), a naturalist, returns to Victorian England, staying with his benefactor, Sir Harold Alabaster (Jeremy Kemp), a wealthy Baronet. He has lost his possessions in a shipwreck, returning from an extended expedition to the Amazon. Now dependent upon his patron, William is employed to catalog Sir Harold's specimen collection and teach his younger children the natural sciences, assisting their governess, the unassuming Matty Crompton (Kristin Scott Thomas).

William becomes enamoured of Sir Harold's eldest daughter, Eugenia (Patsy Kensit). Eugenia is softly spoken, anxious, and mourning the recent death of her fiancé. Despite his impoverishment, Eugenia proves receptive and accepts his marriage proposal. Although Sir Harold grants his approval, Eugenia's snobbish and spoilt brother Edgar (Douglas Henshall) dislikes William's humble origins.

Soon after the marriage, Eugenia becomes pregnant. Eugenia's behaviour alternates between coldness, locking William out of her room, and intense sexual passion. The couple has four more children. She names one son Edgar, in her family's tradition, annoying William. He spends much of his time with the Alabaster children and Matty, observing an ant colony in the forest, with a view to writing a book. Returning via the stables from an excursion, William discovers Edgar raping a teenage servant. Edgar tells William that she consented, but she is clearly terrified. William forms a bond with Matty, who encourages his scientific activities and displays a strong intelligence. The book is successfully published.

One day, William is summoned from the hunt to the house by a servant who claims Eugenia wants him. Entering the bedroom, he finds Eugenia and Edgar engaging in incestuous sex. Eugenia confesses that this has occurred since childhood and that her fiancé committed suicide in consequence. She says that when it started she was too young to understand but, after she saw herself through the eyes of her fiancé, she felt guilty. In tears, Eugenia explains that she tried to stop, but that Edgar's will was too strong. William realises that he has been used to conceal the incest and that the children (who bear no resemblance to him) are Edgar's.

Matty reveals her knowledge of the affair to William during a Scrabble-like game. Later, she explains that the servants were also aware and arranged for him to find out. Expressing frustration at her life and dependency on the Alabasters, Matty reveals that she has published her own book on the insects and has bought tickets for a ship for the Amazon. William is reluctant; despite his attraction, he feels that the rain forest is unsuitable for a woman. After she assures him of her strength and love for him, William acquiesces.

Before leaving, William meets Eugenia and tells her he intends never to return but will continue to financially support their children. He also promises to keep her secret, for fear of injuring her ailing father, and hopes she may find a way to live with her guilt. William and Matty depart in a coach for Liverpool, eager to begin their new adventure and leave the past behind.

Cast

 * Mark Rylance as William Adamson
 * Kristin Scott Thomas as Matty Crompton
 * Patsy Kensit as Eugenia Alabaster Adamson
 * Jeremy Kemp as Sir Harold Alabaster
 * Douglas Henshall as Edgar Alabaster
 * Annette Badland as Lady Alabaster
 * Chris Larkin as Robin
 * Anna Massey as Miss Mead
 * Saskia Wickham as Rowena Alabaster
 * Lindsay Thomas as Lady Alabaster's Maid
 * Michelle Sylvester as Margaret Alabaster
 * Clare Lovell as Elaine Alabaster
 * Jenny Lovell as Edith Alabaster
 * Oona Haas as Alice Alabaster
 * Angus Hodder as Guy Alabaster
 * John Veasey as Arthur
 * Margaret Golder as Nurse
 * Paul Ready as Tom
 * Naomi Gudge as Martha
 * John Jenkins as Ralph Blackwood
 * Clare Redman as Amy

Production
The film was made on location at Arbury Hall in Nuneaton, Warwickshire, the home of the 3rd Viscount Daventry. The costumes worn by Kensit and the other actresses were designed in bright colors and bold patterns to evoke the appearance of insects, which would earn the film an Academy Award nomination for Best Costume Design. In the marriage proposal scene, Patsy Kensit's gown was treated with female sex hormones to attract the moths to her. 6,000 ants were brought in initially for the forest colony scenes, but they walked off before filming. Another 6,000 were brought in as a replacement, only for the original 6,000 to return.

Release and reception
The film was entered into competition at the Cannes Film Festival in May 1995 and screened at the London Film Festival on 5 November. It received a limited release in the US on 26 January 1996. Critical reception was very strong, with the performances and production values being particularly praised. Janet Maslin claimed the film had "...formidable intensity and haunting beauty" and Roger Ebert awarded it 3.5 Stars. Edward Guthmann of the San Francisco Chronicle thought that Haas directed the film "...with elegance and control, and seasons the sexier, more melodramatic elements of his tale with subtle, slightly mocking irony."

Time Out concluded that Angels and Insects "...is not your average period drama...the costumes, design, music and camerawork steer clear of naturalism, highlighting both the modernity of the approach and the notions of humans as creatures to be observed dispassionately. Despite some uneven pacing and variability in performance, this is a work of clarity, ambition and intelligence."

In the US the film was released on VHS on 21 February 2000, on DVD 19 March 2002. In the UK the film was released on 3 February 2003 on both DVD and VHS.

