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History of Frankfurt

The city of Frankfurt am Main started on a hill at a ford in the Main River. The city developed into a financial centre, nicknamed the smallest metropolis in the world.

Early history
Frankfurt is located in what was originally a swampy portion of the Main valley, a lowland criss-crossed by channels of the river. The oldest parts are therefore to be found on the higher portions of the valley, through which passed the Roman road from Mainz (Roman Moguntiacum) to Heddernheim (Roman Nida). The Odenwald and Spessart ranges surrounded the area, lending a defensive advantage, and placenames show that the lowlands on both sides of the river were originally wooded.

The oldest part of the Altstadt, the old city center, is the Cathedral Hill (Domhügel), upon an island created by arms of the Main. Only from the West could it be reached by foot without getting wet; this, together with its location at a ford, gave it significant military and economic advantages.

Stray archeological finds on the Domhügel go back to the Paleolithic, but the first proven settlement and land development date to the Roman era. It is assumed that the Romans settled on the hill in the last quarter of the 1st century CE; amongst other things, a Roman bath has been found, which may have belonged to a larger complex, possibly a fortress. Apparently the military occupation was abandoned during the 2nd century and replaced by a villa. Several farm buildings have also been excavated. A similar building complex was discovered at the modern Günthersburgpark in the Frankfurt-Bornheim portion of the city.

With the retreat of the Roman border to the west bank of the Rhine in 259/260, the Roman history of Frankfurt came to an end.

Early Middle Ages
The name Frankfurt first appears in writing in the year 793, but it seems to have already been a considerable city. In 794 a letter from the Emperor to the bishop of Toledo contained "in loco celebri, qui dicitur Franconofurd", which reads "that famous place, which is called Frankfurt."

It seems Cathedral Hill was already permanently settled in Merovingian times (possibly first by Romans). In 1992 excavations at the cathedral found the rich grave of a girl, that has been dated to the late Merovingian period of the 7th century.

Charlemagne built himself a royal court at "Franconovurd", the "ford of the Franks", and in the summer of 794 held a church council there, convened by the grace of God, authority of the pope, and command of Charlemagne (canon 1), and attended by the bishops of the Frankish kingdom, Italy and the province of Aquitania, and even by ecclesiastics from England. The council was summoned primarily for the condemnation of Adoptionism. According to the testimony of contemporaries two papal legates were present, Theophylact and Stephen, representing Pope Adrian I. After an allocution by Charlemagne, the bishops drew up two memorials against the Adoptionists, one containing arguments from patristic writings; the other arguments from Scripture. The first was the Libellus sacrosyllabus, written by Paulinus, Patriarch of Aquileia, in the name of the Italian bishops; the second was the Epistola Synodica, addressed to the bishops of Spain by those of the Empire, Gaul and Aquitania. In the first of its fifty-six canons the council condemned Adoptionism, and in the second repudiated the Second Council of Nicaea of 787, which, according to the faulty Latin translation of its Acts (see Caroline Books), seemed to decree that the same kind of worship should be paid to images as to the Blessed Trinity, though the Greek text clearly distinguishes between latreia and proskynesis; this constituted a condemnation of iconoclasm. The remaining fifty-four canons dealt with metropolitan jurisdiction, monastic discipline, superstition etc.

Louis the Pious, Charlemagne's son, selected Frankfurt as his seat, extended the palatinate, built a larger palace, and in 838 had the city encircled by defensive walls and ditches.

After the Treaty of Verdun (843), Frankfurt became to all intents and purposes the capital of East Francia and was named Principalis sedes regni orientalis (principal seat of the eastern realm). Kings and emperors frequently stayed in Frankfurt, and Imperial Diets and church councils were repeatedly held there. The establishment of religious monasteries and numerous endowments to the local church furthered the urban community. Also, as the Holy Roman Emperor had no permanent residence anymore, Frankfurt remained the center of imperial power and the principal city of Eastern Francia.

Late Middle Ages
After the era of lesser importance under the Salian and Saxon emperors, a single event once again brought Frankfurt to the fore: it was in the local church in 1147 that Bernard of Clairvaux called, amongst others, the Hohenstaufen king Conrad III to the Second Crusade. Before leaving for Jerusalem, Conrad selected his ten-year-old son as heir, but the boy died before his father. Due to this, an election was held in Frankfurt five years later, and after the emperor Frederick Barbarossa was elected, Frankfurt became the customary place for the election of the German kings.

Free Imperial City of Frankfurt
By 1180 the city had expanded greatly, and by 1250 had seen an increase in privileges in addition to economic growth. A free imperial city under the Hohenstaufen emperors, Frankfurt experienced strong growth and rising national importance. Responsibility for the maintenance of public order lay with the bailiffs and reeves; however, the citizens selected their own mayors and officials, who were responsible for some judicial duties. These officials enjoyed the favor of the emperors, who had eliminated the reeves entirely by the end of the Hohenstaufen dynasty. Soon, Frankfurt became a fully self-governing Imperial estate with seat and vote on the Rhineland bench of the College of towns of the Imperial Diet. On the Reichsmatrikel (Imperial tax-schedule) of 1521, Frankfurt's contribution to the defense of the Empire was assessed at 500 gulden, 140 foot soldiers and 20 horsemen, ranking fifth among the 85 free imperial cities, behind Nuremberg, Ulm, Strasburg and Lübeck.

Early modern period
Starting from the 16th century, trade and the arts flowered in Frankfurt. Science and innovation progressed, and the invention of the printing press in nearby Mainz promoted education and knowledge. From the 15th to 17th centuries, the most important book fair in Germany was held in Frankfurt, a custom which would be revived in 1949.

In the early 17th century tensions between the guilds and the patricians, who dominated the city council, led to substantial unrest. The guilds asked for greater participation in urban and fiscal policies as well as for economic restrictions of the Jewish community's rights. In 1612, following the election of Emperor Matthias, the council rejected the Guild's request, to read out publicly the imperial privileges given to the city. This caused the Fettmilch uprising, named after its leader, the baker Vincenz Fettmilch. A part of the populace, mainly craftsmen, rose up against the city council. In 1614, the mob began a pogrom in the city's Jewish ghetto, and the emperor had to ask Mainz and Hessen-Darmstadt to restore order.

In the Thirty Years' War, Frankfurt was able to maintain its neutrality; the city council had avoided siding with one opponent or another after its negative experiences in the Schmalkaldic War. This issue became critical between 1631 and 1635, when the Swedish regent Gustav Adolf came to Frankfurt demanding accommodation and provisions for himself and his troops. But the city mastered these adversities more easily than what was to follow the war: the plague ravaged the city, as it would most of Europe at this time. In the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, Frankfurt was confirmed as an Imperial Free City, and soon reached new heights of prosperity. The Palais Barckhaus at Zeil in Frankfurt even served as residence of Emperor Charles VII until 1744.

From the French Revolution to the end of the Free State
During the French Revolutionary War, General Custine occupied Frankfurt in October 1792. On December 2 of the same year, the city was retaken.

In January 1806, General Augereau occupied the city with 9,000 men and extorted 4 million francs from it. Frankfurt's status as a free city ended when it was granted to Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg in the same year. In 1810 Dalberg's territories were reorganized into the Grand Duchy of Frankfurt.

During this time, the city experienced serious changes in the structure and construction of the town. Centuries-old defensive walls were dismantled, replaced by garden plots. It was felt that one no longer need fear cannon fire, even without walls. On July 1, 1808, Goethe's mother wrote to her son Wolfgang: "Die alten Wälle sind abgetragen, die alten Tore eingerissen, um die ganze Stadt ein Park." (The old barriers are levelled, the old gates torn down, around the whole city a park.)

On November 2, 1813, the allies drew together in Frankfurt, to re-establish its old rights and set up a central administrative council under Baron vom Stein. The Congress of Vienna clarified that Frankfurt was a Free City of the German federation, and in 1816 it became the seat of the Bundestag. This government seat occupied the Palais Thurn und Taxis. When Goethe visited his native city for the last time in 1815, he encouraged the councilmen with the words: "A free spirit befits a free city…..It befits Frankfurt to shine in all directions and to be active in all directions."

The city took good heed of this advice. When in 1831 Arthur Schopenhauer, a lecturer at the time, moved from Berlin to Frankfurt, he justified it with the lines: "Healthy climate, beautiful surroundings, the amenities of large cities, the Natural History Museum, better theater, opera, and concerts, more Englishman, better coffee houses, no bad water… and a better dentist."

In 1833 a revolutionary movement attempted to topple the Diet of the royalist German Confederation, which sat at Frankfurt, and was quickly put down.

The Revolutions of 1848 and their aftermath
The Revolutions of 1848, also known as the March Revolution, forced Klemens von Metternich, the reactionary Austrian head of state, to step down. This was celebrated wildly in Frankfurt. On 30 March 1848 one could see black, red, and gold flags everywhere, and the populace was admonished not to shoot into the air.

On 18 May 1848, the National Assembly held its first meeting in the Frankfurter Paulskirche. The last meeting was held there a year later, on 31 May 1849. Frankfurt was at this point the center of all political life in Germany. The party transformation and the excitement were the most violent there; riots, particularly among those living in the Sachsenhausen quarter, had to be suppressed with force of arms on 7–8 July 1848 as well as on 18 September.

The next fifteen years saw new industrial laws focusing on complete freedom of trade, and political Emancipation of the Jews, initiated ten years before its final realization in 1864.

Starting in August 1863, a political gathering focused on German federal reform met in Frankfurt, including the national congress and the opposing reform congress. The Kingdom of Prussia did not show up, however, and the reform failed, leading to the Austro-Prussian War in 1866. Frankfurt was annexed by Prussia as a result of the war, and the city was made part of the province of Hesse-Nassau.

