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WCAP (AM)

WCAP (980 AM) is a radio station licensed to serve Lowell, Massachusetts, United States. The station is owned by Sam Poulten through the holding company Merrimack Valley Radio, LLC. The station's studios are located on Market Street in Lowell.

History
WCAP began commercial broadcasting in 1951 after a five-year licensing odyssey that saw the station's city of license, proposed hours of operation, output power and call letters changed at various points during the proceedings.

Station head Israel "Ike" Cohen established Northeast Radio Inc. in 1946. He sought a license at 1210 kHz in Lawrence and was granted the call letters WABW. However, when the call letters WCAP became available, Cohen took those calls, and later won approval to amend his application to seek 980 kHz, which was ultimately granted a construction permit in the spring of 1949 as part of a regional arrangement under which the Brockton Enterprise won approval to increase the power of its WBET from 250 to 1,000 watts at 990 kHz (the station later moved to 1460 to add nighttime service), and a mutually exclusive application for 980 in Newport, Rhode Island, was denied and dismissed for reasons including lack of candor on the part of that applicant. When the family that owned the Lawrence Daily Eagle and Evening Tribune newspapers appeared poised to win approval for an upgrade of its station, WLAW, to 50 kW on 680 kHz (now occupied by WRKO), Cohen sought and received approval to move the station license from Lawrence to Lowell, which at the time was home to only a 250-watt station, WLLH.

The original investors in WCAP were Cohen and his brothers Theodore and Maurice, each with 20%, Ray Goulding, of Bob and Ray fame, and his brother Philip, an announcer at WMGM in New York City, where Israel Cohen worked as an engineer, each with 5% and engineer Ralph Floyd, 30%. Ray Goulding was station manager and Phillip Goulding served as program director. Ray hosted occasional afternoon programs. Ray Goulding was active in working to get the station on the air, appearing at a meeting of the Lowell Planning Board to advance an argument in favor of a transmitter and studio location that was rejected. The Gouldings were ousted from their positions in a stockholders meeting on September 10, 1951, three months after the station went on the air. Phillip Goulding was quoted by the Lowell Sun newspaper of September 11, 1951, as saying the ousters came as a shock, and the brothers planned to contest it, however they sold their interest in the station to the Cohen brothers. The newspaper reported that the day following the firing of the Gouldings, the daytime-only station signed on two hours late as employees staged a sick-out. Ray, who had been born in Lowell, pulled the first air shift on WCAP, and Ike Cohen kept a signed copy of the program log in his office for the rest of his life. It was Goulding's first on-air appearance on a Lowell station under his real name; he had previously worked at WLLH as Dennis Howard, taking the air name to avoid confusion with Phillip, who was an established news announcer in Boston at the time.

The station was the third to bear the call letters WCAP; the original sign-on for both of the others, in Asbury Park, New Jersey (now WOBM), and in Washington D.C. (now defunct) were voiced by sportscaster Ted Husing. Israel Cohen, at the time a broadcast engineer at WMGM in New York, secured Husing's services for the third WCAP sign-on.

Israel Cohen ran the station until his death in 1994 and was succeeded by his brother Maurice. A deal to sell the station was made in August 2007, approved by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) on September 25, 2007, and the transaction was consummated on November 21, 2007. The station is now owned by Merrimack Valley Radio, LLC.

In early 2011, the two primary partners in the station, Clark Smidt and Sam Poulten, were involved in a legal dispute over operation of the station, with both claiming that the other partner put WCAP in financial danger. The dispute ended on June 28, when Poulten agreed to purchase Smidt's 55-percent stake in the station, giving him full ownership.

After having operated from studios on Central Street in Lowell since its 1951 sign-on, WCAP moved to a street-level studio on Market Street in 2019.

Programming
During the week, WCAP broadcasts a news/talk radio format including both local talk programs and the nationally syndicated progressive talk shows The Thom Hartmann Program and The Stephanie Miller Show. WCAP also airs simulcasts of the morning and evening newscasts from WCVB-TV. Nights and weekends, the station broadcasts an oldies format called "Beatles & Before". WCAP's seasonal programming also includes live broadcasts of high school football and basketball matchups, and UMass Lowell River Hawks hockey.

WCAP carried the Lowell Lock Monsters and Lowell Devils hockey teams from the franchise's inception in 1998 until 2009, when the broadcasts moved to Boston-based WWZN. The station added Lowell Spinners baseball to its sports programming in 2003, replacing Lawrence-based WCCM as the team's flagship station. The station nearly lost the rights to the Spinners to WUML in 2005; a dispute between the University of Massachusetts Lowell and WUML's student programmers resulted in WCAP signing a new two-year contract with the team. Spinners broadcasts moved to WLLH in 2007, but returned to WCAP the following season, after the station's sale; it would continue to broadcast games until the team was dropped from Minor League Baseball in 2021.

The station conducts an annual radiothon to benefit the Salvation Army each December.

title: WCAP (AM)


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Term algebra

In universal algebra and mathematical logic, a term algebra is a freely generated algebraic structure over a given signature. For example, in a signature consisting of a single binary operation, the term algebra over a set X of variables is exactly the free magma generated by X. Other synonyms for the notion include absolutely free algebra and anarchic algebra.

From a category theory perspective, a term algebra is the initial object for the category of all X-generated algebras of the same signature, and this object, unique up to isomorphism, is called an initial algebra; it generates by homomorphic projection all algebras in the category.

A similar notion is that of a Herbrand universe in logic, usually used under this name in logic programming, which is (absolutely freely) defined starting from the set of constants and function symbols in a set of clauses. That is, the Herbrand universe consists of all ground terms: terms that have no variables in them.

An atomic formula or atom is commonly defined as a predicate applied to a tuple of terms; a ground atom is then a predicate in which only ground terms appear. The Herbrand base is the set of all ground atoms that can be formed from predicate symbols in the original set of clauses and terms in its Herbrand universe. These two concepts are named after Jacques Herbrand.

Term algebras also play a role in the semantics of abstract data types, where an abstract data type declaration provides the signature of a multi-sorted algebraic structure and the term algebra is a concrete model of the abstract declaration.

Universal algebra
A type $$\tau$$ is a set of function symbols, with each having an associated arity (i.e. number of inputs). For any non-negative integer $$n$$, let $$\tau_n$$ denote the function symbols in $$\tau$$ of arity $$n$$. A constant is a function symbol of arity 0.

Let $$\tau$$ be a type, and let $$X$$ be a non-empty set of symbols, representing the variable symbols. (For simplicity, assume $$X$$ and $$\tau$$ are disjoint.) Then the set of terms $$T(X)$$ of type $$\tau$$ over $$X$$ is the set of all well-formed strings that can be constructed using the variable symbols of $$X$$ and the constants and operations of $$\tau$$. Formally, $$T(X)$$ is the smallest set such that:
 * $$X \cup \tau_0 \subseteq T(X)$$  — each variable symbol from $$X$$ is a term in $$T(X)$$, and so is each constant symbol from $$\tau_0$$.
 * For all $$n \geq 1$$ and for all function symbols $$f \in \tau_n$$ and terms $$t_1, ..., t_n \in T(X)$$, we have the string $$f(t_1, ..., t_n) \in T(X)$$  — given $$n$$ terms $$t_1, ..., t_n$$, the application of an $$n$$-ary function symbol $$f$$ to them represents again a term.

The term algebra $$\mathcal{T}(X)$$ of type $$\tau$$ over $$X$$ is, in summary, the algebra of type $$\tau$$ that maps each expression to its string representation. Formally, $$\mathcal{T}(X)$$ is defined as follows:
 * The domain of $$\mathcal{T}(X)$$ is $$T(X)$$.
 * For each nullary function $$f$$ in $$\tau_0$$, $$f^{\mathcal{T}(X)}$$ is defined as the string $$f$$.
 * For all $$n \geq 1$$ and for each n-ary function $$f$$ in $$\tau$$ and elements $$t_1, ..., t_n$$ in the domain, $$f^{\mathcal{T}(X)}(t_1, ..., t_n)$$ is defined as the string $$f(t_1, ..., t_n)$$.

A term algebra is called absolutely free because for any algebra $$\mathcal{A}$$ of type $$\tau$$, and for any function $$g : X \to \mathcal{A}$$, $$g$$ extends to a unique homomorphism $$g^\ast : \mathcal{T}(X) \to \mathcal{A}$$, which simply evaluates each term $$t \in \mathcal{T}(X)$$ to its corresponding value $$g^\ast(t) \in \mathcal{A}$$. Formally, for each $$t \in \mathcal{T}(X)$$:
 * If $$t \in X$$, then $$g^\ast(t) = g(t)$$.
 * If $$t = f \in \tau_0$$, then $$g^\ast(t) = f^\mathcal{A}$$.
 * If $$t = f(t_1, ..., t_n)$$ where $$f \in \tau_n$$ and $$n \geq 1$$, then $$g^\ast(t) = f^\mathcal{A}(g^\ast(t_1), ..., g^\ast(t_n))$$.

Example
As an example type inspired from integer arithmetic can be defined by $$\tau_0 = \{ 0,1 \}$$, $$\tau_1=\{\}$$, $$\tau_2=\{ +,* \}$$, and $$\tau_i=\{\}$$ for each $$i > 2$$.

The best-known algebra of type $$\tau$$ has the natural numbers as its domain and interprets $$0$$, $$1$$, $$+$$, and $$*$$ in the usual way; we refer to it as $$\mathcal{A}_{nat}$$.

For the example variable set $$X = \{ x,y \}$$, we are going to investigate the term algebra $$\mathcal{T}(X)$$ of type $$\tau$$ over $$X$$.

First, the set $$ T(X)$$ of terms of type $$\tau$$ over $$X$$ is considered. We use red color to flag its members, which otherwise may be hard to recognize due to their uncommon syntactic form. We have e.g. More generally, each string in $$T(X)$$ corresponds to a mathematical expression built from the admitted symbols and written in Polish prefix notation; for example, the term $${\color{red}*+x1x}$$ corresponds to the expression $$(x+1)*x$$ in usual infix notation. No parentheses are needed to avoid ambiguities in Polish notation; e.g. the infix expression $$x+(1*x)$$ corresponds to the term $${\color{red}+x*1x}$$.
 * $${\color{red}x} \in T(X)$$, since $$x \in X$$ is a variable symbol;
 * $${\color{red}1} \in T(X)$$, since $$1 \in \tau_0$$ is a constant symbol; hence
 * $${\color{red}+x1} \in T(X)$$, since $$+$$ is a 2-ary function symbol; hence, in turn,
 * $${\color{red}*+x1x} \in T(X)$$ since $$*$$ is a 2-ary function symbol.

