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Saul Landau

Saul Landau (January 15, 1936 – September 9, 2013) was an American journalist, filmmaker and commentator. He was also a professor emeritus at California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, where he taught history and digital media.

Education
Landau was born in the Bronx, New York City. A graduate of Manhattan's Stuyvesant High School, he also earned bachelor's and master's degrees in history from the University of Wisconsin, Madison.

He donated his early papers and films to the Wisconsin Center for Film and Television Research.

Career
Landau authored 14 books, produced and directed over 50 documentary films, and wrote editorial columns including for the Huffington Post.

He frequently appeared on radio and TV shows.

Gore Vidal said, "Saul Landau is a man I love to steal ideas from."

Landau was a fellow of the Institute for Policy Studies (IPS) in Washington, D.C. and a senior fellow and former director of the Transnational Institute in Amsterdam.

He received an Emmy for his film Paul Jacobs and the Nuclear Gang (1980), which he co-directed with Jack Willis, with cinematography by Academy Award-winning filmmaker Haskell Wexler. He won the Edgar Allan Poe Award 1981 for "Best Fact Crime" for Assassination on Embassy Row (with John Dinges; Pantheon 1980) about the murder of TNI Director Orlando Letelier and their colleague and friend Ronnie Karpen-Moffitt. He received the Letelier-Moffitt Human Rights Award for his life's contribution to human rights and also received the Bernado O'Higgins award.

In the early 1960s, he was a member of the San Francisco Mime Troupe and wrote the play "The Minstrel Show." At that time he was also working as a film distributor.

Landau donated his Latin American-related films and papers to the University of California, Riverside Libraries in 2005.

Death
Landau died after battling bladder cancer for two years on September 9, 2013, at his home in Alameda, California. He was 77.

Films
Landau's films are distributed by Round World Productions. His 1968 film "Fidel" is distributed by Microcinema.

 * Losing just the same (1966)
 * Fidel (1968)
 * From Protest to Resistance (1968)
 * Que Hacer/What is to be Done? (1971) – Saul Landau, Raúl Ruiz, James Becket, Jaime Sierra, Nina Serrano.
 * Conversation with Allende (1971)
 * Brazil: A Report on Torture (1971)
 * Robert Wall: Ex-FBI Agent (1972)
 * The Jail (1972)
 * Zombies in a House of Madness (1972) – Shot in the San Francisco jail.
 * Song for Dead Warriors (1974) – A documentary about the Wounded Knee occupation in the spring of 1973 by Oglala Sioux Indians and members of the American Indian Movement (AIM)
 * Who Shot Alexander Hamilton (1974)
 * Castro, Cuba and the US (1974)
 * Zombies in a House of Madness (1975) – A short film where jail house poet, Michael Beasley, reads his poetry alongside footage taken inside the San Francisco jail, in 1972.
 * Land of My Birth (1976) – The campaign film for Michael Manley in Jamaica.
 * Bill Moyer's CBS report on CIA and Cuba (1977)
 * The CIA Case Officer (1978) – A documentary about John Stockwell, a former CIA official who served in the CIA for 12 years, mostly in Africa and Vietnam. The film won an Emmy Award (1980), George F. Polk Award for investigative journalism on TV, Hefner First Amendment Award for journalism, and the Mannheim Film Festival first critics' prize.
 * Paul Jacobs and the Nuclear Gang (1979) – A political documentary about government suppression of the health hazards of low-level radiation. Paul Jacobs died from lung cancer before the documentary was finished. His doctors believed he contracted it while he was investigating nuclear policies in 1957. Jacobs interviewed civilians and soldiers, survivors of nuclear experiments in the 50s and 60s, testing the effects of radiation.
 * Steppin' (1980) – A documentary about Michael Manley on his tour in Jamaica, during election time.
 * Report from Beirut (1982)
 * Target Nicaragua. Inside a Covert War (1983)
 * Quest for Power (1983)
 * The Uncompromising Revolution (1988)
 * Report from Iraq (1991)
 * Papakolea (1993)
 * The Sixth Sun: Mayan Uprising in Chiapas (1996)
 * Maquila: A Tale of Two Mexicos (1999) – A documentary about the corporate globalization on the US-Mexican border.
 * Iraq: Voices From the Street (September 2002)
 * Syria: Between Iraq and a Hard Place (2004)
 * Will the Real Terrorist Please Stand Up (2012)
 * "WE DON'T PLAY GOLF HERE – and other stories of globalization"

Books

 * The Bisbee deportations: class conflict and patriotism during World War I, University of Wisconsin—Madison, 1959
 * Landau, Saul, Jacobs, Paul, & Pell, Eve, To Serve the Devil, Volume 1: Natives and Slaves Vintage Books, 1971. ISBN 9780394714592
 * Landau, Saul, Jacobs, Paul, & Pell, Eve To Serve the Devil – Volume 2: Colonials and Sojourners Vintage Books, 1971. ISBN 9780394714592
 * They Educated the Crows, Transnational Institute, 1978 – a Transnational Institute Report on the Letelier-Moffitt Murders
 * My Dad Was Not Hamlet: Poems, Institute for Policy Studies, 1993 ISBN 9780897580496
 * The guerrilla wars of Central America: Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Guatemala, St Martin's Press, 1993, ISBN 978-0312103736
 * Hot air: a radio diary, Pacifica Network News/Institute for Policy Studies, 1995 – Saul Landau, Christopher Hitchens, Pacifica Radio ISBN 978-0-89758-051-9
 * Red Hot Radio: Sex, Violence and Politics at the End of the American Century, Common Courage Press, 1998 ISBN 9781567511468
 * - with Gore Vidal. In this book, he defines his position on the 2006 Cuban transfer of presidential duties, Cuba in the 1960s, Raúl Castro and his opinion on the U.S. concerning Cuba
 * Saul Landau (2013). Stark in the Bronx: A Detective Novel. CounterPunch Books. ISBN 9780989763707
 * Hot air: a radio diary, Pacifica Network News/Institute for Policy Studies, 1995 – Saul Landau, Christopher Hitchens, Pacifica Radio ISBN 978-0-89758-051-9
 * Red Hot Radio: Sex, Violence and Politics at the End of the American Century, Common Courage Press, 1998 ISBN 9781567511468
 * - with Gore Vidal. In this book, he defines his position on the 2006 Cuban transfer of presidential duties, Cuba in the 1960s, Raúl Castro and his opinion on the U.S. concerning Cuba
 * Saul Landau (2013). Stark in the Bronx: A Detective Novel. CounterPunch Books. ISBN 9780989763707
 * - with Gore Vidal. In this book, he defines his position on the 2006 Cuban transfer of presidential duties, Cuba in the 1960s, Raúl Castro and his opinion on the U.S. concerning Cuba
 * Saul Landau (2013). Stark in the Bronx: A Detective Novel. CounterPunch Books. ISBN 9780989763707

Awards

 * Bernardo O'Higgins Award for Human Rights
 * Letelier-Moffit Human Rights Award
 * George Polk Award for Investigative Reporting
 * Joe A. Callaway Award for Civic Courage (2013)
 * Emmy Award
 * Roxie Award for Best Activist Video
 * Hugh M. Hefner First Amendment Award
 * Mannheim Film Festival: Critics' First Prize
 * Ann Arbor Film Festival First Prize
 * Berlin Film Festival First Prize
 * Best Director Award First American Indian Intercontinental Film Festival
 * Golden Apple Award
 * Best Picture North Carolina Smoky Mountain Film Festival
 * Edgar Allan Poe Award, for "Assassination on Embassy Row"

title: Saul Landau


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Andrew Cant (minister)

Andrew Cant (1584–1663) was a Presbyterian minister and leader of the Scottish Covenanters. About 1623 the people of Edinburgh called him to be their minister, but he was rejected by James I. Ten years later he was minister of Pitsligo in Aberdeenshire, a charge which he left in 1638 for that of Newbattle in Midlothian. In July of that year he went with other commissioners to Aberdeen in the vain attempt to induce the university and the presbytery of that city to subscribe the National Covenant, and in the following November sat in the general assembly at Glasgow which abolished episcopacy in Scotland. In 1638 Cant was minister of Pitsligo in Aberdeenshire. In 1640 he was chaplain to the Scottish army and then settled as minister in Aberdeen. Though a staunch Covenanter, he was a zealous Royalist, preaching before Charles I in Edinburgh, and stoutly advocating the restoration of the monarchy in the time of the Commonwealth. Cant's frequent and bitter verbal attacks on various members of his congregation led in 1661 to complaints laid before the magistrates, in consequence of which he resigned his charge.

Early life and education
Andrew Cant, the elder, was born in 1584. Nothing definitely  is  known  as  about his  parentage,  though  it  is  supposed with some  show  of  reason  that  he  was  a native  of  Aberdeen,  and  connected  with the  family  of  Walter  Cant,  formerly  a  bailie of  Leith,  who  on  1  October  1548,  was  admitted to  the  Guildry  of  Aberdeen. He has  also been described  as  a  native  of  Haddingtonshire, and  of  the  Mearns,  and  the  son  of  a dependant  of  the  Earl  Marischal. Educated at the  Grammar  School  and  King's  College, Aberdeen,  he  graduated  MA. in 1612.

Early employment
Cant was appointed Humanist  in  King's  College  in  1614. He was subsequently admitted as minister  of  Afford sometime before  13  December  1617. This post he demitted after  26  October  1629,  on  becoming tutor  to  the  only  son  of  Alexander  Forbes, Lord  Pitsligo. He was then admitted to  Pitsligo  before  20 November  1633.

Church and political endeavours
Cant endeavoured to  get  up  supplications to  the  Privy  Council  from  the  North against  the  Service  Book  October  1637,  and accompanied  Henderson  of  Leuchars  and Dickson  of  Irvine  to  Aberdeen,  with  this view,  towards  the  end  of  that  year.

Unlike most Aberdonian ministers, Cant was a strong champion of the covenants and opponent of the episcopising endeavours of the king. In July 1638 he was appointed by the ‘commissioners at the tables,’ with two other ministers (Dickson and Henderson) and three noblemen (Montrose, Kinghorn, and Cowper), to endeavour to bring the people of the north into sympathy with the presbyterian cause. The reception of the commissioners by the magistrates of Aberdeen was amusing, the magistrates meeting them and offering them the hospitality of the city, which the commissioners declined, till they should see if they would take the covenant. The ‘Aberdeen doctors’ were famous in the church for their opposition to the covenant, and prepared certain questions for the commissioners, which led to a wordy series of answers, replies, and duplies on either side. The feeling was so strong that the commissioners were excluded from the Aberdeen pulpits, and had to preach in the open air.

Cant was a member  of  the  Assembly  which  met  at Glasgow  in  1638. Following this he translated, to  Newbattle  on 20 May  1639. He also served as  chaplain  with  the Scots  army  at  Newcastle  in  1640. He elected to St Nicolas', Aberdeen  by  a  Committee  of  Assembly and  admitted on  24  March  1641.