Awards

 * Nominated - Academy Award (1997) for Best Costume Design (Paul Brown)
 * Nominated - Cannes Film Festival (1995) for the Golden Palm for Best Director (Philip Haas)
 * Won - Evening Standard British Film Award (1996) for Best Actress (Kristin Scott Thomas)
 * Won - National Board of Review (1996) Special Recognition for Excellence in Filmmaking

title: Angels and Insects


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Ford Fairlane (Americas)

The Ford Fairlane is an automobile model that was sold between the 1955 and 1970 model years by Ford in North America. Taking its name from the Dearborn, Michigan estate of Henry Ford, the Fairlane nameplate was used for seven different generations of vehicles. Through its production, the model line would be marketed in a wide variety of body styles, including two-door and four-door sedans, two-door and four-door hardtops, station wagons, and both traditional and retractable-hardtop convertibles.

Initially introduced as the flagship of the full-size Ford range, the Fairlane marked the introduction of the Crown Victoria and 500 nameplates, both later becoming stand-alone full-size model lines (the latter, as the Ford Five Hundred).

Following the introduction of the Ford Galaxie, the Fairlane 500 (and Fairlane) became Ford's base models, equivalent to the Chevrolet Bel Air and Biscayne respectively, until 1962, when it was repackaged as an intermediate-segment car (today, mid-size) from 1962 to 1970. For 1971, Ford expanded the Ford Torino nameplate across its entire intermediate range, dropping the Fairlane (and Falcon) nameplates in North America. In South America, the sixth generation Fairlane was marketed through 1981; Ford Australia used the nameplate on its own version of the Fairlane (a long-wheelbase Ford Falcon) through the 2007 model year.

First generation (1955–1956)
For the 1955 model year the Fairlane name replaced the Crestline as Ford's premier full-sized offering. Six different body styles were offered, including the Crown Victoria Skyliner with a tinted, transparent plastic roof, the regular Crown Victoria coupe with much stainless steel trim, a convertible Sunliner, the Victoria hardtop coupe, and traditional sedans. All featured the trademark stainless-steel "Fairlane stripe" on the side. Power options were a 223 CID straight-6 engine and a 272 CID V8. The 292 CID Y-block was offered as an option and was called the Thunderbird V-8.

The Fairlane 4-door Town Sedan was the most popular sedan Ford sold that year, having manufactured 254,437 with a listed retail price of US$1,960 ($0 in dollars ).

Few changes were made for 1956; a four-door Victoria hardtop and two new, more powerful V8 options, of 292 CID and 312 CID, the latter available up to 225 bhp, were introduced. The Lifeguard safety package was introduced. The two-door Victoria hardtop featured a new and slimmer roofline. A one-year only two-door station wagon, the 1956 Ford Parklane, featured Fairlane-level trim. It was marketed to compete against the Chevrolet Nomad.

Second generation (1957–1959)
For 1957, a new style gave a longer, wider, lower, and sleeker look with low tailfins. The new proportions and modern styling were a hit with customers to the extent that the Ford outsold Chevrolet in 1957 for the first time since 1935. A new top trim level, the Fairlane 500 was added to the Fairlane model line and the Country Squire continued to be the luxury station wagon while the Country Sedan was now added to the Fairlane model line, while engine choices were largely the same as the year before. The big news for 1957 was the introduction of the Fairlane 500 Skyliner power retractable hardtop, whose solid top hinged and folded down into the trunk space at the touch of a button, while the Ford Ranchero 2-door coupe utility was also introduced.

Another facelift for 1958 had fashionable quad headlights, a grille that matched the 1958 Thunderbird, and other styling changes. New big-block FE V8s of 332 and 352 CID (5.4 L and 5.8 L) replaced the previous largest V8s, and a better three-speed automatic transmission was also available with a steering column transmission gear selector lever.

A new top-level full-sized model was introduced at mid-year 1959, the Ford Galaxie. The 1959 Galaxie displayed both "Fairlane 500" and "Galaxie" badging.

Third generation (1960–1961)
Full-sized Fairlane and Fairlane 500 models were restyled for 1960 and again for the 1961 model year. The Galaxie series continued as the top-of-the-line full-sized Ford. Fairlane 500s demoted to mid-level in the lineup and were equivalent to the Chevrolet Bel Air. Fairlanes were primarily sold as base level trim models for fleet use (taxi, police). Two bodystyles were available, a 2-door pillared sedan (Club Sedan and Business Sedan) and a 4-door pillared sedan (Town Sedan).

While the 1960 de luxe Galaxie and Fairlane 500 series sported a tri-color Ford crest on the hood, base Fairlanes had "FORD" in chrome block letters across their hoods. For 1961, all models got the block letters on their hoods.

The big-block 390 CID V8 was available in 1961 as the top-horsepower option, as the "horsepower wars" in Detroit continued.

Fourth generation (1962–1965)
The Fairlane name was moved to Ford's new intermediate, introduced for the 1962 model year, to bridge the gap between the compact Ford Falcon and the full-sized Galaxie, making it a competitor for GM's A-body "senior compacts", the Plymouth Belvedere, and the AMC Rambler. With an overall length of 197 in (5004 mm) and a wheelbase of 115.5 in (2934 mm), it was 16 in (406 mm) longer than the Falcon and 12.3 in (312 mm) shorter than the Galaxie. Wheel track varied from 53.5 in (1355 mm) to 56 in (1422 mm) depending on model and specification.