To give some counter-examples, we have e.g.
 * $${\color{red}z} \not\in T(X)$$, since $$z$$ is neither an admitted variable symbol nor an admitted constant symbol;
 * $${\color{red}3} \not\in T(X)$$, for the same reason,
 * $${\color{red}+1} \not\in T(X)$$, since $$+$$ is a 2-ary function symbol, but is used here with only one argument term (viz. $${\color{red}1}$$).

Now that the term set $$ T(X)$$ is established, we consider the term algebra $$\mathcal{T}(X)$$ of type $$\tau$$ over $$X$$. This algebra uses $$T(X)$$ as its domain, on which addition and multiplication need to be defined. The addition function $$+^{\mathcal{T}(X)}$$ takes two terms $$p$$ and $$q$$ and returns the term $${\color{red}+}pq$$; similarly, the multiplication function $$*^{\mathcal{T}(X)}$$ maps given terms $$p$$ and $$q$$ to the term $${\color{red}*}pq$$. For example, $$*^{\mathcal{T}(X)}( {\color{red}+x1}, {\color{red}x} )$$ evaluates to the term $${\color{red}*+x1x}$$. Informally, the operations $$+^{\mathcal{T}(X)}$$ and $$*^{\mathcal{T}(X)}$$ are both "sluggards" in that they just record what computation should be done, rather than doing it.

As an example for unique extendability of a homomorphism consider $$g: X \to \mathcal{A}_{nat}$$ defined by $$g(x) = 7$$ and $$g(y) = 3$$. Informally, $$g$$ defines an assignment of values to variable symbols, and once this is done, every term from $$T(X)$$ can be evaluated in a unique way in $$\mathcal{A}_{nat}$$. For example,
 * $$\begin{array}{lll}

& g^*({\color{red}+x1}) \\ = & g^*({\color{red}x}) + g^*({\color{red}1}) & \text{ since } g^* \text{ is a homomorphism } \\ = & g({\color{red}x}) + g^*({\color{red}1}) & \text{ since } g^* \text{ coincides on } X \text{ with } g \\ = & 7 + g^*({\color{red}1}) & \text{ by definition of } g \\ = & 7 + 1 & \text{ since } g^* \text{ is a homomorphism } \\ = & 8 & \text{ according to the well-known arithmetical rules in } \mathcal{A}_{nat} \\ \end{array}$$ In a similar way, one obtains $$g^*({\color{red}*+x1x}) = ... = 8 * g({\color{red}x}) = ... = 56$$.

Herbrand base
The signature σ of a language is a triple  consisting of the alphabet of constants O, function symbols F, and predicates P. The Herbrand base of a signature σ consists of all ground atoms of σ: of all formulas of the form R(t1, ..., tn), where t1, ..., tn are terms containing no variables (i.e. elements of the Herbrand universe) and R is an n-ary relation symbol (i.e. predicate). In the case of logic with equality, it also contains all equations of the form t1 = t2, where t1 and t2 contain no variables.

Decidability
Term algebras can be shown decidable using quantifier elimination. The complexity of the decision problem is in NONELEMENTARY because binary constructors are injective and thus pairing functions.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Term algebra


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Mistake (contract law)

In contract law, a mistake is an erroneous belief, at contracting, that certain facts are true. It can be argued as a defense, and if raised successfully, can lead to the agreement in question being found void ab initio or voidable, or alternatively, an equitable remedy may be provided by the courts. Common law has identified three different types of mistake in contract: the 'unilateral mistake', the 'mutual mistake', and the 'common mistake'. The distinction between the 'common mistake' and the 'mutual mistake' is important.

Another breakdown in contract law divides mistakes into four traditional categories: unilateral mistake, mutual mistake, mistranscription, and misunderstanding.

The law of mistake in any given contract is governed by the law governing the contract. The law from country to country can differ significantly. For instance, contracts entered into under a relevant mistake have not been voidable in English law since Great Peace Shipping Ltd v Tsavliris (International) Ltd (2002).

Examples
Mistake can be mistake of law, or mistake of fact.

Mistake of law
Mistake of law is when a party enters into a contract, without the knowledge of the law in the country, the contract is affected by such mistakes, but it is not void. The reason here is that ignorance of law is not an excuse. However, if a party is induced to enter into a contract by the mistake of law then such a contract is not valid.

For example, Harjoth and Danny make a contract grounded on the erroneous belief that a particular debt is barred by the Indian law of Limitation; the contract is not voidable.

Mistake of fact
Mistake of fact is where both the parties enter into an agreement are under a mistake as to a matter of fact essential to the agreement, the agreement is voidable.

An erroneous opinion as to the value of the thing which forms the subject matter of the agreement is not to be deemed a mistake as to a matter of fact.

For example, a woman finds a stone and sells it as a topaz. It was a raw uncut diamond worth hundreds of times the selling price. The contract is not voidable. There was no mistake because neither party knew what the stone was.

Conversely, in a case where a person sells a cow for $80 because it is infertile and the actually pregnant and worth $1000, the contract would be void.

Unilateral mistakes
A unilateral mistake is where only one party to a contract is mistaken about the terms or subject-matter contained in a contract. This kind of mistake is more common than other types of mistake. One must first distinguish between mechanical calculations and business errors when looking at unilateral mistake.

Ordinarily, unilateral mistake does not make a contract void. Traditionally this is caveat emptor (let the buyer beware), and under common law caveat venditor (let the seller beware).

Exceptions
A contract might be voidable from unilateral mistake for any of the following:

 * 1)  One party relied on a statement of the other about a material fact that the second party knew or should have known was mistaken by the first party.
 * 2)  "clerical error that did not result in gross negligence"
 * 3) *For mechanical calculations, a party may be able to set aside the contract on these grounds provided that the other party does not try to take advantage of the mistake, or 'snatch up' the offer (involving a bargain that one did not intend to make, betrayed by an error in arithmetic, etc.). This will be seen by an objective standard, or if a reasonable person would be able to know that the mistake would not make sense to one of the parties. Unless one of the parties 'snatched up' the one-sided offer, courts will otherwise uphold the contract.
 * 4) The mistake was "unconscionable", i.e., so serious and unreasonable to be outrageous.

Mutual mistake versus failure of mutual assent
A mutual mistake occurs when the parties to a contract are both mistaken about the same material fact within their contract. They are at cross purposes. There is a meeting of the minds, but the parties are mistaken. Hence the contract is voidable. Collateral mistakes will not afford the right of rescission. A collateral mistake is one that "does not go to the heart" of the contract. For a mutual mistake to render a contract void, then the item the parties are mistaken about must be material (emphasis added). When there is a material mistake about a material aspect of the contract, the essential purpose of the contract, there is the question of the assumption of the risk. This risk may be determined contractually or according to custom. In American law, the Restatement (Second) of Contracts Sec. 154 deals with this scenario.

This is easily confused with mutual assent cases such as Raffles v Wichelhaus. In Raffles, there was an agreement to ship goods on a vessel named Peerless, but each party was referring to a different vessel. Therefore, each party had a different understanding that they did not communicate about when the goods would be shipped.

In this case, both parties believed there was a "meeting of the minds", but discovered that they were each mistaken about the other party's different meaning. This represents not a mutual mistake but a failure of mutual assent. In this situation, no contract has been formed, since mutual assent is required in the formation stage of contract. In American law, the Restatement (Second) Contracts Sec. 20 deals with this scenario.

Common mistake
A common mistake is where both parties hold the same mistaken belief of the facts.

The House of Lords case of Bell v Lever Brothers Ltd. established that common mistake can void a contract only if the mistake of the subject matter was sufficiently fundamental to render its identity different from what was contracted, making the performance of the contract impossible.

Later in Solle v Butcher, Lord Denning added requirements for common mistake in equity, which loosened the requirements to show common mistake. However, since that time, the case has been heavily criticized in cases such as Great Peace Shipping Ltd v Tsavliris (International) Ltd. For Australian application of Great Peace Shipping (other than in Queensland), see Svanosio v McNamara. For Queensland, see Australian Estates v Cairns City Council.

Those categories of mistake in the United States exist as well, but it is often necessary to identify whether the error was a "decisional mistake", which is a mistake as a matter of law (faced with two known choices, making the wrong one), or an "ignorant mistake", unaware of the true state of affairs.

The difference is in the extent to which an innocent in the information chain, passing along or using or processing incorrect information, becomes liable. There is a principle that an entity or person cannot be made more liable merely by being in the information chain and passing along information taken in good faith in the belief that it was true, or at least without knowledge of the likelihood of falsity or inaccuracy.

Roswell State Bank v. Lawrence Walker Cotton Co.
Under New Mexico law a bank, title company, document processing firm, or the like is not liable for false information provided to it, any more than a bank was liable for false information from a trusted customer turned embezzler who drew an unauthorized cashier's check:

"A thing is done "in good faith" within the meaning of this act, when it is in fact done honestly, whether it be done negligently or not.

...

... [A] transferee is not bound to inquire whether the fiduciary is committing a breach of his obligation as fiduciary in transferring the instrument, and is not chargeable with notice that the fiduciary is committing a breach of his obligation as fiduciary unless he takes the instrument with actual knowledge of such breach or with knowledge of such facts that his action in taking the instrument amounts to bad faith." 56 N.M. at 112–113 (quoting from the Uniform Fiduciaries Act).

Davis v. Pennsylvania Co. 337 Pa. 456
Roswell was the case of first impression on this issue in the state of New Mexico, and drew on cases in other jurisdictions interpreting the same language, most notably Davis v. Pennsylvania Co. 337 Pa. 456, which on similar facts to Roswell came to the same conclusion and exonerated the innocent actor in favor of shifting any responsibility for the loss to tortfeasors and those who enabled them to act by giving them unjustified authority.

The Davis case leads into another good analysis, in a case relied upon by Davis:

"At what point does negligence cease and bad faith begin? The distinction between them is that bad faith, or dishonesty, is, unlike negligence, wilful. The mere failure to make inquiry, even though there be suspicious circumstances, does not constitute bad faith, unless said failure is due to the deliberate desire to evade knowledge because of a belief or fear that inquiry would disclose a vice or defect in the transaction, – that is to say, where there is an intentional closing of the eyes or stopping of the ears."

French Bank of California v. First National Bank of Louisville
In Kentucky, it was held in French Bank of California v. First National Bank of Louisville that money received by mistake does not have to be returned if there is an irrevocable change in position. It held that mistakes do not need to be rectified except by court order or indemnities being issued.