While one of the most unbending sticklers for the covenants, he was a devoted royalist, and on one occasion, in the time of Cromwell, when many English officers were in his church, he uttered so strong sentiments on duty to the king and on the conduct of those who were against him, that the officers rose up and some of them drew their swords and advanced towards the pulpit. The intrepid minister opened his breast, and said to them, ‘Here is the man who uttered these sentiments,’ inviting them to strike him if they dared. ‘He had once been a captain,’ says Wodrow, who tells the story, ‘and was one of the most bold and resolute men of his day.’ His dauntless courage, with his stirring popular eloquence, gave him a wide fame.

Cant was a  member of  all  the  Commissions  of  Assembly, 1642-9. Financially, Cant had  2000  merks  allowed  him  by Parliament,  4  February  1646,  for  his  services and  losses. Andrew Cant was elected  Moderator  of  the General  Assembly  on 10  July  1650. Joined the Protesters  in  1651 taking their side against the Resolutioners. Cant became  rector  of King's  College  in  1651. Cant is said  to  have been  deposed  on  a  charge  of  circulating Rutherford's  Lex  Rex,  but  probably  demitted in  1660.

Death and legacy
He died on 27  April  1663. He is buried in the graveyard of the Kirk of St Nicholas on Union Street. The flat slab marking is grave lies midway along the west wall. It gives his birthdate as 1584. He was described as the most  actively  convinced  supporter  of  the Covenant  in  the  North  of  Scotland,  a  man of  great  moral  earnestness  and  courage, and  was  one  of  those  summoned  before the  Privy  Council,  9  December  1662,  for seditious  carriage.

Works

 * On the Titles  of  Our  Blessed  Saviour  (Aberdeen, n.d.)
 * Sermon preached  in  the  Greyfriars Church,  Edinburgh,  in  June  1638  (Edinburgh, 1699  and  1720)
 * The Evil  and Danger  of  Prelacy  (Edinburgh,  1699  and 1720 ;  Glasgow,  1741)
 * Essay on  Church Government  (Edinburgh,  1703)
 * A Discourse and  Exhortation  at  renewing  the  National Covenant(Hamilton, 1713; Edinburgh, 1727;  Glasgow,  1741  and  1841)

Family
He married  Margaret Irvine,  who  was  buried  28  March  1679, and  had  issue —
 * James
 * Alexander, minister of  Banchory-Ternan
 * Andrew, Principal of  University  of  Edinburgh (1675–1685).
 * Margaret, died unmarried  1660
 * Sarah (married 4  May  1647,  as  his  second  wife,  Alexander Jaffray  of  Kingswells),  died  a Quaker  in 1673.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Andrew Cant (minister)


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Bocelli (album)

Bocelli is the second studio album by Italian tenor Andrea Bocelli, released in 1995 on the Polydor GmbH label.

This album is the follow-up to his debut album, Il mare calmo della sera. In Germany, the album was certified 4× Platinum for shipping two million units, making it one of the best-selling albums ever in the country. It was also certified 4× Platinum in Switzerland, 2× Platinum in the Netherlands, and Platinum in Austria.

The album is thought to have brought attention of Bocelli's existence to the masses outside of classical music circles, not just for the immense success of hit song "Con te partirò" but also because he covered the popular 1980s pop hit "The Power of Love" by Jennifer Rush.

Track listing

 * 1) "Con te partirò"
 * 2) "Per amore"
 * 3) "Macchine da guerra"
 * 4) "E chiove"
 * 5) "Romanza"
 * 6) "The Power of Love"
 * 7) "Vivo per lei" (with Giorgia)
 * 8) "Le tue parole"
 * 9) "Sempre sempre"
 * 10) "Voglio restare così"
 * 11) "Vivo per lei" (Bonus track, with Judy Weiss)

See

title: Bocelli (album)


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Talk:John and Mary

[Untitled]
‘Smockfarthing’ was indeed in the Abingdon area: it’s based on Stonehill House, about a mile outside Abingdon. Grace James’s mother ("Mrs Hawthorne" in the books) lived there until her death in 1928. "Push" the aunt is Grace James herself, and John and Mary are based on her nephew and niece Giovanni and Maria. Giovanni had to fight for the Italians in World War II and was killed, but Maria was still living in Rome quite recently. ‘Smockfarthing’ now belongs to the pop musician Brian Eno. The books are well above the average standard of the children’s literature of the day, though there is some falling-off in the later ones, possibly because Grace James ran out of true stories about her family and could never invent anything quite as convincing. John and Mary’s charming, self-indulgent Italian father, who appears rarely, is a character of whom one would like to hear more. The other adults in the family tend to be somewhat idealised but the two high-spirited extrovert children are completely believable. Mary is two years older & comes across usually as the dominant one of the two, but, lacking John’s intense interest in the farm, gets slightly less coverage. When they get into a real crisis -- which is seldom -- it is usually John who stands his ground & sees things through. Other characters include a scholarly vicar of stupendous absent-mindedness and an insufferable girl called Nibs who grizzles if she can’t get enough housework.

Untitled
Source:books by Grace James, personal knowledge of the James family

 * I'm tremendously interested in this and can't thank you enough!! I have read all the John & Mary books, including John & Mary's Aunt, which is of course about Grace James - would you like to collaborate on a Wiki entry about her?  (I don't have enough info, even from the book - or dates).  As for Nibs, I know there are separate books about her, but I don't think she is a character in the John & Mary ones, is she (the 'scholarly' one in those is named Eunice Pennyfather)?  I'd love to know if Maria is still a live - is their background just the same as John & Mary's and did they live at Smockfarthing?  (And is Brian Eno a John & Mary fan?!)  Jaycey 18:33, 19 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Point of interest - not sure if Brian Eno still lives at Stonehill House (even if he owns it) - according to 192.com, it's now inhabited by a Dianne Marie Fisher (lucky girl!). Jaycey 13:50, 23 July 2005 (UTC)

Giovanni & Maria lived mostly with their parents in Rome (as you'd expect -- even as a child I thought it was odd the way the parents apparently dumped them on granny 11 months a year) but spent long holidays at Stonehill with Mrs James & Push. There's a brief biography of Grace James, & a much longer section on her books, in Barry Pointon's excellent recent book Lucky Children (Hornbook Press -- details on the web.) I think this would give you enough for a wikipedia biog but would be glad to collaborate if there's anything further you need (J.Maloney@ex.ac.uk). Nibs does appear in one of the J&M books. As children we hated her because she was so virtuous. We also disdained drippy Lisetta, but loved formidable Aunt Prendergast & comic Mrs Lane (who marked Christmas by serving up shepherd's pie instead of grated carrot for dinner.) The scene where her personal spiritual trainer is only allowed to speak 10 words a day & has already used up 9 of them still makes me laugh when I think of it. ›

title: Talk:John and Mary


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User talk:Sticheno

Welcome. Thanks for your contribution.

Please try to make you articles more "encyclopedic". In the article on Park Hill university, for example, you used "our" and "we". Remember Wikipedia is not a site to host ads. So to write from neutral point of view. It's probably best if you don't create articles about yourself or your own school.

Thanks again and I hope you will continue to contribute Zeimusu | (Talk page) 14:48, July 11, 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sticheno


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Studd

Studd is a family surname and may refer to:

The cricketing and missionary Studds
The Studd family were a wealthy Victorian English family, who made their fortune in indigo production in India, and produced a number of outstanding cricketers, missionaries and two Lord Mayors of London. The following are all directly related: The three eldest sons of Edward Studd and his second wife Dorothy – JEK, CT and GB – became known in cricket at the Studd brothers.
 * Arthur Haythorne Studd (1863–1919) – fourth son of Edward Studd and his second wife Dorothy (née Thomas). MCC cricketer.
 * Charles Studd (Charles Thomas 'CT') – third son of Edward and Dorothy, born 2 December 1860 Spretton, Northamptonshire, and died 16 July 1931 Ibambi, Congo, both an England cricketer and missionary in China, India and Belgian Congo, and founder of WEC International.
 * Dora Sophia Bradshaw née Studd (1867–1959) – wife of William Graham Bradshaw, and only daughter of Edward Studd and his second wife Dorothy.
 * Edward John Charles Studd (1849–1909) – oldest son of Edward Studd and his first wife Margaret Hudson; an MCC cricketer.
 * Edward Studd (born Bombay, India 1819 died Kensington, London 1877) – son of Capt Edward Studd and Henrietta Anne née Murphy; an indigo manufacturer and a convert to Christianity through Dwight L. Moody.
 * Emily Adeline Studd (born West Bengal, India 1852) – youngest child of Edward Studd and his first wife Margaret Hudson.
 * George Studd ('GB') (1859–1945) – second son of Edward and Dorothy, England cricketer and missionary.
 * Henrietta Margaret (1847–1924) – wife of Charles A Crane, and oldest child of Edward Studd and his first wife Margaret Hudson.
 * Henry Malden Studd (1851–1920) – second son of Edward Studd and his first wife Margaret Hudson.
 * Herbert William Studd (1870–1947) – Middlesex, Marylebone Cricket Club and Hampshire cricketer, and army officer.
 * Kynaston Studd (John Edward Kynaston 'JEK') (1858–1944) – the eldest brother, cricketer and Lord Mayor of London.
 * Peter Malden Studd (1916–2003) – cricketer and Lord Mayor of London.
 * Priscilla Studd (1864–1920) – Priscilla Livingstone née Stewart, wife of Charles Studd, CIM missionary in China and India.
 * Reginald Augustus Studd (1873–1948), sixth son and youngest child of Edward Studd and Dorothy, MCC, Cambridge University and Hampshire cricketer.

Other people with the surname

 * Big John Studd (1948–1995), American professional wrestler
 * Ron Studd, stage name of American professional wrestler Ron Reis (b. 1970)
 * Scott Studd, stage name of American professional wrestler Scott Antol (born 1971)
 * The Diamond Studd, stage name of American professional wrestler Scott Hall (born 1958)
 * Will Studd, British-born international cheese specialist residing in Australia, host of the television series Cheese Slices

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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/The Heavils

 This page is an archive of the proposed deletion of the article below. Further comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination). No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was Deleted as copyvio --Allen3 talk 20:55, July 22, 2005 (UTC)

The Heavils
"The Heavils are definitely going to make their mark in music history with the release of their debut album on Metal Blade Records due out early to mid 2003" If that's not blatantly copied text, I don't know what is. And... I think it's pretty fair to say that "the Heavils" have not made a mark "in" music history. jglc | t | c 14:49, 11 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Copyvio Added copyvio boilerplate to article -Harmil 15:25, 11 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, fails WP:MUSIC. Dcarrano 20:57, July 11, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete copyvio. JamesBurns 06:15, 12 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Copyvio and nn. Sjakkalle (Check!)  11:49, 15 July 2005 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


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John Clerk

John Clerk may refer to:

 * John Clerk (fl. 1414), MP for Reading
 * John Clerk (fl. 1419–1421), MP for Shaftesbury, perhaps also an attorney or yeoman
 * John Clerk (bishop) (died 1541), former bishop of Bath and Wells
 * John Clerk of Eldin (1728–1812), Scottish Enlightenment figure, artist, and author of An Essay on Naval Tactics
 * John Clerk (writer) (died 1552), English Roman Catholic writer
 * John Clerk, Lord Eldin (1757–1832), Scottish judge
 * John Clarke (physician, 1582–1653), English physician. His last name was also spelt Clerk.
 * John Clerk (physician) (1689–1757), Scottish physician
 * Clerk baronets
 * John Clerk of Penicuik (1611–1674), Scottish merchant
 * Sir John Clerk, 1st Baronet (died 1722), Member of the Parliament of Scotland
 * Sir John Clerk, 2nd Baronet (1676–1755), Scottish lawyer, judge, and composer
 * Sir John Clerk, 5th Baronet (1736–1798), Royal Navy officer

title: John Clerk


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Highlander: The Series

Highlander: The Series is a science fantasy action-adventure television series featuring Duncan MacLeod (Adrian Paul) of the Scottish Clan MacLeod, as the eponymous "Highlander". It was co-produced by Rysher Distribution in the United States, Gaumont Television in France, Reteitalia in Italy, RTL Plus in Germany, and Amuse Video in Japan. An alternate sequel to the 1986 feature film Highlander, it features a storyline in which the protagonist of that film (Connor MacLeod, a member of a race of "Immortals") has not won "the Prize" sought by all Immortals, who still exist post-1985. Christopher Lambert reprised his role as Connor in the pilot episode, which introduced series protagonist Duncan MacLeod, an Immortal who was taken in by the same clan of Scottish Highlanders who had found and raised Connor generations before.

