text:
Italic peoples

The Italic peoples were an ethnolinguistic group identified by their use of Italic languages, a branch of the Indo-European language family.

Latins achieved a dominant position among these tribes, establishing ancient Roman civilization. During this development, other Italic tribes adopted Latin language and culture in a process known as Romanization. This process was eventually extended to certain parts of Europe. The ethnic groups which emerged as a result are known as Romance peoples.

Classification

The Italics were an ethnolinguistic group who are identified by their use of the Italic languages, which form one of the branches of Indo-European languages.

Outside of the specialised linguistic literature, the term is also used to describe the ancient peoples of Italy as defined in Roman times, including pre-Roman peoples like the Etruscans and the Raetians, who did not speak Indo-European languages. Such use is improper in linguistics, but employed by sources such as the Encyclopædia Britannica, which contends that «Italy attained a unified ethnolinguistic, political, and cultural physiognomy only after the Roman conquest, yet its most ancient peoples remain anchored in the names of the regions of Roman Italy — Latium, Campania, Apulia, Bruttium, Lucania, Emilia Romagna, Samnium, Picenum, Umbria, Etruria, Venetia, and Liguria».

Copper Age
During the Copper Age, at the same time that metalworking appeared, Indo-European speaking peoples are believed to have migrated to Italy in several waves. Associated with this migration are the Remedello culture and Rinaldone culture in Northern and Central Italy, and the Gaudo culture of Southern Italy. These cultures were led by a warrior-aristocracy and are considered intrusive. Their Indo-European character is suggested by the presence of weapons in burials, the appearance of the horse in Italy at this time and material similarities with cultures of Central Europe.

Early and Middle Bronze Age
According to David W. Anthony, between 3100 and 3000 BC, a massive migration of Proto-Indo-Europeans from the Yamnaya culture took place into the Danube Valley. Thousands of kurgans are attributed to this event. These migrations probably split off Pre-Italic, Pre-Celtic and Pre-Germanic from Proto-Indo-European. By this time the Anatolian peoples and the Tocharians had already split off from other Indo-Europeans. Hydronymy shows that the Proto-Germanic homeland was in Central Germany, which would be very close to the homeland of Italic and Celtic languages as well. The origin of a hypothetical ancestral "Italo-Celtic" people is to be found in today's eastern Hungary, settled around 3100 BC by the Yamnaya culture. This hypothesis is to some extent supported by the observation that Italic shares a large number of isoglosses and lexical terms with Celtic and Germanic, some of which are more likely to be attributed to the Bronze Age. In particular, using Bayesian phylogenetic methods, Russell Gray and Quentin Atkinson argued that Proto-Italic speakers separated from Proto-Germanics 5500 years before present, i.e. roughly at the start of the Bronze Age. This is further confirmed by the fact that the Germanic language family shares more vocabulary with the Italic family than with the Celtic language family.

From the late third to the early second millennium BC, tribes coming both from the north and from Franco-Iberia brought the Beaker culture and the use of bronze smithing, to the Po Valley, to Tuscany and to the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily. The Beakers could have been the link which brought the Yamnaya dialects from Hungary to Austria and Bavaria. These dialects might then have developed into Proto-Celtic. The arrival of Indo-Europeans into Italy is in some sources ascribed to the Beakers. A migration across the Alps from East-Central Europe by early Indo-Europeans is thought to have occurred around 1800 BC. According to Barfield the appearance of Polada culture is connected to the movement of new populations coming from southern Germany and from Switzerland. According to Bernard Sergent, the origin of the Ligurian linguistic family (in his opinion distantly related to the Celtic and Italic ones) would have to be found in the Polada and Rhone cultures, southern branches of the Unetice culture. These individuals settled in the foothills of the Eastern Alps and present a material culture similar to contemporary cultures of Switzerland, Southern Germany, and Austria.

In the mid-second millennium BCE, the Terramare culture developed in the Po Valley. The Terramare culture takes its name from the black earth (terra marna) residue of settlement mounds, which have long served the fertilizing needs of local farmers. These people were still hunters, but had domesticated animals; they were fairly skillful metallurgists, casting bronze in moulds of stone and clay, and they were also agriculturists, cultivating beans, the vine, wheat and flax. The Latino-Faliscan people have been associated with this culture, especially by the archaeologist Luigi Pigorini.

Late Bronze Age
The Urnfield culture might have brought proto-Italic people from among the "Italo-Celtic" tribes who remained in Hungary into Italy. These tribes are thought to have penetrated Italy from the east during the late second millennium BC through the Proto-Villanovan culture. They later crossed the Apennine Mountains and settled central Italy, including Latium. Before 1000 BC several Italic tribes had probably entered Italy. These divided into various groups and gradually came to occupy central Italy and southern Italy. This period was characterized by widespread upheaval in the Mediterranean, including the emergence of the Sea Peoples and the Late Bronze Age collapse.

The Proto-Villanovan culture dominated the peninsula and replaced the preceding Apennine culture. The Proto-Villanovans practiced cremation and buried the ashes of their dead in Urnfield-style double-cone shaped funerary urns, often decorated with geometric designs. Elite graves containing jewellery, bronze armour and horse harness fittings were separated from ordinary graves, showing for the first time the development of a highly hierarchical society, so characteristic of Indo-European cultures. The burial characteristics relate the Proto-Villanovan culture to the Central European Urnfield culture and Celtic Hallstatt culture that succeeded it. It is not possible to tell these apart in their earlier stages. Generally speaking, Proto-Villanovan settlements have been found in almost the whole Italian peninsula from Veneto to eastern Sicily, although they were most numerous in the northern-central part of Italy. The most important settlements excavated are those of Frattesina in Veneto region, Bismantova in Emilia-Romagna and near the Monti della Tolfa, north of Rome. Various authors, such as Marija Gimbutas, associated this culture with the arrival, or the spread, of the proto-Italics into the Italian peninsula.

In the 13th century BC, Proto-Celts (probably the ancestors of the Lepontii people), coming from the area of modern-day Switzerland, eastern France and south-western Germany (RSFO Urnfield group), entered Northern Italy (Lombardy and eastern Piedmont), starting the Canegrate culture, who not long time after, merging with the indigenous Ligurians, produced the mixed Golasecca culture.

Iron Age
In the early Iron Age, the relatively homogeneous Proto-Villanovan culture (1200-900 BC), closely associated with the Celtic Hallstatt culture of Alpine Austria, characterised by the introduction of iron-working and the practice of cremation coupled with the burial of ashes in distinctive pottery, shows a process of fragmentation and regionalisation. In Tuscany and in part of Emilia-Romagna, Latium and Campania, the Proto-Villanovan culture was followed by the Villanovan culture. The earliest remains of Villanovan culture date back to circa 900 BC.

In the region south of the Tiber (Latium Vetus), the Latial culture of the Latins emerged, while in the north-east of the peninsula the Este culture of the Veneti appeared. Roughly in the same period, from their core area in central Italy (modern-day Umbria and Sabina region), the Osco-Umbrians began to emigrate in various waves, through the process of Ver sacrum, the ritualized extension of colonies, in southern Latium, Molise and the whole southern half of the peninsula, replacing the previous tribes, such as the Opici and the Oenotrians. This corresponds with the emergence of the Terni culture, which had strong similarities with the Celtic cultures of Hallstatt and La Tène. The Umbrian necropolis of Terni, which dates back to the 10th century BC, was identical in every aspect to the Celtic necropolis of the Golasecca culture.

Antiquity
By the mid-first millennium BC, the Latins of Rome were growing in power and influence. This led to the establishment of ancient Roman civilization. In order to combat the non-Italic Etruscans, several Italic tribes united in the Latin League. After the Latins had liberated themselves from Etruscan rule they acquired a dominant position among the Italic tribes. Frequent conflict between various Italic tribes followed. The best documented of these are the wars between the Latins and the Samnites.

The Latins eventually succeeded in unifying the Italic elements in the country. Many non-Latin Italic tribes adopted Latin culture and acquired Roman citizenship. During this time Italic colonies were established throughout the country, and non-Italic elements eventually adopted the Latin language and culture in a process known as Romanization. In the early first century BC, several Italic tribes, in particular the Marsi and the Samnites, rebelled against Roman rule. This conflict is called the Social War. After Roman victory was secured, all peoples in Italy, except for the Celts of the Po Valley, were granted Roman citizenship.

In the subsequent centuries, Italic tribes were assimilated into Latin culture in a process known as Romanization.

Theatre

Italian peoples such as the Etruscans had already developed forms of theatrical literature. The legend, also reported by Livy, speaks of a pestilence that had struck Rome, at the beginning, and the request for Etruscan historians. The Roman historian thus refused the filiation from the Greek theater before contacts with Magna Graecia and its theatrical traditions. There are no architectural and artistic testimonies of the Etruscan theater. A very late source, such as the historian Varro, mentions the name of a certain Volnio who wrote tragedies in the Etruscan language.

Even the Samnites had original representational forms that had a lot of influence on Roman dramaturgy such as the Atellan Farce comedies, and some architectural testimonies such as the theater of Pietrabbondante in Molise, and that of Nocera Superiore on which the Romans built their own. The construction of the Samnite theaters of Pietrabbondante and Nocera make the architectural filiation of the Greek theater understood.

Genetics
A genetic study published in Science in November 2019 examined the remains of six Latin males buried near Rome between 900 BC and 200 BC. They carried the paternal haplogroups R-M269, R-311, R-PF7589 and R-P312 and the maternal haplogroups H1aj1a, T2c1f, H2a, U4a1a, H11a and H10. A female from the preceding Proto-Villanovan culture carried the maternal haplogroups U5a2b. These examined individuals were distinguished from preceding populations of Italy by the presence of about 25–35% steppe ancestry. Overall, the genetic differentiation between the Latins, Etruscans and the preceding proto-villanovan population of Italy was found to be insignificant.

title: Italic peoples


text:
Pedro Gual Escandón

Pedro José Ramón Gual Escandón (17 January 1783 – 6 May 1862), was a Venezuelan lawyer, politician, journalist and diplomat.

During the Venezuelan War of Independence he came to the United States to buy weapons for the Patriots. In 1815 he came to stay in the home of Manuel Torres. With Torres and other agents he helped organize General Francisco Xavier Mina's ill-fated expedition to Mexico, with Gual acting as Mina's press agent. Gual was one of the men who signed Gregor MacGregor's commission to invade Spanish Florida thru Amelia Island in 1817, which offended President James Monroe's administration; thereafter he left the U.S.