Early Nazi period
In 1933 the Jewish mayor (Oberbürgermeister) Ludwig Landmann was replaced by NSDAP member Friedrich Krebs. This led to the firing of all Jewish officials in the city administration and from city organizations. A meeting of Frankfurt traders, who wanted to discuss the boycott of Jewish businesses, was broken up and the participants arrested and intimidated. Although the Nazis had originally mocked the city as the Jerusalem am Main because of its high Jewish population, the city adopted a propagandistic nickname, the Stadt des deutschen Handwerks or the city of German craft.

Kristallnacht
Most of the synagogues in Frankfurt were destroyed by the Nazis on Kristallnacht in late 1938, deportation of the Jewish residents to their deaths in the Nazi concentration camps quickening in pace after the event. Their property and valuables were stolen by the Gestapo before deportation, and most were subjected to extreme violence and sadism during transport to the train stations for the cattle wagons which carried them east. Most later deportees (after the war began in 1939) ended up in new ghettoes established by the Nazis such as the Warsaw Ghetto and the Lodz ghetto, before their final transportation and murder in camps such as Sobibor, Belzec and Treblinka.

World War II
During World War II, Frankfurt was the location of a Nazi prison for underage girls with several forced labour camps, a camp for Sinti and Romani people (see Romani Holocaust), the Dulag Luft West transit camp for Allied prisoners of war, and a subcamp of the Natzweiler-Struthof concentration camp.

Large parts of the city center were destroyed by in the bombings of the second World War. On March 22, 1944, a British attack destroyed the entire Old City, killing 1001 people. The East Port - an important shipping center for bulk goods, with its own rail connection - was also largely destroyed.

Frankfurt was first reached by the Allied ground advance into Germany during late March 1945. The US 5th Infantry Division seized the Rhine-Main airport on 26 March 1945 and crossed assault forces over the river into the city on the following day. The tanks of the supporting US 6th Armored Division at the Main River bridgehead came under concentrated fire from dug-in heavy flak guns at Frankfurt. The urban battle consisted of slow clearing operations on a block-by-block basis until 29 March 1945, when Frankfurt was declared as secured, although some sporadic fighting continued until 4 April 1945.

Post-war period

 * See also Post-war reconstruction of Frankfurt

The Military Governor for the United States Zone (1945–1949) and the United States High Commissioner for Germany (HICOG) (1949–1952) had their headquarters in the IG Farben Building, intentionally left undamaged by the Allies' wartime bombardment.

The heavily destroyed city decided in the spirit of the time to plan a major reconstruction of the historical city center, retaining the old road system. To remove and recycle the rubble the city authorities in the autumn of 1945 created in partnership with the Metallgesellschaft industrial group and the Philipp Holzmann and Wayss & Freytag construction companies the Trümmerverwertungsgesellschaft. This non-profit company was tasked with removing the rubble and recycling it. Initially the removed rubble was piled up on a Schuttberg (rubble mountain) called Monte Scherbelino, before the material was recycled and processed to such an extent that by 1964 the Schuttberg had completely disappeared.

Once the rubble was removed from the damaged areas post-war reconstruction of the city took place in a sometimes simple modern style, thus changing Frankfurt's architectural face. A few significant historical landmark buildings were reconstructed, albeit in a simplified manner (e.g. St. Paul's Church (which was the first rebuilt), Goethe House) and Römer.

The formerly independent city republic joined the state of Hesse in 1946. As the state capital was already at the smaller city of Wiesbaden and the American armed forces had used Frankfurt as their European headquarters, the city seemed most promising candidate for the West German federal capital. The American forces even agreed to withdraw from Frankfurt to make it suitable, as the British forces already had withdrawn from Bonn. Much to the disappointment of many in Frankfurt, however, the vote narrowly favored Bonn twice. Despite this, the mayor looked towards the future, seeing that with the division of Germany and relative isolation of Berlin, Frankfurt could take over positions in trade and commerce previously filled by Berlin and Leipzig. Since Bonn never played an important role despite its status as capital, Frankfurt, Hamburg, and Munich realigned themselves, passing from regional centers to international metropolises and effectively forming three West German cultural and financial capitals.

Since the turn of the 2nd century, the Frankfurt fair has been held every fall and had become the most important fair site in Europe. Frankfurt's countless publishing houses as well as its fur industry profited from the elimination of Leipzig by the division of Germany into East and West. After the war, the West German book fair was held in Frankfurt. Since German reunification, the Frankfurt Book Fair is held in the fall, and Leipzig's in the spring. The bi-annual Internationale Automobil-Ausstellung is a worldwide car fair that was also held in Frankfurt until 2019.

The Deutsche Bundesbank made Frankfurt its seat, and most major banks followed suit. This and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange have made the city the second most important commercial center in Europe, after London.

Jewish Frankfurt am Main

 * See also Frankfurter Judengasse, Jewish Museum Frankfurt, People born and active in Frankfurt, History of the Jews in Germany, List of German Jews

The date of the original organization of Frankfurt's Jewish community is uncertain. Probably no Jews were living in Frankfurt at the time of the first and second Crusades, as the city is not mentioned among the places where Jews were persecuted, although references occur to persecutions in the neighboring cities of Mainz and Worms.

A Jew of Frankfurt is mentioned in connection with the sale of a house at Cologne between 1175 and 1191. Eliezer ben Nathan, rabbi at Mainz toward the end of the twelfth century, says that there were not then ten adult Jews in Frankfurt. The first reliable information concerning Frankfurt Jews dates from 1241, on May 24 of which year 180 Hebrews were killed during a riot and many fled, this being the first Judenschlacht or slaughter of the Jews. As the affair was detrimental to the income of the emperor, he was incensed with the city for seven years. King Conrad IV did not forgive the citizens until May 6, 1246. The emperor distributed the income he derived from the Jews so liberally among the princes and his retainers that he had little left for himself; yet the Jews remained under his protection. In 1286 King Rudolf pledged to Count Adolf of Nassau 20 marks yearly from the income derived from the Frankfurt Jews. When Adolf was made king under the title of "Adolf of Nassau", he pledged these 20 marks to the knight Gottfried of Merenberg (1292); and the latter again pledged 4 marks of this sum to the knight Heinrich of Sachsenhausen. King Adolf also gave 25 marks to Glottfried of Eppstein as a hereditary fief; and from 1297 he gave 300 marks yearly of the Jews' tax to the Archbishop of Mainz, adding to this sum 500 pounds of hellers in 1299. As early as 1303 the archbishop pledged 100 marks of this amount, and thus the Jews of the city of Frankfurt became subject to the archbishop. The emperor, however, attempted to exact still more money from the Jews, and it was only thanks to the resistance of the city that King Adolf did not succeed in 1292 in extracting from them the sum required for his coronation.

The Jews were subject not only to the emperor and to the archbishop but also to the city; in 1331 King Ludwig recommended his "beloved Kammerknechte" to the protection of the municipality. Under Ludwig the Frankfurt Jews were accused of a crime and cruelly persecuted, and many fled. The king then confiscated the houses and other property of the fugitives and sold them to the municipal council for 3,000 pounds of hellers. Those Jews that returned had their property restored to them; and, as the Jews had been treated unjustly, the king promised not to punish them again but to be content with the verdict of the municipal council. The Jews were required, however, to pay to the king a new impost, the "goldene Opferpfennig."

14th century
During the Black Death (1349) the Jews of Frankfurt were again persecuted. At the beginning of these outbreaks the circumspect Emperor Charles IV, who feared for his income, pledged the Jews to the city for more than 15,000 pounds of hellers, stipulating that he would redeem them, which he never did. The Flagellants, on coming to Frankfurt, destroyed nearly the entire Jewish community, with the Jews in their distress setting fire to their own houses. Their property was confiscated by the council by way of indemnity. Jews returned to Frankfurt very gradually. In 1354 Charles IV renewed his pledge to the city; three years later the Archbishop of Mainz again advanced his claims, but the Jews and the council came to an agreement with him in 1358. In 1367 the city was again in full possession of the income derived from the Jews, but this did not prevent the emperor from occasionally levying extraordinary taxes; for example, Sigismund (1414) exacted a contribution from the Jews toward the expenses of the Council of Constance.

The Jews were under the jurisdiction of the municipal council. Beginning with 1488, privileges (Judenstüttigkeiten) were issued that had to be renewed every three years. The Jews lived originally in the vicinity of the cathedral, this part of the city being necessary for their commerce; but Christians also lived there. Hence it was a hard blow to the former when they were forced, in 1462, to settle outside the old city ramparts and the moat. At first the city built their dwellings, but later they were required to erect their own houses, The Judengasse originally consisted merely of one row of houses; when this became overcrowded, a part of the moat was filled in, and houses were built upon the new ground thus obtained. There were three gates in the street, one at each end and one in the center. The cemetery of the community, which was situated on the Fischerfeld and is still in existence, is mentioned for the first time in 1300, but a tombstone dated July, 1272, has been preserved. Among the communal buildings were the synagogue (called also the "Judenschule"), the "Judenbadstube", the "Juden-Tanzhaus" or "Spielhaus", and the hospital. The Jewish inhabitants were more numerous in the early years of the community than later on: in 1241 they numbered about 200; in 1357 there were 12 tax-paying families; from 1357 to 1379, not more than 14 on the average; from 1401 to 1450, an average of 12; while in 1473 there were 17 families.