The series was an international hit and was nominated twice for the Motion Picture Sound Editors' Golden Reel Award (Foley Artist ("The Gathering"): 1992; Foley Artist ("The Darkness"): 1993), three times for the Gemini Award (Best Dramatic Series: 1996; Best Performance by an Actor in a Guest Role in a Dramatic Series: 1997 (John Pyper-Ferguson), 1996 (Bruce A. Young)), once for a Saturn Award (Best Genre Syndicated TV Series: 1997), and eight times for the Online Film & Television Association Award (Best Guest Actress in a Syndicated Series (Sandra Bernhard), Best Direction in a Syndicated Series, Best Writing in a Syndicated Series, Best Syndicated Series, Best Ensemble in a Syndicated Series: 1997; Best Actor in a Syndicated Series (Peter Wingfield), Best Syndicated Series, Best Ensemble in a Syndicated Series: 1998).

History
The pilot episode established the main character, Duncan MacLeod, and his girlfriend Tessa Noël (played by Alexandra Vandernoot), initially living quietly together as co-proprietors of the antique shop MacLeod & Noël Antiques. Richie Ryan (Stan Kirsch) was introduced as a thief breaking into their shop and witnessing the confrontation between Duncan, the evil Immortal Slan Quince (Richard Moll), and Duncan's fellow clansman Connor MacLeod, the central protagonist of the original Highlander movie franchise.

Also revealed was that Duncan had lived nearly 400 years, and was one of many such Immortals in the world. Connor had come to ask Duncan to return to the Game, to fight on the side of good against evil. "The Game" was the term used by the Immortals to describe their hunting of one another, seeking "Quickenings" by beheading their opponents. Duncan had been hiding from other Immortals for some time, removing himself from the Game. Now hunted by Quince, he had to face him, and by the end of the first episode, Slan was defeated and Duncan clearly caught up in The Game again.

Storylines revolved around Duncan MacLeod and his relationships with mortals and other Immortals. Relationships formed a theme in the series, especially Duncan MacLeod's relationships with his friends, family, lovers, and foes. As the series progressed, changes in concept become apparent, as well as normal growth in the characters and their relationships. Recurring Immortal characters such as Amanda and Methos made guest appearances in season one, and the Watchers, including Joe Dawson, were introduced in season two.

In the final episode of season 5, "Archangel", the character of Richie Ryan was killed off and the supernatural demon Ahriman introduced into the storyline. Of the 13 episodes of season six, two did not feature MacLeod, while in some he appeared in cameos: the producers were experimenting with introducing a new female Immortal character for a spin-off series. None of the introduced characters were chosen, and what came to be Highlander: The Raven featured the recurring character Amanda in a starring role. The spin-off series lasted for one season, consisting of 22 episodes.

Narration
Each episode began with an opening montage of scenes from Duncan's life, over which was a narration giving a brief overview of the series' theme. The first six episodes of the first season were narrated by Duncan himself: "I am Duncan MacLeod, born four hundred years ago in the Highlands of Scotland. I am Immortal and I am not alone. For centuries we have waited for the time of the Gathering, when the stroke of a sword and the fall of a head will release the power of the Quickening. In the end, there can be only one."

This narration was slightly changed in the show's seventh episode, "Mountain Men" (again by Duncan): "I was born four hundred years ago in the Highlands of Scotland. I am immortal and I am not alone. Now is the time of the Gathering, when the stroke of a sword will release the power of the Quickening. In the end, there can be only one."

The narration changed again in the second season, when Watcher Joe Dawson was introduced (narrative by Joe): "He is immortal. Born in the Highlands of Scotland four hundred years ago, he is not alone. There are others like him – some good, some evil. For centuries, he has battled the forces of darkness, with Holy Ground his only refuge. He cannot die, unless you take his head, and with it, his power. In the end, there can be only one. He is Duncan MacLeod, the Highlander."

The narration changed again at the beginning of the fourth season, and remained until the end of the series' run (narrative by Joe): "He is Duncan MacLeod, the Highlander. Born in 1592 in the Highlands of Scotland, and he is still alive. He is immortal. For four hundred years, he's been a warrior ... a lover ... a wanderer, constantly facing other Immortals in combat to the death. The winner takes his enemy's head, and with it, his power. I am a Watcher, part of a secret society of men and women who observe and record, but never interfere. We know the truth about Immortals. In the end, there can be only one. May it be Duncan MacLeod, the Highlander."

Season one
Duncan MacLeod and Tessa Noel have been living in the city of Seacouver in the Pacific North West for several years, where they run an antiques store. One night, a young street punk called Richie Ryan breaks into the shop whilst they are celebrating Tessa's birthday but is caught by MacLeod, who threatens to cut off his head with a sword. Stunned by MacLeod's seeming over-reaction, Richie watches as another man jumps in through the skylight and challenges the antiques dealer, only to be disconcerted by the appearance of a third man with a Japanese sword, who is in turn hunting him. The intruder is Slan Quince, who is hunting Duncan, unaware that he is himself the target of Duncan's kinsman, Connor MacLeod. Intrigued, the kid follows the MacLeods, only to see first Connor, then Duncan, fight Slan. He sees Connor defeated but escape, leaving Duncan to behead Quince. Amazed, he watches Duncan caught at the center of lightning and explosions as he witnesses, for the first time, a Quickening. Before he leaves, Connor tells Duncan that he must watch Richie, which Duncan does by taking in the boy, who has no family, and employing him in the antiques store. MacLeod also tells Richie the truth about himself and the others – that he is 400 years old and he, like them, is Immortal ("The Gathering"). As the series progressed, MacLeod encountered Immortals like Howard Crowley whom he killed in revenge for killing an Immortal friend of his and framing an innocent man for it ("Innocent Man"), Kiem Sun ("Road Not Taken") and taking in an Immortal student Felice Martin (Free Fall). He even saves Tessa from Immortals like survivalist Caleb Cole (for the only time in the series, Tessa sees Duncan caught in the power of a Quickening) ("Mountain Men") and Andrew Ballin, who wanted to kill her after she witnessed him killing his former lover ("Eyewitness"). Alexei Voshin, with whom he has an old score to settle ("The Sea Witch"), and Walter Reinhardt, another Immortal he had crossed paths with before ("Revenge Is Sweet").

The idyllic life of Duncan and Tessa is shattered by the arrival of a message from one of Mac's teachers, the priest Darius. Darius' most powerful enemy, Grayson, was coming to Seacouver, to eliminate a mortal peacemaker and disciple of Darius, Victor Paulus. Grayson was a lieutenant of Darius when they led an army across Europe in the 5th century but turned against him when Darius killed the then-oldest living Immortal at the gates of Paris and became a man of peace. Determined to protect Tessa and Richie but uncertain of his ability to handle Grayson, he sends them to Darius for protection, then sets out to face Grayson. Grayson offers MacLeod a position at his right hand, but is refused. Grayson takes MacLeod to the limit before the Highlander prevails. MacLeod follows his friends to Paris, where he and Tessa decide to stay, living on Duncan's barge. Tessa takes up a post as a curator, Duncan takes up the role of a kept man and Richie that of a fish out of water ("Band of Brothers").

Duncan does the shopping, but as he is returning to the barge one morning, he sees a man dressed as a mime kill an elderly man ("For Evil's Sake"). Helping the police, he tells them that he can identify the man. The police inspector, LeBrun, is convinced he has seen Duncan before. Later, mysterious men with guns stake out the barge and, when Duncan fells one, he finds that he is a policeman. LeBrun has remembered Duncan – when he was a young gendarme, they were chasing the assassin Kuyler and he saw Duncan then. LeBrun's assistant is in Kuyler's pay, but Duncan silences the mime forever and LeBrun arrests his assistant. Duncan hasn't finished with LeBrun, for when his old enemy Xavier St Cloud crosses his path again, Duncan throws one of Xavier's gas grenades into a cement mixer and LeBrun fishes it out ("For Tomorrow We Die"). Convinced MacLeod is the gas poisoner, LeBrun tries to run him in whilst Duncan has to stop Xavier from gassing an exhibition Tessa is organizing. Frustrated, Xavier comes for Duncan, but Duncan cuts off Xavier's hand and he disappears into the Seine. The series also introduced two old Immortal lovers of Duncan’s to test Tessa's restraint. Grace Chandel, on the run both from the police, who want to arrest her for killing her mortal husband, and the Immortal ex-lover who was the real killer, the possessive Carlo Sendaro ("Saving Grace") was welcomed by Tessa, when Duncan and Darius help her escape, Duncan making sure that Carlo will not trouble her again. The same was not true of Amanda, described by Duncan as "a bad habit". In "The Lady and The Tiger" we met the unprincipled cat-burglar with a passion for circuses, robbery, and 400-year-old Scotsmen, here trying to set up MacLeod so that the Immortal thief she had double-crossed, Zachary Blaine, would not take her head. In the end, she takes Zachary's, but not before Duncan has done all the hard work. Which pretty much set the pattern for all of the Amanda stories to come.

In the season finale, Duncan's old friend, Hugh Fitzcairn, comes to see him, with news that Immortals are disappearing. When they go to see Darius, they find him decapitated inside the church. Returning to Fitz's hotel, they are attacked and Fitz is spirited away, whilst Duncan returns to the church, finding a mysterious book hidden by Darius. It is a history of Immortals written by a secret society of mortals. When these mortals come for Duncan, he is ready and follows them back to their hideout, rescuing Fitz, who is about to be guillotined and confronting their leader, a wild-eyed fanatic who wants to destroy all Immortals. He gets away, leaving a shattered MacLeod to mourn his friend and teacher. The season ends with MacLeod vowing revenge on the men and pouring Darius' ashes into the Seine, to flow out to the sea ("The Hunters").

