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Nationality law

Nationality law is the law of a sovereign state, and of each of its jurisdictions, that defines the legal manner in which a national identity is acquired and how it may be lost. In international law, the legal means to acquire nationality and formal membership in a nation are separated from the relationship between a national and the nation, known as citizenship. Some nations domestically use the terms interchangeably,  though by the 20th century, nationality had commonly come to mean the status of belonging to a particular nation with no regard to the type of governance which established a relationship between the nation and its people. In law, nationality describes the relationship of a national to the state under international law and citizenship describes the relationship of a citizen within the state under domestic statutes. Different regulatory agencies monitor legal compliance for nationality and citizenship. A person in a country of which he or she is not a national is generally regarded by that country as a foreigner or alien. A person who has no recognised nationality to any jurisdiction is regarded as stateless.

Principles
Nationality law can be broadly categorized into three principles:

 * 1) jus soli, or right by birth on the soil;
 * 2) jus sanguinis, or right of the blood; and
 * 3) jus matrimonii, or right of marriage.

Laws may be based on any one of these principles, but they commonly reflect a combination of all three principles. Generally speaking, countries in the Americas have a strong jus soli heritage.

Jus soli
Jus soli is the principle, whereby birth on a country's territorial jurisdiction—e.g., land, or in some cases, vessel registered as being registered as under the jurisdiction of that country (aeroplanes, ships)—confers nationality of the country of birth to the child. In most countries, this originated from the English common law tradition that all persons born on the King's land owed an allegiance to the King. This law was inherited by the colonies and subsequently codified into their own domestic laws, such as in the United States, Canada, Australia, etc.

Jus soli laws are not always absolute: sometimes countries with jus soli laws require lawful residence in the country before the authorities will observe this right, such as in Cambodia or Thailand. Sometimes jus soli laws only operate generationally, such as in some Middle-Eastern countries, where a child born in the territory will only acquire nationality if the child's father (regardless of parental nationality) was born in the same territory. Sometimes jus soli will be restricted by age.

There is also an intersection between the principles, wherein only persons of a certain race or blood will acquire nationality at birth. For instance, in Liberia, African-born persons will acquire nationality while those of non-African origin will not be entitled to this privilege.

Jus sanguinis
Jus sanguinis is the principle whereby the nationality of a person is dictated by their blood (i.e., parentage or ancestry). For instance, in Italy, nationality may be transmitted perpetually if one can find an Italian ancestor up until the founding of the Italian state in their lineage. By contrast, other states may restrict their jus sanguinis transmission of nationality up to the registration of the second generation down the family line.

Jus matrimonii
Some states automatically confer nationality on the basis of marriage. A prominent example of a country with jus matrimonii laws is Cape Verde.

The common practice within and among states at the beginning of the 20th century was that a woman should have the nationality of her husband; i.e., upon marrying a foreigner, the wife would automatically acquire the nationality of her husband and lose her previous nationality, often with the reciprocal recognition by the other country. Legal provisions existed that automatically naturalised married women, and sometimes married men as well. This led to a number of problems, such as: loss of the spouses' original nationality; spouses losing the right to consular assistance, as such cannot be provided to nationals under the jurisdiction of a foreign state of which they are also nationals; and men becoming subject to military service obligations.

There has been a shift towards a principle that neither marriage nor dissolution of marriage automatically affecting the nationality of either spouse, nor of a change of nationality by one spouse during marriage automatically affecting the nationality of their spouse. However, in many jurisdictions spouses can still obtain special and fast processing of applications for naturalisation.

Jus officii
Uniquely, citizenship of the Vatican City is jus officii, namely on the grounds of appointment to work in a certain capacity in the service of the Holy See. It usually ceases upon cessation of the appointment. Citizenship is also extended to the spouse and children of a citizen, provided they are living together in the city. Anyone who loses Vatican citizenship and does not possess other citizenship automatically becomes an Italian citizen as provided in the Lateran Treaty.

Naturalization
Most states today allow for aliens to acquire a nationality via a process known as naturalization on the basis of long-term residence and other conditions. This process and the conditions it entails are detailed in the states' nationality laws. Some nationality laws have special provisions to make it easier for diaspora populations to become nationals.

