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Language of the birds

In Abrahamic and European mythology, medieval literature and occultism, the language of the birds is postulated as a mystical, perfect divine language, Adamic language, Enochian, angelic language or a mythical or magical language used by birds to communicate with the initiated.

History
In Indo-European religion, the behavior of birds has long been used for the purposes of divination by augurs. According to a suggestion by Walter Burkert, these customs may have their roots in the Paleolithic when, during the Ice Age, early humans looked for carrion by observing scavenging birds.

There are also examples of contemporary bird-human communication and symbiosis. In North America, ravens have been known to lead wolves (and native hunters) to prey they otherwise would be unable to consume. In Africa, the greater honeyguide is known to guide humans to beehives in the hope that the hive will be incapacitated and opened for them.

Dating to the Renaissance, birdsong was the inspiration for some magical engineered languages, in particular musical languages. Whistled languages based on spoken natural languages are also sometimes referred to as the language of the birds. Some language games are also referred to as the language of birds, such as in Oromo and Amharic of Ethiopia.

Norse mythology
In Norse mythology, the power to understand the language of the birds was a sign of great wisdom. The god Odin had two ravens, called Hugin and Munin, who flew around the world and told Odin what happened among mortal men.

The legendary king of Sweden Dag the Wise was so wise that he could understand what birds said. He had a tame house sparrow which flew around and brought back news to him. Once, a farmer in Reidgotaland killed Dag's sparrow, which brought on a terrible retribution from the Swedes.

In the Rígsþula, Konr was able to understand the speech of birds. When Konr was riding through the forest hunting and snaring birds, a crow spoke to him and suggested he would win more if he stopped hunting mere birds and rode to battle against foemen.

The ability could also be acquired by tasting dragon blood. According to the Poetic Edda and the Völsunga saga, Sigurd accidentally tasted dragon blood while roasting the heart of Fafnir. This gave him the ability to understand the language of birds, and his life was saved as the birds were discussing Regin's plans to kill Sigurd. Through the same ability Áslaug, Sigurd's daughter, found out the betrothment of her husband Ragnar Lodbrok to another woman.

The 11th century Ramsund carving in Sweden depicts how Sigurd learnt the language of birds, in the Poetic Edda and the Völsunga saga.
 * 1) Sigurd is sitting naked in front of the fire preparing the heart of the dragon Fafnir, for his foster-father Regin, (who is Fafnir's brother). Sigurd touches the heart before it has finished cooking, burns his finger and puts it in his mouth to ease the pain. No sooner has he tasted the dragon's blood than he starts to understand the language of birds.
 * 2) The birds say that Regin will not keep his promise of reconciliation and will try to kill Sigurd, whereupon Sigurd preemptively cuts off Regin's head.
 * 3) Regin lies dead beside his own head, with the  blacksmith's tools with which he reforged Sigurd's sword Gram scattered about him.
 * 4) Regin's horse stands beside his dead master, laden with the dragon's treasure.
 * 5) Shows Sigurd's slaying of the dragon Fafnir by stabbing him from below, (the prelude to the heart-roasting episode).
 * 6) Shows the dwarf  Ótr in otter form at the very beginning of the saga.

In an eddic poem loosely connected with the Sigurd tradition which is named Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar, the reason why a man named Atli once had the ability is not explained. Atli's lord's son Helgi would marry what was presumably Sigurd's aunt, the valkyrie Sváfa.

Greek mythology
According to Apollonius Rhodius, the figurehead of Jason's ship, the Argo, was built of oak from the sacred grove at Dodona and could speak the language of birds. Tiresias was also said to have been given the ability to understand the language of the birds by Athena. The language of birds in Greek mythology may be attained by magical means. Democritus, Anaximander, Apollonius of Tyana, Melampus, and Aesopus were all said to have understood the birds.

The "birds" are also mentioned in Homer's Odyssey : "“[...] although I am no prophet really, and I do not know much about the meaning of birds. I tell you he will not long be absent from his dear native land, not if chains of iron hold him fast. He will find a way to get back, for he is never at a loss."

Middle Eastern folklore and Abrahamic religions
In the Quran, Suleiman (Solomon) and David are said to have been taught the language of the birds. Within Sufism, the language of birds is a mystical divine language. The Conference of the Birds is a mystical poem of 4647 verses by the 12th century Persian poet Attar of Nishapur.

In the Jerusalem Talmud, Solomon's proverbial wisdom was due to his being granted understanding of the language of birds by God.

Folklore
The concept is also known from many folk tales (including Welsh, Russian, German, Estonian, Greek, Romany), where usually the protagonist is granted the gift of understanding the language of the birds either by some magical transformation or as a boon by the king of birds. The birds then inform or warn the hero about some danger or hidden treasure.