Season two
This season opened with a new title sequence and a mysterious voice over explaining who Duncan MacLeod is and giving a quick summary of the Rules of the Game. Not so mysterious a voice, as we were to find out, as it is the voice of Joe Dawson. In the first story, ("The Watchers"), a bitter MacLeod returns to Seacouver, determined to find Darius' killers, but with only the Chronicle left by Darius to guide him. He follows a clue to a bookstore, where the manager, Dawson, denies knowing about the book. When MacLeod chases down two men watching from across the street, Dawson follows and tells Duncan that he is his Watcher, one of a secret society of mortals who observe and record the history of the Immortals, but never interfere. He refuses to believe MacLeod's assertion that Darius was murdered by mortals, but is forced to when the leader of the killers is revealed to be his own brother-in-law, James Horton. MacLeod confronts Horton, who shoots him, but not before MacLeod extracts his vengeance for Darius and runs Horton through with his sword. Believing Horton dead, but now aware of the Watchers, MacLeod carries on with his life and tries to help two old friends, but with differing results. Gregor Powers has become a photographer but has lost touch with his humanity, pushing his feelings for others away to avoid the recurring pain of loss ("Studies In Light"). Duncan helps him to learn to value his life and the gift of his Immortality, whilst watching his own former lover, Linda Plager, who is mortal, die of old age and infirmity. Soon after, another Immortal friend, Michael Moore, appears, looking for Mac's help in hunting down Quenten Barnes, Michael's long time enemy, who has reappeared after a long absence ("Turnabout"). Also reappearing is Joe Dawson, who tries to enlist Duncan's help, as Barnes is hunting down and killing the men who tried and executed him years before ("Turnabout"). Barnes was buried and has only recently been disinterred. An uneasy peace is struck between Watcher and Immortal, as the terrible truth dawns – Michael is Quenten Barnes, the two sides of his personality fragmented into a schizophrenic existence. As Quenten slowly takes permanent control, Michael pleads with Duncan to end it and MacLeod kills his friend. During this episode, Mac takes Richie to a martial arts gym, or dojo, run by Charlie DeSalvo, where they intend to train. Thoughts of extra-curricular activities are put aside as the reopening of the antiques shop gets nearer. After a spooky encounter with a palm reader reminds Mac of the gypsies' warning that he will never marry, he tempts fate by asking Tessa to marry him. Overjoyed, she accepts and, as they plan the wedding, Mac is lured from the shop by a group of Watchers, whose leader, Pallin Wolf, stuns Richie and kidnaps Tessa. Using her as a lure, he entices MacLeod to his home, where he has a lightless room in which he hunts and kills Immortals, using a nightscope to see his prey (a la "Silence Of The Lambs"). Fate smiles on Mac by allowing him to defeat Wolf and rescue Tessa despite "The Darkness", but he makes a decision that will haunt him. Sending Tessa with Richie, he stays to rifle the man's files, but as they leave, they are mugged and shot dead. MacLeod runs out to find them both lying in the street. As he holds Tessa in his arms, Richie revives, a newborn Immortal. Grief-stricken, MacLeod sells the store. Richie arrives at the loft one night with a girl he has rescued, who was being pursued by an Immortal ("Under Color Of Authority"). From the description, Duncan recognizes that the hunter is Mako, an eternal lawman. The girl is evasive, but it transpires that she is on the run for murdering her husband, who abused her, but she fears that she will be killed if she goes back, as her husband's father runs the town. Mako doesn't care – he has a warrant and will take her back to stand trial. Richie refuses to stand by and helps her to flee, but when Mako accidentally kills the girl, Richie is enraged and challenges Mako, whom he kills, despite Duncan pleading with him not to. For the first time, Richie feels the power of a Quickening, but it is tinged with sadness as Mac tells him that he is now on his own and must leave.

Season three
Duncan takes Anne to a recital by a choir of monks, one of whom, Paul, is an Immortal. Neither man realises that the song being sung is "The Song Of The Executioner", as the unseen impresario who organised the concert is Kalas, an Immortal with scores to settle with both Duncan and Paul. Kalas kills Paul and then sets about destroying MacLeod, first by framing Joe for dealing drugs then by killing two of Anne's patients and fabricating hospital records to make it look like she is responsible. Duncan realises that Kalas is behind this and, having cleared Joe and Anne, confronts his enemy. As they fight, Anne sees Duncan fall to his death, but Richie gets her away before Duncan revives.

In the midst of this, Richie embarks on a new career in motorcycle racing. Rather than tell Anne the truth, especially with Kalas at large, Duncan leaves Seacouver, arranging for Maurice to buy back the barge in Paris. Arriving in Paris, Duncan is greeted by Hugh Fitzcairn, who is teaching cookery at the Cordon Bleu, ("Star Crossed"). The normally philandering Fitz is in love but has a rival, who tries to kill him by running the two Immortals off the road. At the same time, Richie arrives in France, looking to build on his American successes in motorcycling. Whilst Fitz tells Duncan he should trust Anne, Kalas frames Fitz for the murder of his rival. On the run, Fitz is confronted by Kalas, who beheads him as MacLeod helplessly watches. When Duncan comes for Kalas, his nemesis escapes into a cloud of steam.

Determined to finish Kalas, Duncan seeks Joe's help. Kalas owns a nightclub and Duncan "persuades" the bartender to tell him where Kalas has gone. Kalas has captured his own Watcher and is looking for information on "Methos", the legendary oldest Immortal. After Kalas kills one of the Watchers' historians, Donald Salzer, Dawson sends Duncan to a researcher on the Methos Chronicle, Adam Pierson. Duncan is stunned to find that Pierson is Methos. Kalas confronts Methos, who escapes and sets up Duncan to take his head, realising that he cannot handle Kalas, but Duncan could. Duncan refuses, but when he confronts Kalas at Methos' apartment, their fight is interrupted by the police, who arrest Kalas for Salzer's murder after Adam Pierson identifies Kalas. Before he vanishes from Paris, Methos tells Duncan that he couldn't take the chance on Kalas winning.

In the two part season Finale, Amanda arrives at the barge, being very, very nice to Duncan, which always arouses his suspicions, ("Finale"). Eventually, she tells him that she broke Kalas out of jail, to kill him, but that Kalas got away. Kalas, using the thugs employed by his cellmate, wastes no time in coming for MacLeod and, as Duncan and Amanda try to find him, finds Maurice, who Duncan rescues in the nick of time and sends out of Paris. Kalas captures Amanda, intending to use her as bait, but she escapes. A new problem arises, when Joe Dawson and Methos arrive at the barge. Christine Salzer, the widow of Donald Salzer, the historian Kalas murdered, has found a database created for the Watchers and intends to give it to the newspapers. Dawson tries to stop her, even trying to shoot her, but MacLeod prevents him from becoming a murderer, taking the bullet himself.

As the Immortals think that their secret will be on CNN, Kalas intercepts Christine and kills her, taking the vital disk. He uses the information to find the European head of the Watchers and kills him. He gives Duncan a choice – surrender to him or Kalas will broadcast the information on the disk. Watchers and Immortals combine to hunt Kalas down. Methos tells Duncan to fight Kalas. Amanda and Duncan, faced with the destruction of their world, finally admit their feelings for each other openly. Duncan faces Kalas on the top of the Eiffel Tower and takes his enemy's head. The Quickening of such a powerful Immortal surges through the steelwork of the tower and overloads the Paris power grid, plunging the city into darkness and, in the process, blowing up Kalas' computer and destroying the disk. After celebrating Duncan's victory over Kalas and remembering Paul and Fitzcairn, Joe and Methos leave Duncan and Amanda alone to work out how much of what they said to each other they really want to take back.

Season four
With Kalas dead, MacLeod is free to return to his normal life and resumes his interest in antiques, until one night he sees a bracelet in a private showing at a dealer's, a bracelet he thought long buried. Shadowed by a curious Joe Dawson, he returns to his native Scotland for the first time in two hundred years to return it to the grave of his first love, Debra Campbell. Once in Glenfinnan, he is greeted with hostility by Rachel MacLeod, the local innkeeper, as the village is beset once again by mysterious murders. With the villagers recounting the legend of Duncan MacLeod, who rose from the dead to claim his father's sword and kill the Viking raider, Kanwulf, Rachel slowly comes to trust Duncan as the legend plays itself out again and, this time, Duncan make sure he takes the Viking's head and Quickening before leaving Glenfinnan at peace. (this marked Adrian Paul’s directorial debut in the series) The episode that followed saw the final guest appearance of Phillip Akin as Charlie DeSalvo who was killed by immortal Andrew Cord in Brothers in Arms. The season also saw the friendship of Joe and Duncan temporally end. But mid season saw Duncan like never before as an evil immortal after being affected by the Dark Quickening which corrupts him leading him to turn on his friends (Richie and Joe). In the episode Deliverence, Duncan with the help of Methos is able to overcome the evil inside him. The cliffhanger ending to Season Four starts with a telephone call that brings Joe Dawson to Paris, in the belief that MacLeod is dead. Standing on the Quai, he is kidnapped in front of Duncan, who finds out from Methos that Joe is on trial for his life before the Watcher tribunal. Watchers are being killed across Europe and the Watchers believe that Joe's revelation of their secret is the root cause, unaware that it is the consequences of their own hypocrisy and double standards that is visiting destruction upon them. Blind to their own arrogance and willingness to interfere in the Game, they ignore Duncan's pleas for clemency. As they prepare to execute Dawson, it is they who are judged as a mysterious Immortal guns down the Watcher hierarchy and flees past Duncan, who arrives in time to find Dawson wounded and unconscious in the final scene.

Season five
After the events in "Judgment Day", the Watchers abandon all pretense of not interfering in the Game. Believing that MacLeod is responsible for the slaughter of the Watchers, Jack Shapiro, their head, orders his death and, at the beginning of "One Minute To Midnight", Duncan is trying to survive their manhunt. Believing the only way to avoid a war between the Watchers and the Immortals is to convince Shapiro of his innocence, MacLeod goes to their battle headquarters, only to find that the Immortal who is the real killer has beaten him to the punch. The bitter irony of the situation is revealed – Jacob Galati is hunting the Watchers after Horton killed his Immortal wife, Irena, during his rampage across Europe in 1992 that ended when he killed Darius in Paris, ("The Hunters"). Jacob refuses to believe that the Watchers are not evil, but agrees to meet Joe, who has been nursed back to health by Methos. Joe won't meet Jacob though and helps the Watchers to capture him. Duncan is forced to stand by whilst the Watchers murder Jacob and is devastated to receive his friend's Quickening. Methos rejects Joe and the Watchers for what they have become, but MacLeod returns to confront Shapiro, to put an end to the killing. When Shapiro refuses, Joe belatedly realizes that his friend has become another Horton and helps Duncan to secure peace with the Watchers. Wanting nothing to do with Paris, Duncan returns to Seacouver. There, he finds the Immortal Cassandra waiting for him. She is being hunted by Roland Kantos, one of her students, and she tells Duncan of a "Prophecy" that he will defeat great evil. Kantos relies on the hypnotic power of his voice to defeat his opponents, but Duncan, after nearly losing his head to Kantos' tricks, defeats the mesmerist by plugging his ears. Joe comes to the dojo and gets the cold shoulder from Duncan, but before he leaves, he tells MacLeod that Richie is in town, ("The End Of Innocence"). Duncan tries to make his peace with Richie, but the young Immortal is still plagued by nightmares after Duncan almost killed him in "Something Wicked" and warns Duncan to stay away from him. When Richie challenges and kills Carter Wellan, his mentor Haresh Clay comes for Richie, breaking his sword. Richie is arrested trying to steal another one from a museum and is bailed out by Duncan, who warns him that Clay is as good as they come and gives him a sword. The two Immortals work out their differences and, now acting as equals, it is Duncan who asks Richie to stand aside as he avenges his humiliation at Clay's hands when they first met and takes his head. In "Archangel" Duncan accidentally kills Richie thinking he is a demon he is destined to face.