In 1824 as chancellor of Great Colombia he negotiated with the U.S. diplomat Richard Clough Anderson Jr. and concluded the Anderson–Gual Treaty, the first bilateral treaty that the U.S. signed with another American state. He was the president of Venezuela for three periods (1858, 1859, and 1861) and a member of the Conservative Centralist party.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Pedro Gual Escandón


text:
Julián Castro (Venezuelan politician)

Julián Castro Contreras (c. 1810 – 12 June 1875) was a Venezuelan military officer and the president of Venezuela between 1858 and 1859.

Biography
He was presumably born in Petare c. 1810, although this date is not certain. His parents were Juan Manuel Castro and Margarita Contreras. He had a brother, Castro. He joined the Army and in 1830 held the rank of Alférez (Second Lieutenant in modern military hierarchy). In 1835, as Captain, he took part in the Revolution of the Reforms which withdrew President José María Vargas from power. Defeated in the coup, he was imprisoned, but released some years later. Then he and his brother moved to Bejuma (Carabobo State). He married María Nieves Briceño, natural daughter of José Laurencio Silva, a hero of the Venezuelan War of Independence, and had four sons: Julián,, Ramón and Francisco de Paula.

From the rise of José Tadeo Monagas to the Presidency in 1847, Castro began to be promoted in the military system. In 1849 he was promoted to Commander (now Major). In 1849 he was commissioned to fight against José Antonio Páez, who led an insurrection against Monagas, and gained some reputation for courage. After several promotions, he rose to the rank of General de Brigada (Brigadier General) in 1853; the next year, he was appointed Military Commander (Comandante de Armas) of Valencia.

In April 1856 Monagas appointed Castro as Governor of Carabobo and promoted him to General de División (Major General). In March 1858 he led a movement against Monagas, who quit as president on 15 March. Castro became president on 18 March. His presidency was troubled, with scandals (the Urrutia Protocol affair, among others), coup attempts, and the beginning of the Federal War (February 1859), led by Ezequiel Zamora and Juan Crisóstomo Falcón.

On 2 August 1859 he was imprisoned by some military officers, including the Military Commander of Caracas, Manuel de las Casas, and forced to resign. He remained in prison and was tried by the Venezuelan Congress in July 1860, who found him guilty of treason, but did not punish him. After the trial, Castro left Venezuela.

Castro returned to Venezuela in 1870, just before the April Revolution led by Antonio Guzmán He joined it and remained in the Venezuelan Army until his death. He died in Valencia, on 12 June 1875.

Personal life
Julián Castro was married to María Nieves Briceño who served as First Lady of Venezuela from 1858 to 1859.

title: Julián Castro (Venezuelan politician)


text:
Manuel Felipe de Tovar

Manuel Felipe de Tovar (1 January 1803, in Caracas – 21 February 1866, in Paris) was the president of Venezuela from 1859–1861.

Personal life
Manuel Felipe de Tovar was married to Encarnación Rivas Pacheco, who served as First Lady of Venezuela from 1859–1861.

title: Manuel Felipe de Tovar


text:
Manuel Ezequiel Bruzual

Manuel Ezequiel Bruzual (Santa Marta, Colombia, 1830 – Curaçao, 15 August 1868), was a military leader committed to liberal ideas. He was also in charge of the War and Navy Ministry in 1864, and in 1868 was designated provisional president of Venezuela.

Biography
Bruzual participated actively in the Federal War, being known as the Courageous soldier of Federation, fought in Purereche, Santa Ines, Buchivacoa, Barquisimeto and Portuguesa. Later, once the Federalist movement took government, President Juan Crisóstomo Falcón designated him as War and Navy minister (1864), resigning to the position after being imprisoned for the charges of conspiring. In 1866, was named Head of the General Staff of the Army. On 6 April 1868, in Güigüe, had an interview with Miguel Antonio Rojas, Head of the Army of the Revolución Azul (Blue Revolution), and agreed the suspension of the hostilities by the lapse of 15 days, in order to discuss a treaty of peace, which was signed on 11 May. On 25 April 1868, was in charge of the Presidency of Venezuela. Later, on 19 June, had an interview with José Tadeo Monagas, leader of the Revolución Azul, but did not obtain an agreement, and the Government was overthrown.

Bruzual departed to Puerto Cabello, and thence is proclaimed in exercise of the presidency, he enlists troops, but was defeated by José Ruperto Monagas, on 14 August 1868. Manuel Ezequiel Bruzual died in Curaçao, 15 August 1868 of wounds suffered in battle.

In 1872, his remains were repatriated by order of President Antonio Guzmán Blanco, being commissioned by his relative Blas Bruzual.

A municipality in Anzoátegui state was named after him, along with a town in Apure (Bruzual) and another in Portuguesa (Villa Bruzual).

title: Manuel Ezequiel Bruzual


text:
Guillermo Tell Villegas

Guillermo Tell Villegas (1 January 1823 in Valencia, Venezuela – 21 March 1907 in Valencia) was a Venezuelan politician, lawyer, and writer. Among other government positions, he served as interim president of Venezuela in 1868, 1870 and 1892. Starting his career in law, he became governor of Barinas in 1859 and afterwards held various roles in the government of Juan Crisostomo Falcon, including deputy in the Assembly of Victory, Minister of Interior and Justice, and interim Foreign Minister of Venezuela. In 1864 and in 1866 was appointed to the Federal High Court. Villegas participated in the La Genuina revolution in 1867, and was elected president of the Chamber of Deputies in 1868, where he openly opposed the government of Falcón. The Blue Revolution in 1868 removed Falcon from power, and Villegas became Foreign Minister under President José Ruperto Monagas. In 1868 Villegas spent eight months as interim president of Venezuela, during which time he reinstated the Federal Constitution from 1864. After again serving as interim president and Minister of the Interior in 1869, in 1870 he was interim president a third time while Monagas fought the Liberal Revolution. The revolution was successful, and Villegas retired from active politics after ceding the presidency.

Villegas went into education after his retirement, and in 1876 he founded the school La Paz. He published several reports and educational textbooks in the 1880s, and in 1889 President Juan Pablo Rojas Paul named him Minister of Public Instruction. In 1892 Villegas was appointed the president of the Federal Council. Villegas served as interim President of Venezuela for the final time in 1892, when Raimundo Andueza Palacio was in absentia while dealing with the outbreak of the Legalist Revolution. Villegas resigned later that year and was succeeded by his nephew Guillermo Tell Villegas Pulido. Returning to education, he published the first Venezuelan popular instruction book on literature, science, and fine arts in 1895. In 1901, he was elected as a member of the at the age of 80.

Early life and education
Guillermo Tell Villegas was born in Valencia, Venezuela in 1823. He graduated from the Central University of Venezuela in Caracas as a lawyer.

1859-1868: Early positions
Villegas was politically active in the days of the Venezuelan Federal War (1859–1863). He became the governor of Barinas in 1859, at the age of 35. In 1863, he became a deputy in the Assembly of Victory (Asamblea de La Victoria). In July 1863, he became the undersecretary of Interior and Justice (Interior y Justicia) during the government of Juan Crisostomo Falcon. In August 1863, he was appointed Minister of Interior and Justice in the Ministry of Interior Justice (Ministerio de Interior y Justicia). As Minister of Interior and Justice, he drafted the decree of Constitutional Guarantees (Constitución Federal) which removed the death penalty, exile, and confinement for political enemies of the government. He also guaranteed freedom of expression and extended the right to vote to those over 18 years of age. On August 7, 1863, he was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs of Venezuela (Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores) when he temporarily assumed the role of Antonio Guzman Blanco during Blanco's absence. He remained the 65th Minister of Foreign Affairs of Venezuela until January 21, 1864. He became an appointed member of the Federal High Court in 1864, and was appointed again two years later.

1867-1869: Revolution and new government
Villegas participated in the La Genuina revolution led by General Luciano Mendoza in 1867, along with others such as Pedro Ezequiel Rojas, Elias Rojas, Martin Sanabria and Jose Antonio Mosquera. Shortly before the start of the Blue Revolution (Revolución Azul), in early 1868 Villegas served as vice president at a meeting of around 1,000 people, all meeting in a theatre in Caracas in an attempt to reconcile Falcon's government with the new "blue" movement led by Miguel Antonio Rojas and José Tadeo Monagas. He was elected president of the Chamber of Deputies (Cámara de Diputados) in April 1868, where he openly opposed Falcon's government. The Blue Revolution ended in June 1868 with the "blue" movement coming into power, with Villegas serving as a key figure in the new Venezuelan government. Under President José Ruperto Monagas, Villegas served as the 78th Minister of Foreign Affairs of Venezuela from June 27, 1868, until February 24, 1869. Preceded in the role by Rafael Arvelo, he was succeeded by Juan Pablo Rojas Paúl.

1868-1869: First terms as president
On June 28, 1868, he succeeded Manuel Ezequiel Bruzual as President of Venezuela. During his eight-month tenure, he worked to completely abolish the political system established by Falcon. Villegas granted amnesty to political prisoners, reinstated the Federal Constitution from 1864, and re-enforced civil rights. He also instated federal law and the union of the parties. On October 1, 1868, there was an assassination attempt on Villegas while he was administering his presidential duties at the government mansion. The assassin was captured before the attempt. His tenure lasted until February 20, 1869, when he was followed by José Ruperto Monagas.

While Monagas was campaigning in February 1869, as the designated second in the Republic of Venezuela, Villegas again took the role of interim president. While during this short term, he officially honored the mortal remains of General Ezequiel Zamora, and also arranged the repatriation of the remains of Jose Maria Vargas, which had been in New York. He also honored general José Gregorio Monagas, and had a statue of El Libertador, Simón Bolívar, installed in the main square of Caracas. Furthermore, he approved of 13,000 pesos in funding to support national schools, and pardoned those that had been involved in the political events of 1868. He furthermore created the Presidency of the Cabinet (Presidencia del Gabinete), before returning the presidential role to Monagas in March 1869. Villegas was appointed Minister of the Interior in December 1869, his second time holding the position.

1871-1901: Education roles and final terms
In 1870, Monagas left Caracas to fight the Liberal Revolution led by Antonio Guzman Blanco, and Villegas was once again appointed interim president in his absence on April 16, 1870. However, Blanco's successful revolution resulted in Villegas retiring from active politics. Villegas' term lasted around ten days, and on April 27, 1870, he ceded the role to Antonio Guzmán Blanco. Villegas went into education after his retirement from active politics, and in 1876 he founded the school La Paz along with his nephew Guillermo Tell Villegas Pulido, and he was known as a prominent teacher at the school. He published a book on Spanish grammar in 1884, and in 1887 published a book on Spanish homophones. The National Executive (Ejecutivo Nacional) commissioned him in 1889 to write a report to the Minister of Public Instruction on the formation of a series of popular instruction textbooks for Venezuela. Also that year, President Juan Pablo Rojas Paul named him Minister of Public Instruction (Ministro de Instrucción Pública). In the government of President Raimundo Andueza Palacio, in 1892 Villegas was appointed the president of the Federal Council (Ejecutivo Nacional).