Limits to nationality law
By international custom, each sovereign state generally has the right to freely determine who it will recognise as its nationals and citizens. Such determinations may be made by custom, statutory law, case law (precedent), or a combination of either. In some cases, the determination may be governed by public international law—e.g., by treaties and the European Convention on Nationality.

Nevertheless, states' rights to determine who their nationals are is not absolute, and states must comply with their human rights obligations concerning the granting and loss of nationality. In particular, nationals must not be arbitrarily deprived of their nationality. The right to a nationality and the prohibition against depriving one's nationality is codified in article 15 of the "Universal Declaration of Human Rights".

Article 1 of the "Convention on Certain Questions Relating to the Conflict of Nationality Laws" states:

 * It is for each State to determine under its own law who are its nationals. This law shall be recognised by other States in so far as it is consistent with international conventions, international custom, and the principles of law generally recognised with regard to nationality.

The "Inter-American Court of Human Rights" went further in limiting state's right to determine nationality:

 * [T]he manners in which States regulate matters bearing on nationality cannot today be deemed within their sole jurisdiction; [the powers enjoyed by the States in that area] are also circumscribed by their obligations to ensure the full protection of human rights.

Ethnic group-related provisions, by country
The nationality laws of several countries have special provisions in them to simplify naturalization of favored ethnic groups. The laws in these countries appear to reflect a desire by governments to guarantee a safe haven to diaspora populations, particularly those assumed to be living under precarious conditions. A non-exhaustive list of such countries laws follows.

Armenia
Article 14 of the Constitution of Armenia (1995) provides that "individuals of Armenian origin shall acquire nationality of the Republic of Armenia through a simplified procedure." This provision is consistent with the Declaration on Independence of Armenia, issued by the Supreme Soviet of Armenia in 1989, which declared, in article 4, that "Armenians living abroad are entitled to the citizenship of the Republic of Armenia."

Bulgaria
According to the Constitution of Bulgaria, Article 25(2): "A person of Bulgarian origin shall acquire Bulgarian nationality through a facilitated procedure."

Chapter Two of the Bulgarian Citizenship Act is entitled "Acquisition of Bulgarian Citizenship", the first section of which is entitled "Acquisition of Bulgarian Citizenship by Origin", and provides at article 9 that "[a]ny person...whose descent from a Bulgarian citizen has been established by way of a court ruling shall be a Bulgarian citizen by origin." Separately, article 15 of the Act provides that "[a]ny person who is not a Bulgarian citizen may acquire Bulgarian citizenship...if he/she...is of a Bulgarian origin."

China
The immigration law of China gives priority to returning Overseas Chinese (i.e., ethnic Chinese who were living abroad), and as such, practically all immigrants to China are ethnic Chinese, including many whose families lived outside of China for generations. The Chinese government encourages the return of Overseas Chinese with various incentives not available to others, such as "tax breaks, high salaries and exemptions from the one-child policy if they had two children while living abroad." The "rights and interests of returned overseas Chinese" are afforded special protection according to Articles 50 and 89(12) of the Chinese Constitution.

Hong Kong
In April 2015, the Hong Kong Government announced a pilot scheme named "Admission Scheme for the Second Generation of Chinese Hong Kong Permanent Residents" (ASSG).

Taiwan
The immigration law of Taiwan (officially the Republic of China) gives priority to returning Taiwanese and overseas Chinese who are not nationals of the People's Republic of China, Chinese who were living abroad, and encourages their return. However, although Republic of China have not ceded the claim on mainland China, the government does not consider the people in mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau as Republic of China nationals.

Overseas ethnic Chinese can register as Republic of China national and apply for a Republic of China passport, however, they do not automatically have a right of return to Taiwan area if they don't have a household registration there.

Not all Republic of China nationals have a right of return to Taiwan area even if they hold a Republic of China passport—specifically, those without a household registration in Taiwan area do not automatically have the right of return, may be refused entry, removed or deported from Taiwan area, and an entry permit is needed before 2011.

Czech Republic
The Czech Republic grants nationality—and thus the right of residence—to anyone whose parents are or were Czech nationals, unless the individual is also a national of a country that has a treaty with the Czech Republic barring dual nationality of the Czech Republic and that country. Moreover, people of Czech origin might be granted the right to permanent residence (Czech origin is a reason worth of consideration).