Season six
The series dealt with the Ahriman story arc in the first two episodes. A majority of the season dealt with Duncan meeting some female Immortals. The producers were experimenting to look for a replacement to Duncan for the planned spin-off Highlander: The Raven.

Origin
Highlander: The Series originated in Europe. Christopher Lambert, who had then starred in the first two Highlander movies, had previously worked with French leading entertainment conglomerate Gaumont's president Christian Charret. Lambert knew that Highlander producers Peter Davis and Bill Panzer wanted to make a Highlander series and connected them with Charret. Gaumont bought the rights to the series. Highlander was one of the first projects developed by Gaumont's television branch opened in 1992 and one of its financial backers was the French bank Credit du Nord. Gaumont took the risk of producing television series entirely in English, to enter international markets.

The French leading production company Gaumont Television bought the rights to the series to have it produced in syndication in America with a local crew, a ground-breaking move at the time. Highlander marked the first time a French production company was creatively involved in a show intended for the American market. The show was co-produced in syndication by international partners including Gaumont, RTL Plus (Germany), Rysher Distribution (United States), Reteitalia Productions (Italy), Amuse Video (Japan) and TF1 (France). The budget of the first season was US$26.1 million. Keith Samples, president of Rysher, stated that "about 75% of the guaranteed budget came from overseas sales." The remaining 25% came from United States sales and the producers retained the distribution rights, which allowed the show to produce $800,000 per episode only from international income, believed to be the top result of the 1992–1993 season. To secure an adequate share of European content, and as a result of the co-production agreement, each season was divided into two segments, the first segment was filmed in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada (posing at the fictional location of Seacouver, Washington, United States), the second in Paris, France. The production of the first segment began in Vancouver on July 13, 1992, while the production of the second segment started in December 1992 in Paris and used the studios of French state production agency Société Française de Production (SFP) at Bry-sur-Marne near Paris.

The French government changed quota rules around the time production for the second series started, forcing TF1 to withdraw from production, as the government claimed that Highlander did not qualify as a French production. Gaumont found a new partner, niche commercial channel M6, who offered half of the costs offered by TF1.

The executive producers were Bill Panzer, Peter S. Davis, Gaumont Television president Christian Charret and Gaumont co-production chief Marla Ginsburg. Steven Maier, Sheryl Hardy and Guy Collins were co-executive producers. Kevin Droney and Philip John Taylor were supervising producers at the beginning of the season; from the seventh episode onwards, David Abramowitz became supervising producer instead of Taylor. The producers were Barry Rosen and Gary Goodman for Season One, replaced by Ken Gord from Season Two til the end of the Season Six. Executives in charge of production were Marc du Pontavice and Denis Leroy. Scripts were contributed by both staff and freelance writers, Brian Clemens among the latter. Brent-Carl Clackson was line producer on the Vancouver segment, from episode one to thirteen. When production moved to Paris, Clackson was succeeded by Patrick Millet (with the title of production manager) for episodes fourteen to twenty-two. The regular directors were Thomas J. Wright, Jorge Montesi and Ray Austin. The fencing coach was Bob Anderson, who coined for himself the title of Master of Swords. Anderson choreographed the fights on the Vancouver segment then was succeeded by Peter Diamond, credited as second unit director and stunt coordinator on the Paris segment. At the beginning of Season 3, F. Braun McAsh became the Swordmaster and choreographed the remaining four seasons and the fourth movie, Endgame. The opening theme was "Princes of the Universe" from the 1986 album A Kind of Magic by Queen; incidental music was composed by Roger Bellon. The pilot episode was originally intended to be a third Highlander movie (to act as a television movie), but the low budget and Lambert agreeing to reprise his role as Connor MacLeod late into production caused the pilot to be written as a one-hour pilot.

Location
Although Immortals are scattered around the world, the events of the series are most notably located in Vancouver, British Columbia and Paris, France. However, flashbacks during the series often brought the show to a variety of places. The locations for the present switched just past the midway point of seasons 1–5 from Seattle/Vancouver to Paris. Thus it became the second international TV series about a Scottish swashbuckler in France after the series Quentin Durward which had already been shot in back in 1970 and resembles many of Duncan MacLeod's (and Connor MacLeod's) historical flashbacks. In Paris, Duncan lived on a barge located on the Seine River (at approximately 48.83674°N, 2.37494°W) while in the fictional city of "Seacouver, WA" (somewhere in the Pacific Northwest) Duncan moved after Tessa's death from their antiques store to an apartment above his recently acquired freestyle dojo.

VHS release
Beginning in 1995, full seasons of Highlander were released on VHS. These releases were the European cuts of the episodes, with each episode having approximately four minutes of additional footage not seen on American television. The first four season sets featured 11 VHS tapes, with two episodes on each tape. Prior to the release of the individual seasons, in October 1993, a feature-length release titled Highlander: The Gathering was released on VHS, which combined the episodes "The Gathering" and "Revenge is Sweet".

DVD releases
The series has been released on home video in various collections. Anchor Bay Entertainment released all six seasons on DVD in Region 1 between 2002 and 2005. The company also released a 15-episode best-of collection, as well as a collection containing all six seasons. In addition, Anchor Bay released several two-part episodes on single DVDs and edited them together to present them as feature-length films. For example, "Counterfeit" and "Counterfeit Part Two" were released on a single DVD as Highlander: Counterfeit. These releases have all been discontinued and are now out of print.

In April 2018, Visual Entertainment re-released Highlander: The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1. The 22-disc collection includes all 119 episodes of the series as well as 6 hours of bonus content and also comes with a spin-off series Highlander: The Raven.

Reception
Critical reaction to Highlander: The Series has been generally favorable, and more favorable in general than the film sequels to the original Highlander, which have mostly received negative reviews (with the exception of the anime film Highlander: The Search for Vengeance, which has received more positive reviews).

Rob Lineberger of DVD Verdict said: "The direction is sometimes uncertain, but Highlander: The Series gives viewers something unique and inspiring. Each episode gives us a provocative glimpse into the trials and concerns of immortality, great swordfights, stylish flashbacks to bygone eras, and occasionally wicked immortals with awesome quickenings." Lineberger also added: "These actors, writers, producers, directors, and crew delivered one of television's great successes, particularly in the fantasy genre. Highlander: The Series took us to places we otherwise could not have gone, and did so with intelligence, style, and wit." Lineberger gave the six seasons scores of 92, 93, 90, 92, 87, and 70 out of 100, respectively.

Abbie Bernstein of Audio Video Revolution said: "Although it would be another two years until the series fully hit its stride, it was already [in the first season] offering something out of the ordinary narratively; in terms of production value, it remains one of the best-looking quasi-period shows ever to come down the pike, holding its own and then some against much better-funded product from the major studios." David Oliver of CHUD.com said that "whereas the sequels ultimately strayed from the mythology of the original [film] in the pursuit of more storytelling (translation: more money), the series built upon the mythology."

Carlo Cavagna of About Film criticized the series, saying that it consisted of "pedestrian one-hour confrontations pitting Duncan MacLeod against one overacting nefarious immortal after another, each a pale imitation of Clancy Brown's delicious overarching villainy in the first film" and felt that the series featured "a wide array of unappealing supporting characters" and that "the writers didn't know what to do with the Highlander concept." Similarly, Danél Griffin of Film as Art remarked that "the six-season Highlander: The Series has a loyal following, but let’s be honest: Adrian Paul, the lead, is not an interesting actor, and there’s not one moment in the show—not one—that comes close to matching the wit or liveliness of the first film."

Critics have pointed to the middle seasons of the show as its best. Lineberger remarked: "There was a dramatic boost in quality from season one to season two. Season two had better writing and quality control, [and] season three is better than season two." Bernstein claimed that "during season five, [the show] was at the peak of its creative glory." Kathie Huddleston of Syfy said that "season four was arguably the best season of the series, as the show said goodbye to characters from the previous season and delved into what made the regulars and the most notable recurring characters tick."

Critics have singled out the sixth and final season as the worst of the series. Lineberger remarked: "I haven't attempted to hide my disappointment with this season. For the first time ever in my life as a Highlander enthusiast, I found myself utterly uncaptivated." Oliver awarded the sixth season a score of 3.9 out of 10, saying: "Like The X-Files, Highlander: The Series simply went on too long. If the star is wanting to get out of a show as much as Paul was ready to hang up his katana, then I say let it go."

Reunion
In 2008, a reunion special was filmed starring Peter Wingfield, Elizabeth Gracen, and Jim Byrnes reprising their roles. The 17-minute special was a low budget project that takes place 10 years after the series (or between the fourth and fifth movies). Filming took place at producer Peter Davis' former beach home with the actors volunteering in their roles. The plot involved the characters discussing Methos' plans to get married and settle down with a mortal woman and her son.

Audio plays
In 2009, Big Finish released a series of four officially licensed audio adventures featuring Adrian Paul as Duncan MacLeod. They are set sometime after the events of the film Highlander: Endgame. Each play in the first season is around an hour long, and contains a new music score and new Highlander audio theme by Jamie Robertson. The audio series has discontinued. The episodes are: In 2011 Big Finish released a box set containing a linked series of four audio adventures featuring the actors who played the Four Horsemen in the TV series, pitted against a new recurring villain. These are:
 * The Lesson – The story introduces an immortal named Pieter Gatlan, who challenges and defeats Duncan every ten years but never beheads him. Starring Adrian Paul and Trevor Cooper. Written by Trevor Baxendale.
 * Love and Hate – A roof-top duel between sword-wielding combatants becomes the talk of Seacouver, but Duncan is perplexed when both bodies are found with their heads intact. He discovers there may be a sexually transmitted infection that affects immortals. Starring Adrian Paul and Beth Chalmers. Written by Colin Harvey.
 * The Secret of the Sword – A known expert on swords and old weapons, Duncan MacLeod is called in to help Seacouver police value an antique blade. Duncan recognizes the sword as belonging to Michael Kent, an immortal he killed, and recalls an encounter with a samurai. Starring Adrian Paul and Toby Longworth. Written by Jonathan Clements.
 * Kurgan Rising – With an increasing number of Immortals disappearing, Duncan and Watcher Joe Dawson investigate. Events lead to an immortal dying on holy ground, seemingly upsetting a balance in nature. The dead seem to rise, including Connor MacLeod and his ancient enemy the Kurgan. Starring Adrian Paul and Toby Longworth. Written by Cavan Scott & Mark Wright.
 * Brothers – Kronos (Valentine Pelka) recalls the formation of the Four Horsemen and the reasons they separated. Written by Scott Andrews.
 * All The King's Horses – An amnesiac man wakes with a box of documents about 'Silas' (Richard Ridings). Written by Scott Andrews. Shortlisted for a Scribe Award.
 * The Pain-Eater – The secret history of Caspian (Marcus Testory) is revealed. Written by Scott Andrews.
 * The Promise – Methos (Peter Wingfield) tracks down the man who has tormented all four horsemen for thousands of years. As he does so, he recounts the story of his life and his greatest love. Written by James Moran.

