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Columbian mammoth

The Columbian mammoth (Mammuthus columbi) is an extinct species of mammoth that inhabited North America from southern Canada to Costa Rica during the Pleistocene epoch. The Columbian mammoth descended from Eurasian steppe mammoths that colonised North America during the Early Pleistocene around 1.5–1.3 million years ago, and later experienced hybridisation with the woolly mammoth lineage. The Columbian mammoth was among the last mammoth species, and the pygmy mammoths evolved from them on the Channel Islands of California. The closest extant relative of the Columbian and other mammoths is the Asian elephant.

Reaching 3.72 - 4.2 m at the shoulders and 9.2 - 12.5 MT in weight, the Columbian mammoth was one of the largest species of mammoth, larger than the woolly mammoth and the African bush elephant. It had long, curved tusks and four molars at a time, which were replaced six times during the lifetime of an individual. It most likely used its tusks and trunk like modern elephants—for manipulating objects, fighting, and foraging. Bones, hair, dung, and stomach contents have been discovered, but no preserved carcasses are known. The Columbian mammoth preferred open areas, such as parkland landscapes, and fed on sedges, grasses, and other plants. It did not live in the Arctic regions of Canada, which were instead inhabited by woolly mammoths. The ranges of the two species may have overlapped, and genetic evidence suggests that they interbred. Several sites contain the skeletons of multiple Columbian mammoths, either because they died in incidents such as a drought, or because these locations were natural traps in which individuals accumulated over time.

For a few thousand years prior to their extinction, Columbian mammoths coexisted in North America with Paleoindians – the first humans to inhabit the Americas – who hunted them for food, used their bones for making tools, and possibly depicted them in ancient art. Columbian mammoth remains have been found in association with Clovis culture artifacts; these remains stemmed from hunting as well as possibly scavenging. The last Columbian mammoths are dated to about ~12,000 years ago, with the species becoming extinct as part of the Late Pleistocene extinctions, simultaneously with most other large (megafaunal) mammals present in the Americas. It is one of the last recorded North American megafauna to have gone extinct. The extinction of the Columbian mammoth and other American megafauna was most likely a result of habitat loss caused by climate change, hunting by humans, or a combination of both.

Taxonomy
The Columbian mammoth was first scientifically described in 1857 by naturalist Hugh Falconer, who named the species Elephas columbi after the explorer Christopher Columbus. The animal was brought to Falconer's attention in 1846 by Charles Lyell, who sent him molar fragments found during the 1838 excavation of the Brunswick–Altamaha Canal in Georgia, in the southeastern United States. At the time, similar fossils from across North America were attributed to woolly mammoths (then Elephas primigenius). Falconer found that his specimens were distinct, confirming his conclusion by examining their internal structure and studying additional molars from Mexico. Although scientists William Phipps Blake and Richard Owen believed that E. texianus was more appropriate for the species, Falconer rejected the name; he also suggested that E. imperator and E. jacksoni, two other American elephants described from molars, were based on remains too fragmentary to classify properly. More complete material that may be from the same quarry as Falconer's fragmentary holotype molar (which is cataloged as specimen BMNH 40769 at the British Museum of Natural History) was reported in 2012, and could help shed more light on that specimen, since doubts about its adequacy as a holotype have been raised.

In the early 20th century, the taxonomy of extinct elephants became increasingly complicated. In 1942, paleontologist Henry F. Osborn's posthumous monograph on the Proboscidea was published, wherein he used various generic and subgeneric names that had previously been proposed for extinct elephant species, such as Archidiskodon, Metarchidiskodon, Parelephas, and Mammonteus. Osborn also retained names for many regional and intermediate subspecies or "varieties", and created recombinations such as Parelephas columbi felicis and Archidiskodon imperator maibeni. The taxonomic situation was simplified by various researchers from the 1970s onwards; all species of mammoth were retained in the genus Mammuthus, and many proposed differences between species were instead interpreted as intraspecific variation. In 2003, paleontologist Larry Agenbroad reviewed opinions about North American mammoth taxonomy, and concluded that several species had been declared junior synonyms, and that M. columbi (the Columbian mammoth) and M. exilis (the pygmy mammoth) were the only species of mammoth endemic to the Americas (as other species lived both there and in Eurasia). The idea that species such as M. imperator (the imperial mammoth) and M. jeffersoni (Jefferson's mammoth) were either more primitive or advanced stages in Columbian mammoth evolution was largely dismissed, and they were regarded as synonyms. In spite of these conclusions, Agenbroad cautioned that American mammoth taxonomy is not yet fully resolved.

Evolution
The earliest known members of Proboscidea, the clade that contains the elephants, existed about 55 million years ago around the Tethys Sea area. The closest living relatives of the Proboscidea are the sirenians (dugongs and manatees) and the hyraxes (an order of small, herbivorous mammals). The family Elephantidae existed six million years ago in Africa, and includes the living elephants and the mammoths. Among many now extinct clades, the mastodon (Mammut) is only a distant relative, and part of the distinct family Mammutidae, which diverged 25 million years before the mammoths evolved. The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) is the closest extant relative of the mammoths. The following cladogram shows the placement of the Columbian mammoth among other elephantids, based on a 2018 genetic study:

Since many remains of each species of mammoth are known from several localities, reconstructing the evolutionary history of the genus is possible through morphological studies. Mammoth species can be identified from the number of enamel ridges (or lamellar plates) on their molars; primitive species had few ridges, and the number increased gradually as new species evolved to feed on more abrasive food items. The crowns of the teeth became taller in height and the skulls became taller to accommodate this. At the same time, the skulls became shorter from front to back to reduce the weight of the head. The short, tall skulls of woolly and Columbian mammoths are the culmination of this process.

The first known members of the genus Mammuthus are the African species M. subplanifrons from the Pliocene, and M. africanavus from the Pleistocene. The former is thought to be the ancestor of later forms. Mammoths entered Europe around 3 million years ago. The earliest European mammoth has been named M. rumanus; it spread across Europe and China. Only its molars are known, which show that it had 8–10 enamel ridges. A population evolved 12–14 ridges, splitting off from and replacing the earlier type, becoming M. meridionalis about 2.0–1.7 million years ago. In turn, this species was replaced by the steppe mammoth (M. trogontherii) with 18–20 ridges, which evolved in eastern Asia around 2.0–1.5 million years ago. The Columbian mammoth evolved from a population of M. trogontherii that had crossed the Bering Strait and entered North America about 1.5-1.3 million years ago; it retained a similar number of molar ridges. Mammoths derived from M. trogontherii evolved molars with 26 ridges 400,000 years ago in Siberia and became the woolly mammoth (M. primigenius). Woolly mammoths entered North America about 100,000 years ago.

A population of Columbian mammoths that lived between 80,000 and 13,000 years ago on the Channel Islands of California, 10 km away from the mainland, evolved to be less than half the size of the mainland Columbian mammoths. They are, therefore, considered to be the distinct species M. exilis, the pygmy mammoth (or a subspecies, M. c. exilis). These mammoths presumably reached the islands by swimming there when sea levels were lower, and decreased in size due to the limited food provided by the islands' small areas. Bones of larger specimens have also been found on the islands, but whether these were stages in the dwarfing process, or later arrivals of Columbian mammoths is unknown.