Like the Falcon, the Fairlane had a unibody frame, but the body incorporated an unusual feature Ford dubbed torque boxes, four boxed structures in the lower body structure designed to absorb road shock by moving slightly in the vertical plane. Suspension was a conventional short-long arm independent arrangement in front, with Hotchkiss drive in the rear. The Fairlane was initially offered only in two-door or four-door sedan body styles.

The Fairlane's standard engine was the 170 CID (2.8 L) six, but as an option, it introduced Ford's new, lightweight small-block Windsor V8, initially with a displacement of 221 CID (3.6 L) and 145 hp (108 kW); a 260 CID (4.2 L) "Challenger" version with an advertised 164 hp was added at mid-year. The Sports Coupe option débuted mid-year and featured bucket seats and a small floor console. The trim level supplemented the Fairlane and Fairlane 500 trim levels (the 500 model had more decorative trim, such as a wider chrome stripe down the side and three bullets on the rear quarter panels). The Challenger 289 CID engine was introduced in mid-1963, with solid lifters and other performance pieces helping the engine produce an advertised 271 hp; however, it was equipped with single exhaust like the less powerful engines. This engine was coded "K" in the vehicle identification number. Exterior identification was by fender-mounted "V" badges that read "289 High Performance". That same year, station wagons arrived, called the Ranch Wagon and Ranch Custom Wagon. All 1962 Fairlanes had "B" posts despite the popularity of the pillarless hardtop and convertible styles in that era.

Ford saw the problem and introduced two pillarless hardtop coupes for 1963, in Fairlane 500 and Sports Coupe trim. For 1963 and later Sports Coupe models, the center console, which had come from the Falcon parts bin for 1962, was changed to be similar to that of the Galaxie. Sports Coupe models got a floor-mounted shift lever for the center console when Cruise-O-Matic or 4-speed manual transmissions were specified; however when the two-speed Fordomatic was ordered, the shift lever was installed on the steering column (and the console was the same without the shifter). Front-end styling for the 1963 models mimicked the big Galaxie models, but the rear end retained the small tailfins and "pieplate" tail lamp styling cues. The Squire wagon (a fake woodie) was available for 1963 only, including one model with front bucket seats. The "Swing-Away" steering wheel became an option in 1964.

The 1964 and 1965, Fairlane ranges consisted of similar body styles: base Fairlane and Fairlane 500 two-door coupes and four-door sedans, and Fairlane 500 and Sports Coupe two-door hardtops. As in 1963, the Sports Coupe got its own standard "spinner" wheel covers and extra exterior brightwork. Large "Sports Coupe" scripts graced the "C" pillars. The Fairlane Squire wagon was dropped, but the standard station wagon was continued. The 221 V8 was dropped after 1963, leaving the six as the base engine and the 260 as the base V8. The "K-code" 271-horsepower 289 V8 continued into 1964, gaining dual exhausts, while a 195 hp version of the 289 with a two-barrel carburetor and hydraulic lifters was introduced. The two-speed Fordomatic continued as the automatic transmission choice for the 260 in 1964, while 289 V8s got the three-speed Cruise-O-Matic transmission option. All 1965 models featured 14 in wheels as standard, in place of the earlier 13 in wheels, and Fordomatic was finally phased out, leaving the Cruise-O-Matic as the only automatic available for the Fairlane. The 260 was also dropped after 1964, leaving the two-barrel 289 as the base V8. Styling-wise, in 1964, a new grille and headlight bezels were introduced, the tail fins were dropped, some chrome decorating on the side was changed, and the shape of the trunk lid changed. Styling features for 1965 included body-color headlight bezels for the deluxe models and rectangular taillight lenses, a return to the 1962-1963 trunk lid, along with less chrome on the body and a small standup hood ornament.

Australian and New Zealand models had longer cut-outs in the rear bumper to accommodate their license plates.

Australian models had the "reverse light" tail light which was used for an amber rear turn signal.

Thunderbolt
As the muscle car market took shape, Ford built a small number of Fairlane two door hard tops prepared for drag racing during the 1963 season. These cars were running the 289 and were set up at Dearborn Steel Tubing that built the special cars for Ford special vehicle operations . These soon evolved into the "Thunderbolts" for 1964. The racing Thunderbolt was a two-door post car, heavily modified to incorporate Ford's new 427 CID (7.0 L) V8 race engine with two four-barrel carburetors on a high-riser manifold, ram-air through the openings left by deleting the inboard headlights, equal-length headers, trunk-mounted battery, several fiberglass parts (hood, door skins, fenders, and front bumper), acrylic glass windows, and other lightweight options, including deleted rear-door window winders, carpeting, radio, sealant, sun visors, armrests, jack, lug wrench, heater, soundproofing, and passenger-side windshield wiper. The cars wore Fairlane 500 trim, and were only offered with the two-door sedan body. This special model, of which 111 to 127 total were made (sources disagree), delivered 657 hp (490 kW) at 7,500 rpm and was known as the Thunderbolt.