A Celtic Opera
Duncan also appears in Highlander: A Celtic Opera, an opera jointly composed by Roger Bellon and Harlan Collins. The opera follows Duncan's banishment from his clan, his relationship with a mortal woman named Aurora who becomes his first wife, and his encounters with an immortal Visigoth named Fritagern. In the end, Duncan beheads Fritagern in the 21st century after the man murders a cloned Aurora on their wedding day.

Books
The ten Highlander: The Series novels published from October 1995 to September 2000 are canon. Events from them are included in the Watcher Chronicles CD-ROM, which contains an extensive database of the events and immortals of the television series.
 * 1995 October Highlander: The Element of Fire, by Jason Henderson — The chronicles of Duncan's training days with Connor MacLeod; the friendship between the two Highlanders through the centuries. A bloodthirsty and immortal pirate Khordas vows to kill the Highlander, making for a fearsome enemy that haunts Duncan and Connor for hundreds of years.
 * 1996 February Highlander: Scimitar, by Ashley McConnell – When Joe Dawson receives an ancient sword, it triggers Duncan's remembrance of his involvement in the Arab Revolt in 1916.
 * 1996 September Highlander: Scotland the Brave, by Jennifer Roberson – Annie Devlin returns to draw Duncan into a new quest to win independence for Ireland. He is reluctant, given his history with failed attempts to free his homeland, including his culpability in the fate of the Stone of Scone.
 * 1997 May Highlander: Measure of a Man by Nancy Holder – In Venice, Italy 1655, Duncan meets legendary manipulator – and, apparently, Immortal – Niccolò Machiavelli. Duncan only narrowly escaped Machiavelli's machinations once; he may not be so lucky when the Prince of Lies resurfaces in 20th century North America.
 * 1997 August Highlander: The Path by Rebecca Neason – In 1781 Duncan meets a different kind of Immortal – the Dalai Lama. Soon the Highlander embarks on the path to enlightenment and peace. But that peace may be short-lived when the Immortal Nasiradeen invades Tibet.
 * 1997 November Highlander: Zealot by Donna Lettow – Duncan MacLeod was there when Avram Mordecai fought the enemies of his Jewish people in World War II, as he has for two thousand years. Now he finds himself trapped between his honor and his loyalties when he protects a Palestinian diplomat from his old friend.
 * 1998 June Highlander: Shadow of Obsession by Rebecca Neason – Once Darius was a man of war, laying siege to Rome. Centuries later, as a man of God, Darius touched the life of Duncan MacLeod. Now a spurned lover from Darius' warrior days returns for revenge against all he called friend.
 * 1998 August Highlander: The Captive Soul by Josepha Sherman – Three millennia past, Methos aided the Ancient Egyptian pharaohs when the Hyksos invaded. He reluctantly becomes a spy inside the Hyksos royal house, when he meets the Immortal – and thoroughly insane – Prince Khyan. Methos misses his chance to take the madman's head, a mistake that returns to haunt him as the Oldest Immortal returns to find his sword, killing all in his path.
 * 1999 February Highlander: White Silence by Ginjer Buchanan – MacLeod, Hugh Fitzcairn and his young apprentice get trapped in the frozen Yukon. There they face their deaths... over and over and over again.
 * 2000 September Highlander: An Evening at Joe's – An anthology written by the cast and crew of Highlander: The Series:
 * "Letters From Viet Nam" by Jim Byrnes
 * "Train From Bordeaux" by Gillian Horvath
 * "The Star of Athena" by Laura Brennan
 * "Words to the Highlander" by Peter Hudson
 * "Pants" by Donna Lettow
 * "Consone's Diary" by Anthony De Longis
 * "Down Towards the Outflow" by Roger Bellon
 * "The Methos Chronicles: Part I" by Don Anderson
 * "From the Grave" by Stan Kirsch
 * "Postcards From Alexa" by Gillian Horvath and Donna Lettow
 * "World Enough and Time" (Horvath)
 * "World Enough and Time II" (Lettow)
 * "World Enough and Time III" (Horvath)
 * "Natural Wonders" (Lettow)
 * "Holy Ground" (both)
 * "The Man With No Name" (Lettow)
 * "Postcards From Athens" (Horvath)
 * "Night in Geneva" (Lettow)
 * "He Scores!" by Ken Gord
 * "The Staircase" by Valentine Pelka
 * "Death Shall Have No Dominion" by F. Braun McAsh
 * "A Time of Innocents" by Peter Wingfield
 * "The Other Side of the Mirror" by Dennis Berry and Darla Kershner

A German-language novel entitled Highlander: Die Rückkehr des Unsterblichen (Highlander: The Return of the Immortal) was also published in 1994. Co-written by Martin Eisele and Hans Sommer, it details Duncan wanting to leave "The Game" after he beheads a female Immortal. The book is not considered canonical.

Highlander: The Raven
Plans for a spin-off series led to four episodes of Highlander: The Series to focus on four new women immortals, each seen as a possible spin-off lead. The candidates introduced were Alex Raven (Dara Tomanovich), Kyra (Alice Evans), Katya (Justina Vail), and Reagan Cole (Sandra Hess). According to behind the scene interviews and Highlander: The Complete Watcher's Guide, fan reaction was largely negative or apathetic concerning these original characters. The lead role for Highlander: The Raven went to Elizabeth Gracen's popular recurring character Amanda. The spin-off only lasted one season due to low ratings and changes in how syndicated shows are marketed.

The Methos Chronicles
In 2001, The Methos Chronicles was an animated Flash web-series (or web-cast) based on Methos (Peter Wingfield), a 5000 year-old immortal introduced in Highlander: The Series. Wingfield voiced the character for the series, which lasted only one eight-episode season. There were talks about developing a live-action series in the early 2000s with Wingfield but the series never went into production. Eight more episodes of The Methos Chronicles were produced by fans and released on Youtube.

Highlander: Endgame (2000)
Highlander: Endgame was a theatrical film released to theaters on September 1, 2000. Rather than a direct sequel in the Highlander film franchise, it followed the continuity of the recently ended Highlander: The Series, acting as a franchise bridge by reuniting TV series protagonist Duncan MacLeod with his mentor and kinsman Connor MacLeod, the protagonist of the original film and its two sequels. The film's antagonist is Jacob Kell (Bruce Payne), an evil immortal who ignores the rules of the Game. Although the TV series had made a point to say Duncan had never been married, Endgame introduces Kate Devaney, retroactively revealed to be a pre-immortal Irish woman whom Duncan married in 1715 and then stabbed, activating her immortality. Resenting her ageless life and Duncan, Kate becomes a warrior for Kell in the modern day, calling herself Faith.

Highlander: The Source (2007)
Highlander: The Source was a made-for-TV movie that premiered on the Sci Fi Channel on September 15, 2007 and continued the canon of Highlander: The Series, set several years after Endgame. The film takes place in a future version of Earth where human society has descended into violence and chaos. Duncan MacLeod, his new mortal wife Anna Teshemka, and a group of allies seek an energy well in Eastern Europe that may be the legendary Source of immortality, all while fighting the Guardian (Cristian Solimeno), an immortal empowered with superhuman abilities.

The story and the mythology of the Source were meant to be expanded on with future films, but reception to The Source was largely negative and plans for follow-up stories were canceled. A 2008 short film called "Reunion", written by TV series producer David Abramowitz and directed by Don Paonessa, featured the series characters but did not acknowledge the events of Highlander: The Source. At the Highlander Worldwide Convention the next year, Abramowitz and others from the TV series referred to Highlander: The Source as a "bad dream" Duncan had. The Big Finish audio plays released in 2009 likewise do not reference the events of Highlander: The Source nor indicate that the story and its version of Earth are in Duncan's near future.

In popular culture
In the TV series, Reaper, season 1, episode 15 ("Coming to Grips"), Bert "Sock" Wysocki pretends to be Duncan MacLeod as he wields the scythe "vessel" they are going to use to capture the escaped soul; presumably because — like swords in the Highlander series — it could be used to behead someone.

title: Highlander: The Series


text:
Detailed balance

The principle of detailed balance can be used in kinetic systems which are decomposed into elementary processes (collisions, or steps, or elementary reactions). It states that at equilibrium, each elementary process is in equilibrium with its reverse process.

History
The principle of detailed balance was explicitly introduced for collisions by Ludwig Boltzmann. In 1872, he proved his H-theorem using this principle. The arguments in favor of this property are founded upon microscopic reversibility.

Five years before Boltzmann, James Clerk Maxwell used the principle of detailed balance for gas kinetics with the reference to the principle of sufficient reason. He compared the idea of detailed balance with other types of balancing (like cyclic balance) and found that "Now it is impossible to assign a reason" why detailed balance should be rejected (pg. 64).

In 1901, Rudolf Wegscheider introduced the principle of detailed balance for chemical kinetics. In particular, he demonstrated that the irreversible cycles are impossible and found explicitly the relations between kinetic constants that follow from the principle of detailed balance. In 1931, Lars Onsager used these relations in his works, for which he was awarded the 1968 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

Albert Einstein in 1916 used the principle of detailed balance in a background for his quantum theory of emission and absorption of radiation.

The principle of detailed balance has been used in Markov chain Monte Carlo methods since their invention in 1953. In particular, in the Metropolis–Hastings algorithm and in its important particular case, Gibbs sampling, it is used as a simple and reliable condition to provide the desirable equilibrium state.

Now, the principle of detailed balance is a standard part of the university courses in statistical mechanics, physical chemistry, chemical and physical kinetics.

Microscopic background
The microscopic "reversing of time" turns at the kinetic level into the "reversing of arrows": the elementary processes transform into their reverse processes. For example, the reaction

 * transforms into

and conversely. (Here, are symbols of components or states, $$\alpha_i, \beta_j \geq 0 $$ are coefficients). The equilibrium ensemble should be invariant with respect to this transformation because of microreversibility and the uniqueness of thermodynamic equilibrium. This leads us immediately to the concept of detailed balance: each process is equilibrated by its reverse process.

This reasoning is based on three assumptions:
 * 1) \ce A_i does not change under time reversal;
 * 2) Equilibrium is invariant under time reversal;
 * 3) The macroscopic elementary processes are microscopically distinguishable. That is, they represent disjoint sets of microscopic events.

Any of these assumptions may be violated. For example, Boltzmann's collision can be represented as, where \ce A_v is a particle with velocity v. Under time reversal \ce A_v transforms into \ce A_{-v}. Therefore, the collision is transformed into the reverse collision by the PT transformation, where P is the space inversion and T is the time reversal. Detailed balance for Boltzmann's equation requires PT-invariance of collisions' dynamics, not just T-invariance. Indeed, after the time reversal the collision, transforms into. For the detailed balance we need transformation into . For this purpose, we need to apply additionally the space reversal P. Therefore, for the detailed balance in Boltzmann's equation not T-invariance but PT-invariance is needed.