Hybridization
A 2011 ancient DNA study of the complete mitochondrial genome (inherited through the female line) showed that two examined Columbian mammoths, including the morphologically typical "Huntington mammoth", were grouped within a subclade of woolly mammoths. This suggests that the two populations interbred and produced fertile offspring. One possible explanation is introgression of a haplogroup from woolly to Columbian mammoths, or vice versa. A similar situation has been documented in modern species of African elephant (Loxodonta), the African bush elephant (L. africana) and the African forest elephant (L. cyclotis). The authors of the study also suggest that the North American type formerly referred to as M. jeffersonii may have been a hybrid between the two species, as it is apparently morphologically intermediate. These findings were unexpected, and other researchers requested further study to clarify the situation.

A 2015 study of mammoth molars confirmed that M. columbi evolved from Eurasian M. trogontherii, not M. meridionalis as had been suggested earlier, and noted that M. columbi and M. trogontherii were so similar in morphology that their classification as separate species may be questionable. The study also suggested that the animals in the range where M. columbi and M. primigenius overlapped formed a metapopulation of hybrids with varying morphology. In 2016, a genetic study of North American mammoth specimens confirmed that the mitochondrial diversity of M. columbi was nested within that of M. primigenius and suggested that both species interbred extensively, were both descended from M. trogontherii, and concluded that morphological differences between fossils may, therefore, not be reliable for determining taxonomy. The authors also questioned whether M. columbi and M. primigenius should be considered "good species", considering that they were able to interbreed after supposedly being separated for a million years, but cautioned that more specimens need to be sampled.

In 2021, DNA older than a million years was sequenced for the first time, from two steppe mammoth-like teeth of Early Pleistocene age found in eastern Siberia. One tooth from Adyocha (1-1.3 million years old) belonged to a lineage that was ancestral to later woolly mammoths, whereas the other from Krestovka (1.1–1.65 million years old) belonged to new lineage, possibly a distinct species, that is estimated to have split from the ancestors of woolly mammoths around 2.7-1.8 million years ago. The study found that a large proportion of the ancestry of Columbian mammoths came from the Krestovka lineage, which were probably representative of the first mammoths to have colonised North America, and another substantial contribution coming from early representatives of the woolly mammoth lineage, with the hybridisation between the two lineages likely happening at least 420,000 years ago, during the Middle Pleistocene, resulting in the Columbian mammoths of the Late Pleistocene having around 40-50% ancestry from the Krestovka lineage, and 50-60% related to woolly mammoths. Later woolly and Columbian mammoths also interbred occasionally, and mammoth species perhaps hybridized routinely when brought together by glacial expansion. The study also found that genetic adaptations to cold environments, such as hair growth and fat deposits, were already present in the steppe mammoth lineage, and was not unique to woolly mammoths.

Description
Larramendi 2016 estimated the average male Columbian mammoth to have had a shoulder height of 3.75 m and a weight of 9.5 t, though large males may have reached 4.2 m in shoulder height and 12.5 t in weight. It was about the same size or somewhat smaller than the earlier mammoth species M. meridionalis and M. trogontherii, but was larger than the modern African bush elephant]and the woolly mammoth, both of which reached about 2.67 to 3.49 m at the shoulder. Males were generally larger and more robust. The best indication of sex is the size of the pelvic girdle, since the opening that functions as the birth canal is always wider in females than in males. Like other mammoths, the Columbian mammoth had a high, single-domed head and a sloping back with a high shoulder hump; this shape resulted from the spinous processes (protrusions) of the back vertebrae decreasing in length from front to rear. Juveniles, though, had convex backs like Asian elephants. Other skeletal features include a short, deep rostrum (front part of the jaws), a rounded mandibular symphysis (where the two halves of the lower jaw connected) and the coronoid process of the mandible (upper protrusion of the jaw bone) extending above the molar surfaces.

Apart from its larger size and more primitive molars, the Columbian mammoth also differed from the woolly mammoth by its more downturned mandibular symphysis; the dental alveoli (tooth sockets) of the tusks were directed more laterally away from the midline. Its tail was intermediate in length between that of modern elephants and the woolly mammoth. Since no Columbian mammoth soft tissue has been found, much less is known about its appearance than that of the woolly mammoth. It lived in warmer habitats than the woolly mammoth, and probably lacked many of the adaptations seen in that species. Hair thought to be that of the Columbian mammoth has been discovered in Bechan Cave in Utah, where mammoth dung has also been found. Some of this hair is coarse, and identical to that known to belong to woolly mammoths; however, since this location is so far south, it is unlikely to be woolly mammoth hair. The distribution and density of fur on the living animal is unknown, but it was probably less dense than that of the woolly mammoth due to the warmer habitat. An additional tuft of Columbian mammoth hair is known from near Castroville in California, the hair was noted to be red-orange and was described as being similar in colour to a Golden Retriever.

Dentition
Columbian mammoths had very long tusks (modified incisor teeth), which were more curved than those of modern elephants. Their tusks are among the largest recorded in proboscideans, with some reaching over 4 m in length and 200 kg in weight, with some historical reports of tusks up to 4.88-5.1 m long and masses of around 230-250 kg. Columbian mammoth tusks were usually not much larger than those of woolly mammoths, which reached 4.2 m. The tusks of females were much smaller and thinner. About a quarter of the tusks' length was inside the sockets; they grew spirally in opposite directions from the base, curving until the tips pointed towards each other, and sometimes crossed. Most of their weight would have been close to the skull, with less torque than straight tusks would have generated. The tusks were usually asymmetrical, with considerable variation; some tusks curved down, instead of outwards, or were shorter due to breakage. Columbian mammoth tusks were generally less twisted than those of woolly mammoths. At six months of age, calves developed milk tusks a few cms long, which were replaced by permanent tusks a year later. Annual tusk growth of 2.5 – continued throughout life, slowing as the animal reached adulthood.

Columbian mammoths had four functional molar teeth at a time, two in the upper jaw and two in the lower. A mammoth's molars were replaced five times over the animal's lifetime, with a total of six succeeding molars on each half of the jaws. About 23 cm of the crown was within the jaw, and 2.5 cm was above. The teeth had separated ridges (lamellae) of enamel, which were covered in "prisms" directed towards the chewing surface. Wear-resistant, they were held together with cementum and dentin. The crowns of the lower jaw were pushed forward and up as they wore down, comparable to a conveyor belt. The first molars were about the size of those of a human, 1.3 cm; the third ones were 15 cm long, and the sixth ones were about 30 cm long and weighed 1.8 kg. With each replacement, the molars grew larger and gained more ridges; the number of plates varied between individuals. There was typically 18-21 ridges on each third molar, similar to those of M. trogontherii, but less than the 24-28 typical of woolly mammoths. Growing 18 cm of ridge took about 10.6 years.

Paleobiology
Like that of modern elephants, the mammoth's sensitive, muscular trunk was a limb-like organ with many functions. It was used for manipulating objects and social interaction. Although healthy adult mammoths could defend themselves from predators with their tusks, trunks, and size, juveniles and weakened adults were vulnerable to pack hunters such as wolves and big cats. Bones of juvenile Columbian mammoths, accumulated by Homotherium (the scimitar-toothed cat), have been found in Friesenhahn Cave in Texas. Tusks may have been used in intraspecies fighting for territory or mates and for display, to attract females and intimidate rivals. Two Columbian mammoths that died in Nebraska with tusks interlocked provide evidence of fighting behavior. The mammoths could use their tusks as weapons by thrusting, swiping, or crashing them down, and used them in pushing contests by interlocking them, which sometimes resulted in breakage. The tusks' curvature made them unsuitable for stabbing.