Union Bank & Trust Co. v. Girard Trust Co.
In Union Bank & Trust Co.v. Girard Trust Co., a firm processing information in order to transfer title using the information provided by customers lacked the intent to commit illegal or improper acts when the information furnished to it was wrong. It was not part of its job description to know better, and it did not know better and charged only a nominal fee for the clerical work, clearly not including any investigation. Further, it could not be in a conspiracy with another party or several parties who knew the information was wrong but failed to inform the title firm. The title firm could not unknowingly become part of a conspiracy of which it was never informed, and from which it could derive no benefit. The attempt to enhance liability or shift blame by filtering data through an innocent party has been tried before, but where the conduit providing document preparation does not know more than its informants and was not hired or paid to investigate, it is not liable in their place for using their bad facts without guilty knowledge.

Hynix Semiconductor America, Inc. v. United States
The U.S. Court of International Trade has gathered the law governing record-keeping mistakes and how they are corrected in Hynix Semiconductor America, Inc. v. United States in which the Court was faced with the application of a tariff that had been calculated at the wrong rate by a customs clerk. To enforce "anti-dumping" legislation against foreign-made goods, a regulatory scheme was implemented under which such imports were charged a "liquidation duty" at a rate to be found on a schedule. The schedule had been made up by a panel of experts using standards for adjusting the price differential in overseas goods. The custom clerk used the wrong category of goods and overcharged the duty, and by the time Hynix figured out what had happened, part of a very short statute of limitations on protest had expired. Hynix nevertheless prevailed and received the correction in its tariff rate by showing that such an error "was correctable under 19 U.S.C. § 1520(c) as a mistake of fact or clerical error not amounting to an error in the construction of a law and because the failure to file a protest within ninety days of the liquidation of the entries is without legal consequence in this context".

The Hynix court explains the difference between a mistake of law "where the facts are known, but the legal consequences are not, or are believed to be different than they really are" (Century Importers, Inc. v. United States, 205 F.3d 1308, 1313 (Fed. Cir. 2000)), and a mistake of fact, "where either (1) the facts exist, but are unknown, or (2) the facts do not exist as they are believed to [exist]" (Hynix, 414 F. Supp. 2d. at 1325, quoting Hambro Auto. Corp. v. United States, 66 C.C.P.A. 113, 118, C.A.D. 1231, 603 F.2d 850, 853 (1979): "A mistake of fact is any mistake except a mistake of law." ).

Hynix, in reviewing the tariff application to the facts, also provided a guided tour of the different kinds of mistake and how they are treated in the federal court system. The key distinction is between "decisional mistakes" and "ignorant mistakes".

‘Decisional mistakes are mistakes of law and occur when "a party [makes] the wrong choice between two known, alternative sets of facts". Universal Cooperatives, (citation partly omitted), 715 F. Supp. at 1114. On the other hand, an ignorant mistake occurs where "a party is unaware of the existence of the correct alternative set of facts". Id. "In order for the goods to be reliquidated under 1520 (c) (1), the alleged mistake of fact must be an ignorant mistake." Prosegur (citation partly omitted), 140 F. Supp. 2d at 1378. Hynix at 1326.

Hynix provided one more criterion, and that is "materiality", citing to extensive development of that requirement in Degussa Canada Ltd. v. United States, 87 F.3d 1301, 1304 (Fed. Cir. 1996), and Xerox Corp. v. United States, 2004 C.I.T. (Sept. 8, 2004) ("[A] mistake of fact ... is a factual error that, if the correct fact had been known, would have resulted in a different classification.") The error must be "material" in order to be corrected without consequence.

title: Mistake (contract law)


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User talk:Aplusbi

Scapegoat tree
Hi there. I just wanted to compliment you on your excellent job on the scapegoat tree article. While short and a little technical, it's still a great article on a topic so esoteric I didn't think anyone would ever cover it. Good job. Oh, and if no one's told you yet, welcome to Wikipedia! Deco 02:52, 12 July 2005 (UTC)

File permission problem with File:Aplusbi user photo.jpg
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title: User talk:Aplusbi


text:
Four Voices

Four Voices is a barbershop quartet based in Tennessee. After winning the SPEBSQSA Collegiate Barbershop Quartet Championship in 1996, Four Voices went on to become international champions in 2002.

The quartet's sound is distinguished by its tenor's remarkable range (up to an E♭5 in chest voice), though all the singers (save the bass) have a remarkable tenor range and often end songs with the baritone or lead singing a higher note than the tenor.

The four members met each other when they attended Lee University together. They were all members of the Voices of Lee, sixteen-member a cappella choir. The members of Four Voices have stated that their name is meant to be a reference to their former membership in the choir.

Discography

 * 4 Voices (CD; 1999)
 * Four Voices II (CD; 2003)
 * Four Voices III (CD; 2013)

title: Four Voices


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Talk:Batmunkh Gompa

For the 30 June 2005 Vote for deletion regarding this article which resulted in merge, see Votes for deletion/Batmunkh Gompa. -- Jonel | Speak 02:53, 12 July 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Batmunkh Gompa


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Controlled explosion

A controlled explosion is the deliberate detonation of an explosive, generally as a means of demolishing a building or destroying a second improvised or manufactured explosive device.

Demolition
During demolition, controlled explosions can be used to collapse the exterior walls of a building inward, limiting damage to neighboring buildings. This requires careful placement of explosive charges on supports and load bearing walls.

Bomb disposal
Controlled explosions are used by bomb disposal teams to detonate a bomb at a specific time in order to limit damage to nearby structures, vehicles, and people.

The bomb may be moved to a clear location away from bystanders or buildings before detonation unless it has (or is suspected of having) an anti-handling mechanism. If an anti-handling mechanism is found, the bomb may be left in place while the site around it is cleared. If it is not possible to clear the area or move the bomb, a containment vessel may be used to limit the damage from the explosion or transport the device to a cleared area.

Once the area is clear, a second explosive or shaped charge is placed on the device by explosive ordinance disposal (EOD or police bomb disposal) personnel, either manually or with a bomb disposal robot, and detonated remotely. The controlled explosion should also detonate or disable the suspected bomb.

title: Controlled explosion


text:
Talk:C data types

Missing Information
I was annoyed to see that a lot of the useful information on this page has been purged. Please compare: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=C_data_types&diff=prev&oldid=456503038

The reason was because it is available on Wiki-Books... Ok, but where is the link to the info? There are two complete *books* on that page, and I was looking specifically for the different pointer/array/function examples (pointer-to-pointer, pointer-to-array, how modifiers fit into that, etc).

If that sort of information doesn't belong on Wikipedia -- fine. But at least link to more information in WikiBooks if that is why the information is being purged.

68.54.162.15 (talk) 08:33, 30 June 2012 (UTC)

1.2 Size
The following statements are not true:

 * An int must be at least 16 bits long
 * A long int must be at least 32 bits long.
 * A long long int must be at least 64 bits long

A corrected statement would read:

 * An int can be up to 16 bits long

If no one disagrees within a few days, I'll change those three sentences to similar statements as above and add a reference. --66.41.31.76 (talk) 08:19, 22 September 2008 (UTC)

 * No: Those statements are correct. Many C compilers use a 32-bit  nowadays (which is more than 16 bits). The current C standard says (emphasis added):

"5.2.4.2.1 Sizes of integer types <limits.h>

The values given below shall be replaced by constant expressions suitable for use in #if preprocessing directives. [...] Their implementation-defined values shall be equal or greater in magnitude (absolute value) to those shown, with the same sign.

[...]

 * minimum value for an object of type int
 * INT_MIN      -32767 // −(215 − 1)
 * maximum value for an object of type int
 * INT_MAX      +32767 // 215 − 1
 * maximum value for an object of type unsigned int
 * UINT_MAX      65535 // 216 − 1"

 * Alksentrs (talk) 14:58, 23 September 2008 (UTC)

I absolutely agree with your response. However, since the definitions of the variables primarily provides clarification to novice programmers, there should be a clear difference stated between the amount of memory allocated and the range of values that are available to the variable.

For example, a novice could read the statement as saying that <tt>int x=1</tt> is a value that is too small, and instead a value that is 16 bits, say <tt>int x=0x8000</tt> or larger is necessary. With this in mind, I'm assuming one can see how confusion could result, as there is not an explicit divide made between memory allocation and the available range of values for a variable.

Perhaps a separate table should be introduced that explicitly states the range of values available for each of the variable types.

--66.41.31.76 (talk) 06:38, 24 September 2008 (UTC)
 * If a novice programmer thinks that 1 is a value that is too low for an int, said person is either stupid or cannot read and listened to someone who is stupid. The reason why the range of integer types is specified is because a computer may not work with binary bits; a computer could in theory, use ternary logic instead of binary logic: to store the range of 16 binary bits using ternary bits would only require 11 bits (and it would have a greater range). The original statements are

80.162.60.16 (talk) 12:46, 14 January 2012 (UTC)
 * correct
 * to the point
 * the least confusing it can get without introducing errors or leading new programmers to make even more stupid assumptions about the computer their software will be running on even if they aren't alive when it's being invented.

Is not this sentences exclusive? The only guarantee is that the long long is not smaller than long, which is not smaller than int, which is not smaller than short. long long signed integer type. At least 64 bits in size. 213.247.248.50 (talk) 02:44, 10 June 2013 (UTC)

 * That are two sentences. And they do not contradict each other, they supplement each other. I changed the sentences and hope, they explains it better now. --RokerHRO (talk) 12:41, 9 July 2013 (UTC)

It needs to be removed. The people defending this know it's wrong because they purposefully misquoted it. It states word for word on page 505 under Annex E of both the C99 and C11 draft,

"'ISO/IEC 9899:2011

The contents of the header <limits.h> are given below, in alphabetical order. The minimum magnitudes shown shall be replaced by implementation-defined magnitudes with the same sign."

The values stated below that are simply a template. Common sense, why would the standards committee require there to be a 64-bit data type when most processors don't even have 64-bit registers? All the standard says is that long long shall not be smaller than long, which shall not be smaller than int, which shall not be smaller than short, which shall not be smaller than char. The fact that most modern architectures use short/int/long/long long sizes of 16/32/32/64 does not make it the standard. It's perfectly natural for an 8-bit architecture like an 8080 to use short/int/long/long long sizes of 8/8/16/16. The purpose of wiki isn't to hold the hand of a person who can't understand "x is not smaller than y", it's to provide people with facts.

So frustrated right now... This error just wasted hours of my time trying to figure out how to make a C compiler for an 8-bit architecture conform to C11 and you guys have known this was wrong for over 4 years. — Preceding unsigned comment added by DaemonR (talk • contribs) 08:42, 9 September 2014 (UTC)
 * A C compiler supplying a long long that is 16 bits DOES NOT conform to C11. Annex E of C11 specifically states that the limits shown in the table are minimum values; the implementation-defined values are allowed to be greater than the values in Annex E, but never smaller. Annex E also states that it is subject to section 5.2.4.2.1, which makes it explicitly clear that the implementation-defined magnitudes shall (normative language) be equal to or greater than the values shown. The language in C99 is the same. 24.222.2.222 (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 14:12, 18 August 2016 (UTC)

Variable types
It's not true there are 4 basic types; that's just the way you've chosen to introduce them. The C90 standard has more like twelve. You don't mention several other built-in types.