Racing in NHRA Super Stock (which required only fifty cars be available to the public ), on 7 in-wide tires, the Thunderbolt was based on the midlevel Fairlane 500 two-door pillared sedan, and in 1964 set elapsed time and top speed records at 11.6 seconds and 124 mph (200 km/h). took the Super Stock title (with Gas Ronda taking the honors ), and won the Manufacturer's Cup. The car as delivered was slightly too light to meet NHRA's 3200-lb (1451-kg) minimum weight unless it was raced with a full tank of gasoline, which would bring it to 3203 lb (1453 kg). NHRA rules at the time required a metal front bumper, so the cars began to be supplied with an aluminum bumper and previous purchasers were supplied with one.

Thunderbolt production was ended due to NHRA rule changes for Super Stock competition, requiring 500 vehicles be built to be entered in that class. Ford had been losing $1500 to $2000 on each Thunderbolt sold at the sticker price of $3900. The first 11 Thunderbolts were painted maroon (known as Vintage Burgundy in Ford literature), the rest white; 99 had manual transmissions. Many are still raced. About 50 similar Mercury Cyclones were also produced by Ford in 1964, destined to be modified to represent Ford in A/FX competition, which they dominated, as well. These vehicles varied greatly in wheel track due to customer options for varying suspension and wheel/tire combinations. Front tracks from 54 to 56 in and rear tracks from 53.5 to 55.5 in were common.

Fifth generation (1966–1967)
For 1966 the Fairlane became a long wheelbase longer body version of the revised Falcon platform with the mid size wagon bodies common to both model lines. The appearance was changed to match the full-sized Ford Galaxie, which had been restyled in the 1965 model year, and adopted vertically stacked dual headlights. The XL, GT, and GTA packages were introduced, as well as a convertible to join the existing range of sedans, hardtops, and station wagons. The "K-code" 289 CID engine was dropped this year. The GT featured a 390 CID FE V8 as standard, while the GTA also included the newly introduced the SportShift Cruise-o-Matic automatic transmission. The GT/GTA 390 CID engine developed 335 bhp with higher compression, and had a four-barrel carburetor. Mid year, Ford produced 57 special Fairlane 500 two-door hardtops with "R-code" 427 CID V8 engine rated at 425 bhp at 6000 rpm and 480 lbft at 3700 rpm of torque, equipped with Ford's "Top-Loader" four-speed manual transmission. Built to qualify the engine/transmission combination for NHRA and IHRA Super Stock racing, they were white and had fiberglass hoods with a forward-facing hood scoop which ended at the edge of the hood. The Fairlane Squire wagon was reintroduced for 1966.

Minor trim changes were introduced for 1967 as the Fairlane was mildly facelifted. For the 1967 model year the Ranchero pickup based on the same platform switched from using the Falcon front end styling to the Fairlane front end design. The 289 CID small-block was the base V8, with a 200 CID six standard, with the 390 CID optional (with either two- or four-barrel carburetor, at 275 and 320 bhp, respectively). The 427s were still available, either with a single four-barrel carburetor or dual quad carbs, developing 410 (W-code) and 425 bhp (R-code), 427s were available on XL models, but very few were built.

Adapted across the entire range of Ford models for 1967, Fairlanes included a number of federal government-mandated safety features, including a new energy-absorbing steering column with a large padded steering wheel hub, soft interior trim, four-way hazard flashers, a dual-chamber braking system, and shoulder belt anchors. The convertible had a tempered safety glass rear window.

Two different two-door coupe models were offered. The lower-end Fairlane Club Coupe had pillars separating the door glass and rear side glass, while the higher trim level Fairlanes were pillarless two-door hardtops, similar to the convertibles.

Sixth generation (1968–1969)
A redesign was introduced for the 1968 model year, and continued the similarity to the Ford Galaxie series. The wheelbase remained at 116 in, but it grew in other dimensions. They were about four inches (102 mm) longer and 200 lb heavier than the cars they replaced. A fastback Sportsroof model was introduced in the Fairlane 500 series, as well as a more luxurious Torino model at the top of the intermediate range, contributing 172,083 of the Fairlane's 371,787 units sold that year.

In a cost-saving decision, the station wagons carried over the 1966-67 bodies from the cowl back. The Ranch Wagon model name was deleted; Fairlane wagons had either the base or the 500 trim. Base hardtop sales more than doubled, to 44,683 units.

The base engine was the 200 CID I6, with several optional V8s. Early production 1968 base V8 Fairlanes were equipped with the two-barrel 289 CID, while later units came with the 302 CID. The GTs were part of the Torino range, with the 302 CID V8 standard, with optional engines being the 390 CID V8 in two- and four-barrel versions. The 390 four-barrel was supplanted mid-year as the top performance engine by the 428 CID Cobra Jet, developing 335 bhp. There was also a 428 CID Super Cobra Jet. For 1969, the Fairlane 500, Ranchero, and Torino GT/GTA were also offered with the new 351W CID with a two-barrel producing 250 HP and only in the Torino GT/GTA the 351W four-barrel with 290 HP could be ordered.

The Ranchero coupe utility body style was available in standard, 500, and GT versions.

The Cobra was introduced in 1969 as a competitor for Plymouth's Road Runner. Basic models featured the 302 CID V8 and three-speed manual transmission as standard. Options included the 390 CID and two 428 CID V8s. The Cobras had a standard 428 CID V8 rated at 335 bhp, while options included bucket seats, hood scoop, clock, tachometer, power disc brakes, and 4.30:1 rear axle gearing. "Regular" Fairlanes and Rancheros continued, all with bucket-seat options.