Migration
Although to what extent Columbian mammoths migrated is unclear, an isotope analysis of Blackwater Draw in New Mexico indicated that they spent part of the year in the Rocky Mountains, 200 km away. The study of tusk rings may aid further study of mammoth migration. On Goat Rock Beach in Sonoma Coast State Park, blueschist and chert outcrops (nicknamed "Mammoth Rocks") show evidence of having been rubbed by Columbian mammoths or mastodons. The rocks have polished areas 3 - 4 m above the ground, primarily near their edges, and are similar to African rubbing rocks used by elephants and other herbivores to rid themselves of mud and parasites. Similar rocks exist in Hueco Tanks, Texas, and on Cornudas Mountain in New Mexico. Mathematical modelling indicates that Columbian mammoths would have had to have been periodically on the move to avoid starvation, as prolonged stays in one area would rapidly exhaust the food resources necessary to sustain a population.

Social behavior
Like modern elephants, Columbian mammoths were probably social and lived in matriarchal (female-led) family groups; most of their other social behavior was also similar to that of modern elephants. This is supported by fossil assemblages such as the Dent site in Colorado and the Waco Mammoth National Monument in Waco, Texas, where groups consisting entirely of female and juvenile Columbian mammoths have been found (implying female-led family groups). The latter assemblage includes 22 skeletons, with 15 individuals representing a herd of females and juveniles that died in a single event. The herd was originally proposed to have been killed by a flash flood, and the arrangement of some of the skeletons suggests that the females may have formed a defensive ring around the juveniles. In 2016, the herd was suggested to have died by drought near a diminishing watering hole; scavenging traces on the bones contradict rapid burial, and the absence of calves and the large diversity of other animal species found gathered at the site support this scenario. Another group, consisting of a bull and six females, was found at the same site; although both groups died between 64,000 and 73,000 years ago, whether they died in the same event is unknown. At the Murray Springs Clovis Site in Arizona, where several Columbian mammoth skeletons have been excavated, a trackway similar to that left by modern elephants leads to one of the skeletons. The mammoth may have made the trackway before it died, or another individual may have approached the dead or dying animal—similar to the way modern elephants guard dead relatives for several days.

Accumulations of modern elephant remains have been called "elephants' graveyards", because these sites were erroneously thought to be where old elephants went to die. Similar accumulations of mammoth bones have been found; these are thought to be the result of individuals dying near or in rivers over thousands of years and their bones being accumulated by the water (such as in the Aucilla River in Florida), or animals dying after becoming mired in mud. Some accumulations are thought to be the remains of herds that died at the same time, perhaps due to flooding. Columbian mammoths are occasionally preserved in volcanic deposits such as those in Tocuila, Texcoco, Mexico, where a volcanic lahar mudflow covered at least seven individuals 12,500 years ago. How many mammoths lived at one location at a time is unknown, but the number likely varied by season and lifecycle. Modern elephants can form large herds, sometimes consisting of multiple family groups, and these herds can include thousands of animals migrating together. Mammoths may have formed large herds more often than modern elephants, since animals living in open areas are more likely to do this than those in forested areas.

Natural traps
Many specimens also accumulated in natural traps, such as sinkholes and tar pits. The Mammoth Site in Hot Springs, South Dakota, is a 26,000-year-old, roughly 40 m-long sinkhole that functioned for 300 to 700 years before filling with sediment. The site is the opposite scenario of that in Waco; all but one of the at least 55 skeletons—additional skeletons are excavated each year—are male, and accumulated over time rather than in a single event. Like modern male elephants, male mammoths primarily are assumed to have lived alone, to be more adventurous (especially young males), and to be more likely to encounter dangerous situations than the females. The mammoths may have been lured to the hole by warm water or vegetation near the edges, slipping in and drowning or starving. Isotope studies of growth rings have shown that most of the mammoths died during spring and summer, which may have correlated with vegetation near the sinkhole. One individual, nicknamed "Murray", lies on its side, and probably died in this pose while struggling to get free. Deep footprints of mammoths attempting to free themselves from the sinkhole's mud can be seen in vertically excavated sections of the site. Since the early 20th century, excavations at the La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles have yielded 100 t of fossils from 600 species of flora and fauna, including several Columbian mammoths. Many of the fossils are the remains of animals that became stuck in asphalt puddles that seeped to the surface of the pits, 40,000 to 11,500 years ago. Dust and leaves likely concealed the liquid asphalt, which then trapped unwary animals. Mired animals died from hunger or exhaustion; their corpses attracted predators, which sometimes became stuck, themselves. The fossil record of the tar pits is dominated by the remains of predators, such as large canids and felids. Fossils of different animals are found stuck together when they are excavated from the pits. The tar pits do not preserve soft tissue, and a 2014 study concluded that asphalt may degrade the DNA of animals mired in it after an attempt was made to extract DNA from a Columbian mammoth.

A site in an airport construction area in Mexico nicknamed "mammoth central" is believed to have been the boggy shores of an ancient lake bed where animals were trapped 10,0000 to 20,000 years ago. Human tools have been found at the site. It remains unclear whether the 200 Columbian mammoths found there died of natural causes and were then carved by humans. Some have hypothesized that humans drove the Columbian mammoths into the area to kill them. The site is only 12 mi from artificial pits which were once used by humans to trap and kill large mammals.

Diet
An adult Columbian mammoth would have needed more than 180 kg of food per day, and may have foraged for 20 hours a day. Mammoths chewed their food using their powerful jaw muscles to move the mandible forward and close the mouth, then backward while opening; the sharp enamel ridges thereby cut across each other, grinding the food. The ridges were wear-resistant, enabling the animal to chew large quantities of food that contained grit. The trunk could be used for pulling up large tufts of grass, picking buds and flowers, or tearing leaves and branches from trees and shrubs, and the tusks were used to dig up plants and strip bark from trees. Digging is indicated on preserved tusks by flat, polished sections of the surface that would have reached the ground. Isotope studies of Columbian mammoths from Mexico and the United States have shown that their diet varied by location, consisting of a mix of C3 (most plants) and C4 plants (such as grasses), and they were not restricted to grazing or browsing. Even individual Columbian mammoths from the same geographic location show major differences in dental mesowear, indicating extensive variation in dietary habits between different individuals within the same population.

Stomach contents from Columbian mammoths are rare, since no carcasses have been found, but plant remains were discovered between the pelvis and ribs of the "Huntington mammoth" when it was excavated in Utah. Microscopy showed that these chewed remains consisted of sedges, grasses, fir twigs and needles, oak, and maple. A large amount of mammoth dung has been found in two caves in Utah. The dry conditions and stable temperature of Bechan Cave (bechan is Navajo for "large faeces") has preserved 16,000- to 13,500-year-old elephant dung, most likely from Columbian mammoths. The dung consists of 95% grasses and sedges, and varies from 0 to 25% woody plants between dung boluses, including saltbush, sagebrush, water birch, and blue spruce. This is similar to the diet documented for the woolly mammoth, although browsing seems to have been more important for the Columbian mammoth. The cover of dung is 41 cm thick, and has a volume of 227 m³ (8,000 cubic ft), with the largest boluses 20 cm in diameter. The Bechan dung could have been produced by a small group of mammoths over a relatively short time, since adult African elephants drop an average of 11 kg of dung every two hours and 90 – each day.