Equilibrium may be not T- or PT-invariant even if the laws of motion are invariant. This non-invariance may be caused by the spontaneous symmetry breaking. There exist nonreciprocal media (for example, some bi-isotropic materials) without T and PT invariance.

If different macroscopic processes are sampled from the same elementary microscopic events then macroscopic detailed balance may be violated even when microscopic detailed balance holds.

Now, after almost 150 years of development, the scope of validity and the violations of detailed balance in kinetics seem to be clear.

Reversibility
A Markov process is called a reversible Markov process or reversible Markov chain if there exists a stationary distribution π that satisfies the detailed balance equations $$\pi_{i} P_{ij} = \pi_{j} P_{ji}\,,$$where Pij is the Markov transition probability from state i to state j, i.e. $P_{ij} = P(X_{t} = j | X_{t − 1} = i)$, and πi and πj are the equilibrium probabilities of being in states i and j, respectively. When $Pr(X_{t−1} = i) = π_{i}$ for all i, this is equivalent to the joint probability matrix, $Pr(X_{t−1} = i, X_{t} = j)$ being symmetric in i and j; or symmetric in $t − 1$ and t.

The definition carries over straightforwardly to continuous variables, where π becomes a probability density, and $P(s′, s)$ a transition kernel probability density from state s′ to state s:$$\pi(s') P(s',s) = \pi(s) P(s,s')\,.$$The detailed balance condition is stronger than that required merely for a stationary distribution, because there are Markov processes with stationary distributions that do not have detailed balance.

Transition matrices that are symmetric $(P_{ij} = P_{ji}$ or $P(s′, s) = P(s, s′))$ always have detailed balance. In these cases, a uniform distribution over the states is an equilibrium distribution.

Kolmogorov's criterion
Reversibility is equivalent to Kolmogorov's criterion: the product of transition rates over any closed loop of states is the same in both directions.

For example, it implies that, for all a, b and c,$$P(a,b) P(b,c) P(c,a) = P(a,c) P(c,b) P(b,a)\,.$$For example, if we have a Markov chain three states such that only these transitions are possible: $$A \to B, B \to C, C \to A, B \to A$$, then they violate Kolmogorov's criterion.

Closest reversible Markov chain
For continuous systems with detailed balance, it may be possible to continuously transform the coordinates until the equilibrium distribution is uniform, with a transition kernel which then is symmetric. In the case of discrete states, it may be possible to achieve something similar by breaking the Markov states into appropriately-sized degenerate sub-states.

For a Markov transition matrix and a stationary distribution, the detailed balance equations may not be valid. However, it can be shown that a unique Markov transition matrix exists which is closest according to the stationary distribution and a given norm. The closest Matrix can be computed by solving a quadratic-convex optimization problem.

Detailed balance and entropy increase
For many systems of physical and chemical kinetics, detailed balance provides sufficient conditions for the strict increase of entropy in isolated systems. For example, the famous Boltzmann H-theorem states that, according to the Boltzmann equation, the principle of detailed balance implies positivity of entropy production. The Boltzmann formula (1872) for entropy production in rarefied gas kinetics with detailed balance served as a prototype of many similar formulas for dissipation in mass action kinetics and generalized mass action kinetics with detailed balance.

Nevertheless, the principle of detailed balance is not necessary for entropy growth. For example, in the linear irreversible cycle, entropy production is positive but the principle of detailed balance does not hold.

Thus, the principle of detailed balance is a sufficient but not necessary condition for entropy increase in Boltzmann kinetics. These relations between the principle of detailed balance and the second law of thermodynamics were clarified in 1887 when Hendrik Lorentz objected to the Boltzmann H-theorem for polyatomic gases. Lorentz stated that the principle of detailed balance is not applicable to collisions of polyatomic molecules.

Boltzmann immediately invented a new, more general condition sufficient for entropy growth. Boltzmann's condition holds for all Markov processes, irrespective of time-reversibility. Later, entropy increase was proved for all Markov processes by a direct method. These theorems may be considered as simplifications of the Boltzmann result. Later, this condition was referred to as the "cyclic balance" condition (because it holds for irreversible cycles) or the "semi-detailed balance" or the "complex balance". In 1981, Carlo Cercignani and Maria Lampis proved that the Lorentz arguments were wrong and the principle of detailed balance is valid for polyatomic molecules. Nevertheless, the extended semi-detailed balance conditions invented by Boltzmann in this discussion remain the remarkable generalization of the detailed balance.

Wegscheider's conditions for the generalized mass action law
In chemical kinetics, the elementary reactions are represented by the stoichiometric equations

where \ce A_i are the components and $$\alpha_{ri}, \beta_{rj}\geq 0$$ are the stoichiometric coefficients. Here, the reverse reactions with positive constants are included in the list separately. We need this separation of direct and reverse reactions to apply later the general formalism to the systems with some irreversible reactions. The system of stoichiometric equations of elementary reactions is the reaction mechanism.

The stoichiometric matrix is $$\boldsymbol{\Gamma}=(\gamma_{ri})$$, $$\gamma_{ri}=\beta_{ri}-\alpha_{ri}$$ (gain minus loss). This matrix need not be square. The stoichiometric vector $$\gamma_r$$ is the rth row of $$\boldsymbol{\Gamma}$$ with coordinates $$\gamma_{ri}=\beta_{ri}-\alpha_{ri}$$.

According to the generalized mass action law, the reaction rate for an elementary reaction is $$w_r=k_r \prod_{i=1}^n a_i^{\alpha_{ri}} \, ,$$ where $$a_i\geq 0$$ is the activity (the "effective concentration") of $$A_i$$.

The reaction mechanism includes reactions with the reaction rate constants $$k_r>0$$. For each r the following notations are used: $$k_r^+=k_r$$; $$w_r^+=w_r$$; $$k_r^-$$ is the reaction rate constant for the reverse reaction if it is in the reaction mechanism and 0 if it is not; $$w_r^-$$ is the reaction rate for the reverse reaction if it is in the reaction mechanism and 0 if it is not. For a reversible reaction, $$K_r=k_r^+/k_r^-$$ is the equilibrium constant.

The principle of detailed balance for the generalized mass action law is: For given values $$k_r$$ there exists a positive equilibrium $$a_i^{\rm eq}>0$$ that satisfies detailed balance, that is, $$w_r^+=w_r^-$$. This means that the system of linear detailed balance equations $$\sum_i \gamma_{ri} x_i = \ln k_r^+-\ln k_r^-=\ln K_r $$ is solvable ($$x_i=\ln a_i^{\rm eq}$$). The following classical result gives the necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence of a positive equilibrium $$a_i^{\rm eq}>0$$ with detailed balance (see, for example, the textbook ).

Two conditions are sufficient and necessary for solvability of the system of detailed balance equations: the Wegscheider's identity holds: $$\prod_{r=1}^m    (k_r^+)^{\lambda_r}=\prod_{r=1}^m     (k_r^-)^{\lambda_r} \, .$$
 * 1) If $$k_r^+>0$$ then $$k_r^->0$$ and, conversely, if $$k_r^->0$$ then $$k_r^+>0$$ (reversibility);
 * 2) For any solution $$\boldsymbol{\lambda}=(\lambda_r)$$ of the system $$\boldsymbol{\lambda \Gamma} =0  \;\; \left(\mbox{i.e.}\;\; \sum_r \lambda_r \gamma_{ri}=0\;\; \mbox{for all} \;\; i\right)$$

Remark. It is sufficient to use in the Wegscheider conditions a basis of solutions of the system $$\boldsymbol{\lambda \Gamma} =0 $$.

In particular, for any cycle in the monomolecular (linear) reactions the product of the reaction rate constants in the clockwise direction is equal to the product of the reaction rate constants in the counterclockwise direction. The same condition is valid for the reversible Markov processes (it is equivalent to the "no net flow" condition).

A simple nonlinear example gives us a linear cycle supplemented by one nonlinear step: There are two nontrivial independent Wegscheider's identities for this system: $$k_1^+k_2^+k_3^+=k_1^-k_2^-k_3^-$$ and $$k_3^+k_4^+/k_2^+=k_3^-k_4^-/k_2^-$$ They correspond to the following linear relations between the stoichiometric vectors: $$\gamma_1 + \gamma_2 + \gamma_3 = 0$$ and $$\gamma_3 + \gamma_4 - \gamma_2 = 0.$$

The computational aspect of the Wegscheider conditions was studied by D. Colquhoun with co-authors.

The Wegscheider conditions demonstrate that whereas the principle of detailed balance states a local property of equilibrium, it implies the relations between the kinetic constants that are valid for all states far from equilibrium. This is possible because a kinetic law is known and relations between the rates of the elementary processes at equilibrium can be transformed into relations between kinetic constants which are used globally. For the Wegscheider conditions this kinetic law is the law of mass action (or the generalized law of mass action).

Dissipation in systems with detailed balance
To describe dynamics of the systems that obey the generalized mass action law, one has to represent the activities as functions of the concentrations cj and temperature. For this purpose, use the representation of the activity through the chemical potential: $$a_i = \exp\left (\frac{\mu_i - \mu^{\ominus}_i}{RT}\right )$$ where μi is the chemical potential of the species under the conditions of interest, $\mu^{\ominus}_i$ is the chemical potential of that species in the chosen standard state, R is the gas constant and T is the thermodynamic temperature. The chemical potential can be represented as a function of c and T, where c is the vector of concentrations with components cj. For the ideal systems, $$\mu_i = RT\ln c_i + \mu^{\ominus}_i$$ and $$a_j = c_j$$: the activity is the concentration and the generalized mass action law is the usual law of mass action.

Consider a system in isothermal (T=const) isochoric (the volume V=const) condition. For these conditions, the Helmholtz free energy $F(T,V,N)$ measures the “useful” work obtainable from a system. It is a functions of the temperature T, the volume V and the amounts of chemical components Nj (usually measured in moles), N is the vector with components Nj. For the ideal systems, $$F=RT \sum_i N_i \left(\ln\left(\frac{N_i}{V}\right)-1+\frac{\mu^{\ominus}_i(T)}{RT}\right) .$$

The chemical potential is a partial derivative: $$ \mu_i=\partial F(T,V,N)/\partial N_i$$.

The chemical kinetic equations are $$\frac{d N_i}{d t}=V \sum_r \gamma_{ri}(w^+_r-w^-_r) .$$

If the principle of detailed balance is valid then for any value of T there exists a positive point of detailed balance ceq: $$w^+_r(c^{\rm eq},T)=w^-_r(c^{\rm eq},T)=w^{\rm eq}_r$$ Elementary algebra gives $$w^+_r=w^{\rm eq}_r \exp \left(\sum_i \frac{\alpha_{ri}(\mu_i-\mu^{\rm eq}_i)}{RT}\right); \;\; w^-_r=w^{\rm eq}_r \exp \left(\sum_i \frac{\beta_{ri}(\mu_i-\mu^{\rm eq}_i)}{RT}\right);$$ where $$\mu^{\rm eq}_i=\mu_i(c^{\rm eq},T)$$

For the dissipation we obtain from these formulas: $$\frac{d F}{d t}=\sum_i \frac{\partial F(T,V,N)}{\partial N_i} \frac{d N_i}{d t}=\sum_i \mu_i \frac{d N_i}{d t} = -VRT \sum_r (\ln w_r^+-\ln w_r^-) (w_r^+-w_r^-) \leq 0$$ The inequality holds because ln is a monotone function and, hence, the expressions $$\ln w_r^+-\ln w_r^-$$ and $$w_r^+-w_r^-$$ have always the same sign.