Villegas served as interim President of Venezuela for the final time starting on June 17, 1892, when Raimundo Andueza Palacio was in absentia while dealing with the outbreak of the Legalist Revolution (Revolución Legalista) led by Joaquín Crespo. Villegas served in the position until August 31, 1892, when he resigned and was succeeded by his nephew Guillermo Tell Villegas Pulido. Moving from politics to education, he published the first Venezuelan popular instruction book on literature, science, and fine arts in 1895, regarded as one of his most important works. On October 6, 1901, he was named as a new member of the, although the membership couldn't be put into effect due to Villegas' advanced age.

Death
Villegas died in his hometown of Valencia on March 21, 1907, circa the age of 84.

title: Guillermo Tell Villegas


text:
José Ruperto Monagas

José Ruperto Monagas (1831 – 12 June 1880) was a Venezuelan politician, son of José Tadeo Monagas and Luisa Oriach. He was the president of Venezuela between 1869–1870.

As a representative of the city of Maturín, he made the Constitution of April of that year. In March of the following year, he was appointed commander of Barcelona, a position from which he was a supporter of President Julián Castro, despite which General Justo Briceño, a representative of the Government, imprisoned him in the castle of Puerto Cabello distrusting his loyalty. towards the regime.

Biography
Born in Aragua de Barcelona in 1831 and died in the same town on June 12, 1880.

Personal life
José Ruperto Monagas was married to Esperanza Hernández, who served as First Lady of Venezuela from 1869–1870.

title: José Ruperto Monagas


text:
Francisco Linares Alcántara

Francisco de Paula Linares Alcántara (13 April 1825 – 30 November 1878) was the president of Venezuela (1877–1878) and a member of the Liberal Party of Venezuela.

Personal life
Francisco Linares Alcántara was born on April 13, 1825, in Turmero, Aragua to General Francisco de Paula Alcántara and Trinidad Linares. His father was one of the heroes of the Venezuelan War of Independence.

Francisco Linares Alcántara later married to Belén Esteves Yánes, who served as First Lady of Venezuela from 1877 to 1878.

Career
Francisco Linares Alcántara began his career as a soldier in 1846 and fought during the insurrections carried out by Ezequiel Zamora and Francisco Rangel. Due to the political instability in Venezuela from 1847 to 1858, Alcántara also fought to defend state institutions during the administrations of Jose Tadeo Monagas and Jose Gregorio Monagas. By 1854, he became a deputy to the National Congress from the state of Aragua before fighting again during the Federal War (1858-1863) and along with Antonio Guzman Blanco for the Liberal cause between 1868 and 1870.

Alcántara was elected president in February 1877 and his administration became known for its liberal policies such as more autonomy given to the states, political amnesties, and increased freedom of the press.

title: Francisco Linares Alcántara


text:
Udi-Nsukka Plateau

The Udi-Nsukka Plateau is a pair of nearly connected plateaus located in south central Nigeria. Coal was discovered there in 1909. Udi-Nsukka people are Igbo people.

title: Udi-Nsukka Plateau


text:
José Gregorio Valera

José Gregorio Valera was the president of Venezuela from 15 December 1878 to 13 February 1879. He was a half brother of his predecessor Francisco Linares Alcántara. He was overthrown by the general José Gregorio Cedeño, who proclaimed the new president of the country the former president Antonio Guzmán Blanco.

title: José Gregorio Valera


text:
Hermógenes López

Hermógenes López (19 April 1830, in Naguanagua, Carabobo – 17 December 1898, in Valencia, Carabobo) was a Venezuelan soldier, farmer and acting president of his country between 1887 and 1888, after the resignation of General Antonio Guzmán Blanco who went into voluntary exile in Paris.

There is scarce information about his childhood, which appears to have been limited to elementary education and farm work. From the arrival of José Tadeo Monagas and José Gregorio Monagas to the presidency (1848–1858), he entered into military activity, being part of the revolutions and battles of those decades; after that he returned to his life as farmer. López became military leader of Nirgua in 1858, and participated in the 1862 campaign of Carabobo, that overthrew its head of government, General Marcos López.

López, was the head of Carabobo state after an electoral fight against General Gregorio Cedeño (May 1881). He also served as president (governor) of Yaracuy state. Because of the retirement of Guzmán Blanco, he assumed the presidency of Venezuela on 8 August 1887 presiding a transition period, which concluded on 2 July 1888, when Juan Pablo Rojas Paul assumed the presidency.

Hermógenes López's provisional government enjoyed the active cooperation of the Liberal Party and the society. During his term in office, he inaugurated the railroad between Puerto Cabello and Valencia and an underwater cable with Europe (February 1888). In April 1888, the remains of General José Antonio Páez were returned to Venezuela. This act was carried out against the will of Guzmán Blanco, who considered Paéz as an oligarch.

Hermógenes López died in 1898.

title: Hermógenes López


text:
Juan Pablo Rojas Paúl

 Juan Pablo Rojas Paúl (26 November 1826 – 22 July 1905) was the president of Venezuela from 1888 to 1890. He was the first civilian president who was elected by constitutional procedures in 50 years, and the only one who could finish his term properly, until 74 years later.

Biography
He was the Minister of Finance from 1879 to 1884 and in 1887.

Rojas took over the presidency from Hermógenes López, who had served as an interim president after Antonio Guzmán (who was three times president) finally stepped down. Rojas tried to reconcile the followers of Guzmán and Joaquín Crespo, confronted at that time. During the Rojas administration there were violent demonstrations against Guzmán in the capital and other regions of Venezuela. These events precipitated a break of the Rojas administration with Guzmán, who sought to continue ruling indirectly from Paris. The Rojas administration had to face an uprising led by Crespo. After the rebellion was crushed, Crespo had to go into exile.

Breaking with Guzmán's anti-clerical policy, Rojas brought French nuns to the country, helped the establishment of congregations, also built and remodeled many religious buildings. Rojas authorized the creation of science faculties, churches, national schools in Maracaibo and Barquisimeto. He inaugurated the submarine cable between La Guaira, the Antilles and Europe, the works of the painter Martín Tovar y Tovar at the Salón Elíptico (Elliptical Room) of the National Capitol. During his period, was published the book Great geographical, historical and statistics compilation of Venezuela authored by General Manuel Landaeta Rosales. In 1888 Rojas founded the National History Academy.

His two years in the presidency were marked by an economic bonanza, of which he took advantage to invest in public works. After his presidency, he was again Minister of Finance in 1899.

He died in Caracas in 1905, at the age of 78.

Personal life
Juan Pablo Rojas Paúl was married to María Josefa de la Concepción Báez, who served as First Lady of Venezuela from 1888 until 1890.

title: Juan Pablo Rojas Paúl


text:
Raimundo Andueza Palacio

Raimundo Ignacio Andueza Palacio (6 February 1846 – 17 August 1900), was the president of Venezuela (1890–1892). He also served twice as his country's Minister of Foreign Affairs.

A member of the Liberal Party, Andueza entered politics as deputy for Aragua. He was the Minister of Finance from 1877 to 1878.

Presidency and the revolucion legalistica
He became president on 7 March 1890, taking up residence in the Yellow House. He left office under duress. His presidential term was due to end in 1892, but he tried to extend it, resulting in resistance known as the revolucion legalistica. He stepped down on 17 June 1892 under pressure from the armed intervention of Joaquín Crespo.

Subsequent career
Andueza went into exile, not returning until after Crespo's death in 1898. He served as Minister of Foreign Affairs under Cipriano Castro from 1899 to 1900, the year of his death.

Personal life
He was born in Guanare, Portuguesa state, 6 February 1846, son of Raimundo Andueza and Carolina Palacio. Cousin of Venezuelan President Victorino Marquez Bustillos.

Palacio was married to Isabel González Esteves, who served as First Lady of Venezuela from 1890 until 1892.

He died in Caracas, 17 August 1900 and was buried in the city's Southern General Cemetery.

title: Raimundo Andueza Palacio


text:
Ignacio Andrade

Ignacio Andrade Troconis (31 July 1839 – 17 February 1925), was a military man and politician. He was known as a member of the Liberal yellow party, and served as the president of Venezuela from 1898 until 1899 – his election was declaredly clouded by fraud.

Early life
Ignacio Andrade was born on 31 July, 1839 in Mérida. Francisco de Paula Andrade Troconis was his brother.

Early positions
He was president of the state of Falcón from 1883 until 1885. He was also the leader of the state of Miranda from 1894 until 1897.

In 1897, incumbent president Crespo supported Andrade in the presidential elections against key opponent José Manuel Hernández. Andrade won the election, with Hernandez decrying the results as fraudulent and taking up arms. Hernandez was quickly defeated, with resultant political turmoil. Other attempted insurrections followed, including one by Carlos Rangel Garviras, head of the Autonomous Party of the Andes from Colombia. He invaded Venezuela with 2,000 men, to be defeated in Capacho and San Josecito.

1898–1899: Military leadership, presidency
Andrade was the commanding lieutenant general of the Venezuelan Army from February 1898 until October 1899, after taking leadership from General Joaquín Crespo.

Venezuelan President Joaquín Crespo ruled until 1898, when he gave the presidential role to Andrade while remaining a military mainstay of the government. In suppressing a serious threat to the government, Crespo was killed in action and Andrade was left without his military backing. With Crespo's death, Venezuela entered a period of political uncertainty, as Andrade was Crespo's placeman and not a member of the caudillo class.

1899: Overthrow by Cipriano Castro
In 1899 the Colombian writer Biofilo Panclasta traveled to Venezuela, where he joined the army of the Venezuelan Cipriano Castro, which had as its goal the downfall of president Andrade. After leaving this group shortly after, Panclasta traveled Venezuela with other revolutionary groups throughout Trujillo, Portuguesa, Cojedes and Carabobo.

In 1899 Andrade was overthrown by Cipriano Castro, a former governor of the province of Táchira who had previously been exiled to Colombia. Living in Colombia for seven years, Castro had recruited a private army using funds from illegal cattle trading. Returning to Venezuela and amassing support from disaffected Venezuelans, Castro's once personal army developed into a strong national army, and he used it to march on Caracas in October 1899 in an event called the Revolución Liberal Restauradora, and seize power, installing himself as the supreme military commander. He also assumed the vacant presidency and later modified the constitution. The resulting political turmoil led to civil war in Venezuela from 1901 until 1902.

After the 23 May 1899 invasion of Caracas, Andrade went into exile in Puerto Rico. He returned to public life after being granted amnesty in 1903.