Giant North American fruits of plants such as the Osage-orange, Kentucky coffeetree, pawpaw and honey locust have been proposed to have evolved in tandem with now-extinct American megafauna such as mammoths and other proboscideans, since no extant endemic herbivores are able to ingest these fruits and disperse their seeds. Introduced cattle and horses have since taken over this ecological role.

Life history
The lifespan of the Columbian mammoth is thought to have been about 80 years. The lifespan of a mammal is related to its size; Columbian mammoths are larger than modern elephants, which have a lifespan of about 60 years. The age of a mammoth can be roughly determined by counting the growth rings of its tusks when viewed in cross section. However, ring-counting does not account for a mammoth's early years; early growth is represented in tusk tips, which are usually worn away. In the remainder of the tusk, each major line represents a year, with weekly and daily lines found in between. Dark bands correspond to summer, making determining the season in which a mammoth died possible. Tusk growth slowed when foraging became more difficult, such as during illness or when a male mammoth was banished from the herd (male elephants live with their herds until about the age of 10).

Mammoths continued growing during adulthood, as do other elephants. Males grew until age 40, and females until age 25. Mammoths may have had gestation periods of 21–22 months, like those of modern elephants. Columbian mammoths had six sets of molars in the course of a lifetime. At 6–12 months, the second set of molars would erupt, with the first set worn out at 18 months of age. The third set of molars lasted for 10 years, and this process was repeated until the sixth set emerged at 30 years of age. When the last set of molars wore out, the animal would be unable to chew, and would die of starvation.

Almost all vertebrae of the "Huntington mammoth", a very aged specimen, were deformed by arthritic disease, and four of its lumbar vertebrae were fused; some bones also indicate bacterial infection, such as osteomyelitis. The condition of the bones suggests the specimen died of old age and malnutrition.

Distribution and habitat
Columbian mammoths inhabited much of North America, ranging from southern Canada to Central America (where it was largely confined to the vicinity of the Pacific coast), with its southernmost record being in northern Costa Rica. The environment in these areas may have had more varied habitats than those inhabited by woolly mammoths in the north (the mammoth steppe). Some areas were covered by grasses, herbaceous plants, trees, and shrubs; their composition varied from region to region, and included grassland, savanna, and aspen parkland habitats. Wooded areas also occurred; although mammoths would not have preferred forests, clearings in them could provide the animals with grasses and herbs.

The Columbian mammoth shared its habitat with other now-extinct Pleistocene mammals such as Glyptotherium, Smilodon, ground sloths, Camelops, mastodons, horses, and bison. It did not live in Arctic Canada or Alaska, which was inhabited by woolly mammoths. Fossils of woolly and Columbian mammoths have been found in the same place in a few areas of North America where their ranges overlapped, including the Hot Springs Site. Whether the two species were sympatric and lived there simultaneously, or if the woolly mammoths entered southern areas when Columbian mammoth populations were absent is unknown. The arrival of the Columbian mammoth in North America is thought to have resulted in the extinction of the grazing gomphothere Stegomastodon around 1.2 million years ago, as a result of competitive exclusion as a result of the greater grazing efficiency of Columbian mammoths, with competition with mammoths also suggested to be the reason for the contraction of the northern part of the range of the generalist gomphothere Cuvieronius.

Relationship with humans
Towards the end of the Late Pleistocene, around or after 16,000 years ago, Paleoindians entered the Americas through the Beringia landbridge, and evidence documents their interactions with Columbian mammoths. Tools made from Columbian mammoth remains have been discovered in several North American sites. At Tocuila, Mexico, mammoth bones were quarried 13,000 years ago to produce lithic flakes and cores. At the Lange-Ferguson Site in South Dakota, the remains of two mammoths were found with two 12,800-year-old cleaver choppers made from a mammoth shoulder blade; the choppers had been used to butcher the mammoths. At the same site, a flake knife made from a long mammoth bone was also found wedged against mammoth vertebrae. At Murray Springs, archeologists discovered a 13,100-year-old object made from a mammoth femur; the object is thought to be a shaft wrench, a tool for straightening wood and bone to make spear-shafts (the Inuit use similar tools).

Although some sites potentially documenting human interactions with Columbian mammoths have been reported from as early 20,000 years ago, these have been criticised, as they lack stone tools, and the supposed human-made marks on the bones are potentially the result of natural processes. Paleoindians of the Clovis culture, which arose roughly 13,000 years ago may have been the first humans to hunt mammoths extensively. These people are thought to have hunted Columbian mammoths with Clovis pointed spears which were thrown or thrust. Although Clovis points have been found with Columbian mammoth remains at several sites, archeologists disagree about whether the finds represent hunting, scavenging dead mammoths, or are coincidental. A female mammoth at the Naco-Mammoth Kill Site in Arizona, found with eight Clovis points near its skull, shoulder blade, ribs, and other bones, is considered the most convincing evidence for hunting. In modern experiments, replica spears have been able to penetrate the rib cages of African elephants with reuse causing little damage to the points.

Other sites show more circumstantial evidence of mammoth hunting, such as piled bones bearing butcher marks. Some of these sites are not closely associated with Clovis points. The Dent site (the first evidence of mammoth hunting in North America, discovered in 1932) and the Lehner Mammoth-Kill Site, where multiple juvenile and adult mammoths have been found with butcher marks and in association with Clovis points, were once interpreted as the killing of entire herds by Clovis hunters. However, isotope studies have shown that the accumulations represent individual deaths at different seasons of the year, so are not herds killed in single incidents. Many other such assemblages of bones with butcher marks may also represent accumulations over time, so are ambiguous as evidence for large-scale hunting.

A 2021 article by the American paleontologist Metin I. Eren and colleagues suggested mammoths were not very susceptible to Clovis point weapons due to their thick skin, hair, muscles, ribs, and fat, which would have impeded most types of attacks humans could pull off at that time. Experiments wherein most spear points used to calculate their effectiveness against simulated mammoth skin shattered on impact rather than penetrating, suggested to these researchers that ancient humans probably preferred to scavenge mammoth carcasses for their meat and other resources and threw spears to drive other scavengers away from carcasses before butchering the corpse with their stone tools. While the study does not rule out the hunting of mammoths by early humans, it instead indicates that such an event was probably rare and potentially more dangerous and less rewarding than scavenging. In response, other scientists found no reason to abandon the traditional idea that Clovis points were used to hunt big-game, one suggesting that such spears could have been thrown or thrust at areas of the torso that were not protected by ribs, with the wounds not killing the mammoths instantly, but the hunters could follow their prey until it had bled to death.