Similar inequalities are valid for other classical conditions for the closed systems and the corresponding characteristic functions: for isothermal isobaric conditions the Gibbs free energy decreases, for the isochoric systems with the constant internal energy (isolated systems) the entropy increases as well as for isobaric systems with the constant enthalpy.

Onsager reciprocal relations and detailed balance
Let the principle of detailed balance be valid. Then, for small deviations from equilibrium, the kinetic response of the system can be approximated as linearly related to its deviation from chemical equilibrium, giving the reaction rates for the generalized mass action law as: $$w^+_r=w^{\rm eq}_r \left(1+\sum_i \frac{\alpha_{ri}(\mu_i-\mu^{\rm eq}_i)}{RT}\right); \;\; w^-_r=w^{\rm eq}_r \left(1+ \sum_i \frac{\beta_{ri}(\mu_i-\mu^{\rm eq}_i)}{RT}\right);$$

Therefore, again in the linear response regime near equilibrium, the kinetic equations are ($$\gamma_{ri}=\beta_{ri}-\alpha_{ri}$$): $$\frac{d N_i}{d t}=-V \sum_j \left[\sum_r w^{\rm eq}_r \gamma_{ri}\gamma_{rj}\right] \frac{\mu_j-\mu^{\rm eq}_j}{RT}.$$

This is exactly the Onsager form: following the original work of Onsager, we should introduce the thermodynamic forces $$X_j$$ and the matrix of coefficients $$L_{ij}$$ in the form $$X_j = \frac{\mu_j-\mu^{\rm eq}_j}{T}; \;\; \frac{d N_i}{d t}=\sum_j L_{ij}X_j $$

The coefficient matrix $$L_{ij}$$ is symmetric: $$L_{ij}=-\frac{V}{R}\sum_r w^{\rm eq}_r \gamma_{ri}\gamma_{rj}$$

These symmetry relations, $$L_{ij}=L_{ji}$$, are exactly the Onsager reciprocal relations. The coefficient matrix $$L$$ is non-positive. It is negative on the linear span of the stoichiometric vectors $$\gamma_{r}$$.

So, the Onsager relations follow from the principle of detailed balance in the linear approximation near equilibrium.

Semi-detailed balance
To formulate the principle of semi-detailed balance, it is convenient to count the direct and inverse elementary reactions separately. In this case, the kinetic equations have the form: $$\frac{d N_i}{d t}=V\sum_r \gamma_{ri} w_r=V\sum_r (\beta_{ri}-\alpha_{ri})w_r $$ Let us use the notations $$\alpha_r=\alpha_{ri}$$, $$\beta_r=\beta_{ri}$$ for the input and the output vectors of the stoichiometric coefficients of the rth elementary reaction. Let $$Y$$ be the set of all these vectors $$\alpha_r, \beta_r$$.

For each $$\nu \in Y$$, let us define two sets of numbers: $$R_{\nu}^+=\{r|\alpha_r=\nu \}; \;\;\; R_{\nu}^-=\{r|\beta_r=\nu \}$$

$$r \in R_{\nu}^+$$ if and only if $$\nu$$ is the vector of the input stoichiometric coefficients $$\alpha_r$$ for the rth elementary reaction;$$r \in R_{\nu}^-$$ if and only if $$\nu$$ is the vector of the output stoichiometric coefficients $$\beta_r$$ for the rth elementary reaction.

The principle of semi-detailed balance means that in equilibrium the semi-detailed balance condition holds: for every $$\nu \in Y$$ $$\sum_{r\in R_{\nu}^-}w_r=\sum_{r\in R_{\nu}^+}w_r$$

The semi-detailed balance condition is sufficient for the stationarity: it implies that $$\frac{d N}{dt}=V \sum_r \gamma_r w_r=0.$$

For the Markov kinetics the semi-detailed balance condition is just the elementary balance equation and holds for any steady state. For the nonlinear mass action law it is, in general, sufficient but not necessary condition for stationarity.

The semi-detailed balance condition is weaker than the detailed balance one: if the principle of detailed balance holds then the condition of semi-detailed balance also holds.

For systems that obey the generalized mass action law the semi-detailed balance condition is sufficient for the dissipation inequality $$d F/ dt \geq 0$$ (for the Helmholtz free energy under isothermal isochoric conditions and for the dissipation inequalities under other classical conditions for the corresponding thermodynamic potentials).

Boltzmann introduced the semi-detailed balance condition for collisions in 1887 and proved that it guaranties the positivity of the entropy production. For chemical kinetics, this condition (as the complex balance condition) was introduced by Horn and Jackson in 1972.

The microscopic backgrounds for the semi-detailed balance were found in the Markov microkinetics of the intermediate compounds that are present in small amounts and whose concentrations are in quasiequilibrium with the main components. Under these microscopic assumptions, the semi-detailed balance condition is just the balance equation for the Markov microkinetics according to the '''Michaelis–Menten–Stueckelberg theorem.

Dissipation in systems with semi-detailed balance
Let us represent the generalized mass action law in the equivalent form: the rate of the elementary process

is $$w_r=\varphi_r \exp\left(\sum_i\frac{\alpha_{ri} \mu_i}{RT}\right)$$ where $$\mu_i=\partial F(T,V,N)/ \partial N_i$$ is the chemical potential and $$F(T,V,N)$$ is the Helmholtz free energy. The exponential term is called the Boltzmann factor and the multiplier $$\varphi_r \geq 0$$  is the kinetic factor. Let us count the direct and reverse reaction in the kinetic equation separately: $$\frac{d N_i}{d t}=V\sum_r \gamma_{ri} w_r$$ An auxiliary function $$\theta(\lambda)$$ of one variable $$\lambda\in [0,1]$$ is convenient for the representation of dissipation for the mass action law $$\theta(\lambda)=\sum_{r}\varphi_{r}\exp\left(\sum_i\frac{(\lambda \alpha_{ri}+(1-\lambda)\beta_{ri}))\mu_i}{RT}\right)$$ This function $$\theta(\lambda)$$ may be considered as the sum of the reaction rates for deformed input stoichiometric coefficients $$\tilde{\alpha}_{\rho}(\lambda)=\lambda \alpha_{\rho}+(1-\lambda)\beta_{\rho}$$. For $$\lambda=1$$ it is just the sum of the reaction rates. The function $$\theta(\lambda)$$ is convex because $$\theta''(\lambda) \geq 0$$.

Direct calculation gives that according to the kinetic equations $$ \frac{d F}{d t}=-VRT \left.\frac{d \theta(\lambda)}{d \lambda}\right|_{\lambda=1}$$ This is the general dissipation formula for the generalized mass action law.

Convexity of $$\theta(\lambda)$$ gives the sufficient and necessary conditions for the proper dissipation inequality: $$\frac{d F}{d t}  <0 \text{ if and only if } \theta(\lambda)   < \theta(1) \text{ for some }\lambda <1;$$ $$\frac{d F}{d t}\leq0 \text{ if and only if } \theta(\lambda)\leq \theta(1) \text{ for some }\lambda <1. $$

The semi-detailed balance condition can be transformed into identity $$\theta(0)\equiv \theta(1)$$. Therefore, for the systems with semi-detailed balance $${d F}/{d t}\leq 0$$.

Cone theorem and local equivalence of detailed and complex balance
For any reaction mechanism and a given positive equilibrium a cone of possible velocities for the systems with detailed balance is defined for any non-equilibrium state N $$\mathbf{Q}_{\rm DB}(N)={\rm cone}\{\gamma_r {\rm sgn}(w_r^+(N)-w_r^-(N)) \ | \ r=1, \ldots, m\},$$ where cone stands for the conical hull and the piecewise-constant functions $${\rm sgn}(w_r^+(N)-w_r^-(N))$$ do not depend on (positive) values of equilibrium reaction rates $$w_r^{\rm eq}$$ and are defined by thermodynamic  quantities under assumption of detailed balance.

The cone theorem states that for the given reaction mechanism and given positive equilibrium, the velocity (dN/dt) at a state N for a system with complex balance belongs to the cone $$\mathbf{Q}_{\rm DB}(N)$$. That is, there exists a system with detailed balance, the same reaction mechanism, the same positive equilibrium, that gives the same velocity at state N. According to cone theorem, for a given state N, the set of velocities of the semidetailed balance systems coincides with the set of velocities of the detailed balance systems if their reaction mechanisms and equilibria coincide. This means local equivalence of detailed and complex balance.

Detailed balance for systems with irreversible reactions
Detailed balance states that in equilibrium each elementary process is equilibrated by its reverse process and requires reversibility of all elementary processes. For many real physico-chemical complex systems (e.g. homogeneous combustion, heterogeneous catalytic oxidation, most enzyme reactions etc.), detailed mechanisms include both reversible and irreversible reactions. If one represents irreversible reactions as limits of reversible steps, then it becomes obvious that not all reaction mechanisms with irreversible reactions can be obtained as limits of systems or reversible reactions with detailed balance. For example, the irreversible cycle cannot be obtained as such a limit but the reaction mechanism  can.

Gorban–Yablonsky theorem. A system of reactions with some irreversible reactions is a limit of systems with detailed balance when some constants tend to zero if and only if (i) the reversible part of this system satisfies the principle of detailed balance and (ii) the convex hull of the stoichiometric vectors of the irreversible reactions has empty intersection with the linear span of the stoichiometric vectors of the reversible reactions. Physically, the last condition means that the irreversible reactions cannot be included in oriented cyclic pathways.

title: Detailed balance


text: Category:Latvian composers

title: Category:Latvian composers


text:
James Anderson (tennis)

James Outram Anderson (17 September 1894 – 22 December 1973), commonly known as J.O. Anderson, was an Australian tennis player.

Personal life
Anderson was the eighth child of James Outram Anderson and his wife Patience (née Laycock). He was educated at Camden Grammar School.

He married Maud Irene Whitfield (died 1955) on 24 March 1917. They had five children. He married a widow, Mabel Little, on 18 November 1957. Anderson died on 22 December 1973 at Gosford. He was survived by his second wife, as well as the son and four daughters of his first marriage.

In 2013, Anderson was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame.

Career
Anderson is best remembered for his three victories at his home tournament: the Australasian Championships in 1922, 1924 and 1925. Anderson also won the doubles tournament at the 1922 Wimbledon Championships and 1924 Australian Championships. He was celebrated in Australia for his mascot, a large toy kangaroo which he brought on court.

Between 1919 and 1925 Anderson played in 15 ties for the Australian Davis Cup team and compiled a record of 28 wins and 8 losses.

From 1929 to 1934, Anderson had an endorsement deal with the Alexander Patent Racket Company in Launceston, Tasmania, to produce a range of 'J.O. Anderson' tennis racquets.

Playing Style
Anderson's best shot was his forehand drive, which he hit with very little topspin. He mastered this shot to compensate for his weak backhand shot. Anderson was nicknamed 'The Greyhound' for his quickness on the tennis court.

title: James Anderson (tennis)