15th to the 17th century
Toward the end of the Middle Ages the number of the Frankfurt Jews was considerably increased by emigrants from Nuremberg (1498); and Frankfurt replaces Nuremberg as the leading Jewish community in the empire. This is seen in the numerous requests made by other cities to the magistrates of Frankfurt for information concerning their method of procedure in cases affecting Jews. Civil cases were decided by a commission of twelve, with the chief rabbi at its head. The reports of this commission from 1645 to 1808 are in the archives of the community. In 1509 the Jews were threatened with confiscation of their Hebrew books by Pfefferkorn, who arrived in the city with an imperial edict; on April 10, 1510, they were obliged to surrender all their books, which were not restored to them until June 6, after they had sent a special embassy to the emperor. In 1525 the impending danger of expulsion was averted by the municipal council; but the Jews were restricted in their commerce and were forbidden to build their houses higher than three stories. Although this measure crowded them more closely, there were 43 Jewish families in Frankfurt in 1543, and 454 in 1612.

Hard times were now approaching. In 1612 the Jews of Frankfurt suffered much on account of some persons who were heavily indebted to them, chief among these being Fettmilch. On August 22, 1614, these men headed an attack on the Jews' street, sweeping away everything in the space of thirteen hours; and the unfortunate Jews, who had sought refuge in the cemetery, begged for permission to depart. On the following day 1,380 Jews, glad to have saved even their lives, left the city and went to Offenbach, Hanau, and Höchst. The synagogue as well as the Torah-scrolls were destroyed, and the cemetery was desecrated. When the emperor heard of the affair he proscribed Fettmilch; but the Jews were not brought back until February 1616, when their street was placed under the protection of the emperor and the empire, as announced in a notice affixed to each of the three gates. By 1618 there were 370 families, living in 195 houses, of which 111 lay to the right of the Bornheimerpforte, and 84 to the left. The houses were of wood, with stone foundations, and were named according to signs suspended in front. The names were those of animals (e.g., ox, duck, wild duck), fruits (apple, red apple), trees (fir, elder, nut), or miscellaneous objects (tongs, scales, winecup); but sometimes a house was named simply from the color of the shield, e.g., red= "Rothschild"; black = "Schwarzschild." The main synagogue was built in 1462; a smaller one was erected in 1603. Among the other communal buildings were the bath, to the east of the synagogue, the dance house, the inn, the slaughterhouse, the bakehouse, and the hospital.

With their return to Frankfurt a new epoch in the history of the Jews of that city begins. They were still debarred from acquiring real estate, but they loaned money, even accepting manuscripts as pledges. The rate of interest, formerly as high as 24 percent, was now reduced to 8 percent. As the unredeemed pledges were sold, traffic in second-hand goods arose, which was further stimulated by the fact that the Jews were not permitted to sell new goods. They were also forbidden to deal in spices, provisions, weapons, cloth, and (from 1634 on) grain. But in spite of these interdictions, their commerce gradually increased. During the Thirty Years' War the Jews fared no worse than their neighbors. In 1694 there were 415 Jewish families; of these, 109 persons were engaged as moneylenders and dealers in second-hand goods; 106 dealt in dry goods, clothes, and trimmings; 24 in spices and provisions; 9 retailed wine and beer; 3 were innkeepers; and 2 had restaurants. Besides these there were the communal officials.

18th century
The importance and status of the community at the beginning of the eighteenth century are indicated by the gracious reception accorded to the deputation that offered presents to Joseph I on his visit to Heidelberg in 1702. On January 14, 1711, a fire which broke out in the house of Rabbi Naphtali Cohen destroyed the synagogue together with nearly the whole Judengasse. The rabbi was accused of having caused the fire by cabalistic means and was forced to leave the city. The 8,000 homeless Jews found shelter either in the pest house or with compassionate Christians. The synagogue and the dwelling houses were speedily rebuilt, and the street was widened six feet. In 1715 the community issued an edict against luxury. From 1718 onward the "Residenten", or representatives of the community of Frankfurt at Vienna, were accorded official recognition. In 1721 part of the Judengasse was again destroyed by fire. About the same period, conflicts with the Shabbethaians (a messianic Jewish sect) caused excitement in the community. In consequence of the denunciation of a baptized Jew the edition of the Talmud published at Frankfurt and Amsterdam between the years 1714 and 1721 was confiscated; and certain prayer books were likewise seized on account of the "Alenu" prayer. The books were restored, however, on Aug. 1, 1753, chiefly through the efforts of Moses Kann.

The middle of the century was marked by the dissensions between the Kann and Kulp parties. The Kulp party, to which many influential men belonged, endeavored to harmonize the ancient constitution of the community with new measures for the benefit of the people; but their efforts were thwarted by the wealthy Kann family, whose influence was predominant both in the government of the community and among the people. In 1750 the two parties effected a compromise, which was, however, of but short duration. The community was further excited by Jonathan Eybeschütz's amulet controversy. In 1756 the Jews received permission to leave their street in urgent cases on Sundays and feast days for the purpose of fetching a physician or a barber or mailing a letter, but they were required to return by the shortest way. In 1766 the Cleve divorce controversy began to excite the rabbinate of Frankfurt also. At the coronation of Joseph II. the Frankfurt Jews were permitted for the first time to appear in public, when they swore allegiance to the emperor (May 28, 1764). The community of Frankfurt rendered great service in suppressing Eisenmenger's "Entdecktes Judenthum", confiscating all the copies in 1700. Eisenmenger sued the community for 30,000 gulden. Although he lost his case, proceedings were several times renewed with the aid of King Frederick I of Prussia, and only in 1773 was the community finally released from all claims brought by Eisenmenger's heirs.

In 1753 there were 204 houses, built on both sides of the Jews' street. On May 29, 1774, a fire destroyed 21 dwellings, and the homeless again found shelter in the houses of Christians. When their houses were rebuilt, the Jews endeavored to remain outside of the ghetto but were forced to return by a decree of Feb. 13, 1776. One hundred and forty houses on the Jews' street were destroyed by fire when the French bombarded the city in 1796.

The Cemetery

The Jewish cemetery, as mentioned above, is situated on the old Fischerfeld. In 1349 the cemetery was enclosed within the city moat and walls, which were fortified with jetties. Beginning in 1424 the neighboring communities also buried their dead there; but this privilege was withdrawn by the magistrate in 1505. When Frankfurt was besieged during the interregnum in 1552, a garrison with cannon was stationed in the cemetery, and an attempt was even made to force the Jews to sink the tombstones and to level the ground; but against this they protested successfully (July 15, 1552). During the Fettmilch riots the whole community spent the night of September 1, 1614, in the cemetery, prepared for death, and thought themselves fortunate when they were permitted to leave the city through the Fischerfeld gate on the following afternoon. In 1640 a dispute in regard to passage through the cemetery was decided in favor of the Jews. The community occasionally paid damages to Christians who were injured by the oxen (bekorim, the first-born that may not be used in accordance with Exodus xiii. 3) that grazed within the cemetery walls. In 1694 a neighboring garden was bought for the purpose of enlarging the cemetery. During the great fire of 1711 the Jews sought refuge withall their possessions among the tombs of the fathers. The communal baking ovens, which before the fire were behind the synagogue, were transferred to a new site acquired in 1694. The only building preserved from the flames was the hospital for the poor, near the cemetery; behind it, another hospital was built in 1715 to replace the one in the Judengasse that had been destroyed. A slaughterhouse for poultry and a fire station were erected between the ovens and the cemetery. The fire station existed down to 1882; the site of the ovens is now covered by the handsome building of the Sick Fund, and that of the Holzplatz and the garden by the Philanthropin schoolhouse. On the site of the two hospitals the Neue Gemeinde-Synagoge was built in 1882. The cemetery, covering more than 5 acre, was closed in 1828; its epitaphs have been published by Dr. M. Horovitz.

The end of the eighteenth century marks a new epoch for the Jews of Frankfurt. In 1796 they received permission to live among Christians. In 1811 the prince-primate granted them full civic equality. In 1809 they were already scattered throughout the city and had taken surnames. A reaction, however, came in 1816, when the city, on regaining its autonomy, completely excluded the Jews from the municipal government. In 1819 there were riots to the cry of "Hep-hep!", and the magistrate discussed the advisability of restricting the number of Jews to not more than 500 families and of assigning to them a special part of the city. These schemes, however, were not carried into effect. In 1853 the civic rights of the Jews were enlarged, and in 1864 all restrictions were removed. The synagogue that had been rebuilt after the fire of 1711 in the Judengasse was torn down in 1854, and a new synagogue was erected on the site (1855–60). The synagogue on the Börneplatz was consecrated in 1882. The Israelitische Religionsgesellschaft, an independent congregation founded in 1851 (incorporated 1900), built a synagogue in 1853 and enlarged it in 1874. In 1817 there were 4,309 Jews in Frankfurt; in 1858, 5,730; in 1871, 10,009; in 1880, 13,856; in 1890, 17,479; and in 1900, 22,000 in a total population of 288,489.