Personal life and death
Andrade died in Macuto in 1925. He was married to María Isabel Sosa Saa, and she served as the First Lady of Venezuela during his tenure in 1898 and 1899.

title: Ignacio Andrade


text:
Victorino Márquez Bustillos

Victorino Márquez Bustillos (2 November 1858 – 10 January 1941 ), was a Venezuelan lawyer and politician, and was provisional president of Venezuela from 1914 to 1922. Although Bustillos was elected by Congress, General Juan Vicente Gómez remained the real power behind the presidency. Victorino Márquez died in Caracas on 10 January 1941, aged 82.

Early life
Márquez was the son of Victorino Márquez and Virginia Bustillos. He married Enriqueta Iragorry Briceño.

State of Los Andes
The political career of Márquez began in modern-day Trujillo under the governments of Juan Bautista Araujo and Leopoldo Baptista. While in Trujillo, he served as director of the newspaper El Trujillano for ten years between 1877 and 1887. In 1890, the State of Los Andes – which today are the states of Mérida, Trujillo and Táchira – chose Márquez to be their deputy.

Crespo government
In 1892, despite being the second cousin of the recently overthrown President Raimundo Andueza Palacio, Márquez joined the Legalist Revolution, which was led by Joaquín Crespo. One year later in 1893, Crespo promoted him to the position of brigadier general.

Castro government
In 1898, President Crespo left office and was later killed in battle while defending his successor, President Ignacio Andrade. A year later in 1899, President Andrade was overthrown by Cipriano Castro, who named himself President of Venezuela and supreme military commander.

From 1902 to 1904, Márquez served as Secretary of the Trujillo State Government and was also a deputy of the Trujillo District to the State Assembly between 1904 and 1906.

Gómez government
General Juan Vicente Gómez seized power from President Castro in December 1908 while he was receiving medical treatment in Europe. Gómez would rule Venezuela as a powerful caudillo until his death in 1935.

Márquez was chosen to be Secretary of Government of the Zulia state in 1909. In 1910, as provisional president of the Trujillo state, he distanced himself from Leopoldo Baptista after he refused to validate him in office again. Márquez would later serve as a senator for Trujillo state (1910–1914 ), governor of the Federal District (1911–1912) and Minister of War and Navy (1913–1914).

Provisional President of Venezuela
In April 1914, Juan Vicente Gómez was elected President of Venezuela by the President of Congress for the 1915–1922 period, but Gómez declined and instead stayed in Maracay as commander in chief of the Venezuelan army. As a result of this, Márquez was appointed Provisional President of the Republic and remained in office after passing a Provisional Constitutional Statute that named his term to be seven years.

As a result of this, Venezuela had two presidents: Victorino Márquez Bustillos as Provisional President, who sends orders from Miraflores Palace and Juan Vicente Gómez, the President-Elect, who managed the army in Maracay. During this time, Márquez Bustillos fed information to Gómez about his administration and would let him make the decisions. Márquez's provisional presidency came to an end after he was involved in a scandal when Gómez became ill in late 1921.

Lopez Contreras government
Following the death of Gómez in 1935, Minister of the Army and Navy Eleazar López Contreras took power of Venezuela. That year, President Lopez Contreras appointed Márquez to be Secretary of State, though Márquez would resign shortly after when anti-Gómez movements placed pressure upon him. In 1940, Lopez Contreras attempts to appoint Márquez, this time nominating him to be run for the presidency in the 1941 presidential elections, though Venezuelans did not approve of this because of Márquez's ties with Gómez and Isaías Medina Angarita was later named President of Venezuela instead.

Márquez would die shortly after on 10 January 1941, before he would have been possibly sworn in as President of Venezuela if he were to participate in elections. President Lopez Contreras, Isaías Medina Angarita and others who were part of the Gómez government attended his funeral ceremony.

title: Victorino Márquez Bustillos


text:
Eleazar López Contreras

José Eleazar López Contreras (5 May 1883 – 2 January 1973) was the president of Venezuela between 1935 and 1941. He was an army general and one of Juan Vicente Gómez's collaborators, serving as his War Minister from 1931. In 1939, Contreras accepted on behalf of Venezuela the ships Koenigstein and Caribia which had fled with Jews from Germany.

Presidency
At the beginning of his presidency he faced two great crises: the first one was on Friday, February 14, 1936, when a popular demonstration arrived at Miraflores to demand the restitution of constitutional guarantees, the dissolution of the Gomecista majority Congress and the summoning of a National Constituent Assembly. The bloody events that took place during the repression of said demonstration led to the immediate dismissal and temporary arrest of the Governor of the Capital District, Felix Galavis. President Lopez partially accepted the demands. The second was the labor strike in June of the same year, where the purpose of the opposition was to overthrow him, which was not accomplished. He reformed the Constitution in July 1936, tried to be democratic by reducing the presidential term from 7 to 5 years, a clause that he himself surprisingly applied. However, authoritarian measures were legalized, such as exile by presidential decree and the proscription of communist and anarchist ideologies, which caused several politicians accused of such to be expelled from the country, among them Rómulo Betancourt.

His government is remembered for the creation of protection and assistance organisms such as the Ministry of Health and Social Assistance by a decree on February 25, 1936. The importance of public hygiene was stated as a motive. Many of the innovations that the Ministry introduced were due to Arnoldo Gabaldón, who brought recommendations from the Conference of Directors of Public Health in Washington, D.C. in 1936. The Ministry of Agriculture and Breeding was also created due to the importance that the policy of Contreras intended to attribute to agricultural development. On August 6, 1936 he created the Venezuelan Children's Council. In 1938 the Technical Institute of Immigration and Colonization was created, through which the government planned to distribute large estates to Venezuelan and foreign farmers, in order to repopulate the countryside and to raise the quality of life.

1936 Constitution
Main changes:

 * Senators and deputies are elected by second degree elections. They are in charge of electing the President of the Republic. With the 1945 reform, parliamentarians are elected directly.
 * The presidential term is reduced from 7 to 5 years.
 * The parliamentary term is 4 years.
 * Men over 21 years of age and literate can elect and be elected.
 * Women can participate in the elections to Municipal Councils. After the reform of 1945, women are allowed to vote universally and by secret ballot.
 * The name of Zamora State is changed to Barinas State.
 * Communist and anarchist activities are prohibited, but in the reform of 1945 this provision is suppressed.

Personal life
Eleazar López Contreras was married to María Teresa Núñez Tovar, who served as First Lady of Venezuela from 1936–1941.

title: Eleazar López Contreras


text:
User talk:Monroe forever1

Thanks for experimenting with Wikipedia. Your test worked, and has been reverted or removed. Please use the sandbox for any other tests you want to do. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our encyclopedia. Thanks. Craigy (talk) 05:09, July 15, 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Monroe forever1


text:
Carlos Delgado Chalbaud

Carlos Román Delgado Chalbaud Gómez (20 January 1909 – 13 November 1950) was a Venezuelan military officer who served as president of Venezuela from 1948 to 1950 as leader of a military junta. In 1945, he was one of the high-ranking officers who brought to power the Democratic Action party by a coup d'état. In 1948, as a Minister of Defense, he led another military coup and lingered as the President until his assassination in Caracas.

Early life
Delgado Chalbaud was the son of Román Delgado Chalbaud (grandson of a French immigrant and great-grandson of Andalusian colonist) and Luisa Elena Gómez Velutini (of Corsican descent). He was known as Carlos Delgado Chalbaud because he used the last name of his father Román Delgado Chalbaud as a tribute to his memory. When he was 20, he approached the cruiser Falke (ship) in the port of Danzig (Poland). It landed on the coasts of Cumaná on 11 August 1929, with the purpose to overthrow the strongman Juan Vicente Gomez. In this failed operation his father Román commandant of the expeditionary was killed, leading Carlos to return to France.

Delgado Chalbaud spent most of his life in Paris, where he studied engineering and later attended the Saint-Cyr military academy. He returned to Venezuela in 1939 and was promptly commissioned in the Venezuelan army by president General Eleazar Lopez Contreras with the rank of captain.

Career
As one of the brightest officials of the Armed Forces associated with the group that overthrew Isaías Medina Angarita in 1945, Carlos was a member of the Government Revolutionary Junta that replaced Medina. He was Minister of Defense during the presidencies of Rómulo Betancourt and Rómulo Gallegos.

In 1948, Chalbaud was among those who overthrew that government of president Gallegos, and was a member of the Military Junta of Government along with Marcos Pérez Jiménez and Luis Llovera Páez, who was the titular head of the three-person junta.

Death
Chalbaud was kidnapped and murdered on 13 November 1950, by a group led by Rafael Simón Urbina and his nephew Domingo Urbina. The kidnapping took place in Caracas between the neighborhood of Country Club and Chapellin, and his murder took place in the semi-abandoned Las Mercedes neighborhood. His murder seems to be the unintended outcome of a failed kidnapping led by Simón Urbina, who looked to overthrow the Chalbaud presidency. Some believe Urbina despised Delgado Chalbaud, while others argue they were close until a falling out over politics. The day after the capture and imprisonment of Urbina, he was assassinated by orders of the Direction of National Security, efficiently securing Pérez Jiménez's position as the strongman in Venezuela for the next several years.

Personal life
Chalbaud was married to Lucía Devine, who served as First Lady of Venezuela from 1948 to 1950. Cerro Carlos Delgado Chalbaud (1047m), a mountain in Venezuela's Amazonas estate where the headwaters of the Orinoco River are located, is named after him.

title: Carlos Delgado Chalbaud


text:
User:Robfearn

About Me
I'm originaly from God's own country, the mighty county of Yorkshire.

Home of Yorkshire Tea, Yorkshire County Cricket Club, The Yorkshire Sculpture Park & Yorkshire Puddings.

Birthplace of Geoffrey Boycott, Rugby League, Whippets & Richard Whiteley.

Famous for Coal, Pies and Yorkshire Grit!

For a number of years I lived in Queensland. Home of Kangaroos, XXXX and BBQ's.

My Personal Website
Why not visit Fearn Web Design

Recent Edits
13th December 2013 - Alan Rogers Travel Group

7th September 2013 - Cabmen's Shelter Fund

3rd August 2005 - Pete Livesey

3rd August 2005 - Big things in Australia - Wikitravel

26th July 2005 - Airlie Beach

26th July 2005 - Longwood, Huddersfield

14th July 2005 - List of explorers (S)

14th July 2005 - List of explorers (T)

13th July 2005 - Yorkshire Tea

title: User:Robfearn


text:
Germán Suárez Flamerich

Germán Suárez Flamerich (10 April 1907 – 24 June 1990) was the president of Venezuela from 1950 to 1952. Flamerich was a lawyer, college professor, diplomat, and politician. He was president of the Government Junta from 1950 to 1952, after the assassination of Carlos Delgado Chalbaud.