In 1995, the Czech Republic amended its Nationality Law to provide the Interior Ministry with the discretion to waive the usual five-year residency requirement for foreigners that had been resettled in the Czech Republic by 31 December 1994. This amendment was aimed particularly at several hundred ethnic Czechs which had been brought by the Czech government from the Ukrainian region of Volhynia, and was of a limited duration. The amendment was consistent with what the Czech Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs has identified as "the Czech government's policy principles regarding the resettlement of foreigners of Czech origin living abroad." A private fund, the People In Need Czech TV Foundation, worked with government authorities between 1995 and 2001 to effect this resettlement in the specific instance of Russian and Kazakh nationals of Czech origin, and had resettled approximately 750 such persons as of 2000.

Finland
The Finnish Aliens Act provides for persons who are of Finnish origin to receive permanent residence. It is usually Ingrian Finns from the former Soviet Union who exercise this right, though American, Canadian, and Swedish nationals with Finnish ancestry are eligible.

The Finnish Immigration Service states that, under certain conditions, persons with "Finnish roots" or an otherwise "close connection to Finland" may receive a residence permit in Finland without the requirement of any further grounds (e.g., work or studies). Receiving a residence permit depends on the directness and closeness of Finnish ancestry. If the ancestry dates back several generations, a residence permit cannot be granted on this basis.

According to the Immigration Service, people who may be granted a residence permit based on these conditions can be divided into the following three groups:

 * former Finnish nationals
 * persons of other Finnish origin, including those who have at least one parent or grandparent who has been a native Finnish national.
 * persons who either were evacuated from Ingria or served in the Finnish army in 1939–1945. This group includes persons from areas of the former Soviet Union who have been determined to be of Finnish nationality by Soviet or post-Soviet authorities; or who have at least one parent or two grandparents who have been determined to be of Finnish nationality in official documents (e.g., in their internal passports). This group also includes all persons who were transferred to Finland between 1943 and 1943 from areas occupied by Germany and were subsequently returned to Soviet Union; or who served in the Finnish Defence Forces during the Second World War qualify. To qualify for permanent residence permit, the persons in this group must have a basic knowledge of spoken and written Finnish or Swedish. The knowledge is tested in pre-immigration training and in a subsequent language test. In addition, they must have a pre-arranged permanent residence in Finland, but the labour authorities assist in finding an apartment.

Greece
Various phenomena throughout Greek history (e.g., the extensive colonization by classical Greek city states; the vast expansion of Greek culture in Hellenistic times; the large dominions at times held by the Greek-speaking Byzantine Empire; and the energetic trading activity by Greeks under the Ottomans) all tended to create Greek communities far beyond the boundaries of modern Greece.

Recognizing this situation, Greece grants nationality to broad categories of people of ethnic Greek ancestry who are members of the Greek diaspora, including individuals and families whose ancestors have been resident in diaspora communities outside the modern state of Greece for centuries or millennia.

"Foreign persons of Greek origin," who neither live in Greece, hold Greek nationality, or were necessarily born there may become Greek nationals by enlisting in Greece's military forces, under article 4 of the Code of Greek Citizenship, as amended by the Acquisition of Greek Nationality by Aliens of Greek Origin Law (Law 2130/1993). Anyone wishing to do so must present a number of documents, including "[a]vailable written records...proving the Greek origin of the interested person and his ancestors."

India
A Person of Indian Origin (PIO) is a person living outside of India and without Indian nationality, but of Indian origin up to four generations removed. It is available to persons of Indian origin anywhere in the world as long as they have never been nationals of Pakistan or of Bangladesh (a reservation excluding Muslims who joined Pakistan during or after the 1947 partition). This unusual type of nationality by descent is an intermediate form of nationality in that it does not grant the full portfolio of rights enjoyed by Indian citizens.

The Citizenship (Amendment) Act 2003 and Citizenship (Amendment) Ordinance 2005 make provision for an even newer form of Indian nationality, the holders of which are to be known as Overseas Citizens of India (OCI). Overseas nationality is not substantially different from PIO rights. Holding either PIO or OCI status does, however, facilitate access to full Indian citizenship. An OCI who has been registered for five years, for instance, need be resident for only one year in India before becoming a full national.