Rabbis and scholars
The following rabbis and scholars of Frankfurt are buried here:

 * Simeon Darshan (cf. darshan), author of "Yalkut Shim'oni."
 * Alexander Süsslin, author of the collection "Aguddah."
 * R. Isaac ben Nathan, a victim of the first "Judenschlacht" (1241).
 * Anselm, 1288.
 * Abraham of Hanau (cf. Hanau), 1332.
 * Gumprecht, martyr in 1349.
 * Joseph Lampe (cf. Lampe), 1363.
 * Asher, 1374.
 * Meïr ben Samuel of Nordhausen, 1385; took part in the convention of rabbis at Mainz in 1381.
 * Süsslin of Speyer, 1394.
 * Nathan Levi, 1430–60.
 * Simon Cohen, a relative of Moses Minz.
 * Israel Rheinbach; held office till 1505.
 * Isaac ben Eliakim; took part in the convention of rabbis at, Worms in 1542.
 * Naphtali Treves, author.
 * Herz Treves, son of the preceding; also an author.
 * Akiba Frankfurt; widely known as a preacher; died in 1597. The Maharal of Prague, delivered the funeral oration.
 * Simon of Aschaffenburg (cf. Aschaffenburg), author of a supercommentary to Rashi's Pentateuch commentary; lived at Frankfurt until his death.
 * Elia Loanz, pupil of Akiba Frankfurt; wrote a song, "Streit Zwischen Wasser und Wein," to the melody of "Dietrich von Bern", and many other works; was a native of Frankfurt.
 * Eliezer Treves.
 * Abraham Naphtali Herz Levi.
 * Samuel ben Eliezer of Friedberg (cf. Friedberg), during whose incumbency the most important event was the convention of rabbis held at Frankfurt in 1603.
 * Isaiah Horowitz; called to Frankfurt in 1606; went to Prague in 1622. He was the author of the kabalistic work "Shnei Luchoth ha-Brith."
 * Joseph Juspa Hahn (cf. Hahn), author of a work dealing with the liturgy and with the chief phases of religious life; officiated up to the time of his death in 1637.
 * Samuel Hildesheim (cf.Hildesheim); elected in 1618.
 * Pethahiah; elected 1622; author of the cabalistic work "Sefer ha-Kavonot," which relates the events in connection with the Fettmilch riot and which was approved by Elhanan Helen, author of the "Megillat Winz."
 * Hayyim Cohen of Prague, grandson of the Maharal of Prague; officiated in 1628.
 * Shabbethai Horowitz, son of Isaiah Horowitz; elected in 1632. He was the author of "Vavei ha-'Ammudim," the introduction to his father's work. In 1643 he went, like his predecessor, to Posen.
 * Meïr Schiff, author of novellæ to the Talmud; born at Frankfurt in 1605; died while rabbi of Fulda in 1641, just after he had been called to the rabbinate of Prague; was buried at Frankfurt.
 * Mendel Barr of Kraków; elected in 1644; died in 1666. He was a pupil of Joel Sirkes, and inclined toward the Kabalah. Among his prominent pupils were Yair Bacharach and Meïr Stern.
 * Aaron Samuel Kaidanover of Wilna; called to Frankfurt in 1667; went to Kraków in 1677. He was the author of "Birkath ha-Zevach," commentary to some treatises of the Talmud.
 * Isaiah Horowitz II, son of Shabbethai Horowitz, and grandson of Isaiah Horowitz. David Grünhut, kabalist, cited by Johann Andreas Eisenmenger and Johann Jakob Schudt, was his contemporary. Hurwitz went to Posen.
 * Samuel b. Zebi of Kraków; elected 1690. He added valuable references to the Frankfurt edition of the Talmud (1721). His son, Judah Aryeh Löb, known as a writer, was associate rabbi; Löb's father-in-law, Samuel Schotten, though rabbi at Darmstadt, was living at Frankfurt as "Klaus" rabbi, and after Samuel ben Zebi's death (1703) he became president of the rabbinate.
 * Naphtali Cohen; called in 1704. As stated above, he was accused of having caused the fire of 1711, and, being compelled to leave the city, he wandered about for many years.
 * Moses Frankfurter, author of a commentary to the Mechilta.
 * Joseph ben Moses Kossmann, author of "Noheg ke-tzon Yosef," a work on the ritual of the community of Frankfurt.
 * Pethahiah ben David Lida, who issued in 1727 at Frankfurt his father's "Yad Kol Bo." The book was confiscated but was restored with the approval of several professors and preachers.

Naphtali Cohen's successors in the rabbinate of Frankfurt were as follows:

 * Abraham Broda of Prague; died in 1717; famous both as a writer and as a scholar.
 * Jacob Cohen Popers of Prague; called from Coblenz to Frankfurt. He was noted for his many pupils and for his learned correspondence, which is included in the responsa collection "Shev Ya'akov." He became involved in the current controversies in regard to Shabbethaism.
 * Jacob Joshua Falk (1741–56); known to Talmudists through his valuable Talmud commentary "Pnei Yehoshua" and to historians through his conflict with Jonathan Eybeschütz. During his rabbinate occurred the Kann-Kulp controversy mentioned above. Kulp's party was opposed to the rabbi and sided with Eybeschütz. Falk had to leave the city in consequence of this disturbance. He died at Offenbach am Main in 1756, at the age of 75, and was buried at Frankfurt.
 * Moses Kann, Moses Rapp, and Nathan Maas took charge of the rabbinate until 1759. Maas was the real leader in the controversy in which the rabbinate of Frankfurt engaged with reference to the divorce granted at Cleve (referred to above), as his opinion was authoritative.
 * Abraham Lissa; elected in 1759; died in 1768. He was a notable Talmudist, and the author of "Birkath Avrohom"; he also studied medicine. Maas again acted as deputy rabbi from 1769 to 1771; he is also known through his commentary to two treatises of the Talmud.
 * Pinchas Horowitz; elected 1771; died 1805. He was the author of "Hafla'ah" and other Talmudic works. Prominent scholars were at that time living at Frankfurt; among them David Tebele Scheuer, who became rabbi at Mainz, and Nathan Adler, a strict ritualist, who gathered about him a group of men that attempted to introduce Chasidism into Frankfurt. The community, with the consent of the rabbi, soon found it necessary to proceed against Adler. Hurwitz also opposed the school of David Mendelssohn.
 * Hirsch Hurwitz, son of Pinchas Horowitz; died September 8, 1817. He was the author of several haggadic and halachik works.
 * Leopold Stein; elected 1844; officiated down to 1862; also known as poet and writer.
 * Abraham Geiger, Samson Raphael Hirsch, Solomon Breuer, Nehemiah Brüll, M. Horovitz, and Rudolph Plaut succeeded Leopold Stein in the order named; Seligsohn was elected to the office in 1903.

Philanthropic Institutions
Among the philanthropic institutions of Frankfurt the following are important:
 * Achawa (Verein zur Brüderlichkeit; 1864).

 * Almosenkasten der Israelitischen Gemeinde (1845).
 * Biḳḳur Ḥolim (1889).
 * Hersheim'sche Stiftung (for education of poor boys; 1865).
 * Georgine Sara von Rothschild'sche Stiftung (1870; hospital, 1878).
 * Gumpertz'sches Siechenhaus (1888).
 * Israelitische Religionsschule (1890).
 * Israelitische Volksschule (1882).
 * Israelitische Waisenanstalt (founded 1873).
 * Israelitischer Hülfsverein (1883).
 * Israelitischer Kranken-Unterstützungs Verein (1843).
 * Israelitisches Frauen-Krankenhaus (society, 1761; hospital, 1831).
 * Israelitisches Gemeinde-Hospital (1875).
 * Israelitisches Kinderhospital.
 * Jüdische Haushaltungsschule.
 * Kindergarten für Israeliten (1890).
 * Lemaan Zion, Palästinensischer Hülfsverein.
 * Mädchenstift (1877).
 * Realschule der Israelitischen Gemeinde (Philanthropin; founded by Sigmund Geisenheimer 1804).
 * Realschule der Israelitischen Religionsgesellschaft (1883).
 * Sigmund Stern'sche Waisenstiftung (1874).
 * Suppenanstalt für Israelitische Arme.
 * Verein zur Beförderung der Handwerke.
 * Verein für Jüdische Krankenpflegerinnen.
 * Versorgungs-Anstalt für Israeliten (1845).
 * Waisenhaus des Israelitischen Frauenvereins (1847); and a number of private "Stiftungen" established for various purposes.
 * For Jewish physicians see Horovitz "Jüdische Aerzte".

Publishing
The law of this free city decreeing that no Jew should establish a printing house there greatly impeded the development of Hebrew publishing in Frankfurt. Many books published there, especially prayer books, appeared without place of publication or publisher's name. Owing to this restriction, the printing requirements of Frankfurt were in large measure met by Jewish presses established in neighboring towns and villages, such as Hanau, Homburg, Offenbach, and Rödelheim, the last-named place being specially notable. Besides the local wants of Frankfurt there was the yearly fair which was practically the center of the German-Jewish book trade. In a measure the presses of the above four towns were really intended to supply the fair trade of Frankfurt.

According to Wolf ("Bibl. Hebr." ii. 1385), the history of Hebrew typography at Frankfurt-on-the-Main begins with 1625, in which year seliḥot were printed there. But Steinschneider and Cassel declare this statement doubtful. The chronogram of a certain prayer book seems to show that it was printed there in 1656, but this chronogram is known only from references to it in a second edition printed at Amsterdam in 1658 ("Cat. Bodl." Nos. 2149, 2152). It may be said with certainty, however, that Hebrew printing began in Frankfurt not later than 1662, when the Pentateuch with a German glossary was printed. The books printed at Frankfurt up to 1676 do not bear any printer's name.

From the year 1677 till the beginning of the eighteenth century there were two Christian printing establishments in Frankfurt at which Hebrew books were printed: (1) The press owned till 1694 by Balthasar Christian Wust, who began with David Clodius' Hebrew Bible; his last work was the unvocalized Bible prepared by Eisenmenger, 1694; up to 1707 the press was continued by John Wust. Among his typesetters who worked on the "Amarot Ṭehorot" (1698) and the responsa "Ḥawwot Yaïr" were two Christians: Christian Nicolas and John Kaspar Pugil. (2) That of Blasius Ilsnerus, who printed in 1682 the "Ḥiddushe Haggadot" of Samuel Edels. Many works that appeared in the last quarter of the seventeenth century without bearing the names of either printers or publishers probably belong to the publications of Isaac and Seligmann, sons of Hirz Reis, who in 1687 published a beautiful edition of the Yalḳuṭ. Although the proprietors of the presses were Christians, the publishers were often Jews; among them may be mentioned Joseph Trier Cohen (1690–1715), Leser Schuch, Solomon Hanau, and Solomon and Abraham, sons of Kalman, who in 1699 published through John Wust the Alfasi in three volumes.