C99 introduces long long, complex and imaginary types, and _Bool.

If you think it's worth covering types properly, I'm happy to help. Akihabara 02:55, 12 July 2005 (UTC)

type qualifiers
static is not discussed, and should be. And isn't const also used by compilers when optimizing? If it isn't (i.e. they detect a lack of change on their own) that is interesting enough to mention, IMHO.
 * static is not a type qualifier, but a storage class 84.163.217.217 (talk) 17:07, 31 August 2008 (UTC)

If other basic types beyond the basic 5 are mentioned, the time of their introduction (i.e. C99) should be specified. Most books have char, int, float, double, and sometimes void, and lumping "imaginary" in with them would confuse people.

UNIX has programs (cdecl and c++decl) for converting type declarations to and from English.

One more type: Boolean
There is at least one more type: Boolean!

Although it is not possible to declare a variable of that type, the Boolean-type is essential to C! Without it, it would not be possible to write a decent if-statement.

ALbert Mietus // http:albert.mietus.nl —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 62.177.151.49 (talk) 07:41, 2 April 2007 (UTC).

 * No. There is no such type in C. If-statements (and the like) test if the condition is nonzero. --Spoon! 08:07, 2 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Boolean was introduced in C99, so yes, it does exist, but in C89 it is true that if statements simply check if the test is non-zero or not. --FrederikHertzum 17:40, 15 May 2007 (UTC)

Forgetting something
Also needs to include struct, union and enum. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_syntax has some info on these. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 119.224.35.68 (talk) 00:32, 31 January 2010 (UTC)

Typical sizeof(long double) should include 16
The table in the Size section lists the typical size in bytes of a (long double) as "8 or 12". I propose changing this to "8, 12, or 16", as 16 is a very common sizeof(long double), as is the case for standard gcc x86-64 on GNU/Linux. --Kamalmostafa (talk) 22:11, 26 November 2010 (UTC) Custom types with typedef! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 88.165.171.247 (talk) 13:57, 24 March 2011 (UTC)

Relevant keywords
There are common keywords used together with variable declarations, this includes "static", "volatile", "extern", "auto", "register". Would be nice if someone knowledgeable about all the quirky details covered all of them! 130.237.57.80 (talk) 15:54, 9 March 2011 (UTC)

 * See C syntax. --RokerHRO (talk) 16:57, 12 August 2012 (UTC)

inttypes.h
inttypes.h is said to have been merged to this page. However, this page does not seem to have enough information on inttypes.h at least as much as the original page contained. Please fix this. Jobin (talk) 05:38, 22 October 2011 (UTC)

 * I have removed the redirect from inttypes.h and its an article again. I think it should be fixed too, or the article should be merged with limits.h instead. Christian75 (talk) 06:56, 31 October 2011 (UTC)
 * Please explain what exactly is not explained in this article that is not also WP:OR. 1exec1 (talk) 14:37, 31 October 2011 (UTC)

 * The old page (and/or the <stdint.h> one) had information about which platforms/compilers provide this header. I think that this would be useful information.
 * BTW, is there any reason to write inttypes.h and not <inttypes.h> as in the standard? (In the standard, this is important, because inttypes.h denotes a filename, while the <inttypes.h> header doesn't need to be implemented as a file.) Vincent Lefèvre (talk) 13:37, 12 August 2012 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress which affects this page. Please participate at Talk:C standard library - Requested move and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RM bot 09:40, 8 November 2011 (UTC)

What about the basic type void?
It is not mentioned here at all. :-( Even if you cannot declare objects of type, this type is used to build-up other types, e.g. pointer or function types. --RokerHRO (talk) 21:47, 26 March 2012 (UTC)

 * The C Standard says (6.2.5p19 Types)

The void type comprises an empty set of values; it is an incomplete object type that cannot be completed. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.186.243.41 (talk) 15:37, 26 January 2013 (UTC)

I'd like to restructure the article so it matches the ISO C standard
The ISO C standard describes 3 categories of types:
 * 1) object types
 * 2) function types
 * 3) incomplete types

Than it describes the arithmetical types (, integer and floating point types), the derived types (arrays, structures, unions, pointer and function) and finally the so-called "type modifier" (const, volatile, restrict, _Atomic).

Unfortunately there is no clear structure or categorization in the ISO standard. Perhaps there is one in other notable C books, if yes we should use one. What do you think? --RokerHRO (talk) 13:46, 10 June 2015 (UTC)

anam type: is it bullshit?
Type with "anam" were added. But I found nothing about it after a quick search. It seems to be bullshit. A source would be appreciated, otherwise I think that this weird potential type should be removed. — Preceding unsigned comment added by RyDroid (talk • contribs) 17:31, 20 November 2016 (UTC)
 * Obvious vandalism. I've reverted the changes from this IP address. Vincent Lefèvre (talk) 17:52, 20 November 2016 (UTC)

short long int (or short long)
It may not be standard C but is it worth talking about it anyway? It is a type of 24 bits for some embedded systems. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.70.87.250 (talk) 19:41, 10 August 2017 (UTC)
 * I don't think it is worth mentioning uncommon extensions. BTW, this way of defining a new integer type is very ugly. A 24-bit type on such a system should have been named . Vincent Lefèvre (talk) 21:31, 10 August 2017 (UTC)

More well-established types missing
There are still some types not mentioned in the article which would merit it IMHO like off_t and time_t, which are at the same time --212.185.199.2 (talk) 15:31, 12 February 2018 (UTC)
 * present in the POSIX standard (see pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/basedefs/sys_types.h.html)
 * deeply rooted in tradition (look at the 33-year old SysVr2.0_32000/src/uts/ns32000/sys/types.h in archive.org/download/ATTUNIXSystemVRelease4Version2/SysVr2.0_32000.tgz)
 * used by Linux, a system of high real-world notability (as in git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux-stable.git/tree/include/linux/types.h)

C2x enforces 2's complement
The draft for C2x includes requiring 2's complement. The future is now. http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n2412.pdf

Maybe this should be noted in the section about int ranges. Wqwt (talk) 07:28, 15 October 2021 (UTC)

Signed integer sizes
@Johann-Tobias Schäg I have reverted your edit about the signed integer sizes. What was written was correct, since as the note (C data types) says this is exactly the range guaranteed by the C standard. Twos complement is not guaranteed but is drafted for C2x. Wqwt (talk) 08:18, 9 August 2022 (UTC)
 * BTW, I think that it should be decided what to do when C23 is published. I suppose that the ranges will be updated. But for historical purpose, the alternative signed number representations and the old minimal ranges should still be given somewhere (perhaps in a more concise form). — Vincent Lefèvre (talk) 13:22, 9 August 2022 (UTC)

Data type examples
In the table that lists and describes the data types, couldn’t there be a column with examples of data types so newcomers to C don’t get confused or mix any of them up? Like, obviously a char would be only a single character like ‘c’, ‘S’, ‘3’, or ‘#’. But a float, is it strictly a ~number~ in the decimal place (0.75), or can it be greater (6.432)? See what I mean? 98.216.67.148 (talk) 02:14, 1 October 2022 (UTC)

India Education Program course assignment
This article was the subject of an educational assignment supported by Wikipedia Ambassadors through the India Education Program.

The above message was substituted from by PrimeBOT (talk) on 19:58, 1 February 2023 (UTC)

More history context needed
The article should really include additional historical context about why these types are specified the way they are, as modern readers may not be familiar with the multiplicity of byte widths, word lengths, and sign representations that existed in the 1980s when X3J11 was trying to specify a set of data types that was common to historic PDP-11 and microcomputer implementations, 32-bit and 36-bit mainframes, and supercomputers. By comparison, many newer languages provide only bit-precise types (and have no support for, e.g., 9-bit characters, because 36-bit architectures are now historical relics). 207.180.169.36 (talk) 18:41, 19 November 2023 (UTC)

 * YES PLEASE! Also, publish the name of the bloke who defined a char to possibly be negative! Need to 'praise' him every-singe-day! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 115.70.29.185 (talk) 16:18, 4 March 2024 (UTC)

what the f**ck is that? (concerning the minimum value of a signed integer)
Yes, I saw the open-std pdf saying that LONG_MIN equals to -2147483647. But this PDF is a draft (and a draft can contains errors). The minimum value of a n bits signed integer (signed bit excluded) is in decimal - 2^n, so -2147483648, not -2147483647. I don't care what the open-std pdf says, it's wrong in my opinion. If you set the minimum value to -2147483647 and not to -2147483648, then you have one too many binary values, which is 10000000 00000000, what would you do with such a binary ? have two zeros one positive and one negative ? if so why not three or four ? come on, I hope you are not stupid people.. . So this open-std pdf doesn't seem to be without error, thus wikipedia shouldn't use it as a primary source of information. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 163.5.23.68 (talk) 17:05, 13 March 2024 (UTC)

 * See ones' complement arithmetic, which was until recently a permissible representation for signed integers. 207.180.169.36 (talk) 04:28, 14 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Moreover, the PDF does not say that "LONG_MIN equals to -2147483647", just that LONG_MIN is greater than or equal to the given value in magnitude, with the same sign, that is, in the case of LONG_MIN: LONG_MIN ⩽ -2147483647. The value -2147483648 satisfies this inequality. — Vincent Lefèvre (talk) 12:35, 14 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Moreover, the PDF does not say that "LONG_MIN equals to -2147483647", just that LONG_MIN is greater than or equal to the given value in magnitude, with the same sign, that is, in the case of LONG_MIN: LONG_MIN ⩽ -2147483647. The value -2147483648 satisfies this inequality. — Vincent Lefèvre (talk) 12:35, 14 March 2024 (UTC)

Int is usually 32 bits and not 16 bits
The chart of types sizes lists 'int' as 16 bit (between -32,767 and 32,767), in almost all places int is 32 bits (I have never seen it as 16 bit but I assume it is in older versions?).

If it is really mostly 16 bit, I think a comment "32 bit on some systems" or something like this can be added, or even change it to "16/32" (and change the explanation accordingly) Eylon Shachmon (talk) 01:41, 18 April 2024 (UTC)

 * That column is titled " Minimum size" so 16 is correct. Dexxor (talk) 09:40, 18 April 2024 (UTC)

Citation for minimum value of unsigned integer types
I was just wondering which section of the Standard specifies the minimum values of the unsigned integer types to be $0$?