According to the Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index, the understanding of the language of birds can appear in the following tale types:

 * Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index tale type ATU 516, "Trusty John": a loyal friend to the king or prince, after he helps him get a princess, hears three ravens or birds commenting that the royal couple shall suffer three grim fates; if anyone helps them avoid the grim fates, they shall not reveal a thing, otherwise they shall become a stone statue.
 * Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index tale type ATU 517, "The Boy Who Understood Many Things": a boy listens to the warning of a bird, or a bird predicts that the boy shall return home a king or some other grand destiny. His family expel him from home, ensuring that the predicted fate shall occur.
 * Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index tale type ATU 671, "The Three Languages": a boy goes to school and learns the languages of birds, dogs and frogs. With this ability, he rescues a princess, unearths a treasure and/or becomes king. Example: The Language of the Birds, Russian fairy tale.
 * Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index tale type ATU 707, "The Three Golden Sons" or "The Dancing Water, the Singing Apple, and the Speaking Bird: the youngest of three sisters promises she will give birth to wonder children if she marries the king. Her envious sisters cast the children in the water soon after birth, but they are saved. Years later, either they set out on their own or someone sends them on a quest, but they journey to find the Speaking Bird (or Bird of Truth), a bird that can speak many languages or knows the truth of their birth.

Alchemy
In Kabbalah, Renaissance magic, and alchemy, the language of the birds was considered a secret and perfect language and the key to perfect knowledge, sometimes also called the langue verte, or green language.

Elizabethan English occultist John Dee likened the magical Enochian language he received from communications with angels to the traditional notion of a language of birds.

Literature and culture
Compare also the rather comical and satirical Birds of Aristophanes, Chaucer’s Parliament of Fowls, and William Baldwin’s Beware the Cat.

In medieval France, the language of the birds (la langue des oiseaux) was a secret language of the Troubadours, connected with the Tarot, allegedly based on puns and symbolism drawn from homophony, e. g. an inn called au lion d'or ("the Golden Lion") is allegedly "code" for au lit on dort "in the bed one sleeps".

René Guénon has written an article about the symbolism of the language of the birds.

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SQL-92

SQL-92 was the third revision of the SQL database query language. Unlike SQL-89, it was a major revision of the standard. Aside from a few minor incompatibilities, the SQL-89 standard is forward-compatible with SQL-92.

The standard specification itself grew about five times compared to SQL-89. Much of it was due to more precise specifications of existing features; the increase due to new features was only by a factor of 1.5–2. Many of the new features had already been implemented by vendors before the new standard was adopted. However, most of the new features were added to the "intermediate" and "full" tiers of the specification, meaning that conformance with SQL-92 entry level was scarcely any more demanding than conformance with SQL-89.

Later revisions of the standard include SQL:1999 (SQL3), SQL:2003, SQL:2008, SQL:2011, SQL:2016 and SQL:2023.

New features
Significant new features include:
 * New data types defined:,  ,  ,  ,   string,   strings, and   strings.
 * Support for additional character sets beyond the base requirement for representing SQL statements.
 * New scalar operations such as string concatenation and substring extraction, date and time mathematics, and conditional statements.
 * New set operations such as,  , set differences, and set intersections.
 * Conditional expressions with . For an example, see Case (SQL).
 * Support for alterations of schema definitions via  and.
 * Bindings for C, Ada, and MUMPS.
 * New features for user privileges.
 * New integrity-checking functionality such as within a  constraint.
 * A new information schema—read-only views about database metadata like what tables it contains, etc. For example,.
 * Dynamic execution of queries (as opposed to prepared).
 * Better support for remote database access.
 * Temporary tables;  etc.
 * Transaction isolation levels.
 * New operations for changing data types on the fly via.
 * Scrolled cursors.
 * Compatibility flagging for backwards and forwards compatibility with other SQL standards.

Extensions
Two significant extensions were published after standard (but before the next major iteration.)
 * SQL/CLI (Call Level Interface) in 1995
 * SQL/PSM (stored procedures) in 1996

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Roads in China

Roads in China may refer to:
 * Expressways of China
 * China National Highways
 * Other streets and roads in China

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User:Karmacoma~enwiki

Karmacoma is a song by the british band Massive Attack, with additional vocals by Tricky. It's on the MA album Protection_(album), and on Tricky's album Maxinquaye is a very different song called Overcome, with the same lyrics. Karmacoma is also the nickname of a 20-year old dutch wikipedian.

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Battle of Vågen

The Battle of Vågen was a naval battle between a Dutch merchant and treasure fleet; and an English flotilla of warships in August 1665 as part of the Second Anglo-Dutch War. The battle took place in Vågen (meaning "the bay, voe" in Norwegian), the main port area of neutral Bergen, Norway. Due to a delay in orders, the Norwegian commanders took the side of the Dutch, contrary to the secret intentions of the King of Norway and Denmark. The battle ended with the retreat of the English fleet, which was much damaged but had lost no ships. The treasure fleet was relieved by the Dutch home fleet 17 days later.