Seventh generation (1970)
Ford's intermediates grew again in 1970, now with a 117 in wheelbase. At the start of the model year, only the Fairlane 500 remained as the base trim model in what was now effectively the Torino series.

The straight six-cylinder was the economy power, while largest engine was now a 429 CID with four-barrel carburetor and 360 bhp. Different heads were optional and gave the Cobra 370 bhp and higher compression. Other options included the Cobra Jet Ram Air 429, though Ford quoted the same power output, and the Drag Pack rated at 375 bhp. However, the 1970s were slower than the 1969s, and race teams were forced to run the older models.

The Falcon name was transferred from Ford's now discontinued, in the US, compact to a basic, even lower-trim version of the intermediate platform as a "1970½" model on January 1, 1970. This series included a two-door sedan which was not available in the higher trim lines. For 1971, the Falcon and Fairlane 500 names were dropped, as all of the intermediate models took the Torino name. The Falcon and Fairlane names continued to be used in Australia through to the 21st century. The Fairlane name continued to be used in Venezuela through 1978 on corresponding Ford Torino and LTD II models.

Ford Fairlane in Argentina
The four-door sedan of the 1968 body style was built in Argentina from 1969 to 1973 and the 1969 body style from 1973 to 1981 under the Fairlane name with three equipment packages: Standard, 500 and LTD. The car was similar to the American model except the engines. The two options were a 221 CID 6-cylinder with 132 hp, and the old 292 phase I (1969–1971) CID "Y-block" V8 which had been last used in the 1964 F-Series truck; it was rated at 185 hp, in 1971 the Ford Motor Company Argentina decided to make an improvement on the 292, was started by the covers mainly the problem of spark plugs was solved by giving an inclination towards the front of the engine that allowed an easier extraction in the car, changed the opening order and exhaust cam, valves larger intake (of the 292 heavy duty American) were placed, fuel lines making them more direct was improved with a new admission very similar to that of the small block 289, 302 pistons maximum compression with lomo brand Buxton were used, raising the compression at 8 to 1, allowing the engine erogue 185 HP at 4500 rpm, another improvement were leaks with individual manifold runners, eliminating the original American system of a manifold connected to another in series, used in trucks, in cars they were always individual. Distributors are different in coupling, calling FASE II. In 1978, the LTD "Elite" option was introduced as the most luxurious made in Argentina. By the end of production in 1981, almost 30,000 Fairlanes had been made.

Ford Fairlane in Venezuela
Ford manufactured the Torino in Venezuela marketed as the Fairlane and Fairlane 500. These cars were identical to the U.S. Torino through 1976 and both base Fairlane and upscale Fairlane 500 used the 1973–1974 Torino base model grille. For 1977–1978 the Fairlane was based on the American LTD II.

2005 concept
At the 2005 Auto Show circuit, Ford revealed a new concept car with the Fairlane nameplate. The "people-mover" Fairlane crossover utility vehicle concept featured three-row seating for six passengers, and previewed the chromed three-bar horizontal grill design, which also appeared on the 2006 Ford Fusion sedan and 2007 Ford Edge crossover utility vehicle."

Production model

 * See Ford Flex

A production version of the Fairlane concept, now called the Ford Flex, debuted at the 2007 New York Auto Show, and entered production for the 2009 model year in summer 2008. Unlike the concept, the production model comes with seven seats. It is built on the Ford D3 platform, which is also used by the Ford Taurus, and Mercury Sable. It is intended to replace the people-mover capability of the Ford Freestar minivan.

title: Ford Fairlane (Americas)


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Authorised firearms officer

An authorised firearms officer (AFO) is a British police officer who is authorised and trained to carry and use firearms. The designation is significant because most police officers in the United Kingdom do not routinely carry firearms. The only forces where officers are routinely armed are the Police Service of Northern Ireland, the Ministry of Defence Police, the Civil Nuclear Constabulary, Belfast Harbour Police and the Belfast International Airport Constabulary.

In 2019/20 fiscal year, there were 19,372 police operations throughout England and Wales in which the deployment of firearms was authorised and 6,518 firearms officers, 4.9% of the 132,467 active full-time equivalent officers. Following the November 2015 Paris attacks, the decision was made to significantly increase the numbers of armed officers, particularly in London.

AFOs can be up-skilled with additional qualifications, such as Armed Response Vehicle Officer (ARVO), Specialist Firearms Officer (SFO), and Counter Terrorist Specialist Firearms Officer (CTSFO), alongside other specialities, including rifles.

Training
The term "authorised firearms officer" became the national standard term for a police officer trained in the use of firearms as a result of reforms in the late 1980s which were prompted by the shooting of Stephen Waldorf. The reforms also standardised the training for armed officers and the rank of an officer who could authorise the issuing of firearms. Armed officers on protection duties, such as those guarding embassies or government buildings or acting as bodyguards for government officials or royalty, were granted a standing authority to carry arms without the need for repeated authorisation.