Petroglyphs in the Colorado Plateau have been interpreted as depictions of either Columbian mammoths or mastodons. A bone fragment from Vero Beach, Florida, estimated to be 13,000-years old and possibly the earliest known example of art in the Americas, is engraved with either a mammoth or a mastodon. While the authenticity of this depiction is based on continuity of mineralisation across the markings, other possible indicators are inconclusive at present. Petroglyphs from the San Juan River in Utah have been suggested to be 11,000–13,000-years old and to include depictions of two Columbian mammoths; the mammoths' domed heads distinguish them from mastodons. They are also shown with two "fingers" on their trunks, a feature known from European depictions of mammoths. The tusks are short, which may indicate they are meant to be females. A carving of a bison (possibly the extinct Bison antiquus) is superimposed on one of the mammoth carvings and may be a later addition. Geological dating of the San Juan River depictions in 2013 have shown them to be less than 4000 years old, after mammoths and mastodons went extinct, and they may instead be an arrangement of unrelated elements. Other possible depictions of Columbian mammoths have been shown to be either misinterpretations or fraudulent.

The Columbian mammoth is the state fossil of Washington and South Carolina. Nebraska's state fossil is "Archie", a Columbian mammoth specimen found in the state in 1922. "Archie" is currently on display at Elephant Hall in Lincoln, Nebraska, and is the largest mounted mammoth specimen in the United States.

Extinction
Columbian and woolly mammoths both disappeared from mainland North America by the latest Pleistocene, with no recorded Holocene survival, alongside most other latest Pleistocene megafauna of North America. The latest calibrated radiocarbon date of the Columbian mammoth is in the locality of the Dent site in Colorado which dates to 12,124–12,705 years Before Present, during the onset of the Younger Dryas cold phase (12,900-11,700 years BP) and Clovis culture (13,200-12,800 years BP). Its younger calibrated date compared to most other extinct latest Pleistocene species suggests that it was one of the last North American megafauna to have gone extinct. Amongst the most recent Columbian mammoth remains have been dated around 10,900 years ago, although the date is uncalibrated and therefore is actually older in age. This extinction formed part of the Late Pleistocene extinctions of North America, which coincided with both Clovis culture and the Younger Dryas. Scientists do not know whether these extinctions happened abruptly or were drawn out. During this period, 40 mammal species disappeared from North America, almost all of which weighed over 40 kg; the extinction of the mammoths cannot be explained in isolation.

Scientists are divided over whether climate change, hunting, or a combination of the two, drove the extinction of the Columbian mammoths. According to the climate-change hypothesis, warmer weather led to the shrinking of suitable habitat for Columbian mammoths, which turned from parkland to forest, grassland, and semidesert, with less diverse vegetation. The "overkill hypothesis" attributes the extinction to hunting by humans, an idea first proposed by geoscientist Paul S. Martin in 1967; more recent research on this subject has varied in conclusions.

A 2002 study concluded that the archeological record did not support the "overkill hypothesis", given that only 14 Clovis sites (12 with mammoth remains and two with mastodon remains) out of 76 examined provided strong evidence of hunting. In contrast, a 2007 study found that the Clovis record indicated the highest frequency of prehistoric exploitation of proboscideans for subsistence in the world, and supported the "overkill hypothesis". A 2019 study that used mathematical modelling to simulate correlations between migrations of humans and Columbian mammoths also supported the "overkill hypothesis". Whatever the actual cause of extinction, large mammals are generally more susceptible to hunting pressure than smaller ones due to their smaller population size and low reproduction rates. On the other hand, large mammals are generally less vulnerable to climatic stresses since they have greater fat deposits at their disposal and can migrate long distances to escape food shortages.

title: Columbian mammoth


text:
Talk:Cordwainer Smith

religion
I have restored the previous version of the Science fiction writing section and placed the new content here. Many strange and unsupported claims were made by anonymous user 161.65.16.253, for example that Linebarger based the Instrumentality on the Episcopalian faith, a faith he converted to when he remarried in 1950 (his second wife was Catholic, and was unable to marry a divorced man and remain a Catholic, so they both converted, him from Protestantism of some stripe, her from the Catholic faith.) Ken 15:06, July 20, 2005 (UTC)
 * I now strike thru (as part of my restoration of the original context) the immediately preceding retrospective sig, by an editor who did not contribute the material it applied to. (It was added, 13:52, 26 July 2005, by the 3rd talk editor, obviously to ameliorate confusion created by the 2nd talk editor's insertion of their own comment (which i also have relocated), within the text contributed by the 1st talk editor). --Jerzy•t 06:27, 24 October 2011 (UTC)

I would like to see some references for these assertions before they are re-inserted into the main article. -- Ken 15:06, July 20, 2005 (UTC) relocating it within in this talk page, to lie within this contribution of my own, between the end of this sentence and my sig, and (at the cost of not displaying the heading in its original form, but for the sake of the overall clarity of this talk page) also disabling display of the heading markup''
 * Please note that by "placed the new content here" Ken meant that he removed the IP's version to this talk page -- in contrast to the frequent use of "here" to mean "in the accompanying article". He placed it elsewhere on this talk page, and included article-page section heading, so (intended or not) it became a separate section (a section immediately following this one). I have modified what Ken moved from article to talk, by
 * '' placing a box around it to identify it as formal former article content, not discussion per se,
 * so that it is entirely within both this section and the range of this signed contrib.

== Science fiction writing == Linebarger's stories are strange even by the standards of science fiction, sometimes written in narrative styles closer to traditional Chinese stories than to most English-language fiction. His science fiction is relatively small in volume, due to his time-consuming profession (he worked in the intelligence community, and as a college professor), and his early death. Rather than a full fledged cycle like Dune, Smith's writings consist of only one novel, originally published in two volumes in edited form as The Planet Buyer, a.k.a. The Boy Who Bought Old Earth, (1964) and The Underpeople (1968), later restored to its original form as Norstrilia (1975); and around 30 short stories (gathered in The Rediscovery of Man and other collections), together suggesting a rich universe, but leaving much to be guessed by the reader. The cultural links to China were partially expressed in the Felix C. Forrest pseudonym, as the ideograms for "Linebarger" in Chinese roughly translate as "Forest of Incandescent Bliss".

As an expert in psychological warfare, Linebarger was very interested in the then-newly developing fields of psychology and psychiatry and inserted many of their ideas into his fiction. Also, his fiction often has religious overtones or motifs, in particular in characters who have no control of their actions. This has led to suggestions that Linebarger was personally religious, which are refuted by Linebarger's daughter. Regardless, Linebarger's works are sometimes included in analyses of Christianity in fiction, along with the works of authors such as C.S. Lewis and J.R.R. Tolkien.

The bulk of his stories are set some 14,000 years in the future, starting on Earth. The Instrumentality of Mankind rules the planet and any planet later inhabited by humanity. The Instrumentality is derived as a concept from the Episcopalian faith, where they are elders who cannot be questioned, while holding themselves accountable. The Instrumentality describes itself as The Oldest Servat of Mankind, and concerns itslef with ruthelessly enforcing happiness. The brutal lessons of past wars (the era of the Manshonyagger, as described obliquely in War No. 81-Q, a mispronunciation of Menschenjaeger, the german form man hunter, today best described as being like James Cameron's Terminator robots in the films of the same name), and the ruin of the old civilisation have forced them to prevent the possiblity of war by nipping it in the bud - no money, free food, perfect health, a set lifespan of 400 years; However, news, gossip and free thought ar expressly forbidden, happiness is assured, and by the era of D'Joan (The Dead Lady of Clown Town), full humans were already genetically programmed, and were prcatically slaves of the same form as the Underpeople that they despised universally. Christianity is forbidden for the same reason : the prevention of war. the Trinity are described in secret as The First Forbidden One, The Second Forbidden One and the Third Forbidden One, and ironically the last faihful are the Underpeople themselves. Revelation of God ha come back to meta-humankind in the most unusual manner - the revelation of a Rat, Robot and revived ancient Coptic Christian.