Arrival in Bergen
The Dutch merchant fleet had about 60 vessels. Ten of them were Dutch East India Company (VOC) vessels, commanded by Commodore Pieter de Bitter, which were returning from the East Indies. Twice each year, the Dutch East India Company sent a Return Fleet back to the Netherlands. This one had departed on Christmas Day 1664 and had the richest cargo ever seen until then. It was laden with many luxury goods, typical for the "rich trade": spices, including 4,000,000 catty of pepper, 440,000 pounds of clove,  314,000 pounds of nutmeg,  121,600 pounds of mace, and about 500,000 pounds of cinnamon; 18,000 pounds of ebony; 8,690 catty of silk and about 200,000 other pieces of cloth;  2,000 pounds of indigo; 18,151 pearls;  2,933 rubies,  3,084 raw diamonds, and 16,580 pieces of porcelain. The total European market value was about eleven million guilders, or three million rigsdaler, more than the total annual revenues of the Danish-Norwegian crown.

To avoid the English fleet that controlled the English Channel after its victory in the Battle of Lowestoft, the merchant fleet had sailed north of Scotland to reach the Dutch Republic via the North Sea. After having been dispersed by a storm on 29 June, most ships gathered in the neutral Bergen harbour for shelter in July to wait for the repair of the Dutch home fleet after its defeat. The first three VOC vessels, the yacht Kogge (cargo purchase value: 67,972 guilders), the fluyt Diemermeer (cargo value 272,087 guilders), and Jonge Prins (cargo value: 438,407 guilders) arrived on 19 July (Julian calendar). On 29 July another seven vessels entered the harbour: Walcheren (cargo value 346,964 guilders), Phoenix (cargo value 297,326 guilders), Slot Hooningen (cargo value 386,122 guilders), Brederode (cargo value 296,773 guilders), the yacht Rijzende Zon (cargo value 288,400 guilders), and the fluyts Wapen van Hoorn (cargo value 300,464 guilders) and Amstelland (cargo value 282,785 guilders). Not all of the VOC fleet was present: the Muskaatboom (cargo value: 293,688 guilders) had disappeared in a storm near Madagascar, and the yacht Nieuwenhoven (cargo value: 77,251 guilders) and the fluyt Ooievaar (cargo value: 300,246 guilders) had found refuge in Trondheim. Except for Diemermeer and Amstelland, the Dutch ships were heavily armed, and many were specially-built company vessels with the dual function of warship and merchantman.

The English battle fleet on 4 July became present in the North Sea to intercept the squadron of Vice-Admiral Michiel de Ruyter, which was about to arrive from America after he had raided the English possessions there. The English fleet learned about the arrival of the first ships of the VOC fleet, which had been announced by the English ambassador in the Republic, George Downing, from a merchantman from Rostock on 22 July. This caused a heated discussion about which target should have priority. The fleet commander, Lord Sandwich, against the advice of most of his flag officers, decided to split the fleet. On 30 July, after a merchantman from Ostend had reported the other VOC ships had also arrived, a small task force was dispatched to Bergen to capture or at least block the convoy. The flotilla under Rear-Admiral Thomas Teddeman first had 22 warships but was reduced to 14 after eight ships sailed too westerly, were swept beyond Bergen and could not beat up the wind to the south. Besides the gunships, the fireships Bryar, Greyhound, and Martin Gally were present. Teddeman reached Bergen at six in the evening of 1 August and blocked the entry to the bay. The beginning of the English action was inauspicious: Teddeman's flagship Revenge ran aground that same evening at Cape Nordnes, and it was only by much effort that it managed to work itself free. The entrance of the bay being only about 400 m wide, the English could position only seven ships there: from north to south Prudent Mary, Breda, Foresight, Bendish, Happy Return, Sapphire and Pembroke. The others pointed their guns at the coastal batteries.

Missed orders
At Vågen, the fortresses of Bergenhus and Sverresborg guarded the harbour. Representatives from both fleets approached Johan Caspar von Cicignon, commandant of the fortresses, and Claus von Ahlefeldt, the commander of the Norwegian forces at Bergen. The Norwegians decided to remain out of the dispute for the time. Ahlefeldt had heard rumours of a secret deal between King Charles II of England and King Frederick III of Denmark-Norway, but no concrete orders had arrived. By treaty, a force of five warships of any nation might enter the harbour, and Ahlefeldt indicated that he would allow nothing else.

In fact, a secret oral agreement had been made a week earlier between the English envoy, Sir Gilbert Talbot, and Frederick III. Denmark-Norway would allow the English fleet to assault the Dutch convoy, and the loot would be shared in equal parts, despite the official alliance of Frederick with the Dutch. Frederick sent an order to Ahlefeldt that he should protest the English attack but take no action against it.

However, the order did not reach Bergen in time. The English sent an order to their fleet to postpone their attack until Ahlefeldt had received his orders, but the messenger was intercepted en route by the Dutch. Teddeman had, however, been told that a deal was in the making.

Both Charles and Frederick hoped to get the loot for their personal funds, not for their official national treasuries. Charles had instructed Lord Sandwich in a personal secret meeting to arrange for that. That made Lord Sandwich send his namesake nephew, the courtier and adventurer Edward Montagu (1635–1665), with Teddeman to ensure everything would proceed according to plan. Teddeman had been ordered to act as quickly and forcefully as possible to avoid an involvement of the main English fleet, which would compromise secrecy.