Biography
Flamerich's parents were J.M. Suárez and Clorinda Flamerich. He graduated from the Liceo Caracas high school and then from the Universidad Central de Venezuela. As a college student, he participated in the protests against the dictatorship of Gómez of the "Semana del Estudiante" in February 1928. He was sent to jail in April 1928 and again from October to December 1929.

Flamerich obtained his law degree from the Central University of Venezuela on July 30, 1931, with a thesis entitled Las fundaciones en Venezuela (The Foundations of Venezuela). After obtaining his doctorate, Flamerich became a civil law professor at the Universidad Central de Venezuela. In 1936, after the succession of Eleazar López Contreras to the presidency of Venezuela and the corresponding gradual democratic shift, Flamerich was named Chair of Civil Law. He resigned that position in February 1937 in protest, after police officers forcibly entered the university campus. Between 1937 and 1940 he held the presidency of the Coordinating and Reviewing Commission of Laws, and in 1939 and 1940 he served as president of the Caracas Municipal Council. Between 1940 and 1941 he was president ad honorem of the Price Regulatory Commission.

Flamerich resumed his position as Chair of Civil Law in 1941. For the legislative term from 1941 to 1944, he also became a congressional representative for the Distrito Federal. In that role he opposed a treaty that would demarcate the borders between Colombia and Venezuela, arguing that it was contrary to Venezuela's national interest.

In 1945, the year of the coup d'état led by the Patriotic Military Union and the Democratic Action Party against Isaías Medina Angarita which created Rómulo Betancourt's Revolutionary Government Board, Flamerich returned to the law school at the Central University of Venezuela. That year, he was appointed Dean of the law school there.

On November 14, 1945, he was appointed dean of the UCV Law School, a position in which he remained until 1947. In February 1948, the novelist and candidate for AD, Rómulo Gallegos, took office as President of the Republic after becoming the first president elected by universal, direct and secret vote in the history of Venezuela. However, Gallegos was overthrown on November 24 by the same military leaders who led the 1945 coup. In 1948, Flamerich was named adviser to the Military Junta (1948). He later served as Secretary of Foreign Affairs in 1949 and ambassador to Peru in 1950. On 27 November 1950, he was called to serve as president after the incumbent, Colonel Carlos Delgado Chalbaud, was assassinated. Although Flamerich was the nominal head of the government junta, real power was understood to be exercised by the Defense Minister, junta member Marcos Pérez Jiménez.

When initial results of the 1952 Constituent Assembly elections had the opposition well on its way to victory, the junta halted the count for three days and then released results showing the pro-government bloc with a majority. The junta dissolved itself and handed power to the military, which installed Pérez Jiménez as provisional president; he was confirmed as president a few months later by the Constituent Assembly. Flamerich went into exile for many years afterward. He later returned to Venezuela and worked as a lawyer. He died in Caracas on 24 June 1990.

Personal life
Flamerich was married to Rosario Pérez Carreño, who served as First Lady of Venezuela from 1950–1952,

title: Germán Suárez Flamerich


text:
Wolfgang Larrazábal

Rear Admiral Wolfgang Enrique Larrazábal Ugueto  (5 March 1911 – 27 February 2003) was a Venezuelan naval officer and politician. He served as President of Venezuela following the overthrow of Marcos Pérez Jiménez in the 23 January 1958 Venezuelan coup d'état, standing down later that year.

Early life
Larrazábal was born on 5 March 1911 in Carúpano. He attended the Colegio Libertado in Maracaibo. Described by Time as "the well-mannered scion of an old naval family", in 1928, Larrazábal enrolled in the Military Academy of the Bolivarian Navy.

Larrazábal was commissioned into the Bolivarian Navy of Venezuela in 1932. In 1938 to 1939, Larrazábal joined the frigate ARA Presidente Sarmiento on a voyage to circumnavigate the world. He completed a naval command course at the Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island. In 1945, he was named assistant director of the Military Academy of the Bolivarian Navy. From 1949 to 1952, he served as naval attaché in the Embassy of Venezuela, Washington, D.C., by which time he held the rank of captain. In 1952, he was appointed president of the National Sports Institute. In 1955, Larrazábal was appointed director of the Caracas Military Circle. In July of that year, he served as a judge for the Miss World 1955 pageant which took place in Caracas.

In July 1957, Larrazábal was promoted to rear admiral and named chief of staff of the Bolivarian Navy of Venezuela. In January 1958, he was named supreme commander of the Navy by president Marcos Pérez Jiménez, making him Venezuela's highest ranking military officer. At this time, Larrazábal was known as "a quiet man, more a conformist than a conspirator".

Presidency
After popular unrest and a general strike broke out, on 22 January 1958 Larrazábal wrote to Pérez on behalf of the Venezuelan chiefs of staff demanding his resignation. After Pérez fled the country, Larrazábal became president of Venezuela on 23 January 1958 as the head of a military junta, the Junta Militar de Gobierno, comprising himself, colonel Roberto Cassanova, colonel Pedro Quevedo, colonel Carlo Araque, and colonel Romero Villate. On 26 January, in response to public pressure, he expanded the junta to a seven-member group, adding industrialist Eugenic Mendoza and academic Bias Lamberti. After taking power, Larrazábal promised to hold free elections as soon as possible and guaranteed political freedoms and foreign investments. He became "very popular among average Venezuelans for his folksy charisma, populist political views, and the generous welfare benefits offered under his government." Larrazábal's government increased the tax on oil profits from 50% (the rate set in 1946) to 60%, angering the petroleum industry. The United States initially regarded Larrazábal's government as having "moderate conservative and strong pro-American tendencies".

Following the attack on Richard Nixon's motorcade in May 1958, in response to the movement of American military forces into the region, Larrazábal pledged the Nixon party would be "protected fully" thereafter. After Nixon's departure from Venezuela, Larrazábal declined to condemn the attack, saying that he would have joined the protests if he were a student.

In June 1958, Time noted that Larrazábal "has gone perplexingly out of his way to be kind to Communists", quoting Larrazábal as having said: "Maybe I am naïve. But I feel our Communism is a different Communism. Because of his rich patriotic heritage, no Venezuelan would accept orders from abroad." Larrazábal supported Fidel Castro in the Cuban Revolution by facilitating the supply of weapons to Castro's forces in the Sierra Maestra as well as providing a haven for the Cuban government-in-exile.

On 5 July 1958, army general Jesús María Castro León was appointed Minister of Defence. Upon his appointment, he presented Larrazábal with a note of grievances against the junta, which was interpreted as an ultimatum. On 23 July, a plot to kidnap Larrazábal was uncovered. After the plot was foiled, on 24 July Castro resigned and went into exile in Curaçao. In September 1958, Larrazábal survived a second coup attempt.

In September 1958, Larrazábal met with residents of 23 de Enero who were calling for rent reductions. Subsequently, the Banco Obrero reduced rents and expanded its mortgage program. In October 1958, Larrazábal's government approved the construction of El Helicoide after its developers agreed to hire a large number of unemployed people for the project.

In October 1958, Larrazábal was amongst the signatories of the Puntofijo Pact, which saw all the main political parties in Venezeula commit to respecting the outcome of the 7 December 1958 Venezuelan general election. Larrazábal resigned on 14 November 1958, to run in the general election; he was succeeded by Edgar Sanabria as interim president. He was formally supported by the Democratic Republican Union and the Communist Party of Venezuela; he was also covertly supported by the Soviet Union. By this time, the United States did not wish to see Larrazábal elected and tacitly supported his rivals, former president Rómulo Betancourt of the Democratic Action Party and Rafael Caldera of Copei. Larrazábal ultimately lost to Betancourt, receiving 34.61% of the vote to Betancourt's 49.18%. Larrazábal defeated Betancourt by a five-to-one margin in Caracas, but performed more poorly in the rural vote. Following the election, Larrazábal made a "sportsmanlike concession of defeat"; after violent protests broke out, he appealed for the election results to be respected in addresses broadcast on television and radio.

Later life
In January 1959, Larrazábal met with Fidel Castro, who had been invited to Venezuela by the student government of the Central University of Venezuela to celebrate the anniversary of Pérez being deposed. During his visit, Castro expressed gratitude to Larrazábal for his support for the Cuban Revolution.

In 1959, Larrazábal was appointed as Ambassador of Venezuela to Chile, described by Time as "semi-exile". In 1962, during El Carupanazo, Larrazábal wrote to Betancourt from Chile assuring him that the Navy would never revolt against a democratically-elected government. His term as Ambassador ended in 1963. Forming a new party, the Popular Democratic Front (Jóvito Villalba having been selected as the candidate of the Democratic Republican Union), he stood for president in the 1963 Venezuelan general election but lost to Raúl Leoni of the Democratic Action Party, receiving 9.43% of the vote. He declined any position in Leoni's government.

From 1964 to 1969, Larrazábal served as a senator. In 1969, president Rafael Caldera appointed him Ambassador of Venezuela to Canada, a position he held until 1973. In 1973, Larrazábal supported the presidential campaign of Lorenzo Fernández. He served a second term as senator from 1974 to 1979.

Larrazábal died from respiratory failure on 27 February 2003 at the age of 91 in his home in Caracas.

title: Wolfgang Larrazábal


text:
Edgar Sanabria

Edgar Sanabria Arcia (3 October 1911 – 24 April 1989) was a Venezuelan lawyer, diplomat, and politician. He served as the acting president of Venezuela from 1958 to 1959.

Biography
He was born in Caracas to his parents Gorge Sanabria Bruzal and Magdalena Arcia. He graduated from the Central University of Venezuela in 1935, becoming a law professor at the same university a year later. He worked for several ministries during the presidency of Isaias Medina Angarita.

He belonged to the provisional Government Junta after the overthrow of Marcos Pérez Jiménez on 23 January 1958, and was interim President of Venezuela when replaced the Rear admiral Wolfgang Larrazábal because he decides to appear in the elections of 18, November 1958.

During the interim presidency Sanabria implemented the Supplementary Tax Law through which the tax rate is raised to oil companies from 50 to 60%. The Law of Universities was also sanctioned, in which the statute of university autonomy and the inviolability of its precincts were restored by any state security agency. On 12 December 1958, issued Decree No. 473, which created the El Ávila National Park covering an area of 66,192 hectares, with the purpose of preserving the scenic beauty, its fauna, flora and biodiversity.

The electoral result of the presidential elections of 1958 favored Rómulo Betancourt of Acción Democrática, followed by Larrazábal who was supported by URD, PCV and other political parties, and in the third place COPEI, with his hegemonic candidate Rafael Caldera. On 18 February 1959, Sanabria handed over power to Romulo Betancourt in a joint session of the National Congress.

After leaving the presidency, he served as Ambassador to the Holy See (1959–1963), Switzerland (1964–1968), and Austria (1968–1970).