The greatest period of Hebrew publishing in Frankfurt was the first quarter of the eighteenth century. Hebrew books were printed in several establishments, including those of Mat. Andrea (1707–10), Jo. Ph. Andrea (1716), Nicolas Weinmann (1709), Antony Heinscheit (1711–19), and, above all, John Kölner, who during the twenty years of his activity (1708–27) furnished half of the Hebrew works printed at Frankfurt up to the middle of the nineteenth century. Among the more important works printed by Kölner may be mentioned the "Bayit Ḥadash", in 5 vols., corrected by Samuel Dresles (1712–16), and the continuation of the Babylonian Talmud (1720–23) begun at Amsterdam, between which city and Frankfurt there was a sort of partnership in printing. Kölner printed with the same Amsterdam type the "Yeshu'ah be-Yisrael" (1719–20). He then conceived the idea of printing the Alfasi after the model of the Sabbionetta edition of 1554, a copy of which was bought for 40 thalers. He resolved upon printing 1,700 copies at the price of 10 thalers each; the expenses, 11,000 thalers, were to have been obtained by means of a lottery; that is to say, each subscriber was entitled to a copy of the book and to a lottery ticket; but the whole plan miscarried.

Between the years 1726 and 1736 no Hebrew printing appears to have been done in Frankfurt, and during the last three-quarters of the eighteenth century very few Hebrew works were printed there. Among those printed "Toledot Adam", a Hebrew letter-writer printed in 1736; and in 1742 the responsa "Sheb Ya'aḳob", the three Babot of the Jerusalem Talmud, and the second part of the "Pene Yehoshua'", the third part appearing in 1756. Abraham Broda's "Eshel Abraham" was issued in 1776. Hebrew printing has continued at Frankfurt up to the present day.

Bibliography of Jewish Encyclopedia

 * Schudt, Jüdische, Merckwürdigkeiten, iv.;
 * Appendix, ii. 148 et seq.;
 * Moritz Steinschneider and David Cassel, Jüdische Typographie, in Ersch and Johann Gottfried Gruber, Encyc. section ii., part 28, pp. 78 et seq.
 *
 * By : Richard Gottheil, A. Freimann, Joseph Jacobs, Max Seligsohn

title: History of Frankfurt


text:
User talk:Jallison

Welcome!

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, please be sure to sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes (~~~~) to produce your name and the current date, or three tildes (~~~) for just your name. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome! - UtherSRG 17:08, July 22, 2005 (UTC)
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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Jallison


text:
Talk:High-definition video

Archive
I've archived all old discussions prior to 2017. Click the link above to revisit the archive. Rburriel (talk) 17:27, 2 November 2017 (UTC)

 * The link is now in the talkheader section above. Ken Gallager (talk) 19:32, 7 August 2023 (UTC)

"HD in film-making" section
where does this 'data' come from?

"The four major film formats provide pixel resolutions (calculated from pixels per millimeter) roughly as follows:

 * Academy Sound (Sound movies before 1955): 15 mm × 21 mm (1.375) = 2,160 × 2,970
 * Academy camera US Widescreen: 11 mm × 21 mm (1.85) = 1,605 × 2,970
 * Current Anamorphic Panavision ("Scope"): 17.5 mm × 21 mm (2.39) = 2,485 × 2,970
 * Super-35 for Anamorphic prints: 10 mm × 24 mm (2.39) = 1,420 × 3,390"

there is no citation provided for it, nor details of the film-stock which supposedly has this 'resolution', nor any mention of the differences in contrast handling, image-noise & so forth.

some evidence or it goes.

duncanrmi (talk) 16:58, 28 February 2017 (UTC)

Impending removal of the "World Wide Web HD resolutions" table
I worked on this table a number of years ago, but it's rarely been updated since. I'm working on a larger project to merge together a number of existing pages and tables related to "video hosting services" (see the discussion). As with my comment (made in 2009) about our futile attempt to compile a comprehensive list of all movies "filmed in HD", it seems unwise to attempt to compile a list of all video hosting services and their parameters/features. As I proceed with my project, I'll be removing this table and linked to a page about video hosting services. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Rburriel (talk • contribs) 17:35, 2 November 2017 (UTC)

1080i, full? no
1080i has never been, nor considered, to be FULL HD. Only progressive 1080 is or has been. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 47.6.223.50 (talk) 06:29, 1 September 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:High-definition video


text:
Victor Hammer

Victor Karl Hammer (December 9, 1882 – July 8, 1967) was an Austrian-born American painter, sculptor, printer, and typographer.

Early life
Hammer was born in Vienna, Austria to Karl and Maria (Fuhrmann) Hammer. He began his apprenticeship in architecture at the age of fifteen in the studio of Camillo Sitte, author of Der Staedte-Bau nach seinen kuenstlerischen Graundsaetzen. In 1898, he transferred to the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna, which he left ten years later. Hammer received the Prix de Rome in 1909.

Professional artist
Hammer produced his first type design, Hammer Uncial, in 1921. In 1922, he moved to Florence, Italy, where he set up a printing press. In 1929, he moved his printing operation into the Villa Santuccio in Florence and named it the Stamperia del Santuccio. The first book that was printed in this operation was Milton's Samson Agonistes (1931), using what would be known as his Samson Uncial type. Punches for the type were cut by Paul Koch, son of Rudolf Koch. Hammer moved to Kolbsheim in Alsace in 1934, where he designed and built a chapel on an estate for a friend.

From 1936 to 1939, Hammer lived in Vienna, where he served as professor at the Akademie der Bildenden Künste. In 1939, he fled the Nazis and immigrated with his first wife to the United States, leaving behind all his cutting and  casting  tools  and  most  of  his  fonts. He taught at Wells College in Aurora, New York until 1948. Here, he produced American Uncial – the best known of his five typefaces.

In 1948, Hammer settled in Lexington, Kentucky and was artist-in-residence at Transylvania University, a post he held until retirement in 1953. While in Kentucky, Hammer was known for designing the official seal of Louisville, which was used until the city's city-county government merger in 2003. He also designed the seal for the University of Louisville, a portrait of Minerva, which has been used since the 1950s (although revised in the 1990s for better reproduction on screens).

Hammer built his wooden press in 1927 with the help of local Florentine craftsmen based on a press in the Laurentian Library; in 1960, the Laurentian's press was discovered to be a copy constructed in 1818. It was first used to print Samson Agonistes. When he closed his studio in 1933, the press was stored. In 1954, it was moved to the University of Kentucky where it has been in use by the King Library Press since 1959.

Personal life and death
Hammer was first married to Rosl Rossbach, and together they had two children, Veronika and Jacob. Hammer married Carolyn Reading in 1955. Carolyn Reading Hammer founded the King Library Pres in 1956 and later became the University of Kentucky Libraries' curator of rare books. Since 1943, Carolyn Reading and Amelia Buckley had been printing at their Bur Press and their Chandler & Price printing press was moved to Bullock Place in Lexington when Carolyn and Victor Hammer married. This press, together with the antique-style wooden press Victor used in Florence in the 1920s, were both moved to the King Library Press at the University of Kentucky's M. I. King Library.

During his life, Hammer was also good friends with Thomas Merton. Hammer hand printed the first edition of his work, The Wisdom of the Desert.

Hammer died in Lexington on July 8, 1967, and is buried in the cemetery of Pisgah Presbyterian Church near Versailles, Kentucky.

Typefaces
• Hammer Uncial (1923, Klingspor)

• Samson (c. 1930, privately cast)

• Pindar (1933)

• American Uncial (1943, Dearborn Typefoundry)

• American Uncial (revised version, 1953, Klingspor)

• Andromaque (1958, cast by Deberny & Peignot for the Anvil Press)

• Hammer Samson Uncial (c. 1970, revision of Samson by R. Hunter Middleton, privately cast)

• Andromaque (1980s, revised by R. Hunter Middleton and cast by Paul H. Duensing.)

Publications

 * Type design in relation to language & to the art of the punch cutter. Aurora, New York 1947.
 * A dialogue on the Uncial between a paeongrapher and a printer. Aurora, New York 1946.
 * Erläuternde Anmerkungen zur Pindar-Schrift. Salzburg 1938.
 * Victor Hammer. Graz 1936.

title: Victor Hammer


text:
Maria Muldaur

Maria Muldaur (born Maria Grazia Rosa Domenica D'Amato; September 12, 1942) is an American folk and blues singer who was part of the American folk music revival in the early 1960s. She recorded the 1973 hit song "Midnight at the Oasis" and has recorded albums in the folk, blues, early jazz, gospel, country, and R&B traditions.

She was the wife of musician Geoff Muldaur and is the mother of singer-songwriter Jenni Muldaur.

Biography
Muldaur was born in Greenwich Village, New York City, where she attended Hunter College High School.

Muldaur cites as early musical influences classic country music by Kitty Wells, Hank Williams, Hank Snow, Hank Thompson, Ernest Tubb, and Bob Wills and the Texas Playboys; early rhythm and blues artists like Chuck Willis, Little Richard, Ruth Brown, Fats Domino, and Muddy Waters; Alan Freed "rock 'n' roll" shows; and doo-wop groups such as The Platters and The Five Satins.