Eve of battle
When Teddeman sent Montagu to Bergen to co-ordinate the attack, to his great disappointment, the Danish-Norwegian commanders refused to co-operate. At 4 in the morning, Montagu returned but was immediately sent back by Teddeman, who now threaten the fortresses with violence if they remained obstinate. Montagu claimed the English fleet had 2000 cannon and 6000 men, which made little impression, as he was obviously exaggerating the size by about three times. He was taken even less seriously when he offered the Order of the Garter in exchange for compliance. When he was again refused, Montagu made a little detour and let his boat row alongside the Dutch fleet to inspect their preparations. The Dutch respected the neutrality of the port, played the Wilhelmus and saluted Montagu three times with white smoke. His vessel saluted back.

Meanwhile, the city was in an uproar, as English sailors had entered it to intimidate the population. Many citizens fled. De Bitter hastily called back the Dutch crews, most of whom on shore leave in Bergen, by ringing the church bells. As few of them had much fighting experience and many were not even Dutch, he raised their spirits by promising three months of extra wages in case of a victory. Such promises were legally binding under Dutch law, and the news was met with great enthusiasm. He ended his speech by asking, "Do you have the courage to stand up to the enemy or not?" The men, according to the Dutch reports, cheered, "Yes, sir! We'll remain firm until we'll have defeated the enemy and rather die than surrender such rich treasure or ourselves to the English!"

Most Dutch ships were very deep in the bay; at about 300 m from the English line, De Bitter positioned from north to south the Slot Hooningen, Catherina, his flagship the Walcheren, the Gulden Phenix and the Rijzende Zon. Thousands of sailors from the lighter ships were sent to reinforce the fortresses.

Battle

Early in the morning, the English beat their drums and sounded their trumpets, and the Dutch knew hostilities would soon begin. Their crews bared their heads for a short prayer and then hastily manned the guns.

When cannon fire erupted at six in the morning of 2 August (Old Style), both fleets engaged at only hundreds of metres distance of each other. Teddeman decided against using fireships to avoid endangering the precious cargo. He also lacked the weather gage and simply could not execute a direct attack. The Dutch had positioned their eight heaviest ships so that they could give broadsides at the English. Most smaller guns had been moved to point at the enemy, as manoeuvring would have been impossible anyway. The English fleet was in a leeward position and so had a better range, but the English gunners overcompensated for that and so their shots mostly fell short. Fierce southern winds and rain blew the smoke from the English guns back to the ships, which blinded them, and they were unaware that the Dutch ships were rarely hit. As Bergen protrudes somewhat into the bay from the north, the most-northern English vessels had to shoot just along it to reach the Dutch. A stray English cannon shot landed in the fortress and killed four soldiers. The commandant responded by firing back at the English fleet.

The English fleet had about 600 cannon and 2000 men and was in itself far superior to the Norwegian arsenal, which had only 125 guns and 200-300 men. However, the ships facing the Dutch were poorly positioned to answer the Norwegian fire. Besides, most English vessels were frigates and unable to take as much damage as the large Dutch merchantmen, and the Dutch actually had some superiority in firepower. Teddeman had hoped that Dutch morale would quickly break and made the mistake not to break off action when that failed to happen. After three hours of being pounded, the English blocking ships were routed. Their panicked crews cut the anchor ropes, but some ships remained entangled and threatened to capsize because of the weight of the broken masts and so they had to anchor again under fire to cut them off. The English were forced to retreat to Herdla at around 10 in the morning.

The English had 421 casualties: 112 dead (among them most of the captains of the blocking ships) and 309 wounded. Andrew Marvell wrote in his long ironic poem about the "Dutch War":

 * Six Captains bravely were shot,
 * And Mountagu, though drest like any bride,
 * Aboard the Admiral, was reacht, and died

The "reached" was a sneer from Marvell and alluded to Teddeman's failure to place his flagship in the blocking line though it was by far the most powerful ship that he could use.

In the biography of John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, the story is told that Rochester, Montagu and George Windham, three young noblemen, had had a strong premonition of their death. They made a pact that whoever should perish first would appear to the other in spirit form. Late in the battle, George suddenly began to shake with fear. Edward embraced him for consolation, and both were then slain by the same cannonball.

The Dutch convoy suffered some damage to its ships, especially the Catherina, a Mediterranean fleet vessel, and about 25 dead and seventy wounded. Eight men died in the fortress, and another ten died in the city.

Aftermath
The orders from Copenhagen reached Ahlefeldt six days later, on 8 August. With the Dutch merchant vessels still in Bergen, Ahlefeldt travelled to the English fleet at Herdla the next day to try to repair the damage and offered a chance to attack again without interference from the fortress. The offer was rejected, however, as Teddiman knew he could not be ready before the actions of the main fleets had already decided the outcome of the entire enterprise. Also, Ahlefeldt refused to attack the Dutch himself. In the days after the battle, the Dutch had strongly fortified their position: a defensive chain had been positioned in the entry of the bay, and their sailors had improved the fortifications by adding another 100 guns.