He died in Caracas, after a stroke, on 24 April 1989, at the age of 77.

title: Edgar Sanabria


text: User talk:67.160.10.109

title: User talk:67.160.10.109


text:
Luis Herrera Campins

Luis Antonio Herrera Campins (4 May 1925 – 9 November 2007) was the president of Venezuela from 1979 to 1984. He was elected to one five-year term in 1978. He was a member of COPEI, a Christian Democratic party.

Early life and career
Luis Antonio Herrera Campins was born in Acarigua, Portuguesa. He studied law initially at Central University of Venezuela, though his studies were interrupted when he was imprisoned during the regime of Marcos Pérez Jiménez after he organized a strike against the dictator. He continued his studies and writings in exile in Spain and Germany. He eventually earned his law degree in 1955 from the Universidad de Santiago de Compostela.

Herrera entered politics in 1937, and from 1959 to 1979 he served in the National Congress. He became President of Venezuela on 12 March 1979.

Presidency
Herrera won the December 1978 presidential elections for COPEI, replacing the social democrat Carlos Andrés Pérez of the Democratic Action (AD) party, who had nationalised the oil industry at the height of the boom in 1975. Oil revenues continued to rise during the early years of Herrera's presidency. Herrera had a dirigiste view of the government's economic role, which involved channelling public funds into agricultural and industrial projects, paying generous subsidies and controlling the prices of many goods. His government continued President Pérez's policy of borrowing on a world market awash with petrodollars, and by the early 1980s Venezuela owed the banks more than $20 billion. The government's tacit assumption was that oil prices would remain high forever, and would sustain high levels of public and private consumption.

As president, Herrera implemented cultural development programs, including the elaborate Teresa Carreño Theater, and education reforms. He liberalised prices, resulting in rapid changes in the value of the Venezuelan bolívar.

Moved in part by territorial claims, Herrera developed a muscular foreign policy. He signed an agreement with Mexico in 1980 to jointly provide Central American and Caribbean countries with a steady flow of oil, a precursor of Hugo Chávez's wide-reaching oil diplomacy in the developing world. In 1982, Herrera sided with Argentina in its war with the United Kingdom over the Falkland Islands, or Islas Malvinas, adroitly exploiting anti-British and anti-American sentiment to boost his flagging popularity. His support for Argentina came while he was asserting Venezuela's longstanding claim to more than half of neighboring Guyana, a former British colony. His government also recognized the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic as the sovereign state in Western Sahara. In December 1982, PDVSA signed a cooperation agreement with the German oil company VEBA for the establishment of a joint venture named Ruhr Oel GmbH. This event is considered the beginning of the internationalization of PDVSA.

He was succeeded by Jaime Lusinchi, who took the office of President in 1984.

Later life
By the time Herrera's term ended, the economy was in meltdown, poverty and hardship were widespread and the voters turned on the ruling Christian Democrats, ejecting the party from office in the elections of December 1983. After the end of his presidency, Herrera remained influential in the Copei party, becoming its president in 1995.

In 2001, Herrera made headlines when gunmen stole his car. Afterwards, he could be seen on foot wearing old clothes and carrying his own groceries. He underwent a series of surgeries for an abdominal aneurysm that led to a kidney infection and other complications. Herrera died on 9 November 2007 in Caracas at the age of 82, having already retired from Venezuelan politics. He suffered from Alzheimer's disease at the time of his death. He was survived by his wife Betty Urdaneta and three sons.

title: Luis Herrera Campins


text:
New International Version Inclusive Language Edition

The New International Version Inclusive Language Edition (NIVi) of the Christian Bible was an inclusive language version of the New International Version (NIV). It was published by Hodder and Stoughton (a subsidiary of Lagardere Publishing) in London in 1995; New Testament and Psalms, with the full bible following in 1996. It was only released in the United Kingdom and British Commonwealth Countries.

In 1997, an article by World Magazine accused the NIVi of being "a feminist seduction of the evangelical church". This led to a protest in evangelical circles, led by James Dobson. A meeting led by Dobson released the Colorado Springs Guidelines, a set of guidelines on gender in Bible translation. Despite some evangelicals coming to the defense of the NIVi, Zondervan responded by not releasing the NIVi in the United States.

One of the criticisms was that the word man was replaced by a variety of words in a very mechanical way ("anyone", "person" etc.) even in passages where clearly a man was indicated. This lent credibility to the criticism that this was a feminist translation with the need to strip the translation of as many occurrences as possible of the word man.

A modified edition was published in 1999. Typical of the changes was Leviticus 15:2-15, where "man" was restored in the 1999 edition, as the passage clearly concerned males. Also a John 17:6-26 speech of Jesus was indented in the 1999 edition, following the indentation of similar passages in the gospel. In 2002 Today's New International Version (TNIV) was published for the English-speaking world as a replacement, but differing in its title with the addition of "Today's". This was also discontinued, with a slightly toned-down version of the TNIV being published as the New International Version in 2011.


text:
Talk:Korab (mountain)

Albanian map
Why do you use the Macedonian map instead of the Albanian?

Around the Korab mountain are just Albanian communities and not Macedonian.--Tfts (talk) 22:53, 11 June 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Korab (mountain)


text:
User:Jon3C

A student.

title: User:Jon3C


text:
Elizabeth Aldworth

Elizabeth Aldworth (1693/1695 –1773/1775 ), born Elizabeth St Leger, was known in her time as "The Lady Freemason" and was the first recorded woman to be initiated into Regular Freemasonry.

She was the daughter of Arthur St Leger, 1st Viscount Doneraile, of Doneraile Court, County Cork, Ireland and Elizabeth Hayes. She was married in 1713 to Richard Aldworth, Esq., in Newmarket.

During the duration of the Hon. Elizabeth Aldworth — "Whenever a benefit was given at the theatres in Dublin or Cork for the Masonic Female Orphan Asylum, she walked at the head of the Freemasons with her apron and other insignia of Freemasonry, and sat in the front row of the stage box. The house was always crowded on these occasions. Her portrait is in the lodge-room of almost every lodge of Ireland."

Initiation
The date of her initiation into Freemasonry is uncertain, but the Memoir of a Lady Freemason indicates that it was between 1710–1712, before her marriage. In his paper in Ars Quatuor Coronatorum in 1895, Edward Conder states that it was sometime between 1710–1718.

In a reply to the paper, Masonic scholar William James Hughan stated: "Until Bro. Conder's investigations we had all assumed that the various reports respecting the initiation of the Hon. Elizabeth St. Leger, though not always in agreement, were correct as to the occurrence being of a later date than 1730." Hughan also found the facts related to contradict the statements made by an Aldworth descendant.

Those facts are found in the Memoir, extracted from the records of the First Lodge of Ireland, which state that Arundel Hill was present at the initiation and often sat in the Lodge with her. The Memoir's editor also indicates that Conder's work was the first fixing of the date, which as of 1864 was not known.

Conder posits that the particular Lodge in which she was initiated, while commonly thought at the time of his research to be known, is also unknown, but that it may have been a private Lodge warranted out of London by her father. Conder seems to be refuting an unelaborated-upon statement that Aldworth was initiated after the formation of the Grand Lodge of Ireland. He indicates that since the Viscount died in 1727, she could not have been initiated after that point, and at that time it seems that the commonly accepted date of formation of the Grand Lodge was 1729–30. It is now taken to be 1725.

The tradition of Aldworth's initiation is that Aldworth had fallen asleep while reading on a dim winter evening in the library, which was located next to the room in which the Lodge was meeting. In consequence of construction going on in the library, she was woken by the voices she heard next door, and the light shining through the loose brickwork. She removed some of the bricks and watched the proceedings. When she understood the solemnity of the proceedings, she wished to retreat, but was caught by the Lodge Tyler, who was also the family butler. Realizing her predicament, she screamed and fainted. The tyler summoned the Brethren (among them her father), and they ultimately decided to initiate her into the Lodge.

Later life and death

In the reply to Conder's presentation, a Bro. Rylands indicated that "there was no evidence forthcoming" that Aldworth served as Master of a Lodge, or that she regularly attended. Elizabeth Aldworth died in 1775. There was a plaque erected at the new St. Finbarre's Cathedral by the Masons of Cork, which reads: In Pious Memory of

The Honourable

ELIZABETH ALDWORTH,

Wife of

RICHARD ALDWORTH,

Of Newmarket Court, Co. Cork, Esq.,

Daughter of

ARTHUR, FIRST VISCOUNT DONERAILE.

Her Remains Lie Close to This Spot.

Born 1695, Died 1775.

Initiated into Masonry in

Lodge No. 44, at Doneraile Court

In this County, A.D. 1712.

Some years after Elizabeth's brother Hayes, the fourth Viscount Doneraile died without issue in 1767, the title was revived in favour of Elizabeth's son St Leger Aldworth, who adopted the St Leger surname.

Culture
She is referred to in James Joyce's Ulysses (Chapter 8)"There was one woman, Nosey Flynn said, hid herself in a clock to find out what they do be doing. But be damned but they smelt her out and swore her in on the spot a master mason. That was one of the Saint Legers of Doneraile."

title: Elizabeth Aldworth


text: User talk:68.98.183.240

title: User talk:68.98.183.240


text: Talk:Fluchthorn

title: Talk:Fluchthorn


text:
Talk:Piz Buin

Untitled
How is Piz Buin pronounced? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 196.210.182.18 (talk) 19:59, 29 July 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Piz Buin


text:
Larry Griffin

Larry Griffin (September 23, 1954 – June 21, 1995) was sentenced to death for the murder of 19-year-old Quintin Moss in St. Louis, Missouri on the afternoon of June 26, 1980. Moss was killed in a drive-by shooting while allegedly dealing drugs on a street corner.

Death
Appeals courts upheld his conviction and death sentence. Griffin was executed by lethal injection on June 21, 1995. Griffin maintained his innocence right up to his execution.

Re-opened investigation
After Griffin's execution, a 2005 post-execution investigation was sponsored by the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund. This NAACP investigation raised doubts about the conviction (specifically as to the shooter's identity), and subsequently caused an investigation by the St. Louis City Circuit Attorney's Office. The St. Louis City investigation ended in a finding that "the right person was convicted".

title: Larry Griffin


text:
All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder

All Star Batman & Robin the Boy Wonder is an American comic book series written by Frank Miller and penciled by Jim Lee. It was published by DC Comics, with a sporadic schedule, between 2005 and 2008. The series was to be rebooted under the title Dark Knight: Boy Wonder in 2011, when both Miller and Lee were to finish the last six issues. The series retells the origin story of Dick Grayson, who became Batman's sidekick Robin.