Muldaur began her career in the early 1960s as Maria D'Amato, performing with John Sebastian, David Grisman, and Stefan Grossman as a member of the Even Dozen Jug Band. She then joined Jim Kweskin & the Jug Band as a featured vocalist and occasional fiddle player. During this time, she was part of the Greenwich Village scene that included Bob Dylan, and some of her recollections of the period, particularly with respect to Dylan, appear in Martin Scorsese's 2005 documentary film No Direction Home.

She married fellow Jug Band member Geoff Muldaur, and after the Kweskin group broke up, the couple produced two albums. She began her solo career when their marriage ended in 1972 but retained her married name.

Her first solo album, Maria Muldaur, released in 1973, contained her hit single "Midnight at the Oasis", which reached number 6 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1974. It peaked at number 21 on the UK Singles Chart. Later that year, she released her second album, Waitress in a Donut Shop. This included a re-recording of "I'm a Woman", the Leiber and Stoller number first associated with Peggy Lee and a standout feature from her Jug Band days. Her version of the song peaked at #12 on the Billboard Hot 100, and was her last Hot 100 hit in the U.S. to date. The title of this album is taken from a line in another song on the album, "Sweetheart", by Ken Burgan. Around this time, Muldaur established a relationship with the Grateful Dead. Opening for some Grateful Dead shows in the summer of 1974, with John Kahn, bassist of the Jerry Garcia Band, eventually earned her a seat in that group as a backing vocalist in the late 1970s. Around the same time Muldaur met and eventually collaborated with bluegrass icon Peter Rowan. The two became close, and she was chosen to be the godmother of his daughter Amanda Rowan. She appeared on Super Jam (1989).

"People ask me — why do you do these sexist songs? That's bullshit. That's a valid emotion that's a part of us all."

Around 1980, Muldaur became a Christian and released a live album, Gospel Nights, and a studio album, There Is A Love. In 1983 she returned to secular music with Sweet and Slow, a set informed by vintage jazz and blues.

Muldaur continued to perform, tour, and record after her success in the mid 1970s, including a turn at the Teatro ZinZanni in 2001.

Her 2005 release Sweet Lovin' Ol' Soul was nominated for both a Blues Music Award (formerly the W. C. Handy Awards) and a Grammy Award in the Traditional Blues category at the 44th Annual Grammy Awards. In 2013, she was nominated for a Blues Music Award in the Koko Taylor Award (Traditional Blues Female) category.

In 2003, Muldaur performed at Carnegie Hall in a Peggy Lee tribute concert produced by Richard Barone. In 2018 she performed in Barone's Central Park concert Music & Revolution along with John Sebastian and others from her Greenwich Village days.

In 2019, she received the Trailblazer award at the Americana Music Honors & Awards.

In 2021, Muldaur recorded and released the album Let's Get Happy Together, a 40-minute, 12-track album in collaboration with Tuba Skinny.

Even Dozen Jug Band

 * The Even Dozen Jug Band (1964, credited as Maria D'Amato) (Elektra, EKS-7246)

Jim Kweskin & the Jug Band

 * Jug Band Music (1965, credited as Maria D'Amato) (Vanguard, VDS-79163)
 * See Reverse Side for Title (1966, credited as Maria D'Amato) (Vanguard, VDS-79234)
 * Garden of Joy (1967) (Reprise, RS-6266)
 * The Best of Jim Kweskin & the Jug Band (1968, compilation, credited as Maria D'Amato) (Vanguard, VDS-79270)

Geoff & Maria Muldaur

 * Pottery Pie (1969) (Reprise, RS-6350)
 * Sweet Potatoes (1972) (Reprise, MS-2073)

Jerry Garcia Band

 * Cats Under the Stars (1978, Arista)
 * Pure Jerry: Warner Theatre, March 18, 1978 (2005, Jerry Made)
 * Pure Jerry: Bay Area 1978 (2009, Jerry Made)
 * Garcia Live Volume Four (2014, ATO)

Paul Butterfield's Better Days

 * Better Days (1973, Bearsville) – on tracks 5, 7, and 8
 * It All Comes Back (1973, Bearsville) – credited as "vocals", but no specific tracks given

Other contributions

 * Wendy Waldman, Love Has Got Me (1973, Warner Bros.) – Background vocals on "Lee's Traveling Song"
 * Linda Ronstadt, Heart Like a Wheel (1974, Capitol) – Harmony vocals on "Heart Like a Wheel"
 * Wendy Waldman, Gypsy Symphony (1974, Warner Bros.) – Background vocals on "Come On Down"
 * Linda Ronstadt, Prisoner In Disguise (1975, Elektra) – Harmonies/background vocals on "You Tell Me That I'm Falling Down"
 * The Doobie Brothers, Stampede (1975, Warner Bros.) – Vocals on "I Cheat the Hangman"
 * Elvin Bishop, Hog Heaven (1978, Capricorn) – on two songs
 * Terry Robb, Stop This World (1996, Burnside BCD-0025)
 * Johnny's Blues: A Tribute to Johnny Cash (2003, Northern Blues) – Muldaur contributes "Walking the Blues". The Johnny Cash version is on the album The Legend (Sun, 1970) and on The Essential Johnny Cash 1955–1983 (Legacy, 1992)
 * Bill Kirchen, Word to the Wise (2010, Proper) – Vocals on "Ain't Got Time For the Blues".

title: Maria Muldaur


text:
Prime Minister of the Philippines

The prime minister of the Philippines was the official designation of the head of the government (whereas the president of the Philippines was the head of state) of the Philippines from 1978 until the People Power Revolution in 1986. During martial law and the fourth republic, the prime minister served as the head the Armed Forces of the Philippines. A limited version of this office, officially known as the President of the Council of Government, existed temporarily in 1899 during the First Philippine Republic.

Salvador Laurel served as the last prime minister of the Philippines and later served as the vice president of the Philippines from 1986 to 1992.

First creation (1899)

The 1899 Constitution of the Philippines created the office of the Council of Government (Consejo de Gobierno) which was composed of the President of the Council (Presidente del Consejo de Gobierno) and seven secretaries. The president of the revolutionary government led by Emilio Aguinaldo, appointed his advisor Apolinario Mabini as the first President of the Council of Government through a decree issued January 2, 1899. Mabini also became the finance minister of the Republic. The President of the Council was de facto equivalent to a prime minister.

On December 10, 1898, the ongoing war between United States and Spain was concluded with Spain giving up all rights to Cuba and surrendering the Philippines, Guam and Puerto Rico to the United States. Two days later, Aguinaldo ordered his lawyer Felipe Agoncillo to contest the Philippine status as an independent nation and no longer a Spanish colony since the declaration of independence on June 12, 1898. The United States did not recognize Philippine sovereignty. This led to serious conflict when the insurgent Philippine Republic was formally established on January 23, 1899 at Malolos. By January 30, Aguinaldo had again dispatched Agoncillo, this time to the United States Senate, to lobby them to reconsider their plans and instead formally recognize Filipino independence.

In the next few months, Mabini was pressured by political problems such as negotiating to end the hostilities between Filipinos and American forces left in the Philippines after the war. After the failure to reach successful agreements with the U.S. army to secure a cease fire, the first shot of the Philippine–American War erupted on February 4, 1899. The revolutionary government was forced to vacate Malolos and transfer the seat of administration from place to place. Mabini, who was pressured then from his political adversaries and failure to stop the increasing guerilla insurgency during the war, left the post and surrendered to United States on May 7, 1899.

One of the political adversaries who forced Mabini to leave office was Pedro A. Paterno, president of the Congress of the Republic since September 15, 1898. He opposed Mabini's offensive plan to counter United States attacks during the war, so he proposed peace plans with the Americans to Aguinaldo, such that the Philippines would be a protectorate of the United States with full autonomy. This was opposed by Mabini, however, Paterno and his allies convinced Aguinaldo to dissolve the Mabini cabinet.

The next day, May 8, Aguinaldo appointed Paterno as the President of the Council of Government. One of his first moves during his term was to draft a copy of "Autonomy Plan" to the Schurman Commission which asks for peace settlement with the US government. This also states that the Filipinos are ready to drop the idea of independence and accept US sovereignty over the archipelago.

Meanwhile, the takeover by Paterno of the revolutionary government and his actions towards the Schurman Commission infuriated General Antonio Luna, the commanding officer of the Philippine Army. He ordered to arrest Paterno and other members of the Cabinet, however, he was unsuccessful to send Paterno to jail. Due to his actions, Paterno was forced to write a manifesto on June 2, 1899, stating a formal declaration of war against the United States. On June 5, Luna was assassinated in Nueva Ecija, one of the alleged reasons for his murder was due to this conflict with Paterno.

During the war, the seat of Aguinaldo changed from place to place northwards as the Americans grew aggressive. On November 13, 1899, Paterno was captured by US forces in Benguet, thus ending his term as the President of the Council. Aguinaldo, however, did not appoint a successor for Paterno as he was busy for fleeing the Republic. On June 21, 1900, Paterno, as prisoner of war, accepted amnesty granted by the military governor General Arthur MacArthur, Jr. and he finally swore allegiance to the United States together with other members of Aguinaldo government.

From 1899 to 1901, Philippines was headed by American military governors. When Aguinaldo was captured by Gen. Frederick Funston on March 23, 1901 at Palanan, Isabela, the country was headed then by civil governors until the formal establishment of self-autonomous Commonwealth on November 15, 1935. The 1935 Constitution that describes the operation of the Commonwealth does not have the provision of reviving the office of the President of the Council of the Government or creating any related position. This was continued until the Third Republic.