The closest I could find was §6.2.6.2 Integer types on [page 41](https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n3096.pdf#page=60) of the C23 working draft, which says:

> If there are $N$ value bits, each bit shall represent a differentt value of $2$ between $1$ and $2^{N-1}$.

Is this the correct section? 115.188.121.25 (talk) 03:40, 18 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Yes, the minimum value of the unsigned integer types is implied by the specified representation of such a type. If all the value bits in the representation are 0s, then the value is necessarily 0. And obviously, negative values are not possible. Therefore, the minimum value is 0. — Vincent Lefèvre (talk) 08:48, 21 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Yes, the minimum value of the unsigned integer types is implied by the specified representation of such a type. If all the value bits in the representation are 0s, then the value is necessarily 0. And obviously, negative values are not possible. Therefore, the minimum value is 0. — Vincent Lefèvre (talk) 08:48, 21 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:C data types


text:
User:Itaj Sherman

Sadly, Wikipedia has become totally unreliable about any topic that relates to politics. This wiki is progressive and woke. There will have to be a separate wikipedia for conservatives and liberals.

Hopefully it stays reliable on scientific topics.

This could be an alternative for math: |ncatlab.

Try this for politics, not for science though.

User:Itaj Sherman/Links /sandbox/

title: User:Itaj Sherman


text:
Talk:List of companies of the United States by state

Untitled
At what point do you think that individual states should be split off into their own list-articles? Courtland 02:55, July 12, 2005 (UTC)

Michigan
I don't agree with the proposal to merge List of companies based in Michigan into this list. Seems backwards to me. older ≠ wiser 13:34, 24 July 2006 (UTC)

Missouri
Ferrellgas is listed as a Missouri based company. Their website (http://www.ferrellgas.com/investor/index.asp) lists them as based in Overland Park, KS. Is this a mistake or am I missing something? If no one can clarify this, I'm going to move the company to KS.

Cleanup
I went through and removed all the red-linked companies. Many of these seemed to have been added when their articles were created, and never removed when the articles were deleted as non-notable. If anyone has issue with this feel free to revert it in whole or in part. Improbcat 15:22, 2 March 2007 (UTC)
 * I'm going to do the same thing again, removing all redlinks. If the company is not sufficiently notable for there to be an article about it, then it doesn't warrant being listed here. Qqqqqq (talk) 21:27, 22 June 2009 (UTC)

Category
Would this be better severed by a two layer category, Category:US Companies|State? Jeepday (talk) 03:16, 3 June 2007 (UTC)

Article Needed at All?
This is about as broad a category as there could be. I'm not sure I see the utility in this. I wonder how many corporations and LLCs (thousands?) the Illinois Secretary of State (to name one out of 50) would list on its own website. Are they all eligible for inclusion here? Are there criteria for inclusion in this list? Doesn't this list just look like an invitation to every company in the US to list itself here? Xenophon777 02:44, 7 June 2007 (UTC)
 * I agree with Xenophon777. This article can grow to immense proportions and provides little value to Wikipedia users. All of the information in this article can be better handled by existing categories, such as companies in state XYZ. See Category:Companies_based_in_Alabama as an example. I am going to think about this for a couple of days and then propose this article be deleted. Truthanado 20:10, 9 June 2007 (UTC)
 * It doesn't seem to be all that useful. It is filling with redlinks again and is likely a magnet for conflict of interest editors. ✤ JonHarder talk 22:00, 11 June 2007 (UTC)
 * Having heard no specific "keep it" comments and after doing some research to justify the request for deletion, I am requesting that this article be deleted for reason: Overcategorization, Intersection by location, per Deletion policy Reasons for deletion. Truthanado 22:27, 13 June 2007 (UTC)
 * While I'm not specifically defending the list as it is, I don't agree that prod is the appropriate mechanism to use to delete this. A lot of work has gone into the list and it arguably may contain some useful information. older ≠ wiser 12:03, 14 June 2007 (UTC)


text:
Giuseppe Andrews

Joey Murcia Jr. (born April 25, 1979), known professionally as Giuseppe Andrews is an American former actor, screenwriter, director, and singer-songwriter known for his roles as Lex in the 1999 film Detroit Rock City, a bizarre sheriff's deputy in Cabin Fever (2002), a small role in Never Been Kissed (1999), as well as appearances in The Smashing Pumpkins videos "1979" and "Perfect".

Andrews has been involved in writing, directing, scoring, editing, shooting and producing a number of avant-garde films, and has directed several experimental independent movies. As of 2015, Andrews' whereabouts are unknown and he has ceased acting and songwriting.

Biography
Andrews was born Joey Murcia Jr. in Key Largo, Florida. His cinéma vérité-meets-exploitation filmmaking style has been compared to that of John Waters and Harmony Korine. He grew up in trailer parks, which feature prominently, along with their inhabitants, in many of his films. He also spent time living in a van with his father before they were both cast in an infomercial, which led to more acting jobs for Giuseppe.

Director Adam Rifkin has said of Andrews "Giuseppe Andrews is the most ferociously original filmmaker working in cinema today. No matter what new things he tries, everything is always signature Giuseppe Andrews. He is a true auteur." Rifkin also directed a documentary about Andrews, titled Giuseppe Makes a Movie.

Andrews reprised his role as a sheriff's deputy in the Cabin Fever sequel Cabin Fever 2: Spring Fever (2009).

He also appeared in the ninth season of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, in the episode titled "Let It Bleed".

Andrews disappeared from the public eye in 2015.

Director

 * Touch Me in the Morning (1999)
 * In Our Garden (2002)
 * Trailer Town (2003)
 * Dad's Chicken (2003)
 * Air Conditioning (2003)
 * Wiggly Harris (2003)
 * After School Specials (2003)
 * Monkey (2004)
 * Actor (2004)
 * Babysitter (2004)
 * The Date Movie (2004)
 * Who Flung Poo? (2004)
 * Dribble (2004)
 * Tater Tots (2004)
 * Period Piece (2004)
 * 5th Wheel (2005)
 * Gwank (2005)
 * Grandpa (2005)
 * Jacuzzi Rooms (2006)
 * Ants (2006)
 * Doily's Summer of Freak Occurrences (2006)
 * Long Row to Hoe (2006)
 * Cross Breeze (2006)
 * Okie Dokie (2007)
 * Garbanzo Gas (2007)
 * Cat Piss (2007)
 * Golden Embers (2007)
 * Holiday Weekend (2007)
 * Everlasting Pine (2007)
 * Orzo (2008)
 * It's All Not So Tragic (2008)
 * Schoof (2008)
 * Airplane Pillows (2008)
 * The Check Out (2009)
 * Esoterica (2009)
 * Zoo Dung Zero (2009)
 * The Fast (2010)
 * Diary (2011)
 * Love-Seat: A Portrait of Self (2011)
 * Only the Music Tells Me Where to Go (2012)
 * Pure Artisti Dal (2013)
 * Sex Acid (2013)
 * The Fire Dancers (2013)
 * Closet Africa (2013)
 * Birth of the Pool (2013)
 * Tugboat (2013)
 * Doll Bottle (2014)
 * Homo Robot Paradise Slob (2014)
 * Pregnant with a Swastika (2014)
 * Japanese Confusion (2014)
 * Coffee Cake (2014)
 * Vagrant Womb (2014)
 * Ninos (2014)
 * Give Me Cinema or Give Me Death (2014)

Actor

 * 1989: Getting It Right as Luke (as Joey Andrews)
 * 1995: Sleepstalker as Young Sandman (as Joey Andrews)
 * 1995: White Dwarf (TV Movie) as Never the Shifter / Doug (as Joey Andrews)
 * 1995: Unstrung Heroes as Ash
 * 1996: Independence Day as Troy
 * 1998: American History X as Jason
 * 1998: Pleasantville as Howard
 * 1999: The Other Sister as Trevor, Tough Guy
 * 1999: Never Been Kissed as Denominator
 * 1999: Detroit Rock City as Lex
 * 1999: Touch Me in the Morning as Coney Island
 * 1999-2001: Two Guys, a Girl and a Pizza Place (TV Series) as 'Germ'
 * 2002: Local Boys as Willy
 * 2002: Boston Public (TV Series) as Bobby Mendoza
 * 2002: Cabin Fever as Deputy Winston
 * 2003: After School Specials (TV Series)
 * 2003: Wiggly Harris
 * 2004: Tater Tots
 * 2004: Period Piece (Short)
 * 2005: Neo Ned as Josh
 * 2005: Tweek City as Bill Jensen
 * 2005: 2001 Maniacs as Harper Alexander
 * 2006: Period Piece
 * 2006: The Minor Accomplishments of Jackie Woodman (TV Series) as Mike Ackerman
 * 2007: Look as Willie
 * 2007: Homo Erectus as Zig
 * 2007: The Go-Getter
 * 2007: Careless as Young Male Addict
 * 2008: Schoof
 * 2009: Cabin Fever 2: Spring Fever as Deputy Winston
 * 2011: From the Head as Ramone

Discography

 * Giants – self-released
 * Night Owl Vol. 2 – self-released
 * Night Owl Vol. 1 – self-released
 * Race Cars – self-released
 * Hobo Jungle – self-released
 * Chow Mein Noodle CD (2003) – self-released
 * Night Owl (2005) – self-released
 * Me for All You (2006) – self-released
 * Laroo (2006) – self-released
 * Waiting Room (2007) – self-released
 * Open Mic (2008) – self-released
 * Reason (2009) – self-released
 * Umami (2010) – self-released
 * Stranger Than a Dream Vol 1 (2010) – self-released
 * Stranger Than a Dream Vol 2 (2010) – self-released
 * Sumami e.p. (2010) – self-released

Dates of some releases are unknown, albums are available to buy on his website and iTunes.

title: Giuseppe Andrews


text:
Algum

Algum (אַלְגּוּמִּים) or almug (אַלְמֻגִּים) is a type of wood referred to in the Hebrew Bible.

Biblical reference
According to the First Book of Kings (1 Kings 10:12), and the Second Book of Chronicles (2 Chronicles 2:8; 9:10–11), it was used, together with cedar and pine, in the construction of the pillars of Solomon's Temple and the crafting of musical instruments for use in the temple. Some English translations say that it was used for the steps rather than the pillars and biblical commentators Carl Friedrich Keil and Franz Delitzsch suggest that "we should have to think of steps with bannisters" to make sense of the text.

It is likely that the wood was brought by the ships of Tarshish, sent from the Red Sea port of Ezion-Giber, from the distant country of Ophir, and was very valuable.