The Instrumnetality has a rival, the Bright Empire, who despite their name, are practically a mirror image of themselves - Linebarger's comment on the Cold War, explored in A Planet named Shayol, and Golden the Ship Was, Oh, Oh, Oh

Colonisation, in echo of James Blish's pantropy stories, has modified humans against their will to different planetary environments. True humans are only so if born on Old Earth. All others are hominids, even those who are born on Old Earth (the Lord Jestocost, 72nd descendant of the Lady Goroke, is described as a hominid in the Ballad of C'Mell, thanks to his 72nd grandmother having come from III Delta Pavonis, rather than Old Earth)

The Instrumentality attempts to revive old cultures and languages in a process known as the Rediscovery of Man. The Lady Alice More, together with the Lord Jestocost is responsible for this movement. Further, the Lady Alice More was made a Lord of the Instrumentality after witnessing an act of extreme barbarism brought about by the hoplessness of the enforced utopia, and here strong will was not unnaturally harnessed to prevent further incidents of this nature (as told in Under Old Earth, were the concept of the fun-death has entered the society, a comment on hippy culture when without any form of expression, could have become self-destructive)

This rediscovery can be seen either as the initial period when humankind emerges from a mundane utopia and the nonhuman underpeople gain freedom from slavery, or as a continuing process begun by the Instrumentality, encompassing the whole cycle, where mankind is constantly at risk of falling back to its bad, old ways.

Linebarger's stories feature strange and vivid creations, such as:
 * Planet Norstrilia, a semi-arid planet where an immortality drug is harvested from gigantic (over one hundred tons) virus-infected sheep (see the worms of Arrakis and melange for similar concepts).
 * The punishment world of Shayol (cf. Sheol), where criminals are punished by the regrowth and harvesting of their organs for transplanting.
 * Technologies associated with spacetravel that are all highly unpleasant, before the age of planoforming : adiabatic pods to be towed behind solar sail-ships; Scunning, where human beings are disassembled, put into suspended animation by pickling and re-assembled at their destination.
 * Planoforming spacecraft crewed by humans telepathically linked with cats which defend against the attacks of unknown malevolent entities in space with the flash of small atomic weapons (these entities are perceived by humans as dragons, and by cats as gigantic rats).
 * The Underpeople, animals modified during gestation into human form to fulfill servile roles, and treated as property. Several stories feature clandestine efforts to liberate the underpeople and grant them equal rights to humans. They are seen everywhere throughout regions controlled by the Instrumentality.
 * Habermen and their supervisors, Scanners, whose spinal cords have been cut to block the "pain of space", and who perceive only by vision and various life-support implants. Other modes of perception can be temporarily restored to scanners by "cranching".

 * --Jerzy•t 06:27 & 07:59, 24 October 2011 (UTC)

--Jerzy•t 06:27, 24 October 2011 (UTC) '' --Jerzy•t 06:27, 24 October 2011 (UTC) ''
 * The above box includes a broken-formatted 'graph, which without its initial blank would read conveniently as
 * The Instrumentality attempts to revive old cultures and languages in a process known as the Rediscovery of Man. The Lady Alice More, together with the Lord Jestocost is responsible for this movement. Further, the Lady Alice More was made a Lord of the Instrumentality after witnessing an act of extreme barbarism brought about by the hoplessness of the enforced utopia, and here strong will was not unnaturally harnessed to prevent further incidents of this nature (as told in Under Old Earth, were the concept of the fun-death has entered the society, a comment on hippy culture when without any form of expression, could have become self-destructive)
 * --Jerzy•t 07:59, 24 October 2011 (UTC)
 * Part of it was a loose and sloppy paraphrase of the introduction to the old Ballantine paperback "The Best of Cordwainer Smith", by J.J. Pierce. -- 08:38, 22 August 2005 AnonMoos
 * I agree* that it makes sense, but Ken is right in asking for references, especially as it has been challenged. The Ballantine paperback mentioned in the unattributed comment below† would be appropriate.  - BanyanTree 22:28, 6 January 2006 (UTC)
 * * ''Who BanyanTree "agree[s]" with, based on careful review of the confusing talk edits, would be the contributor (described by Ken as a specific IP) of the removed article passage (exhibited in the box above.)
 * † BanyanTree would have had occasion to say "just above", rather than "below", but for the misplacement of a previous comment, which (as a result of my best effort at minimizing the confusion) is no longer below theirs. Banyan means the formerly unattrib comment, now attributed to AnonMoos, which now immediately'' precedes Banyan's comment (and may long continue -- never say "forever" -- to do so).
 * It is valid, I think, to see him as a Christian author. I went to Cordwainersmith.com, the site ran by his daughter, and I don't think she ever disputed that he was Christian or that it influenced his writing. What she disputed, as I recall, was the idea that he was religious when he was younger or even when he wrote Scanners live in Vain. When he did Scanners live in Vain, 1949, he had not married Genevieve so was not even Episcopalian yet. He also did stories from a variety of faith perspectives, including Buddhism, thoughout the 1950s.(The Fife of Boddhidharma being done in 1959) There's also reason to doubt he was loyal to anyone denomination as he seemed to have considered Quakerism, Copticism, and somewhat irreverently asked for Marian intercession in Mexico as it was "her land." Still I think it's fair to say that by the 1960s he was a fairly committed Christian even if he wasn't specific, or humorless, on what kind of Christianity. What I read of the Far Eastern government books I think he was fairly Christian by 1956 as it indicates some fondness for the fact the Taiping in least tried to be Christians. Although that could've been his co-authors doing, in his last years his series gets pretty specifically Christian with On the Storm Planet(written a year before his death) talking about Christianity as the best hope for that future.--T. Anthony 21:59, 6 January 2006 (UTC)

(Re post-removal comments on, and changes to, the removed text)
The following two from 2006 comments were inserted inside the text that is now inside the box in this subsection's parent section, between its first two 'graphs, apparently as comments on the content of that 'graph.--Jerzy•t 06:27 & 07:59, 24 October 2011 (UTC)

--Jerzy•t 06:27, 24 October 2011 (UTC)
 * You seem to have forgotten about Atomsk in your list of novels. --maru (talk) Contribs 22:14, 6 January 2006 (UTC)
 * In the same edit, Marudubshinki also became the first of three editors to change the removed content; details in my succeeding contrib to this section, with identical timestamp.