This was the first series to be launched in 2005 under DC's All Star imprint. These series are helmed by renowned writers and artists in the American comic book industry and attempt to retell some of the history of prominent DC Universe characters, but outside of DC Universe continuity, and not be restricted by it, in order to appeal to new and returning readers. Each title under the All Star imprint is set in its own continuity and separate universe. According to Miller, the series takes place in the same continuity as Miller's other Batman-related works, such as The Dark Knight Returns.

Since its initial publication, Miller's writing of All Star Batman has consistently received an overwhelmingly negative critical response, though Lee's artwork has been praised.

Plot
Bruce Wayne and Vicki Vale are at the circus watching The Flying Graysons, an acrobat family consisting of 12-year-old Dick Grayson and his parents. When Dick's parents are shot to death by a hit man, Dick is escorted from the scene by several cops of the Gotham City Police Department in a threatening manner. Batman swiftly subdues the killer, Jocko-Boy Vanzetti and then rescues Dick from the police, damaging both a police cruiser and the car which Vicki and Alfred Pennyworth are in, injuring Vicki in the process. The stern Batman tells Dick that he has been "drafted into a war", and that he will learn much about fighting crime. Batman brings Dick to the Batcave and leaves him there to his own devices, telling him upon leaving that when hungry, Dick may eat the rats and bats in the cave.

After being informed that Vicki has been hospitalized in critical condition, Batman instructs Alfred to contact Clark Kent at the Daily Planet, to request he immediately transport a Parisian doctor that Batman knows as a personal favor. After Alfred provides Dick with food and clothes, Batman and Alfred get into a heated argument, but Batman backs off when Alfred asserts himself.

The Justice League, consisting of Superman, Wonder Woman, Plastic Man and Green Lantern, disagree on how to deal with Batman's actions. Wonder Woman wishes to kill him, but agrees to wait until after Green Lantern has had a chance to speak with Batman.

A disturbed Batman spends the subsequent evenings violently dispatching attempted rapists and other criminals until he spots a police cruiser escorting Jocko-Boy Vanzetti away from jail, and returning to Vanzetti the gun he used to murder the Graysons. Batman dispatches the corrupt policeman and beats Vanzetti into unconsciousness.

Batman subsequently comes to the aid of the Black Canary, who is fighting a group of thugs. After defeating the criminals, the two masked crimefighters have sex, before Batman takes the Canary home, with Vanzetti bound and gagged in the Batmobile's trunk. Batman and Dick manage to force from Jocko-Boy the name of the person who hired him: the Joker. Dick wants to fight crime with Batman, but Batman says he needs a secret identity.

After Batman leaves the cave to dump Jocko-Boy in the river, he then encounters Green Lantern, and addresses him by his surname, Jordan, bewildering Lantern as to how he knew his true identity. Batman gives Jordan an address to meet him at in 12 hours. Meanwhile, the Joker goes to see Catwoman, and invites her to join him in "some mischief".

Dick creates a costume that includes a hood, basing it on Robin Hood, but Batman points out that an opponent can easily pull the hood down over his head. Batman tells him to lose the hood and names him Robin. Dick receives a new costume made by Alfred.

Batman and Robin adorn themselves in yellow body paint and costumes, and meet Green Lantern in a room painted entirely in yellow, since Green Lantern's power ring has no effect on anything yellow in color. Lantern tries to persuade Batman that his methods are not acceptable, either to the superhero community or the world at large, but Batman dismisses his concerns, and denies Lantern's claim that Robin is Dick Grayson. Robin then steals Green Lantern's power ring, leading to a fight in which Lantern is nearly killed. After beating Robin and saving Lantern's life Batman then takes Robin to his parents' graves, where they share a moment of mutual grief.

A police officer discovers a beaten and badly bleeding Catwoman. Before vanishing, she passes him a message, that Captain Jim Gordon later passes to Batman. He and Robin find her underground.

Jim Gordon learns his wife has been in an accident, due to her alcoholism. At the same time his daughter, dressed as Batgirl, is fighting crime. The Black Canary robs a group of snuff film makers and proceeds to set them on fire. Batgirl is later arrested, and Jim is shown to be deeply depressed when he calls his former lover Sarah at the suggestion of his daughter.

Covers
The first issue launched with four different covers. Three of them were illustrated by Jim Lee—one sporting Batman, the other Robin and one a sketch variant of Batman. Frank Miller illustrated the fourth. Since then, Frank Miller has drawn variant covers for the series. With the exception of issue #2, the Miller covers are sold in 1:10 ratios. For issue #8 and #9, the variant covers were drawn by Neal Adams. The cover for #10 was drawn by Frank Quitely.

Continuity
The All Star titles are self-contained story arcs existing outside of official DC Comics continuity. Despite sharing a label with Grant Morrison's All-Star Superman, All Star Batman & Robin exists in its own continuity unrelated to other books in the All Star imprint.

Frank Miller has also stated that All Star Batman & Robin does exist in the same continuity as the other storylines in his Dark Knight Universe. This consists of Miller's Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, its sequels Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again and The Dark Knight III: The Master Race, Batman: Year One and the Frank Miller/Todd McFarlane collaboration Spawn/Batman. Of these, only Year One is considered canonical to the mainstream DC Universe. This has been proven difficult as The Dark Knight Returns is set during the Cold War with an older Batman while All Star Batman & Robin features a younger Batman in a more modern setting, specifically 2008. An additional story, titled Holy Terror, Batman!, was also to be included within the same continuity, but in 2010, Miller stated that he was no longer working on the project. He later clarified his statement by explaining that it would feature a new character called The Fixer rather than Batman, and not be published by DC. In 2007, Frank Miller's "Dark Knight Universe" was officially designated as Earth-31 within the new DC Comics Multiverse composed of 52 alternate universes.

Sales
The series' first issue sold over 300,000 copies. The once-monthly series became increasingly delayed over time, to the point where only one issue was published in 2006. When issue #5 was released, the series was placed on a regular bi-monthly schedule, with the exception of issue #10, which was postponed from an April 9, 2008 release to an August 27 release, and then to a September 10 release, which it successfully met, only for the book to be recalled due to a printing error that left numerous profanities insufficiently censored. That printing error aside, Jim Lee took full responsibilities for the series' delays, explaining that he was involved with the DC Universe Online video game, and that Miller's scripts had been written some time earlier.

Despite drops in sales since the first issue, All Star Batman & Robin issues regularly topped DC Comics' highest-selling chart on the months when they came out.

Critical reception
Initially released with great fanfare and much anticipation, All Star Batman has consistently received negative reviews from critics. Nearly all complaints about the series are directed at Frank Miller's writing, specifically his non-traditional interpretation of the main character. In the series to date, Batman is consistently displayed as cruel, amoral, and sadistic, eager to torture and kill criminals and indifferent to harming civilians who get in his way. Infamous examples of this include his verbal and physical abuse of Dick Grayson in an attempt to prevent him from grieving over his parents' deaths, and his throwing a Molotov cocktail into a crowd during a fight.

In issue #2 Miller's gritty style of dialogue led the title character to introduce himself to Grayson as "the Goddamn Batman". The phrase was repeated at least once in nearly every subsequent issue of the comic. According to reviewer Brett Weiss, the line "drew derision from fans and critics alike".

Reviewer Peter Sanderson of IGN Comics, while acknowledging that the series is "widely reviled", and opining that DC Comics' publicity for the series was "misleading", suggested that Batman's treatment of Grayson was comparable to a drill sergeant's treatment of a new recruit, but questioned whether this would merely traumatize Grayson further. He nonetheless claimed to be "fascinated" with how this behavior reveals Batman's personality, likening his rough treatment of Grayson to the psychologically frightening experience to which V subjected Evey Hammond in V for Vendetta. Sanderson also pointed out that Miller's view of All Star Batman & Robin as prequels to his graphic novels Batman: The Dark Knight Returns and Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again suggests that the darker, grittier take on Batman and his more dysfunctional relationship with Robin make sense when taken in context, and that Batman's rough treatment of Dick Grayson reveals a lot about the inner workings of Batman's personality. Reviewer Brett Weiss, in the Comics Buyer's Guide #1636 (December 2007), gave the first issue of the series high marks for being interesting and edgy, but opined that by issue #6, the series became "a bad joke", citing the series' "absurdly bad, faux-noir dialogue", and presenting Batman "as a psychopath, as opposed to merely dark and disturbed". Weiss praised Jim Lee's art as "gorgeous", but opined that it was wasted on the title, which he saw as "something that seems to be bad on purpose". The series is also known for the recalled issue #10, in which a printing error allowed the word "fuck" to be published uncensored. Unreturned copies were later sold on eBay at inflated prices.

Comics journalist Cliff Biggers, in Comic Shop News #1064 (November 7, 2007), called the series "one of the biggest train wrecks in comics history", saying that Miller disregarded every aspect of Batman's character in order to tell "a Sin City story in bat-garb". Reviewing issue #7, Biggers excoriated the sequence with Batman and Black Canary as "farcical" and "Tarantinoesque", arguing that Miller's work could not get worse. Biggers gave the issue a "D", explaining that it would be an "F" if not for Jim Lee's art, and suggested that to salvage the work, DC should reprint the book with blank word balloons and let readers submit their own scripts. Reviewing the first three issues of the series, William Gatevackes of PopMatters said that "[Jim Lee's art] is beautiful [but] cannot make up for the writing or the holes in the storytelling". Gatevackes criticized the plot as lacking, saying that "it seems like [Miller is] expanding four issues of story over 20 issues of the book". Gatevackes compared All Star Batman & Robin unfavorably to Miller's previous work: "One is puzzled as to what happened to the Frank Miller who gained his fame on Daredevil, Ronin, and Batman: The Dark Knight Returns. Can he come back? Because until he does, All Star Batman and Robin should be avoided at all costs".

Iann Robinson, writing for CraveOnline, wrote an essay critical of All Star Batman & Robin, calling it "a comic series that just spirals deeper and deeper into the abyss of unreadable. I understand Miller's need to re-invent, but this is just badly done and in poor taste". Robinson commented that "the art by Jim Lee is first rate [and] really wonderful to look at, [but] Frank Miller has stripped Batman of all of his dignity, class, and honor. This isn't the Dark Knight; this is Dirty Harry in a cowl. The worst part is that this is exactly what Batman isn't about. In one fell swoop, Miller has erased all the good he did for Batman with The Dark Knight Returns and Batman: Year One. All of that is just gone".

The book also has its defenders. Jon Morris, writing for The High Hat, named All Star Batman & Robin one of the best superhero comics of 2006, finding All Star's take on Batman "an intriguing alternative take on a character long reimagined to the point of incoherence. Surely the readers as a whole have seen Batman the tortured soul, Batman the awkward father figure, Batman the authoritarian and Batman the zillion-other-paternal character archetypes countless times before under the stewardship of a few dozen other authors; why not for a scant twelve issues have a book about a Batman who might just be what a control-obsessed, Kevlar-suited sadist would be like in real life — which is to say "distinctly unpleasant"? It's unsavory, sure, but who buys Batman comics because he's warm and cuddly?"