Botanical classification
The botanical identity of algum is not known for certain, though some references suggest it may be juniper (Juniperus). Several species of juniper occur in the Middle East region, including Juniperus excelsa (Greek juniper), Juniperus foetidissima (stinking juniper), Juniperus phoenicea (Phoenician juniper), and Juniperus drupacea (Syrian juniper). It is likely that the woods of these species, which are all very similar in woodworking properties, would not have been distinguished from each other in the wood trade. The difficulty in identifying this wood is due in part to uncertainty over the location of the biblical city of Ophir. If Ophir is located in the Philippines, as some think, the wood likely would be red sandalwood or Pterocarpus santalinus.

title: Algum


text:
Mistake (criminal law)

In criminal law, a mistake of fact may sometimes mean that, while a person has committed the physical element of an offence, because they were labouring under a mistake of fact, they never formed the mental element. This is unlike a mistake of law, which is not usually a defense; law enforcement may or may not take for granted that individuals know what the law is.

Discussion
Most criminal law systems in developed states exclude mistake of law as a defense, because allowing defendants to invoke their own ignorance of the law would breach the public policy represented by the Latin maxim: ignorantia legis neminem excusat. But someone operating under a mistake of fact will not generally be liable, because, although the defendant has committed the actus reus of the offense, the defendant may honestly believe in a set of facts that would prevent him or her from forming the requisite mens rea required to constitute the crime.

For example: A defendant goes into a supermarket and places eight items in a basket which is presented to the cashier for payment in the usual way. Both honestly believe that all eight items have been scanned, and the defendant pays the sum shown on the bill. A store detective, however, notices that a mistake was made by the cashier so that only seven items were priced. This detective arrests the defendant after leaving the store. Since the defendant honestly believes that he has become the owner of goods in a sale transaction, he cannot form the mens rea for theft (which is usually dishonesty) when he physically removes them from the store.

There is a complex question as to whether the defense of 'mistake' applies to crimes that do not specify a mental element – such as strict liability offences and manslaughter by criminal negligence. In Australia, the High Court's 2005 ruling in R v Lavender prevents the use of any 'reasonable mistake of fact' defense in cases of involuntary manslaughter. However, the defense of mistake is available to offences of strict liability such as drunk driving: see DPP v Bone [2005] NSWSC 1239. And it is the very availability of the defense of 'mistake' that distinguishes between offences of strict and absolute liability. Mistake of fact is unavailable in respect to absolute liability offences.

Federal criminal law
The Australian federal law's Criminal Code describes most Federal crimes, many of which were transferred from the Crimes Act 1914 (Cth). However, the Crimes Act does still define some Federal crimes and others have been added in separate legislation for a variety of reason. For example, to override State or Territory laws, as with the Human Rights (Sexual Conduct) Act 1994 (Cth) that used the external affairs power to override the sodomy laws of the State of Tasmania, or with the Euthanasia Laws Act 1997 (Cth) that recriminalised euthanasia in the Northern Territory. Separate legislation has also been used when powers have been transferred from the States to the Commonwealth, such as with the Corporations Act 2001 (Cth) that includes penalties for misconduct by company directors, and in implementing international treaties, such as with the International Criminal Court Act 2002 (Cth) that implemented the Rome Statute into Australian law.

The Criminal Code contains specific provisions dealing with ignorance and mistakes, which permits acquittal in cases of mistakes of fact but not of law. Further, it mandates that a mistake of fact need not be reasonable for the defense to be available, but allows a jury to consider whether a fact is unreasonable in determining whether the person did actually believe the mistake being claimed.

Canada
The leading Supreme Court of Canada case on the mistaken belief is R v Park, in which it was held that even unreasonable beliefs must be left to a jury to consider. The issue in most states is the extent to which the test of belief should be subjective or objective.

Mistake of fact
Mistake of fact may be a defense in criminal law if it is genuine, whether or not it is reasonable.

In DPP v Morgan an RAF officer told three other officers to have sex with his wife, and that she would pretend to refuse just to be stimulating. They pleaded mistake, and the jury did not believe them. The House of Lords held that the judge had wrongly directed the jury that the mistake must be a reasonable one; the correct legal test was whether the defendants had honestly believed the wife was consenting, not whether they reasonably believed this. Glanville Williams & Dennis Baker Treatise of Criminal Law (Lexis 2021) pp. 265-283 argued that mistake of fact applies to normative standards such as dishonesty in property offences and what is improper conduct in bribery offences. However, on the facts the House of Lords held the conviction was nonetheless safe despite the misdirection. R v Williams (Gladstone) confirmed the principle stated in Morgan that a belief that a certain set of facts are true does not need to be reasonable to operate under the defence of mistake. It merely needs to be genuine. However, the reasonableness of that belief is material in the jury deciding whether the defendant had actually held that belief.

An exception to this appears to be bigamy (see R v Tolson (1889) 23 QBD 168).

The Sexual Offences Act 2003 has introduced a hybrid test of reasonable belief as to consent. The defendant must now be seen to have taken steps to ascertain clearly whether the complainant was consenting in all the circumstances. This abolishes the defence of a genuine though unreasonably mistaken belief as to the consent.

Mistakes about the criminal law
It is not a defence that the defendant held an honest and reasonable belief that what he was doing was not criminal. Where the defendant is a foreigner, and the offence is not criminal in his own country, the fact of such a belief is still not a defence. It is not a defence that the defendant believed that he would not be prosecuted for what he was doing.

Offences created by statutory instruments
Section 3(2) of the Statutory Instruments Act 1946 provides:

"In any proceedings against any person for an offence consisting of a contravention of any such statutory instrument, it shall be a defence to prove that the instrument had not been issued by [or under the authority of] His Majesty’s Stationery Office at the date of the alleged contravention unless it is proved that at that date reasonable steps had been taken for the purpose of bringing the purport of the instrument to the notice of the public, or of persons likely to be affected by it, or of the person charged."

(Words in brackets inserted by section 1(1)(a) of the Statutory Instruments (Production and Sale) Act 1996, as read with section 1(2))

Mistakes about the civil law
A mistake about the civil law may have the effect of negativing the mens rea for an offence. See:
 * Section 2(1)(a) of the Theft Act 1968
 * R v Smith (David Raymond) [1974] QB 354, 58 Cr App R 320, [1974] 2 WLR 20, [1974] 1 All ER 632, CA
 * R v Gould [1968] 2 QB 65, 52 Cr App R 152, [1968] 2 WLR 643, [1968] 1 All ER 849, CA
 * R v Barrett and Barrett, 72 Cr App R 212, [1980] Crim LR 641, CA

title: Mistake (criminal law)


text:
Apéry's constant

In mathematics, Apéry's constant is the sum of the reciprocals of the positive cubes. That is, it is defined as the number

\begin{align} \zeta(3) &= \sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{1}{n^3} \\ &= \lim_{n \to \infty} \left(\frac{1}{1^3} + \frac{1}{2^3} + \cdots + \frac{1}{n^3}\right), \end{align} $$

where $ζ$ is the Riemann zeta function. It has an approximate value of

The constant is named after Roger Apéry. It arises naturally in a number of physical problems, including in the second- and third-order terms of the electron's gyromagnetic ratio using quantum electrodynamics. It also arises in the analysis of random minimum spanning trees and in conjunction with the gamma function when solving certain integrals involving exponential functions in a quotient, which appear occasionally in physics, for instance, when evaluating the two-dimensional case of the Debye model and the Stefan–Boltzmann law.

Irrational number
$ζ(3) ≈ 1.20205 69031 59594  28539  97381  61511  44999  07649  86292  …$ was named Apéry's constant after the French mathematician Roger Apéry, who proved in 1978 that it is an irrational number. This result is known as Apéry's theorem. The original proof is complex and hard to grasp, and simpler proofs were found later.

Beukers's simplified irrationality proof involves approximating the integrand of the known triple integral for $ζ(3)$,

 * $$\zeta(3) = \int_0^1 \int_0^1 \int_0^1 \frac{1}{1-xyz}\, dx\, dy\, dz,$$

by the Legendre polynomials. In particular, van der Poorten's article chronicles this approach by noting that

 * $$I_3 := -\frac{1}{2} \int_0^1 \int_0^1 \frac{P_n(x) P_n(y) \log(xy)}{1-xy}\, dx\, dy = b_n \zeta(3) - a_n, $$

where $$|I| \leq \zeta(3) (1-\sqrt{2})^{4n}$$, $$P_n(z)$$ are the Legendre polynomials, and the subsequences $$b_n, 2 \operatorname{lcm}(1,2,\ldots,n) \cdot a_n \in \mathbb{Z}$$ are integers or almost integers.

It is still not known whether Apéry's constant is transcendental.

Classical
In addition to the fundamental series:
 * $$\zeta(3) = \sum_{k=1}^\infty \frac{1}{k^3},$$

Leonhard Euler gave the series representation:
 * $$\zeta(3) = \frac{\pi^2}{7} \left(1 - 4\sum_{k=1}^\infty \frac{\zeta (2k)}{2^{2k}(2k + 1)(2k + 2)}\right)$$

in 1772, which was subsequently rediscovered several times.

Fast convergence
Since the 19th century, a number of mathematicians have found convergence acceleration series for calculating decimal places of $ζ(3)$. Since the 1990s, this search has focused on computationally efficient series with fast convergence rates (see section "Known digits").

The following series representation was found by A. A. Markov in 1890, rediscovered by Hjortnaes in 1953, and rediscovered once more and widely advertised by Apéry in 1979:
 * $$\zeta(3) = \frac{5}{2} \sum_{k=1}^\infty (-1)^{k-1} \frac{k!^2}{(2k)! k^3}.$$

The following series representation gives (asymptotically) 1.43 new correct decimal places per term:
 * $$\zeta(3) = \frac{1}{4} \sum_{k=1}^\infty (-1)^{k-1} \frac{(k - 1)!^3 (56k^2 - 32k + 5)}{(2k - 1)^2(3k)!}.$$

The following series representation gives (asymptotically) 3.01 new correct decimal places per term:
 * $$\zeta(3) = \frac{1}{64} \sum_{k=0}^\infty (-1)^k \frac{k!^{10} (205k^2 + 250k + 77)}{(2k + 1)!^5}.$$

The following series representation gives (asymptotically) 5.04 new correct decimal places per term:
 * $$\zeta(3) = \frac{1}{24} \sum_{k=0}^\infty (-1)^k \frac{(2k + 1)!^3 (2k)!^3 k!^3 (126392k^5 + 412708k^4 + 531578k^3 + 336367k^2 + 104000k + 12463)}{(3k + 2)! (4k + 3)!^3}.$$

It has been used to calculate Apéry's constant with several million correct decimal places.