All police forces in the United Kingdom have an AFO selection process, varying slightly between each force. As with many police specialities, all authorised firearms officers have volunteered for the role. Candidates are required to gain approval from their superiors before embarking on a series of interviews, psychological and physical fitness tests, medical examinations and assessment days, before permission to commence firearms training is given. There is no guarantee of success; candidates can be returned to their previous role at any point in training if they do not meet the required standard.

Once authorised, AFOs must pass regular refresher training and retests in order to maintain their authorisation. Failure to meet the required standards can result in the officer having their firearms authorisation revoked. Health or fitness problems can also result in temporary or permanent suspension from firearms duties.

Specialist firearms officer
A specialist firearms officer (SFO) is an officer who has undergone training to a more advanced level than authorised firearms officer. SFOs receive additional training in areas such as building assault and specialist weapon usage. The common role of an SFO is to assault premises involved in a siege situation, effect high-risk firearms related arrests and respond to terrorist threats.

Counter terrorist specialist firearms officer
A counter terrorist specialist firearms officer (CTSFO) is the highest AFO level in the National Police Firearms Training Curriculum (NPFTC) and was established by the Metropolitan Police Service in the lead up to the 2012 Summer Olympics held in London on 27th of July. The firearms units of police forces organise CTSFOs into teams to establish a police tactical unit.

A national capability to respond to terrorist incidents such as marauding terrorist attacks (MTA) through collaboration of police forces who maintain CTSFO teams was established known as the CTSFO Network.

History
Prior to the Summer Olympics, the highest authorised firearms officer standard was the Specialist Firearms Officer (SFO). The Metropolitan Police Service (MPS) in preparation for the Olympics trained officers to a higher standard, including use of live rounds during close quarters combat (CQC) training and fast-roping from helicopters, to be able to respond more effectively to terrorist incidents. CTSFOs conduct training with United Kingdom Special Forces.

Training was also provided to five territorial police forces, including Thames Valley Police, West Yorkshire Police, West Midlands Police, Greater Manchester Police and Strathclyde Police (now Police Scotland), to form what was named the national Combined Response Firearms Teams (CRFT) capability for the London Olympics and Paralympic Games. The police forces received standardised training and also had standardised procedures, weaponry and equipment to enable interoperability.

CTSFO Network
The CTSFO Network provides a collective response capability to terrorist incidents from police forces with CTSFO teams through regional hubs based nationally. The national Combined Response Firearms Teams established for the Olympics was maintained after the closing of the Games forming the basis of the CTSFO Network. The CTSFO Network has six regional hubs outside London including Scotland.

In 2013, West Midlands Police CTSFOs deployed to London to support the MPS following the Murder of Lee Rigby in Operation Pegboard.

In April 2016, a two-year recruitment drive known as the CTSFO uplift project, part of the Home Office National Armed Uplift Programme, commenced to double the number of CTSFOs and was extended until the end of 2018. In July 2019, the National Police Chiefs' Council reported that the uplift had increased the number of CTSFOs by 63%.

Use of authorised firearms officers
AFOs are used by some specialist units of police forces throughout the United Kingdom, who by nature of their role have a requirement to deploy armed police officers. Such units include the Diplomatic Protection Group of the Metropolitan Police Service, armed response vehicles in various police forces throughout the UK, in airport policing, and officers of the Ministry of Defence Police and the Civil Nuclear Constabulary.

Legal status of the use of firearms
The use of firearms by the police is covered by statute (such as the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 and Human Rights Act 1998), policy (such as the Home Office Code of Practice on Police use of Firearms and Less Lethal Weapons and the ACPO Manual of Guidance on Police Use of Firearms) and common law.

AFOs may only carry firearms when authorised by an "appropriate authorising officer". The appropriate authorising officer must be of the rank of inspector or higher. When working at airports, nuclear sites, on protection duties and deployed in armed response vehicles in certain areas, 'standing authority' is granted to carry personal sidearms. All members of the Police Service of Northern Ireland have authority to carry a personal issue handgun as a matter of routine, both on duty and off.

United Kingdom law allows the use of "reasonable force" in order to make an arrest or prevent a crime or to defend oneself. However, if the force used is fatal, then the European Convention of Human Rights only allows "the use of force which is no more than absolutely necessary". Firearms officers may therefore only discharge their weapons "to stop an imminent threat to life".

ACPO policy states that "use" of a firearm includes both pointing it at a person and discharging it (whether accidentally, negligently or on purpose). As with all use of force in England and Wales, the onus is on the individual officer to justify their actions in court.

Firearms currently used by AFOs
Different police forces in the United Kingdom use different firearms. For forces in England and Wales, guidance is provided from ACPO and the Home Office. Decisions on which weapons will be employed by an individual police force largely rest with the chief constable.

Metropolitan Police
Within the London's Metropolitan Police, there are a number of Operational Command Units (OCUs) that employ AFOs.