Unproduced sequel
After the series encountered a hiatus of nearly two years, DC Comics announced in April 2010 that Miller and Lee would return to the series in 2011. Instead of falling under the "All Star" imprint, the series was to be re-branded as Dark Knight: Boy Wonder, and would run for six issues, completing the story Miller originally intended to tell. As of 2024, however, this series has yet to be published.

title: All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder


text:
Category:South African kickboxers

Kickboxers from South Africa.

title: Category:South African kickboxers


text:
Life University

Life University is a private university focused on training chiropractors and located in Marietta, Georgia, USA. It was established in 1974 by a chiropractor, Sid E. Williams.

History
The university was founded in 1974 by Williams as "Life Chiropractic College" on the site of a placer gold mine, next to Southern Technical Institute (later Southern Polytechnic State University and now Kennesaw State University - Marietta Campus). 22 students attended the first classes in January 1975.

In 1989, the name was shortened to "Life College", as it had recently opened an undergraduate program and was no longer purely chiropractic. This undergraduate program allowed Life to establish an intercollegiate athletic program. By 1990, it had grown to become the largest college of chiropractic in the world. In 1996, Life College became Life University.

In March 2004, Guy Riekeman, the former chancellor of the Palmer Chiropractic University System, was appointed as the president of Life University. In 2017, Rob Scott took over as president of the university and Riekeman became chancellor.

Accreditation
The university is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools to award associate, bachelor, master's and doctoral degrees. The doctoral degree program is also accredited by the Council on Chiropractic Education. Two programs in dietetics are accredited by the American Dietetic Association.

On June 7, 2002, the Commission on Accreditation of the Council on Chiropractic Education (CCE), which is the national organization that accredits chiropractic schools in the US, revoked the accreditation status of Life University. A federal judge retroactively restored the accreditation in February 2003 and placed the chiropractic program on a probationary status. This was due to CCE's investigators apparently concluding that Life students were not being taught how to detect and deal with problems that require medical attention. CCE’s investigative report noted that “all patient charts reviewed revealed primary diagnoses of subluxation.” The Georgia Board of Chiropractic Examiners issued a statement supporting CCE’s decision. Life appealed, but in October 2002, CCE ruled against it. Although it eventually got its accreditation restored, it has struggled with keeping its accreditation ever since.

Athletics
The Life athletic teams are called the Running Eagles. The university is a member of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), primarily competing in the Southern States Athletic Conference (SSAC; formerly known as Georgia–Alabama–Carolina Conference (GACC) until after the 2003–04 school year) starting the 2022–23 academic year. The Running Eagles previously competed in Mid-South Conference (MSC) from 2014–15 to 2021–22; as an NAIA independent within the Association of Independent Institutions (AII) from 2008–09 to 2011–12 (and during the 2013–14 academic year), and in the TranSouth Athletic Conference (TranSouth or TSAC) during 2012–13.

Life competes in 20 intercollegiate varsity sports. Men's sports include basketball, bowling, cross country, rugby, soccer, swimming, track & field, volleyball and wrestling. Women's sports include basketball, bowling, cross country, lacrosse, rugby, soccer, swimming, track & field, volleyball and wrestling. Co-educational sports include cheerleading.

Intercollegiate rugby program
The Running Eagles reached the national quarterfinals in 2011 in its first season. Life reached the national semi-finals in the 2011–12 season and finished the season ranked #2 in the US. In 2018 and 2019, Life U beat the California Golden Bears to become back-to-back national champions.

Life University has been successful in rugby sevens. It won the 2011 USA Rugby Sevens Collegiate National Championships. Life U won the spring 2012 Las Vegas Invitational, earning a place at the June 2012 Collegiate Rugby Championship, where Life U was undefeated in pool play and reached the semi-finals. The CRC tournament, played at PPL Park in Philadelphia, is the highest profile college rugby tournament in the US and is broadcast live every year on NBC. Life U won the fall 2012 South Independent 7s tournament. This victory earned Life an automatic place and a chance to defend its title at the fall 2012 USA Rugby Sevens Collegiate National Championships, where Life U went 5–1 and finished second in the tournament, losing in the Cup Championship match to rival Arkansas State. In 2013, Life U went 5–1 at the USA Rugby Sevens Collegiate National Championships to finish fifth.

Men's senior rugby
Since 1986, Life U has played at a senior level, including in the Rugby Super League from 1997 to 2002. Life U rejoined the RSL in 2009.

title: Life University


text: Template:Conference Carolinas navbox

title: Template:Conference Carolinas navbox


text:
Australian Salaried Medical Officers' Federation

The Australian Salaried Medical Officers' Federation (ASMOF) is an Australian trade union, affiliated with the Australian Council of Trade Unions, that represents doctors who receive salaries. In Australia doctors operate as self-employed tradespeople, or as salaried employees of clinics, hospitals, or other organisations; ASMOF represents the interests of salaried doctors as employees. ASMOF has a federated state-based structure, with state branches playing a major role in its operation; the state-based structure of the union is largely a function of Australian states being primarily responsible for health care regulation and funding. ASMOF represents more than 15,000 doctors across Australia.

History
ASMOF affiliated with the ACTU in 1991. ASMOF was the result of a long federation process operating between different state-based salaried doctors' associations. In the early 1980s these organisations formed the Australian Council of Salaried Medical Officers' Organisations, through which they sought better coordination of the interests of doctors as employees.

State branches
In Tasmania and the Northern Territory, the state/territorial branches of ASMOF are operated subordinate to the relevant state branch of the Australian Medical Association.

The New South Wales state branch, which has been in existence since 1972, was known as the Public Medical Officers' Association prior to 1991.


text:
Ethyl nitrate

Ethyl nitrate is the ethyl ester of nitric acid and has the chemical formula C2H5NO3. It is a colourless, volatile, explosive, and extremely flammable liquid. It is used in organic synthesis with use as a nitrating agent and as an intermediate in the preparation of some drugs, dyes, and perfumes. Like nitroglycerin, it's a vasodialator.

Ethyl nitrate is found in the atmosphere, where it can react with other gases to form smog. The pollutant was originally thought to have been formed mainly by the combustion of fossil fuels. However recent analysis of ocean water samples reveal that in places where cool water rises from the deep, the water is saturated with alkyl nitrates, likely formed by natural processes.

Preparation
Ethyl nitrate has been prepared by bubbling gaseous nitryl fluoride through ethanol at −10 °C. The reaction was subsequently studied in detail.

Ethyl nitrate can be prepared by nitrating ethanol with fuming nitric acid or a mixture of concentrated sulfuric and nitric acids. Urea should be added to remove any nitrous acid and prevent explosion. Further purifying by distillation carries a risk of explosion.

A nucleophilic substitution reaction of ethyl halides and silver nitrate can also yield ethyl nitrate. Again, purification poses explosion risks.

Chemical reactions
Ethyl nitrate can be reduced with stannous chloride to form hydroxylammonium chloride, though product separation is somewhat difficult.

Explosive properties
Ethyl nitrate is a sensitive explosive that is prone to detonating upon impact or high temperatures, though is less so than methyl nitrate. It has a detonation velocity of 6,010 m/s, and is therefore a high explosive.

title: Ethyl nitrate


text:
Melbourne Club

The Melbourne Club is a private social club established in 1838 and located at 36 Collins Street, Melbourne.

The club is a symbol of Australia's British social heritage and was established at a gathering of 23 gentlemen on Saturday, 17 December 1838, and initially used John Pascoe Fawkner's hotel on the corner of Collins Street and Market Street.

The Melbourne Club moved to new purpose-built premises at the eastern end of Collins Street, designed by Leonard Terry in Renaissance Revival style, in 1859. A dining room wing with a bay window was added at the western end in 1885, designed by Terry and Oakden. It includes, among other rooms, a library, main dining room, private dining room, breakfast room, billiard rooms, lawn room and bedrooms. The building is listed on the Victorian Heritage Register.

At the rear of the Club building is a private courtyard garden, maintained by arborist-horticulturalist John Fordham, which is also listed on the Victorian Heritage Register, and is the location of garden parties and private functions. The garden contains the largest plane tree in Victoria, according to the National Trust's Register of Significant Trees.

The Melbourne Club does not allow female membership. The female-only Lyceum Club, located directly behind in Ridgway Place, enjoys views of the trees of the Melbourne Club's gardens.

In October 1982, a "lunch-in" protest was held by members of the unemployed workers' group Work for Today, followed the next month by an occupation, resulting from a march of trade unionists and unemployed people.

Notable members
Frederick Powlett (1811–1865) was a founding member in 1838 as well as being a founding member and the first recorded president of the Melbourne Cricket Club in 1838. He was a public servant, a police magistrate and later chief commissioner of Crown Lands.

Other notable members:

 * Governors-General Sir Isaac Isaacs GCB GCMG PC, KC, Baron Casey KG GCMG CH DSO MC PC, Sir Ninian Stephen KG AK GCMG GCVO KBE PC QC and Rt Rev Hon Peter Hollingworth AC OBE;
 * Governors of Victoria Sir Henry Winneke AC KCMG KCVO OBE QC, Sir James Gobbo AC CVO QC and Hon Alex Chernov AC QC;
 * Chief Justices of Australia Sir John Latham GCMG PC KC and Sir Owen Dixon OM GCMG PC KC ;
 * High Court Justices Sir Daryl Dawson AC KBE CB QC Kenneth Madison Hayne AC QC;
 * Chief Justices of Victoria Sir William Foster Stawell KCMG, Sir William Irvine GCMG, Sir Frederick Mann KCMG, Sir Edmund Herring KCMG KBE DSO MC KC, Sir Henry Winneke and Sir John Young AC KCMG QC;
 * Prime Ministers 1st Viscount Bruce of Melbourne CH MC FRS and Malcolm Fraser AC CH PC;
 * Politicians Sir John Bloomfield QC, Andrew Peacock AC;
 * Soldiers General Sir Brudenell White KCB KCMG KCVO DSO ADC, General Sir William Johnston and Major General Sir William Bridges KCB CMG;
 * Chief Commissioners of Victoria Police Sir William Mitchell, Sir Charles MacMahon and Frederick Standish;
 * Explorer Robert O'Hara Burke;
 * Artists Sir Arthur Streeton, Sir Daryl Lindsay and Sir William Dargie CBE ;
 * Prominent businessmen Sir James Balderstone AC, Hugh Morgan AC, Don Argus AC and Kevan Gosper AO, Sir Walter Bassett KBE MC.

title: Melbourne Club