The following series representation gives (asymptotically) 3.92 new correct decimal places per term:
 * $$\zeta(3) = \frac{1}{2} \sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac{(-1)^k (2k)!^3 (k + 1)!^6 (40885k^5 + 124346k^4 + 150160k^3 + 89888k^2 + 26629k + 3116)}{(k + 1)^2 (3k + 3)!^4}.$$

Digit by digit
In 1998, Broadhurst gave a series representation that allows arbitrary binary digits to be computed, and thus, for the constant to be obtained in nearly linear time and logarithmic space.

Thue-Morse sequence
The following representation was found by Tóth in 2022:
 * $$ \begin{align}

\sum_{n\geq1} \frac{9 t_{n-1} + 7 t_n}{n^3} &= 8 \zeta(3),\end{align}$$ where $$(t_n)_{n\geq0}$$ is the $$n^{\rm th}$$ term of the Thue-Morse sequence. In fact, this is a special case of the following formula (valid for all $$s$$ with real part greater than $$1$$):
 * $$ (2^s+1) \sum_{n\geq1} \frac{t_{n-1}}{n^s} + (2^s-1) \sum_{n\geq1} \frac{t_{n}}{n^s} = 2^s \zeta(s).$$

Others
The following series representation was found by Ramanujan:
 * $$\zeta(3) = \frac{7}{180} \pi^3 - 2 \sum_{k=1}^\infty \frac{1}{k^3 (e^{2\pi k} - 1)}.$$

The following series representation was found by Simon Plouffe in 1998:
 * $$\zeta(3) = 14 \sum_{k=1}^\infty \frac{1}{k^3 \sinh(\pi k)} - \frac{11}{2} \sum_{k=1}^\infty \frac{1}{k^3 (e^{2\pi k} - 1)} - \frac{7}{2} \sum_{k=1}^\infty \frac{1}{k^3 (e^{2\pi k} + 1)}.$$

collected many series that converge to Apéry's constant.

Integral representations
There are numerous integral representations for Apéry's constant. Some of them are simple, others are more complicated.

Simple formulas
The following formula follows directly from the integral definition of the zeta function:
 * $$\zeta(3) = \frac1{2}\int_0^\infty \frac{x^2}{e^x - 1} \,dx$$

More complicated formulas
Other formulas include
 * $$\zeta(3) = \pi \int_0^\infty \frac{\cos(2\arctan x)}{(x^2 + 1) \left(\cosh\frac{1}{2}\pi x\right)^2} \,dx$$

and
 * $$\zeta(3) = -\frac{1}{2} \int_0^1 \!\!\int_0^1 \frac{\log(xy)}{1 - xy} \,dx\,dy = -\int_0^1 \!\!\int_0^1 \frac{\log(1 - xy)}{xy} \,dx\,dy.$$

Also,

\begin{align} \zeta(3) &= \frac{8\pi^2}{7} \int_0^1 \frac{x(x^4 - 4x^2 + 1) \log\log\frac{1}{x}}{(1 + x^2)^4} \,dx \\ &= \frac{8\pi^2}{7} \int_1^\infty \frac{x(x^4 - 4x^2 + 1) \log\log{x}}{(1 + x^2)^4} \,dx. \end{align} $$

A connection to the derivatives of the gamma function
 * $$\zeta(3) = -\tfrac{1}{2}(\Gamma'''(1) + \gamma^3+ \tfrac{1}{2}\pi^2\gamma) = -\tfrac{1}{2} \psi^{(2)}(1)$$

is also very useful for the derivation of various integral representations via the known integral formulas for the gamma and polygamma functions.

Known digits
The number of known digits of Apéry's constant $ζ(3)$ has increased dramatically during the last decades, and now stands at more than $2$. This is due both to the increasing performance of computers and to algorithmic improvements.

 * {| class="wikitable"

! Date || Decimal digits || Computation performed by
 * + Number of known decimal digits of Apéry's constant $ζ(3)$
 * 1735 ||align="right"| 16 || Leonhard Euler
 * Unknown ||align="right"| 16 || Adrien-Marie Legendre
 * 1887 ||align="right"| 32 || Thomas Joannes Stieltjes
 * 1996 ||align="right"| $520,000$ || Greg J. Fee & Simon Plouffe
 * 1997 ||align="right"| $1,000,000$ || Bruno Haible & Thomas Papanikolaou
 * May 1997 ||align="right"| $10,536,006$ || Patrick Demichel
 * February 1998 ||align="right"| $14,000,074$ || Sebastian Wedeniwski
 * March 1998 ||align="right"| $32,000,213$ || Sebastian Wedeniwski
 * July 1998 ||align="right"| $64,000,091$ || Sebastian Wedeniwski
 * December 1998 ||align="right"| $128,000,026$ || Sebastian Wedeniwski
 * September 2001 ||align="right"| $200,001,000$ || Shigeru Kondo & Xavier Gourdon
 * February 2002 ||align="right"| $600,001,000$ || Shigeru Kondo & Xavier Gourdon
 * February 2003 ||align="right"| $1,000,000,000$ || Patrick Demichel & Xavier Gourdon
 * April 2006 ||align="right"| $10,000,000,000$ || Shigeru Kondo & Steve Pagliarulo
 * January 21, 2009 ||align="right"| $15,510,000,000$ || Alexander J. Yee & Raymond Chan
 * February 15, 2009 ||align="right"| $31,026,000,000$ || Alexander J. Yee & Raymond Chan
 * September 17, 2010 ||align="right"| $100,000,001,000$ || Alexander J. Yee
 * September 23, 2013 ||align="right"| $200,000,001,000$ || Robert J. Setti
 * August 7, 2015 ||align="right"| $250,000,000,000$ || Ron Watkins
 * December 21, 2015 ||align="right"| $400,000,000,000$ || Dipanjan Nag
 * August 13, 2017 ||align="right"| $500,000,000,000$ || Ron Watkins
 * May 26, 2019 ||align="right"| $1,000,000,000,000$ || Ian Cutress
 * July 26, 2020 ||align="right"| $1,200,000,000,100$ || Seungmin Kim
 * December 22, 2023 ||align="right"| $2,020,569,031,595$ || Andrew Sun
 * }
 * February 2003 ||align="right"| ⇭⇭⇭ || Patrick Demichel & Xavier Gourdon
 * April 2006 ||align="right"| ⇭⇭⇭ || Shigeru Kondo & Steve Pagliarulo
 * January 21, 2009 ||align="right"| ⇭⇭⇭ || Alexander J. Yee & Raymond Chan
 * February 15, 2009 ||align="right"| ⇭⇭⇭ || Alexander J. Yee & Raymond Chan
 * September 17, 2010 ||align="right"| ⇭⇭⇭ || Alexander J. Yee
 * September 23, 2013 ||align="right"| ⇭⇭⇭ || Robert J. Setti
 * August 7, 2015 ||align="right"| ⇭⇭⇭ || Ron Watkins
 * December 21, 2015 ||align="right"| ⇭⇭⇭ || Dipanjan Nag
 * August 13, 2017 ||align="right"| ⇭⇭⇭ || Ron Watkins
 * May 26, 2019 ||align="right"| ⇭⇭⇭ || Ian Cutress
 * July 26, 2020 ||align="right"| ⇭⇭⇭ || Seungmin Kim
 * December 22, 2023 ||align="right"| ⇭⇭⇭ || Andrew Sun
 * }
 * December 21, 2015 ||align="right"| ⇭⇭⇭ || Dipanjan Nag
 * August 13, 2017 ||align="right"| ⇭⇭⇭ || Ron Watkins
 * May 26, 2019 ||align="right"| ⇭⇭⇭ || Ian Cutress
 * July 26, 2020 ||align="right"| ⇭⇭⇭ || Seungmin Kim
 * December 22, 2023 ||align="right"| ⇭⇭⇭ || Andrew Sun
 * }
 * July 26, 2020 ||align="right"| ⇭⇭⇭ || Seungmin Kim
 * December 22, 2023 ||align="right"| ⇭⇭⇭ || Andrew Sun
 * }
 * December 22, 2023 ||align="right"| ⇭⇭⇭ || Andrew Sun
 * }

Reciprocal
The reciprocal of $ζ(3)$ (0.8319073725807... ) is the probability that any three positive integers, chosen at random, will be relatively prime, in the sense that as $ζ(3)$ approaches infinity, the probability that three positive integers less than $N$ chosen uniformly at random will not share a common prime factor approaches this value. (The probability for n positive integers is $N$.) In the same sense, it is the probability that a positive integer chosen at random will not be evenly divisible by the cube of an integer greater than one. (The probability for not having divisibility by an n-th power is $1/ζ(n)$.)

Extension to $1/ζ(n)$
Many people have tried to extend Apéry's proof that $ζ(2n + 1)$ is irrational to other values of the zeta function with odd arguments. Infinitely many of the numbers $ζ(3)$ must be irrational, and at least one of the numbers $ζ(2n + 1)$, $ζ(5)$, $ζ(7)$, and $ζ(9)$ must be irrational.

title: Apéry's constant


text:
Affiche Rouge

The Affiche Rouge ( Red Poster) is a notorious propaganda poster, distributed by Vichy France and German authorities in the spring of 1944 in occupied Paris, to discredit 23 immigrant French Resistance fighters, members of the Manouchian Group. The term Affiche Rouge also refers more broadly to the circumstances surrounding the poster's creation and distribution, the capture, trial and execution of these members of the Manouchian Group.

Background
In mid-November 1943, the French police arrested 23 members of the Communist Francs-Tireurs et Partisans de la Main d'Oeuvre Immigrée (FTP-MOI), who were part of the French Resistance. They were called the "Manouchian Group" after the commander, Missak Manouchian. The group was part of a network of about 100 fighters, who committed nearly all acts of armed resistance in the Paris metropolitan region between March and November 1943.

Its membership included men of different backgrounds. 22 of them were Poles, five Italians, three Hungarians, two Armenians, three Spaniards, 1 French man and a Romanian woman; eleven members were Jewish.

After having been tortured and interrogated for three months, the 23 were tried by a German military court. To discredit the Resistance, the authorities invited French celebrities (from the world of the cinema and other arts) to attend the trial and encourage the media to give it the widest coverage possible. All but one of the Manouchian Group's members were executed before a firing squad in Fort Mont-Valérien on 21 February 1944. Olga Bancic, who had served the group as a messenger, was taken to Stuttgart, where she was beheaded with an axe on 10 May 1944.