As the wind turned north, they expected a direct attack from Teddeman, but the English rear-admiral had rejoined with the eight vessels that had separated but limited himself to observing the harbour. On 10 August, he left to join the main fleet, but it had already been forced by lack of supplies to depart for England on 6 August since it was ignorant that it had failed to intercept De Ruyter.

On 13 August, Sandwich, learning that De Ruyter had reached the Republic on 27 July, took sea again and sailed to the east but failed to meet Teddeman's flotilla, only thirty miles to the north of him. Both English forces were unaware of each other and of the fact that less than fifty miles east of them, De Ruyter was heading north since on arrival, he had been appointed lieutenant-admiral and supreme commander of the rebuilt combined Dutch fleet. It was now out in force with 93 warships, 20 yachts, 12 fireships, 15,051 sailors, 4583 marines and 4337 cannons. Again returning to England, Sandwich joined Teddeman near Flamborough Head on 18 August, anchored at Solebay on the 22nd to resupply and departed on the 28th.

On 19 August, De Ruyter's relief fleet had arrived at Bergen. On 23 August, he left again to shield a planned escape by the merchant fleet, but adverse gales forced him to return two days later. It was only on 29 August that the Dutch merchant fleet left the harbour. The next day, the convoy of 184 ships was struck by a hurricane that lasted till the afternoon of 1 September and completely dispersed it. When the storm subsided, De Ruyter had only 37 warships and eight merchantmen with him. Sandwich, now east of De Ruyter, managed to intercept and take on 3 September a straggling group of four warships (Zevenwolden, Westvriesland, Groningen and Hoop) and, much more importantly, two VOC vessels (Slot Hooningen and Gulden Phenix). They would again be lost by them during the Raid on the Medway.

Receiving the false news that De Ruyter was east of him with the mass of the Dutch fleet, Lord Sandwich retreated to the west to bring his prizes to safety, again narrowly missing De Ruyter by moving to the east. Montague would afterwards be severely criticised, as he had lost an excellent opportunity to destroy the Dutch in detail or at least to capture more of the treasure ships.

On 9 September, however, he managed to intercept and to capture a second group with two WIC vessels, four warships and seven fluyt naval supply ships. After breaking off a chase of another 30 vessels, for fear of the shoals of the Frisian Isles, he finally returned to Solebay on 11 September. The other Dutch vessels returned to the Dutch Republic safely and were mostly reassembled by De Ruyter.

For the English, the escape of the Dutch Return Fleet from the Indies was an enormous blow since they had to capture it to finance the war. However, the blow was somewhat softened by the later capture of the two VOC merchantmen. Lord Sandwich was blamed for the failure and fell into disgrace. After his arrival in the Thames he illegally, perhaps with connivance of Charles, took goods of considerable value from the hulls of the captured Slot Hooningen and Gulden Phenix, sold them in secret and divided the gain among his nine flag officers and reserved for himself £4000. When that came to light, Charles had no choice but to cashier him, but Sandwich defended his conduct by pointing out that he had taken only a small part of the booty, the value of which was estimated by him at £500,000. Samuel Pepys thus described the impression of wealth when he visited one of the captured ships in his diary entry of 16 November: "So I on board my Lord Bruncker; and there he and Sir Edmund Pooly carried me down into the hold of the India shipp, and there did show me the greatest wealth lie in confusion that a man can see in the world. Pepper scattered through every chink, you trod upon it; and in cloves and nutmegs, I walked above the knees; whole rooms full. And silk in bales, and boxes of copper-plate, one of which I saw opened... which was as noble a sight as ever I saw in my life...".

Lord Sandwich also thought that he had been tricked by the Danish-Norwegian King, as Pepys recounted in his diary entry of 18 September: "But the main thing my Lord wonders at, and blames the Dane for, is, that the blockhead, who is so much in debt to the Hollander, having now a treasure more than much than all his Crowne was worth, and that which would for ever have beggared the Hollander, should not take this time to break with the Hollander, and thereby pay his debt that must have been forgiven him and have got the greatest treasure into his hands that ever was together in the world". In February 1666, Denmark-Norway would declare war against England after the former had received large Dutch subsidies. Pieter de Bitter received an honorary golden chain from the States-General.

One reaction to the battle was the construction of an additional fortress, Fredriksberg Fortress (on Nordnes), since the battle had "showed clearly how vulnerable the city really was", according to Bjørn Arvid Bagge.

Legacy
The Bergen Cathedral still has a cannonball from the battle imbedded in the wall of its tower. In 2015, a plaquette was unveiled on a wall of the cathedral; an information board (infoplate) was unveiled "near Kongestatuen at Bergen[s]hus Fortress". Bergen Maritime Museum has on display part of the decoration on the English vessels. Two wooden figures, depict the head of a lion and the head of a unicorn. In 2015, an exhibition marked the 350th anniversary of the battle: [kings, spices and gunpowder] "Konger, krydder og krutt".

A painting was done by Willem van de Velde the Younger and is in the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London.

title: Battle of Vågen


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Talk:The Towers of Bois-Maury

Manual numnering
I wrote back the manual numbering, because the albums numbers are not re-started when the series' name has changed. And with auto-numbering, the numbering would be restarted. Lvr 09:44, 19 July 2005 (UTC)

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User:Blue cactus

Welcome to my page!