Second creation (1978–1986)
In 1976, President Ferdinand Marcos issued Presidential Decrees 991 and 1033 calling for a constitutional referendum, set on October 16, 1976. The voters were asked whether they wanted to lift the ongoing martial law since 1972; the majority approved its continuation. In addition, drafted and ratified was the Sixth Amendment to the 1973 Constitution, which fused legislative and executive powers in the office of President. One of its provisions at the time of ratification was that the President shall obtain the title of Prime Minister, thus re-creating the office after 1899. Marcos, who concurrently as president, continued to wield the powers vested in the President by the 1935 Constitution. The Amendment also created the unicameral legislature known as the Interim Batasang Pambansa (Interim National Assembly or IBP), as well as a provision such that the President/Prime Minister will exercise legislative powers until martial law is lifted.

On April 7, 1978, the first election for the Batasang Pambansa, was held since the abolition of the bicameral Congress under the 1973 Constitution. 150 out of 165 elected positions of the parliament were dominated by Marcos' ruling party, the Kilusang Bagong Lipunan (New Society Movement). By June 12, the IBP was inaugurated which also confirmed Marcos' position as the Prime Minister of the Philippines.

Upon his inauguration for a third presidential term on June 30, 1981, Marcos formally relinquished his powers as Prime Minister. He appointed then-Finance Minister Cesar Virata to succeed him to the post during the opening of the fourth regular session of the IBP on July 27, 1981. Virata, a grand-nephew of former President Emilio Aguinaldo, previously represented the country to World Bank's Council of Governors. Until the 1986 People Power Revolution, Virata held this position. It was conjectured that Marcos bestowed his Prime Ministerial post to Virata because of the latter's distance from mainstream politics. Other than being Marcos' finance minister, Virata was not a political threat.

Abolition
Upon her accession in late February 1986, Corazon Aquino appointed her Vice President and running mate Salvador Laurel to succeed Virata under her revolutionary government. However, the premiership was later abolished in March 1986 with the release of Proclamation No. 3, or the "Freedom Constitution".

The subsequent and currently-enforced 1987 Constitution has no provisions for such a position, as the President is now both head of government and head of state.

Powers and duties
The office of the President of the Council of Government was created by 1899 Constitution of the Philippines on Title IX, with the role as the head of secretaries to the President of the Republic. The first President of the Council was Apolinario Mabini, who also happened to be the concurrent Minister of Foreign Affairs. The President of the Council is equivalent to present-day Prime Minister, having the management of the day-to-day operations of the government.

The 1973 Constitution provided clear powers and duties of the Prime Minister starting at the administration of Ferdinand E. Marcos. Article IX, section 3 of the 1973 Constitution describes the primary qualification of an individual to become the Prime Minister: he must be a member of the Interim Batasang Pambansa (National Assembly). To become a member of the Interim Batasang Pambansa, one must be a qualified citizen of the Republic and was elected by the popular district in which he will represent at the assembly. Though the appointment of the Prime Minister is exactly written on the Constitution, however, the Prime Minister is exempted from impeachment, thus paving way for whoever the Prime Minister will be, for an indefinite term. On the same hand, the Prime Minister and his deputy may leave office at their own will. However, the same as in other Parliaments, the Batasang Pambansa (National Assembly) may withdraw its confidence from the Prime Minister only by electing a successor by a majority vote of all its Members.

Apart being the head of government, the Prime Minister also presides over his Cabinet. He has the power to appoint Cabinet members, often from the National Assembly. Likewise, he also has the prerogative to remove them at his discretion.

He also has the following powers and duties:
 * Appoint the Deputy Prime Minister that will have powers vested by the Prime Minister;
 * Present the program and state of the government to the National Assembly at the start of each regular session;
 * Control all ministries provided by the law;
 * Head the Armed Forces of the Philippines as their commander-in-chief;
 * Appoint the heads of government bureaus and offices, and promote brigadier-generals and commodores of the Armed Forces;
 * Grant reprieves, commutations, and pardons; remit fines and forfeitures after final conviction; and grant amnesties with the permission of the National Assembly, except at the time of impeachment; and
 * Guarantee foreign and local loans of the Republic.

In Section 16, it was also mentioned that all powers previously vested by the 1935 Constitution of the Philippines to the President of the Republic shall be transferred to the Prime Minister unless the National Assembly provides those. This includes the power of the Prime Minister to sign and create treaties and foreign agreements as well as appointment of ambassadors and consuls with the permission of the Commission on Appointments.

However, upon the amendments to the 1973 Constitution in 1981, which created a so-called modified parliamentary form of government, which has some sorts of semi-presidentialism, to be patterned after that in Peru, most of the executive powers held by the Prime Minister were restored to the President, who would be directly elected by the people and has complete control over the ministries as chief executive, the one that would determine the national and foreign policies of the country and who commands the armed forces. The President retains the right to issue decrees with the force of law at any time pursuant to Amendment No. 6 to the said Constitution, ratified in 1976. The prime minister was still retained as the head of the Cabinet, but his power was relegated to supervising the ministries. He or she will be elected by the majority of all the members of the Batasang Pambansa, then the country's unicameral parliamentary legislature, upon nomination of the President. The prime minister is responsible, alongside the Cabinet, before the Batasang Pambansa for a program of government that has to be approved first by the President.

Under Executive Order No. 708 issued on July 27, 1981, the powers of the prime minister were expanded, especially in relation to supervising such ministries. The prime minister was mandated to take charge and management of the day-to-day and details of administration of the government, to coordinate the activities of the ministries and to act on all matters delegated by the President without indicating the sentence, "By the Authority of the President." And in 1984, the Prime Minister was mandated also to head a Cabinet Standing Committee created to assist the President in his functions, whenever he may prescribe and as chairman of the committee, he was made as its executive officer to carry out its decisions and actions.

List of prime ministers
{{legend||Kilusang Bagong Lipunan|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend||United Nationalist Democratic Organization|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend||Independent|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}

Statistics

 * Living former prime minister:
 * Cesar Virata (1981–1986) (born December 12, 1930) — 93 years, 223 days

 * List of prime ministers by age at the start of term:
 * Ferdinand Marcos — 60 years, 288 days
 * Salvador Laurel — 57 years, 113 days
 * Cesar Virata — 50 years, 213 days
 * Pedro Paterno — 41 years, 79 days
 * Apolinario Mabini — 34 years, 171 days

 * List of prime ministers by tenure of office:
 * Cesar Virata (1981–1986) — 4 years, 241 days
 * Ferdinand Marcos (1978–1981) — 3 years, 19 days
 * Apolinario Mabini (1899) — 184 days
 * Pedro Paterno (1899) — 130 days
 * Salvador Laurel (1986) — 28 days

title: Prime Minister of the Philippines


text:
Give Me Liberty (comics)

Give Me Liberty is an American four-issue comic book mini-series published by Dark Horse Comics in 1990. It was created and written by Frank Miller and drawn by Dave Gibbons. The title of the series comes from a famous 1775 quotation by American Founding Father Patrick Henry: "I know not what course others may take but — as for me — give me liberty or give me death".

Overview
Give Me Liberty was one of Frank Miller's two creator-owned (the other was Hard Boiled) titles he took to Dark Horse after deciding to stop working for DC Comics after a dispute over a proposed ratings system.

The story is set in a dystopian near-future where the United States has split into several extremist factions, and tells the story of Martha Washington, a young African American girl from a public housing project called "The Green" (Chicago's Cabrini–Green). The series starts with Martha's birth and sees her slowly grow up from someone struggling to break free of the public housing project, to being a war hero and major figure in deciding the fate of the United States.

The series was a mix of Miller's typical action sequences as well as being a political satire of the United States and its major corporations. The series proved to be a huge success for Dark Horse and was one of the biggest selling independent comics of the time. A trade paperback was later released and Miller followed up Give Me Liberty with several sequels continuing the story. All of these sequels were drawn by Dave Gibbons and published by Dark Horse.

The titles of the original four issues of Give Me Liberty were:
 * 1) Homes & Gardens
 * 2) Travel & Entertainment
 * 3) Health & Welfare
 * 4) Death & Taxes

Part 1: Homes & Gardens
On the then-future date of March 11, 1995, Martha Washington is born in a Chicago hospital. A year later, Martha’s father is killed during a protest over the African-American community's living conditions at the Cabrini–Green housing project, which has been enclosed in a walled and roofed structure that residents are not permitted to leave. Meanwhile, newly elected President Erwin Rexall has established a repressive dystopia, enforcing harsh economic policies that subject Martha's family to abject poverty while repealing the 22nd Amendment to ensure that he can run for more than two terms.

As she grows up, Martha is an average student who displays a gift for computer programming. Her teacher, Donald, encourages her to perform better and brings her contraband items, such as sandwiches. One night, Martha shows up at Donald’s classroom and finds that he's been murdered by the Ice Man, a hulking enforcer working for a local gangster called the Pope. Martha stabs the Ice Man with his own longshoreman’s hook, causing him to bleed to death.

Martha is remanded to a psychiatric hospital, where she discovers that experiments are being secretly performed on children to genetically alter their minds, effectively turning them into human computers. National budget cuts eventually cause the hospital to shut down, leaving Martha homeless. Medical workers dispatched to round up the patients try to subdue Martha, but she kills one and takes his wallet. She is able to steal money from an ATM using his account card.

In May 2009, Rexall is rendered comatose when the White House is bombed by Saudi Arabian terrorists in retaliation for an accidental misfire of an orbiting laser cannon that was intended to strike Libya, but strikes the Saudi oilfields instead. Nearly every successor in the hierarchy to the presidency is killed in the attack, leaving only the liberal Secretary of Agriculture, Howard Nissen, alive to take the post of president. Nissen proves to be an effective leader, ending years of scattered global wars being fought by Rexall's PAX Peace Force and sending troops to South America to fight the destruction of the rainforests by renegade cattle industrialists.