 * The Belmarsh Firearms Team protects trials at Woolwich Crown Court
 * The Territorial Support Group has a small pool of AFOs for assisting other armed officers in the event of a major terror attack.
 * The Specialist Crime Directorate arms certain surveillance officers.
 * Most detectives in the Flying Squad are armed.
 * Special Branch deploys armed officers in its surveillance units, and in A Squad, which protects the Prime Minister and other dignitaries.
 * Royalty and Diplomatic Protection, which protects members of the royal family and high level government officials, and guards royal property.
 * Special Escort Group, which escorts and protects high-risk convoys and VIPs such as the King and the prime minister. SEG officers are armed with Glock 17 pistols and Tasers.
 * Parliamentary and Diplomatic Protection, which guards embassies and government buildings. It also provides the armed guards at Parliament to supplement the Palace of Westminster Division, which is unarmed.
 * Aviation Security, which protects Heathrow and London City airports.
 * Specialist Firearms Command (SCO19), which provides armed support to the rest of the service, crewing Armed Response Vehicles responding to spontaneous and pre-planned firearms operations.

Number of firearms officers per police force
The number of firearms officers per police force varies on many factors ranging from the force area population covered, force area jurisdiction covered, force area firearm crime rate, sites regarded at higher risk of threat from terrorism (such as governmental or national infrastructure sites for example), and more. As of 2021, the number of firearms officers per police force ranges from a lower end of 37 in North Wales Police to a higher end of 2,469 in the Metropolitan Police for example. Although the figure for the Metropolitan Police is a uniquely high number compared to police forces outside of London due to certain factors such as London being the UK capital and by far the biggest city by population, being the location of the head of the UK government, monarchy and high-profile political sites (such as 10 Downing Street, Buckingham Palace and the UK Parliament for example), containing over one hundred foreign embassies, and the fact that the Metropolitan Police carry out specialist national policing functions such as Diplomatic and Royalty protection duties UK-wide that all require a substantial number of firearms officers.

In comparison, all other UK police forces number significantly fewer firearms officers with the next biggest five police firearms units being those of Police Scotland with 530, Thames Valley Police with 240, West Yorkshire Police with 227, Greater Manchester Police with 225, and West Midlands Police with 221. The most common number of firearms officers per UK police forces typically ranges between 40 and 100. However this does not include the Police Service of Northern Ireland where all roughly 7,000 officers there are trained to AFO as standard and carry a Glock 17 sidearm as routine. Though the PSNI does also have in the hundreds of officers trained and equipped to ARVO, SFO and CTSFO standards. Additionally, three specialist UK police forces those being the British Transport Police, the Ministry of Defence Police, and the Civil Nuclear Constabulary are not included either. Although to note the BTP is a routinely unarmed police force that maintains its own dedicated firearms unit in the same way as most other police forces in the UK. The other two, the MoD police and the CNC, are however routinely armed police forces with all roughly 3,000 MoD police officers and all roughly 1,500 CNC officers being trained to AFO as standard and carrying the Glock 17 sidearm as routine as well as main primary firearms such as the Heckler and Koch G36, MP7 and MP5.

title: Authorised firearms officer


text:
User talk:Ivirivi00

Welcome
Welcome!

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, please be sure to sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes (~~~~) to produce your name and the current date, or three tildes (~~~) for just your name. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome! pamri 16:29, July 21, 2005 (UTC)
 * The Five Pillars of Wikipedia
 * How to edit a page
 * Editing, policy, conduct, and structure tutorial
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 * If you're ready for the complete list of Wikipedia documentation, there's also Topical index.

Find the rest of the Singapore community!
Yeap, you can find us in these pages:

 * Singapore portal
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 * Singapore-related topics
 * Category:Wikipedians in Singapore
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Do leave your name at the notice board, and thanks again for making Wikipedia your online abode! ;) --Ter e nce Ong (恭喜发财) 08:27, 28 January 2006 (UTC)

Welcome to Esperanza!
Welcome,, to Esperanza, the Wikipedia member association! As you might know, all the Esperanzians share one important goal: the success of this encyclopedia. Within that, we then attempt to strengthen the community bonds, and be the "approachable" side of the project. All of our ideals are held in the Charter, the governing document of the association.

Now that you are a member, you might be interested in some of our programs. A quite important program is the StressUnit, which seeks to support editors who have encountered any stress from their Wikipedia events, and are seeking to leave the project. So far, Esperanza can be credited with the support and retention of several users. We have a calendar of special events, member birthdays, and other holidays that you can add to and follow.

In addition to these projects, several more missions of Esperanza are in development, and are currently being created at Esperanza/Possibles.

I encourage you to take an active voice in the running of Esperanza. We have a small government system, headed by our Administrator general, Celestianpower, and guided by the Advisory Committee, KnowledgeOfSelf, JoanneB, Titoxd and FireFox. The elections have ended.

If you have any other questions, concerns, comments, or general ideas, Esperanzian or otherwise, know that you can always contact me via email or talk page. Alternatively, you could communicate with fellow users via our IRC channel, #wikipedia-esperanza (which is also good for a fun chat or two :). I thank you for joining Esperanza, and look forward to working with you in making Wikipedia a better place to be!

Thanks! -    nath  a  nrdotcom  ( T •  C  • W) 06:48, 12 March 2006 (UTC)

Old Skool Esperanzial note
Since this isn't the result of an AC meeting, I have decided to go Old Skool. This note is to remind you that the elections are taking place now and will end at 23:50 UTC on 2006-04-29. Please vote here. Thanks. --Cel es tianpower háblame 20:42, 23 April 2006 (UTC)

A short Esperanzial update
As you may have gathered, discussions have been raging for about a week on the Esperanza talk page as to the future direction of Esperanza. Some of these are still ongoing and warrant more input (such as the idea to scrap the members list altogether). However, some decisions have been made and the charter has hence been amended. See what happened. Basically, the whole leadership has had a reshuffle, so please review the new, improved charter.