I've edited quite a few articles anonymously.

Now it's time to get serious!

title: User:Blue cactus


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Timeline of psychotherapy

This article is a compiled timeline of psychotherapy. A more general description of the development of the subject of psychology can be found in the History of psychology article. For related overviews see the Timeline of psychology and Timeline of psychiatry articles.

Antiquity

 * c. 1550 BCE – Ancient Egyptians codified their knowledge of psychiatry, medicine, and surgery in the Ebers Papyrus and the Edwin Smith Papyrus. The former mentioned dementia and depression, while the latter gave detailed instructions for various neurosurgical procedures. The power of magic (suggestion) was recognized as complementary to medicine.
 * c. 500 BCE – Siddhartha Gautama (Lumbini, Nepal) founded the psychotherapeutic practices of Buddhism on the principle that the origin of mental suffering is ignorance, that the symptoms of ignorance are attachment and craving, and that attachment and craving can be ended by following the Noble Eightfold Path.
 * c. 400 BCE – Hippocrates (Kos, Greece) taught that melancholia (depression) has a biological cause, namely an excess of black bile, one of the four humours. Ancient Greek therapy for disorders of mood involved adjustment of the humours, to bring them into balance.
 * c. 300 BCE – Composition of the Huangdi Neijing began in China. This medical work emphasized the relationship between organs and emotions, and formalized the theory of Qi (life-force) and the balancing of the primal forces of Yin and yang.
 * c. 170 BCE – Composition of On the Diagnosis and Cure of the Soul's Passion by Galen in Ancient Greece, containing directions on how to provide counsel to those with psychological issues to prompt them to reveal their deepest passions and secrets, and eventually cure them of their mental deficiency.

10th century

 * c. 900 – Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi (Balkh, Afghanistan) introduces the concepts of mental health or "mental hygiene". He also recognized that illnesses can have both psychological and/or physiological causes.
 * c. 900 – al-Razi (Rhazes) recognized the concept of "psychotherapy" and referred to it as al-‘ilaj al-nafs.

11th century

 * 1025 – Avicenna (Bukhara Region, Uzbekistan) described in The Canon of Medicine a number of conditions, including hallucination, insomnia, mania, nightmare, melancholia, dementia, epilepsy, paralysis, stroke, vertigo and tremor.

12th century

 * c. 1150 – Ibn Zuhr, aka 'Avenzoar" (Seville, Spain), a Muslim Arab physician and surgeon, gave the first accurate descriptions on certain neurological disorders such as meningitis, intracranial thrombophlebitis, and mediastinal germ cell tumors.
 * c. 1150 – Averroes suggested the existence of Parkinson's disease.

13th century

 * c. 1200 – Maimonides wrote about neuropsychiatric disorders and described rabies and belladonna intoxication.

15th century

 * 1403 – The Bethlem Royal Hospital of London, (Bedlam) (established as a hospital in 1330) admitted its first mentally ill patients. The care amounted to little more than restraint.

16th century

 * 1567 – Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, aka "Paracelsus"  (Einsiedeln, Switzerland) is credited as providing the first clinical/scientific mention of the unconscious in his work Von den Krankheiten. He called for the humane treatment of the mentally ill (but was ignored for several centuries) as he saw them not to be possessed by evil spirits, but merely "brothers ensnared in a treatable malady."

1770s

 * 1770 – Johann Joseph Gassner initiated a therapeutic practice using a precursor of hypnotherapy and exorcism.
 * 1774 – Franz Mesmer described the therapeutic properties of "animal magnetism" (hypnotherapy), and began a clinical practice.

1780s

 * 1785 – Marquis de Puységur founded the Société Harmonique des Amis Réunis to train specialists in Mesmerism (hypnotherapy).

1790s

 * 1793 – Jean-Baptiste Pussin, working with Philippe Pinel, took over France's Bicetre Hospital and began releasing incarcerated mental patients from chains and iron shackles in the first movement for the humane treatment of the mentally ill. "The Moral Treatment" included humane, non-violent, and drug-free management of mental illness.

1800s

 * 1801 – Philippe Pinel (France) published the first psychological approach to the treatment of the insane. The work appeared in English translation in 1806, as Treatise on Insanity.

1810s

 * 1813 – Abbé Faria identified the central role of suggestion in "animal magnetism" (hypnotherapy).

1820s

 * 1826 – Justinus Kerner began treatment of patients with a combination of "animal magnetism" (hypnotherapy) and exorcism.

1830s

 * 1832 – First appearance of psychotherapy in fiction ("The Haunted Man" short story by John Neal).

1870s

 * 1870 – Jean-Martin Charcot began clinical research into hysteria (conversion disorder) at the Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris.

1880s

 * 1884 – Jean-Martin Charcot explained demonic possession as a form of hysteria (conversion disorder), to be treated with hypnotherapy.
 * 1885 – Pierre Janet began therapeutic practice and research in Le Havre.
 * 1886 – Sigmund Freud began therapeutic practice and research in Vienna.