 * It's mentioned in the lead, but is not described as science fiction. - BanyanTree 22:19, 6 January 2006 (UTC)

Several colleagues made minor changes to the content of what Kenwarren had purported as duplicating the text he had removed from the article. (I have reverted that text to its form when he saved it at 15:06, July 20, 2005 (UTC)). Those changes were: --Jerzy•t 06:27 & 07:59, 24 October 2011 (UTC)
 * 1) As noted above, at 22:53, 23 October 2011 (UTC), Marudubshinki, respelling "Instrumnetality"
 * 2) In an unsigned contrib at 01:28, 22 November 2005, removing a leading blank which had broken the formatting of one 'graph (It rendered the 'graph as a single line much wider than plausible windows; see my note immediately below the box for the reasonably formatted version.) and respelling "Servat" (within the phrase "The Oldest Servat of Mankind") in the next graph.
 * 3) At 15:51, 10 February 2009, タチコマ robot replacing a bare wiki-link for "melange" with the Dab'd & piped link Melange

Cause of Death
The article mentions several times that he died young, but not once mentions the cause of death. What did he die of? ~IMP - 5 December 2006

What is Missing in the Life section
There's no mention of how Linebarger got involved with the science-fiction world, how he became a writer, where he published his fiction, etc. Surely something should be added about this. The part called "Science-fiction" is good, but it describes what you may find in his stories and novel, it doesn't provide an outline of his career as a pro writer.--93.40.110.126 (talk) 18:43, 25 June 2010 (UTC)
 * He was an amateur. During his writing career, he was very secretive. Few details exist. If someone did start adding a bunch of bio stuff, I would be skeptical of it. Modinyr (talk) 00:04, 1 November 2011 (UTC)

Word meanings
Do we really need the definitions of cordwainer and smith, especially in the intro? Did Linebarger ever state there was some significance in his choice of pen name? Clarityfiend (talk) 05:55, 24 October 2011 (UTC)

Regarding the choice of Cordwainer Smith as a pseudonym, I wanted to draw attention to the historical character of John Smith, British navigator from the 17th century who, more to the point, in 1606 led 3 ships (one of them called Discovery) to the Eastern coast of America and became the leader of the first Virginia colony in Jamestown (see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Smith_(explorer)). His statue can be seen in London, UK, on Bowchurch Yard, and reads the following: "JOHN SMITH, Cordwainer". I am aware that I do not have hard evidence to sustain this possible link between Linebarger's pseudonym and Captain John Smith — Preceding unsigned comment added by Fxsmeets (talk • contribs) 15:07, 4 December 2012 (UTC)

 * The name "Smith" is so common in English-speaking societies that it's bound to rub against almost any other English word sooner or later. Without a source, this is WP:OR... AnonMoos (talk) 22:57, 4 December 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
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mother
There is no mention of his mother. I understand: hr was not forthcoming, but he certainly looks oriental in the photo, and his father and he have very Anglo-Euro names. Anyone know? rags (talk) 18:22, 19 December 2018 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Cordwainer Smith


text:
Nikolai Ishutin

Nikolai Andreyevich Ishutin (Николай Андреевич Ишутин; 15 April [O.S. 3 April] 1840 – 17 January [O.S. 5 January] 1879) was one of the first Russian utopian socialists, who combined socialist propaganda with conspiratorial and terrorist tactics.

Biography
Ishutin was a hereditary noble in his hometown of Serdobsk. He was raised in Penza by the family of his cousin Dmitry Karakozov. In 1863, he became a lecturer at Moscow State University, where he propagandized among the students. That same year Ishutin organized a secret revolutionary society, which would come to be known as the Ishutin Society. On April 8, 1866, he was arrested in connection with his cousin Karakozov's assassination attempt on Tsar Alexander II. The Supreme Criminal Court sentenced Ishutin to death by hanging, which was commuted to exile for life shortly before his scheduled execution. Ishutin was placed in solitary confinement in Shlisselburg Fortress until May 1868, when he was transferred, mentally ill, to Algachi prison in Eastern Siberia. In 1871, Ishutin's place of exile was changed to Nerchinsk and, in 1875, to Kara katorga, where he died in 1879.

title: Nikolai Ishutin


text: User talk:69.76.25.117

title: User talk:69.76.25.117


text:
List of storms named Adrian

The name Adrian has been used for eight tropical cyclones in the Eastern Pacific Ocean.
 * Tropical Storm Adrian (1981), remained off the coast of Mexico
 * Tropical Storm Adrian (1987), looped off the coast of Mexico
 * Hurricane Adrian (1993), a Category 1 hurricane, remained well out to sea
 * Hurricane Adrian (1999), a Category 2 hurricane, remained off the coast of Mexico
 * Hurricane Adrian (2005), a Category 1 hurricane that made landfall in Central America
 * Hurricane Adrian (2011), a strong Category 4 hurricane that passed to the south of the coast of Mexico
 * Tropical Storm Adrian (2017), formed southeast of the Gulf of Tehuantepec and remained offshore
 * Hurricane Adrian (2023), a Category 2 hurricane that remained in the open ocean

title: List of storms named Adrian


text:
Talk:Estienne de La Roche

Fact checking & edits needed
This page was difficult to copyedit, due to what appeared to be an autotranslation (judging by the sort of errors that occurred). I've corrected what I could and looked at the French language page for information, but I know nothing about this person, so someone familiar with La Roche and the controversy regarding his book should take a look at this. I may have created some errors by guessing wrong on the peculiar English. I'd be happy to work with a French speaker on improving this article to make the translation smoother. Deirdre 15:08, 20 July 2005 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one WikiProject had rated the article as start, and the rating on other projects was brought up to start class. BetacommandBot 14:25, 10 November 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Estienne de La Roche


text:
FC Tobol

FC Tobol (Тобыл футбол клубы, Tobyl Fýtbol Klýby) is a Kazakh professional football club based at the Central Stadium in Kostanay. They have been members of the Kazakhstan Premier League since its foundation in 1992. In 2007 they won UEFA Intertoto Cup. They won the Kazakhstan Premier League in 2010, and finished no lower than fourth place between the 2002 and 2010 seasons. In 2021 they won the title for the second time.

History
Following a surprise defeat to Kyzylzhar in the 2016 Kazakhstan Cup, manager Dmitriy Ogai left the club by mutual consent, with Oleg Lotov being appointed as interim manager on 30 April 2016. Lotov was replaced with Omari Tetradze as the club's manager on 30 May 2016.

Prior to the start of the season, Vladimir Nikitenko was appointed as Tobol's manager following the expiration of Robert Yevdokimov's contract. On 1 August, Vladimir Nikitenko resigned as manager after Tobol were eliminated from the Europa League. Andrei Miroshnichenko was appointed as Caretaker manager before Marek Zub was announced as Tobol's new manager on 6 August 2018. On 31 December 2018, Zub left Tobol after his contract wasn't renewed, and Vladimir Gazzayev was appointed as the club's new manager. Gazzayev resigned as manager on 21 July 2019 after Tobol were eliminated from the 2019–20 UEFA Europa League by Jeunesse Esch.

On 14 December 2019, Grigori Babayan was appointed as manager of FC Tobol. On 17 June 2021, Babayan left his role as Head Coach by mutual consent to take up a coaching role at CSKA Moscow. The following day, 18 June 2021, Alexander Moskalenko has appointed as Acting Head Coach. On 16 May 2022, Moskalenko left his role at Tobol, with Milan Milanović being appointed as the clubs new Head Coach on 20 May 2022.

On 10 January 2023, Milić Ćurčić was appointed as the new Head Coach of Tobol.

In July 2023 Andrei Kanchelskis was appointed General Director of Tobol.

Names

 * 1967 : Founded as Avtomobilist
 * 1982 : Renamed Energetik
 * 1990 : Renamed Kustanayets
 * 1992 : Renamed Khimik
 * 1995 : Renamed Tobol

Continental history
In their first European appearance, Tobol reached the third round of the 2003 Intertoto Cup. They beat Polonia Warszawa and Sint-Truiden, and lost to SV Pasching. In UEFA Cup 2006-07 FC Basel were hard nuts to crack for Tobol. They won the Intertoto Cup 2007, defeating FC Zestafoni, Slovan Liberec and OFI Crete and advanced to 2nd qualifying round of UEFA Cup 2007-08.