Martha decides to join the national military force, "PAX", and is sent to fight in South America. There, she experiences the physical and psychological horrors of combat, falling victim to a chemical weapon that permanently turns her hair blonde. She discovers a plot by her commanding officer, Lieutenant Stanford Moretti, to destroy large patches of the rainforest for the enemy. After Moretti shoots her and leaves her for dead, Martha survives and stalks his unit, killing all of the troops under his command. Martha ends up severely wounding Moretti. While both recover in a hospital, Moretti blackmails Martha into becoming his unwitting servant.

Part 2: Travel & Entertainment
Martha helps PAX win several decisive battles, although Moretti takes nearly all the credit for her heroics. When the war finally ends with PAX victorious, Martha is decorated for bravery in combat while Moretti is promoted to colonel. Martha talks to President Nissen and convinces him to end the squalor at Cabrini-Green, and sends in PAX to aid in the effort. The walled structure that enclosed the Green is demolished and Martha is reunited with her mother, promising she won't have to leave home again.

In 2011, Martha is charged with a mission to stop a white supremacist terrorist group from destroying the White House with a huge orbiting laser cannon. Martha kills the terrorists in the space station's control room, but not before the leader is able to voice the command to fire the pre-targeted cannon. Several terrorists fire at Martha with machine guns, ripping a large hole in the outer hull, causing the station to violently depressurize. While struggling to reach the station's computer room, Martha discovers a child test subject she encountered at the psychiatric hospital. Martha convinces her to stop the firing sequence.

Both Martha and the child escape in a shuttle before the station explodes. Damage to the shuttle causes it to crash-land in the American southwest near the territory of the reorganized Apache Nation. Martha and her child companion, known as "Raggy Ann" (due to her resemblance to a Raggedy Ann doll), are taken as captives by the Apaches, who have been made chronically ill by pollution from an oil refinery they possess, a gift from Nissen himself. Martha forms a tense friendship with one of the Apaches, Wasserstein, who tells her that the Apaches' hostility stems from the poor treatment they've received in recent years, as well as throughout America’s history.

Meanwhile, President Nissen's administration has become crippled by dissension across ranks of PAX, secessionist pressures across America and the disappointing consequences of policy decisions towards the Apaches. Colonel Moretti works behind the scenes as a treacherous adviser to President Nissen, who has become an alcoholic. In a drunken rage, Nissen murders his Vice President and signs an official document without reading it. The document, drafted by Moretti himself, orders the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs to use PAX's laser cannon to incinerate the Apache Nation. The attack will also kill Martha, a plan Moretti has been working toward for years.

Part 3: Health & Welfare
Martha learns of Moretti's plans from Raggy Ann, who is telepathic and can voice Moretti’s thoughts. She steals a Jeep and heads out into the desert; Wasserstein catches up to her vehicle and tries to stop her escape. At that moment, the laser cannon fires upon the Apache Nation. Martha looks directly at the blast and is blinded.

The group is captured by the army of the Surgeon General, an insane separatist who controls the Pacific Northwest. He is also a religious fanatic who opposes pornography, rock music, birth control, and unclean environmental conditions. He uses a technique based on music to brainwash Martha and transform her into one of his soldiers. He also replaces her blinded eyes and renames her "Margaret Snowden".

Meanwhile, Moretti murders the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs, General Lucius Spank, and stages his death as a suicide. Moretti also leaves the document authorizing the destruction of the Apache Nation at the scene, which becomes devastating to Nissen’s administration when it becomes public. Moretti then joins the Cabinet in betraying and assassinating Nissen. However, Moretti betrays the conspirators and locks them inside the White House, which he rigs to explode.

Moretti declares himself the country's interim leader and orders the destruction of the Surgeon General's stronghold, Fortress Health, by laser cannon. The Surgeon General counters with his own plan to launch hundreds of nuclear missiles at the laser cannon. He also reveals that he possesses Rexall’s brain, which he will use to create a clone of Rexall that will take office as president.

Wasserstein formulates a plan to infiltrate Fortress Health and rescue Martha. Raggy Ann joins him, her telepathic abilities a useful asset. "Margaret" is dispatched to deal with Wasserstein, whom she shoots. She turns him and Raggy Ann over to Fortress Health authorities. Moments before, Raggy Ann had "uploaded" the memories that Martha lost during her brainwashing. She walks outside to the grounds of the fortress just as the Surgeon General orders the launch of his missiles.

Part 4: Death & Taxes
Moretti assumes command of PAX and is sequestered aboard a huge plane that he uses as a mobile command center. However, Moretti lacks the experience of a true leader and causes the United States to splinter further, with Brooklyn, Manhattan, Florida and Texas declaring independence and becoming poised to declare a civil war. Moretti's attempts to negotiate with these factions fail rapidly and his obsessive pre-occupation with the Surgeon General is heavily criticized by his military advisers.

Martha reports to the Surgeon General’s command center and he updates her on the situation. If the fortress is attacked, she will take Rexall’s brain, housed in a small, mobile container, and evacuate the area with it. Martha unexpectedly shoots the Surgeon General several times, revealing that he is actually a sophisticated robot. At the same time, Wasserstein, still alive, escapes confinement with Raggy Ann. They find the control room and Martha has Raggy Ann detonate one of the missiles, destroying them all. The cannon and its command crew are safe.

Moretti sends all air forces to bomb Fortress Health. Martha takes Wasserstein, Raggy Ann, Rexall’s encased brain, and Rexall’s wife and escapes the bombing in a plane, with the still-functioning Surgeon General clinging to the plane’s exterior. Moretti is informed by his troops that Fortress Health has fallen but there is no sign of Martha or Rexall. Martha’s plane streaks away, pursued by Moretti himself. Moretti’s pilot fires missiles at Martha’s jet, but they hit the Surgeon General instead after he is blasted off the plane by the shotgun-wielding Martha.

Martha and her weary fugitive group fly south to the Brazilian rainforest. They will be safe there since an executive order from the Nissen administration protects it from destruction by orbiting laser cannons. Moretti gathers a PAX unit of former criminals, some of whom have personal grudges with Martha. They hunt the fugitives in the rainforest. Martha and Wasserstein fight together using a box of surgical tools they find on the plane, killing nearly all of Moretti's unit. Moretti finds Rexall’s brain with his wife, whom he brutally murders. Martha finds Moretti and they engage in hand-to-hand combat. She overpowers and arrests him.

The story closes in the year 2012. Rexall has been given a new robotic body and is easily voted back into office in a special election. Moretti stands trial for murder and treason and is sentenced to death by firing squad. Martha visits him the day he is to be executed and they talk for a while, Moretti showing obvious remorse for his actions. Martha gives him her belt and he hangs himself from a pipe in his cell.

Sequels
Give Me Liberty was followed by:
 * The five-issue series Martha Washington Goes to War in 1994, which was closely based on Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged. In this series, Rexall's increasingly corrupt government is subverted by the Surgeon General, who attempts a coup. Meanwhile, Martha is on the trail of the "Ghosts", a seditionist faction with an artificially-intelligent supercomputer. Joining up with the seditionists, Martha is instrumental in bringing down the corrupt government.
 * One-shot issue Happy Birthday Martha Washington in March 1995, featuring:
 * "Collateral Damage", originally published in black and white under the title Martha Washington’s War Diary in the Dark Horse Presents Fifth Anniversary Special (1991).
 * "State of the Art", originally published in San Diego Comic-Con Comics #2 (1993).
 * "Insubordination" - in "Insubordination", which is set in Philadelphia on February 6, 2013, Martha is order to recover a sample of blood from Captain Kurtz, who is the inventor of a super soldier serum that has kept him young for 40 years. Captain Kurtz dies protecting the Liberty Bell from Nazi rebels. Martha succeeds in acquiring the blood sample but decides to destroy the blood sample because she believes that Captain Kurtz was the only person able to control the power of the serum.
 * One-shot issue Martha Washington Stranded in Space in November 1995, featuring:
 * "Crossover", guest-starring The Big Guy. Martha investigates a space anomaly that temporarily sends her to Big Guy's reality.
 * "Attack of the Flesh Eating Monsters", originally published in black and white in Dark Horse Presents #100-4. Martha fights off an attack by monsters conforming to 1950s pulp-SF stereotypes; she discovers that this is merely a psychological study conducted by the world-controlling AI. The AI's plot is a satire of the conclusion of Gibbons' Watchmen, as a character plots to unite the world through the fake threat of alien invasion.
 * The three-issue series Martha Washington Saves the World in 1997. An actual alien spaceship arrives, and Martha uses its superior technology to defeat the megalomaniacal AI.
 * One-shot issue Martha Washington Dies in 2007.

There is an additional Martha Washington story "Logistics", which was published exclusively as part of a comic distributed with the Martha Washington action figure. In "Logistics", the story, which is set on June 13, 2012, reveals that the 94th Amendment to the US Constitution strictly forbids the breeding, slaughter, or sale of red meat; that does not stop Martha and PAX from eating meat burgers when their logistics train runs out of food. Because of the ban on red meat, most of the American Southwest and all of the Mexican Territory secede from the United States, which call themselves Real America.

Collected editions
On September 9, 2009, Dark Horse released a 600-page hardcover titled The Life and Times of Martha Washington in the Twenty First Century. The book includes every Martha Washington story as well as several extras.

title: Give Me Liberty (comics)


text:
Miss Belgian Beauty

The Miss Belgian Beauty contest is the second-largest beauty pageant in Belgium. It was first held in 1991 and is owned by Ignace Crombé.

title: Miss Belgian Beauty