1890s

 * 1892 – Foundation of the American Psychological Association (APA), headed by G. Stanley Hall.
 * 1896 – Development of the first psychological clinic at the University of Pennsylvania, marking the birth of clinical psychology.
 * 1898 – Boris Sidis publishes The Psychology of Suggestion: A Research into the Subconscious Nature of Man and Society.

1900s

 * 1900 – Sigmund Freud published Interpretation of Dreams, marking the beginning of Psychoanalytic Thought.
 * 1902 – In the autumn the Wednesday Psychological Society (Psychologische Mittwochs-Gesellschaft) started meeting in Freud's apartment in Vienna, marking the beginnings of the worldwide psychoanalytic movement.
 * 1906 – The Journal of Abnormal Psychology founded by Morton Prince for which Boris Sidis was an associate editor and significant contributor.
 * 1906 – The Child Guidance Movement begins in Chicago.
 * 1906 – Carl Jung began correspondence with Freud.
 * 1907 – Jung and his wife, Emma travelled to Vienna to meet with Freud.
 * 1909 – Sandor Ferenczi, Freud and Jung travelled together to the United States to participate in the Clark University conference.

1910s

 * 1910 – Freud proposes Jung as his "eldest son and heir" to his new science.
 * 1910 – Boris Sidis opens the Sidis Psychotherapeutic Institute (a private hospital) at Maplewood Farms in Portsmouth, NH for the treatment of nervous patients using the latest scientific methods.
 * 1911 – Alfred Adler left Freud's Psychoanalytic Group to form his own school of thought, individual psychology, accusing Freud of overemphasizing sexuality and basing his theory on his own childhood.
 * 1912 – Publication of Jung's Psychology of the Unconscious: a study of the transformations and symbolisms of the libido, (subsequently republished as Symbols of Transformation), containing his dissenting view on the libido, it represented largely a "psychoanalytical Jung".
 * 1913 – Carl Jung departed from Freudian views, a final break ensued and he developed his own theories citing Freud's inability to acknowledge religion and spirituality and his restricted view of libido. His "new school of thought" became known as Analytical Psychology.
 * 1913 – Jacob L. Moreno applied group psychotherapy methods in Vienna. His methods, which emphasized spontaneity and interaction, later became known as psychodrama and sociometry.
 * 1914 – Boris Sidis publishes The Foundations of Normal and Abnormal Psychology where he provides the scientific foundation for the field of psychology, and details his theory of the moment-consciousness.
 * 1919 – The British Psychoanalytical Society established by Ernest Jones in London.

1920s

 * 1921 – Jacob L. Moreno conducted the first large scale public psychodrama session at the Komoedienhaus, Vienna. He moved to New York in 1925.
 * 1922 – Boris Sidis publishes Nervous Ills: Their Cause and a Cure, a popularization of his work concerning the subconscious and the treatment of psychopathic disease.

1930s

 * 1933 – Wilhelm Reich published his influential book Character Analysis giving his  view that a person's entire character, not only individual symptoms, could be looked at and treated as a neurotic phenomenon. The book also introduced his theory of body armoring.
 * 1936 – Karen Horney began her critique of Freudian psychoanalytic theory with the publication of Feminine Psychology.
 * 1936 – Saul Rosenzweig published his article Some Implicit Common Factors in Diverse Methods of Psychotherapy, in which he argued that common factors, rather than specific ingredients, cause change in psychotherapy.

1940s

 * 1942 – Carl Rogers published Counseling and Psychotherapy, suggesting that respect and a non-judgmental approach to therapy is the foundation for effective treatment of mental health issues.
 * 1943 – Albert Hofmann writes his first report about the hallucinogenic properties of LSD, which he first synthesized in 1938. LSD was practiced as a therapeutic drug throughout the 1950s and 1960s.
 * 1945 – Society of Analytical Psychology incorporated in London
 * 1945 – Orval Hobart Mowrer founded Integrity Groups therapy.
 * 1945 – The Journal of Clinical Psychology was founded.
 * 1949 – The Boulder Conference outlined the scientist-practitioner model of clinical psychology, looking at the master's degree versus PhD used by medical providers and researchers, respectively.

1950s

 * 1951 – Carl Rogers published his major work, Client-Centered Therapy.
 * 1951 – The seminal work of "Gestalt Therapy: Excitement and Growth in the Human Personality" is published, co-authored by Fritz Perls, Paul Goodman, and Ralph Hefferline.
 * 1951 – The Association of Psychotherapists established in London.
 * 1952 – The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) was published by The American Psychiatric Association marking the beginning of modern mental illness classification.
 * 1953 – B.F. Skinner outlined behavioral therapy, lending support for behavioral psychology via research in the literature.
 * 1953 – Code of Ethics for Psychologists developed by the American Psychological Association.
 * 1954 – Abraham Maslow helped to found Humanistic psychology and later developed his famous Hierarchy of Needs.
 * 1955 – Albert Ellis began teaching the methods of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy the first form of cognitive psychotherapy.
 * 1959 – Viktor Frankl published the first English edition of Man's Search for Meaning [with a preface by Gordon Allport], which provided an existential account of his Holocaust experience and an overview of his system of existential analysis called Logotherapy.