Legend: GF = Goals For. GA = Goals Against. GD = Goal Difference.

Honours

 * Kazakhstan Premier League
 * Winners (2): 2010, 2021
 * Kazakhstan Cup
 * Winners (2): 2007, 2023
 * Kazakhstan Super Cup
 * Winners (3): 2021, 2022, 2024
 * UEFA Intertoto Cup
 * Winners (1): 2007 (Joint Winner)

Managers

 * 🇺🇦 Mykhaylo Olefirenko (2002)
 * 🇷🇺 Vladimir Mukhanov (2003–04)
 * 🇰🇿 Dmitriy Ogai (1 January 2005 – 31 December 2009)
 * 🇷🇺 Ravil Sabitov (3 December 2009 – 22 May 2011)
 * 🇷🇺 Sergei Petrenko (1 June 2011 – 19 September 2011)
 * 🇺🇦 Vyacheslav Hroznyi (12 December 2011 – 31 December 2012)
 * 🇰🇿 Timur Urazov (1 January 2013 – 31 December 2013)
 * 🇰🇿 Sergei Maslenov (1 January 2014 – 22 April 2014)
 * 🇦🇲 Vardan Minasyan (23 April 2014 – 16 April 2015)
 * 🇰🇿 Sergei Maslenov (16 April 2015 – December 2015)
 * 🇰🇿 Dmitriy Ogai (21 December 2015 – 28 April 2016)
 * 🇰🇿 Oleg Lotov (Interim) (30 April 2016 – 30 May 2016)
 * 🇷🇺 Omari Tetradze (30 May 2016 – 27 June 2017)
 * 🇷🇺 Robert Yevdokimov (7 July 2017 – 25 December 2017)
 * 🇰🇿 Vladimir Nikitenko (January 2018 – 1 August 2018)
 * 🇰🇿 Andrei Miroshnichenko (Caretaker)(1–6 August 2018)
 * 🇵🇱 Marek Zub (6 August 2018 – 31 December 2018)
 * 🇷🇺 Vladimir Gazzayev (31 December 2018 – 21 July 2019 )
 * 🇰🇿 Nurbol Zhumaskaliyev (Caretaker) (22 July – 14 December 2019)
 * 🇰🇿 Grigori Babayan (14 December 2019 - 17 June 2021)
 * 🇰🇿 Alexander Moskalenko (Caretaker) (18 June 2021 – 16 May 2022)
 * 🇷🇸 Milan Milanović (20 May 2022 – 24 December 2022)
 * 🇷🇸 Milić Ćurčić (10 January 2023 – present)

title: FC Tobol


text:
Talk:Paul McGrath/to do

 * Mention alcoholism and WC 2002 commentary job

title: Talk:Paul McGrath/to do


text:
Bob Goen

Robert Kuehl Goen (born December 1, 1954) is an American game show emcee and television personality, best known for his work on Entertainment Tonight between 1993 and 2004 and as the fourth and final host of the daytime Wheel of Fortune from 1989 to 1991.

Early life and career
Goen was born in Long Beach, California, but was raised in the Los Angeles suburb of Lakewood. In a 2009 interview at the Game Show Awards Red Carpet, he stated when he was 5, he always dreamed of becoming a game show host, with the encouragement of Bob Barker, Bill Cullen, Bob Eubanks, Tom Kennedy, Geoff Edwards, Wink Martindale, Monty Hall, among many others, and his dream came true as a young adult. Goen graduated from Lakewood High School in 1972, and from San Diego State University in 1976 with a degree in telecommunications and film. In 1977, he used his college radio experience to land a part-time job at KFOX radio in his native Long Beach, which led to his first full-time job as a disc jockey/producer for KPRO in Riverside, where he was promoted to work as a director. In 1981, he came to television, becoming a sports anchor at KESQ-TV, the ABC affiliate in Palm Springs.

Career
In the early 1980s he served as ESPN's desert-area correspondent. After almost four years in that role, he came to Hollywood, where he has hosted several game shows, including Perfect Match (syndicated, 1986), Home Shopping Game with co-host Bob Circosta (syndicated, 1987), Blackout (CBS, 1988), The Hollywood Game (CBS, 1992), Born Lucky (Lifetime Television, 1992) and That's the Question (GSN, 2006–2007), which was based on a format from the Netherlands. His greatest success in this area came as the final host of the daytime network version of Wheel of Fortune (CBS, 1989–1991; NBC, 1991).

He had a small role in the opening of the 1988 series premiere episode of Freddy's Nightmares: A Nightmare On Elm Street: The Series, "No More Mr. Nice Guy", as a nightly news anchorman and on-scene reporter at the Springwood Municipal Courthouse for the pre-trial hearing of accused mass-murderer Fred Krueger.

He served as host for the "Name That Tune" video game released for the Philips CD-i in 1993.

He also hosted several Miss Universe pageants in 1994 (Manila, Philippines), 1995 (Windhoek, Namibia), and 1996 (Las Vegas, Nevada).

Goen also hosts the annual AKC National Championship, broadcast on Animal Planet and other channels owned by Discovery Communications.

Goen was co-host of GSN Radio with Marianne Curan, his wife. The show debuted on August 18, 2008, and aired its last episode on November 13, 2009. He and Curan moved to Cincinnati, Ohio in 2012 to work at Warm 98.

Goen has hosted live traveling versions of Family Feud and The Price Is Right. In 2012, he hosted The Price is Right LIVE in Branson, MO.

Goen has hosted a locally produced version of Let's Ask America called Let's Ask Cincinnati for Scipps' WCPO-TV in Cincinnati, Ohio featuring local Cincinnati celebrities and personalities playing for local charities in 2014.

Entertainment Tonight
On April 12, 1993, he joined Entertainment Tonight as a substitute anchor and a reporter. When John Tesh left ET on May 30, 1996, to pursue his music career, Goen was promoted to nightly anchor alongside Mary Hart.

Between 1994 and 1996, he hosted the worldwide telecasts of Miss Universe, Miss USA and Miss Teen USA Pageants, all for CBS, replacing Dick Clark.

As ET host, he made guest appearances on two separate movies in 1999. On September 11, 2001, he covered the attacks on the World Trade Center. In 2003, he interviewed Suzanne Somers about the death of actor John Ritter.

In April 2005, Goen voiced a cartoon version of himself on an episode The Fairly OddParents. Goen, playing a character named Bob Glimmer, appeared with Mary Hart (whose character was named "Fairy Hart") as anchors of a show named Fairytainment Tonight. Goen also appeared as an interviewee on a 1997 episode of the cartoon mock-talk show Space Ghost Coast to Coast.

Personal life
In August 2004, after 11 years of serving as ET anchor, he left to spend more time with his new wife and to pursue other projects. Mark Steines succeeded him.

Goen was married to Sabrina in 1988, and in 1994, had a son, Max. Max is the host of "The GoenLive Podcast." The couple divorced in 1997. In 2004, he married fellow television personality Marianne Curan.

In his spare time, Goen does annual charity work for his golfing tournament, The Bob Goen Lexus Invitational, which benefits the Make-A-Wish Foundation.

title: Bob Goen