As a result, we are electing 4 people this month. They will replace JoanneB and Pschemp and form a new tranche A, serving until December. Elections will begin on 2006-07-02 and last until 2006-07-09. If you wish to run for a Council position, add your name to the list before 2006-07-02. For more details, see Esperanza/June 2006 elections.

Thanks and kind, Esperanzial regards, —Cel es tianpower háblame 16:00, 23 June 2006 (UTC)

WP:WLA
(♠ Taifar  ious1  ♠) 02:04, 9 December 2007 (UTC)

Wikipedia Loves Art
First off, I apologize for the spam. You are receiving this message because you have indicated that you are in Southern California or interested in Southern California topics (either via category or WikiProject).

I would like to invite you to the Los Angeles edition of Wikipedia Loves Art, a photography scavenger hunt to be held at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA) on Saturday, February 28, 2009, from 1:00 to 7:00 PM. All photos are intended for use in Wikipedia articles or on Wikimedia Commons. There will be a prize available for the person who gets the most photos on the list.

If you don't like art, why not come just to meet your fellow Wikipedians. Apparently, we haven't had a meetup in this area since June 2006!

If you are interested in attending, please add your name to Wikipedia Loves Art. Please make a note if you are traveling to the area (train or plane) and need transportation, which can probably be arranged via carpool, but we need time to coordinate. Lodging is as of right now out of scope, but we could discuss that if enough people are interested.

Thank you and I hope to see you there!  howcheng  {chat} 00:00, 10 January 2009 (UTC)

Wikipedia Meetup
You are invited to "Come Edit Wikipedia!" at the West Hollywood Library on Saturday, July 27th, 2013. There will be coffee, cookies, and good times! -- Olegkagan (talk) — Message delivered by Hazard-Bot at 03:45, 21 July 2013 (UTC)

Wikipedia Meetup
Help build the Wikipedia community in Southern California at "Come Edit Wikipedia!" presented by the West Hollywood Library on Saturday, August 31st, 2013 from 1-5pm. Drop in for some lively editing and conversation! Plus, it's a library, so there are plenty of sources. --Olegkagan (talk) — Message delivered by Hazard-Bot at 02:33, 22 August 2013 (UTC)

Quixotic plea
You are invited to join the discussion at Wikipedia talk:Wikipediholism test. Thanks. —  06:29, 23 May 2015 (UTC)

This Thursday: Women in Architecture edit-a-thon @ Getty Center
You are invited to join the Women in Architecture edit-a-thon @ Getty Center in LA on October 15! (drop-in any time, 10am-4pm)--Pharos (talk) 18:25, 14 October 2015 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 13:05, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

7th Annual Los Angeles Wiknic
It's the 7th Annual Los Angeles Wiknic! Sunday, September 30, 11:00-4:00 PM Pan Pacific Park, 7600 Beverly Blvd, Los Angeles, CA 90036 Hang out. Consume crowd-sourced BBQ! Bask in the glory of late September in Los Angeles (and the glory of our new user group, Wikimedians of Los Angeles). RSVP (and volunteer) here. We hope to see you there! JSFarman (talk) 02:50, 9 September 2018 (UTC) Join our Facebook group, or follow us on Twitter! To opt out of future mailings about LA meetups, please remove your name from this list.

Invitation to attend a Southern California Regional mini Unconference
Who: All Wikipedians & Wikimedians

What: Southern California Regional mini Unconference.

When: Sunday 3 March 2019, 2:00PM PST / 1400 until 4:10PM PST / 1610

Where: Philippe's at Chinatown, Los Angeles

Sponsor: San Diego Wikimedians User Group ( US-SAN )

Your host:

Please add your username to our attendees list so we know how many will be attending, due to the limited size of the cafe.

(Delivered: 00:38, 10 February 2019 (UTC) You can unsubscribe from future invitations to San Diego Wikimedians User Group events by removing your name from the WikiProject San Diego mass mailing list & the Los Angeles mass mailing list.)

Art + Feminism 2019
- MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 04:06, 3 March 2019 (UTC)

Southern California Wiknic & Bonfire invitation
 Meetup-San Diego-September 2K19 Who: All members of the public

What: Southern California Wiknic & Bonfire.

When: Sunday 1 September 2019, 2:00PM PDT / 1400 until 10:00PM PDT / 2200

Where: La Jolla Shores

Sponsor: San Diego Wikimedians User Group ( US-SAN )

Your host:

Please add your username to our attendees list so we know how many will be attending, and please add your intended potluck contribution to the list.

Sent by MediaWiki message delivery (talk) on behalf of WikiProject San Diego at 18:27, 1 August 2019 (UTC). You can unsubscribe from future invitations to San Diego Wikimedians User Group events by removing your name from the WikiProject San Diego mass mailing list, and from the Southern California meet-up group by removing your name from the LA meet-ups mailing list.

Happy New Year from Wikimedians of Los Angeles!
--JSFarman (talk) 02:08, 4 January 2022 (UTC)

June 8, 2024
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 15:21, 30 May 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ivirivi00