1960s

 * 1960 – Thomas Szasz inaugurated the anti-psychiatry movement with the publication of his book, The Myth of Mental Illness.
 * 1960 – R. D. Laing published The Divided Self  which saw mental illness as an expression or communication of the individual and so represented valid descriptions of lived experience or reality rather than as symptoms of some separate or underlying disorder.
 * 1962 – The Esalen Institute founded at Big Sur California, acting as a focus for the development of many branches of Humanistic psychology.
 * 1965 – William Glasser published Reality Therapy, describing his psycho-therapeutic model and introducing his concept of control theory [later renamed to Choice Theory].
 * 1967 – Aaron Beck published a psychological model of depression, suggesting that thoughts play a significant role in the development and maintenance of depression.
 * 1968 – DSM II published by the American Psychiatric Association.
 * 1969 – California School of Professional Psychology established as first freestanding school of professional psychology.
 * 1969 – Joseph Wolpe published The Practice of Behavior Therapy.

1970s

 * 1970 – Arthur Janov published his book The Primal Scream, which outlined his theory of the trauma-based Primal therapy.
 * 1971 – Vladimir Bukovsky documented the psychiatric imprisonment of political prisoners in the USSR.

1980s

 * 1980 – DSM III is published by the American Psychiatric Association.
 * 1987 – DSM III-R is published by the American Psychiatric Association.

1990s

 * 1990 – Michael White and David Epston publish Narrative Means to Therapeutic Ends, the first major text in what later comes to be known as narrative therapy.
 * 1991 – The American Psychoanalytic Association passed a resolution opposing "public or private discrimination" against homosexuals. It stopped short, however, of agreeing to open its training institutes to these individuals.
 * 1992 – The American Psychoanalytic Association extended the provisions of its 1991 resolution (see above) to training candidates at its affiliated institutes.
 * 1994 – DSM IV (The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) published by the American Psychiatric Association.
 * 1997 – The American Psychoanalytic Association became the first national mental health organization to support same-sex marriage.

2000s

 * 2000 – The DSM-IV-TR, was published in May 2000 in order to correct several errors in DSM-IV, and to update and change diagnostic codes to reflect the ICD-9-CM coding system.

2010s

 * 2013 – The Fifth Edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) was released at the American Psychiatric Association's Annual Meeting in May 2013, marking the end of more than a decade's journey in revising the criteria for the diagnosis and classification of mental disorders.

title: Timeline of psychotherapy


text:
Talk:Liam Cosgrave

Discussion
Just in case anyone cares or thinks it should be added to the article, Cosgrave retired to Knocklyon in south dublin, where he still lives, and still has a Gardai stationed around the clock. -Bastion 09:46, 19 July 2005 (UTC)

Sir!

In case you have a method of communicating with Mr Cosgrave, please ask him permission to provide me with his mailing (email & Tel. numbers) address, for reference to Lawrence Moore Cosgrave (deceased, born Canada), who is this writer's grand-father (mailto: whoyouknow@gmail.com ) —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Punda (talk • contribs).

Complete Overhaul
This article needs to be completely rewritten and it needs to provide references and sources. My favourite bit of bias in the article which is soon to be removed is.

" The agreed replacement, Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh, though a former Attorney General of Ireland (1946–48; 1951–53) and Chief Justice (1963–1973), was monumentally politically inexperienced and it showed. He needed guidance from the politically experienced Cosgrave. Unfortunately Cosgrave was someone who did not express his feelings openly (he only informed his wife, Vera, that he planned to resign on the morning he submitted it). Previously, presidents had been briefed by taoisigh. While the frequency under the previous Taoiseach had declined as President de Valera's health declined in old age, Liam Cosgrave briefed Presidents Childers and Ó Dálaigh on average once every six months. "

O'Dalaigh was involved in Fianna Fail in the late forties and fifties and ran as a candidate. To say he was "politically inexperienced" is an odd statement to make. It's accepted that his poor releationship with Cosgrave was due to O'Dalaigh's FF leanings and the fact that O'Dalaigh was snubbed on several occasions by Cosgrave. Exiledone (talk) 12:38, 21 September 2010 (UTC)

Taoiseach section
The section on Cosgrave's tenure as Taoiseach is currently very long and disorganized, with no subsections and few references. I propose that (a) it merits status as a main section of the article; and (b) much better detail, organization, and references; both as per revision 409011973 done on 20 Jan.

Thoughts? Objections? Msclguru (talk) 16:41, 27 February 2011 (UTC)

 * Throw in some bits about his and his own government's atrocious handling of the Dublin and Monaghan bombings.

Exiledone (talk) 21:51, 21 April 2011 (UTC)
 * That was just some people doing their military service. Snappy (talk) 22:08, 21 April 2011 (UTC)

Nominated at ITN
Referencing is really quite poor. -Ad Orientem (talk) 19:06, 5 October 2017 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 01:52, 19 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Portrait of Liam Cosgrave by Edward McGuire.jpg

title: Talk:Liam Cosgrave