In the spring of 1944, the Vichy authorities launched a propaganda campaign, designed to discredit the Manouchian Group and defuse public anger over their execution. They created a poster, which became known as Affiche Rouge, due to its red background. It featured ten men of the group, with nationality, surnames, photos and descriptions of their crimes; the Germans distributed an estimated 15,000 copies of the poster. Along with these posters, the Germans handed out flyers that claimed the Resistance was headed by foreigners, Jews, unemployed people, and criminals; the campaign characterized the Resistance as a "foreigners' conspiracy against French life and the sovereignty of France":

"Si des Français pillent, volent, sabotent et tuent... Ce sont toujours des étrangers qui les commandent. Ce sont toujours des chômeurs et des criminels professionnels qui exécutent. Ce sont toujours des juifs qui les inspirent. C’est l’armée du crime contre la France. Le banditisme n’est pas l’expression du Patriotisme blessé, c’est le complot étranger contre la vie des Français et contre la souveraineté de la France."

Although the poster attempted to depict the group as "terrorists", the campaign seems to have had the effect of highlighting the feats of people whom the general public considered to be freedom fighters. Legend has it that supporters scribbled the words MORTS POUR LA FRANCE across the posters ("They died for France" - the phrase used on official monuments to soldiers of France who died in combat) and put flowers beneath some of the posters. In 1975, historian Philippe Diaz Raymond claimed that there was no historical record of such activity. But more recent research has in fact confirmed that such additions by residents took place.

Legacy
In 1955, Louis Aragon wrote a poem memorializing the Manouchian Group, "Strophes pour se souvenir". The poem was published in 1956 in Le roman inachevé. In 1959 Léo Ferré set it to music and recorded it as "L'Affiche rouge". Rouben Melik and Paul Éluard also wrote poems in honour of the Manouchian Group.

In 1997, at the prompting of Robert Badinter, a French senator and former Minister of Justice, the French Parliament authorized a monument to commemorate the execution at Mont-Valérien of 1,006 citizens and members of the French Resistance, including the Manouchian Group, between 1940 and 1944. The sculptor Pascal Convert was commissioned to create the monument and Prime Minister Jean-Pierre Raffarin dedicated it on 20 September 2003.

Controversy
In the 1980s, some French political factions suggested that, because of political infighting, some members of the Resistance had been complicit in the capture of many of the members of the Manouchian Group. A film documentary by Stéphane Courtois and Mosco Boucault, Des terroristes à la retraite, shot in 1983 and broadcast by Antenne 2 in 1985, included interviews of surviving FTP-MOI members and families of the victims. Boucault accused the French Communist Party (PCF) of having deliberately sacrificed the fighters in the power struggle with the Gaullists for control over the National Council of Resistance (CNR). He suggested this was done because the fighters' foreign origins undermined French depictions of the Resistance as a native patriotic movement. In Des terroristes à la retraite, Boris Holban was accused of having betrayed groupe Manouchian, sparking a heated dispute known as L’Affaire Manouchian. The film was rebroadcast in 2001, minus 12 minutes deleted to reflect more recent historical research.

La traque de l'Affiche rouge, a documentary produced by Denis Peschanski and Jorge Amat, broadcast by France 2 on 15 March 2007, refuted Courtois and Boucault's allegations. Quoting the historian Denis Peschanski, who had access to new documents from the Russian, French and German archives, the new documentary alleged that the fall of the Manouchian Group had been due exclusively to the French police. The two newly created branches of the Renseignements généraux (RG) intelligence agency—the Brigades spéciales 1 and 2—had trailed the Résistance fighters for months. On 28 September 1943, Marcel Rayman, with several others, shot and killed the SS General Julius von Ritter. Ritter organized the forced labor of the Service du travail obligatoire (STO). At that time, Rayman had already been under surveillance for two months. The French Milice arrested and dismantled the Manouchian Group after the attack, aided by information given by some members under torture.

In September 2009, the dramatic film L'Armée du crime opened in France, featuring the story of the Manouchian Group. Directed by Robert Guédiguian, a Marseille-based filmmaker of German and Armenian parentage, it was adapted from a story by Serge Le Péron. It reflects some of the divisions among the Résistance. In association with the film's release, reporters interviewed the last surviving member of the FTP-MOI group, Arsène Tchakarian. He decisively refuted the allegation that the PCF had betrayed the Manouchian Group and said that 35 members of the 40 in the group were communists. The film opened in the United States in 2010.

Content
The poster reads: ''Des libérateurs? La libération par l'armée du crime!'' "Liberators? Liberation by the army of crime!"

From left to right, and top to bottom, individual portraits are labeled:
 * GRZYWACZ: Juif polonais, 2 attentats ("Polish Jew, 2 terrorist attacks")
 * ELEK: Juif hongrois, 8 déraillements ("Hungarian Jew, 8 derailments")
 * WASJBROT: Juif polonais, 1 attentat, 3 déraillements ("Polish Jew, 1 terrorist attack, 3 derailments")
 * WITCHITZ: Juif polonais, 15 attentats ("Polish Jew, 15 terrorist attacks" — although Witchitz was born in France, being unclear if he was in fact Jewish or of Polish ancestry)
 * FINGERCWAJG: Juif polonais, 3 attentats, 5 déraillements ("Polish Jew, 3 terrorist attacks, 5 derailments")
 * BOCZOV: Juif hongrois, chef dérailleur, 20 attentats ("Hungarian Jew, chief of derailment operations, 20 terrorist attacks")
 * FONTANOT: Communiste italien, 12 attentats ("Italian Communist, 12 terrorist attacks". He is known also as "Fontano")
 * ALFONSO: Espagnol rouge, 7 attentats ("Red Spaniard, 7 terrorist attacks")
 * RAYMAN: Juif polonais, 13 attentats ("Polish Jew, 13 terrorist attacks")
 * MANOUCHIAN: Arménien, chef de bande, 56 attentats, 150 morts, 600 blessés ("Armenian, boss of the gang, 56 terrorist attacks, 150 dead, 600 wounded")

The bottom features photographs of:
 * the right shoulder and right chest of a corpse, riddled by bullet holes
 * a dead body lying on the ground
 * a derailed locomotive
 * a derailed train
 * a collection of small arms, grenades, and bomb components, displayed on a table
 * another derailed train

Films

 * Fiction
 * Franck Cassenti, L'Affiche Rouge (1976)
 * Robert Guédiguian, L'Armée Du Crime (2009)
 * Documentary
 * Stéphane Courtois and Mosco Boucault, Des terroristes à la retraite (1983)
 * Pascal Convert, Mont-Valérien, aux noms des fusillés
 * Denis Peschanski – Jorge Amat, La traque de l’Affiche rouge (2007)

title: Affiche Rouge


text:
Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising

The Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising (FIDM) is a private college in downtown Los Angeles.

The college was founded in 1969 by Tonian Hohberg, the institute's president and CEO. In 2023, Arizona State University (ASU) announced that the Fashion Institute of Design and Merchandising in downtown Los Angeles will be part of the expansion of ASU's fashion education program, which will now be named ASU FIDM, and will operate in both Los Angeles and Phoenix.

Academics
The college offers 26 associate degree programs; a Bachelor of Science degree in business management, which is also available via distance learning; and nine Bachelor of Arts degree programs. The college also offers a master's in business administration degree.

The college is accredited by the WASC Senior College and University Commission. Due to a commission review finding problems in sustainability and faculty oversight in 2019, status has changed from "Accredited" to "Accredited with Notice of Concern". It is also an accredited institutional member of the National Association of Schools of Art and Design (NASAD).

Campuses
In addition to its Los Angeles campus, the college previously had three satellite campuses located in San Francisco, Orange County, and San Diego.

The main campus is the Los Angeles campus. The campus features the modern architecture of Clive Wilkinson,   innovative study spaces, a design studio, and the FIDM Museum and Galleries.

The San Francisco campus was located in Union Square. The Orange County Campus had lofts, an indoor/outdoor student lounge, bright colors, and a unique audiovisual igloo.

Students could take their first year of classes at the Orange County and San Francisco campuses, but had to transfer to the Los Angeles campus for their second year.

In popular culture
FIDM served as the location of Lifetime's Project Runway season six, Project Runway: Under the Gunn, Project Runway: Threads, and Project Runway: Junior. Several FIDM alumni, including Santino Rice, Daniel Franco, Guadalupe Vidal, Kelli Martin, and Leann Marshall, were contestants on the original Project Runway show. FIDM was also featured in the MTV show The Hills, which shows the life of upcoming fashion designer, Lauren Conrad, who comes from Laguna Beach and wants to become famous for her designs.

FIDM Museum
The Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising Museum, located at the Los Angeles Campus, is home to a large collection of fashion and costume pieces from the 1800s to today. The museum features permanent and temporary exhibits, including costumes and designs from early 20th-century Hollywood, theater, and current television shows and films. Currently, the art of costume design in television is being displayed until the start of November 2022. The FIDM Museum Permanent Collection features more than 15,000 objects representing over 200 years of fashion, spanning haute couture, ready-to-wear, international ensembles, film costumes, and fragrance. Highlights of the collection include the Lilli Ann, Michael Arnaud, Damask Cecil Beaton, Nancy Dinsmore, Rudi Gernreich, Stella Hanania, Helen Larson, Tina Leser, Maurice Levin, and Gianni Versace Menswear archives.

Due to COVID-19 concerns, the FIDM Museum Los Angeles and Orange County galleries are now closed. It is possible to browse the FIDM online collections.

Alumni

 * Princess Rajwa Al Hussein, Saudi architect and the wife of Hussein, Crown Prince of Jordan
 * Marina Toybina, costume designer
 * Lubov Azria, fashion designer
 * Katie Bender Wynn, filmmaker
 * Gessica Brooke, fashion and accessories designer
 * Amanda Bynes, fashion designer, actress
 * Lauren Conrad, author and fashion designer
 * Cris Crotz, Miss Nevada 2010
 * Candice Cuoco, fashion designer, Project Runway 14 finalist
 * Kyra Davis, novelist
 * Lil Debbie, rapper, model, and fashion designer
 * Nikita Dragun, Beauty YouTuber
 * Mario Hollands, pitcher for the Philadelphia Phillies
 * Sassa Jimenez, fashion designer, Philippines
 * Karen Kane, fashion designer
 * Lisa Kristine, fine art photographer
 * Michael Kuluva, fashion designer, professional figure skater, owner of Tumbler and Tipsy
 * Masiela Lusha, Albanian-American actress, poet, and humanitarian
 * Leanne Marshall, fashion designer, Project Runway 5 winner
 * Thai Nguyen, fashion designer and television personality
 * Trish Summerville, costume designer
 * Santino Rice, fashion designer, Project Runway 2 finalist
 * Yotam Solomon, fashion designer
 * Marlene Stewart, costume designer
 * Edwin Bodney, poet
 * Gottmik, drag performer, make-up artist
 * Samantha Richelle, actress and fashion designer

Faculty and staff

 * Kevin Reagan, graphic designer and author
 * Bradford Shellhammer, entrepreneur and designer, founding editor of Queerty
 * Nick Verreos, fashion designer