Ireland
Irish nationality law provides for acquisition on the basis of at least one Irish grandparent. Note that, for the purposes of Irish nationality law, a person born anywhere on the island of Ireland is considered "Irish." (The island includes Northern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom, where British nationality law applies; thus, people born in Northern Ireland are entitled to both British and Irish nationality.)

The entitlement to nationality of all people born on Ireland and its islands was stipulated by the 1922 Constitution of the Irish Free State and the 1937 Constitution of Ireland, and reinforced by the 1998 Belfast Agreement. A person born outside of Ireland with entitlement to Irish nationality through a grandparent born in Ireland may pass that right on to her or his own children. To do so, however, that person must register her or his birth in Ireland's Foreign Births Register prior to the children's births. Irish law also automatically grants nationality at birth to any individual born abroad to a parent who was born in Ireland, without the need to register with the DFA prior to the granting of citizen's rights like holding an Irish passport.

Separately from this right, the Irish minister responsible for immigration may dispense with conditions of naturalisation to grant nationality to an applicant who "is of Irish descent or Irish associations," under section 15 of the Irish Nationality and Citizenship Act, 1986. With rare exceptions the applicant must be resident in the island of Ireland before applying for naturalisation.

Israel
The Law of Return is legislation enacted by Israel in 1950, that gives all Jews, persons of Jewish ancestry up to at least one Jewish grandparent, and spouses of Jews the right to immigrate to and settle in Israel and obtain nationality, and obliges the Israeli government to facilitate their immigration. Originally, the law applied to Jews only, until a 1970 amendment stated that the rights "are also vested in a child and a grandchild of a Jew, the spouse of a Jew, the spouse of a child of a Jew and the spouse of a grandchild of a Jew." This resulted in several hundreds of thousands of persons qualifying for immigration to Israel (mainly from the former Soviet Union) but not being recognized as Jews by the Israeli religious authorities, which on the basis of halakha recognize only the child of a Jewish mother as being Jewish. People who would be otherwise eligible for this law can be excluded if they can reasonably be considered to constitute a danger to the welfare of the state, have a criminal past, or are wanted fugitives in their countries with the exception of persecution victims. Jews who convert to another religion also lose the right of return. Since 1950 2,734,245 Jews have immigrated to Israel.

Japan
A special visa category exists exclusively for foreign descendants of Japanese emigrates (nikkeijin) up to the third generation, which provides for long-term residence, unrestricted by occupation, but most nikkeijin cannot automatically acquire Japanese nationality, and must instead go through the process of naturalization. However, the Minister of Justice can waive the age and residence requirements if an applicant for naturalization has a special relationship to Japan, such as a Japanese parent.

Norway
The Kola Norwegians were Norwegians who settled along the coastline of the Russian Kola Peninsula from approximately 1850 to the closure of the border in the 1920s. It is estimated that around 1000 Norwegians lived on the Kola peninsula in 1917. The Kola Norwegians were deported to or put in camps in other parts of Russia during the course of World War II.

It was only after 1990 that many of the Kola Norwegians again dared to emphasize their background. Only a few had been able to maintain a rusty knowledge of Norwegian. Some of them have migrated back to Norway. There are special provisions in the Norwegian rules of immigration and nationality which eases this process for many Kola Norwegians. These provisions are in general stricter than in some other countries giving "Right of return." In order to obtain a permit to immigrate and work in Norway a Kola Norwegian will have to prove an adequate connection to Norway such as having at least two grandparents from Norway. Citizenship will then be awarded according to regular rules. As of 2004 approximately 200 Kola Norwegians had moved back to Norway.

Philippines
Republic Act No. 9225, approved 29 August 2003, provided that all Philippine nationals who become nationals of another country shall be deemed not to have lost their Philippine nationality. It further states that natural-born Filipinos who have lost their Philippine nationality in this manner may repatriate by taking an oath of allegiance to the Republic, and that their children whether legitimate, illegitimate or adopted, below 18 years of age, shall be deemed nationals of the Philippines.

Russia
Russia offers citizenship to individuals descended from Russian ancestors who can demonstrate an affinity for Russian culture and, preferably, speak Russian. Concern about Russia's shrinking population prompted the program. This has had a positive effect because this has not only reversed Russia's population decline but has also increased the birth rate. Officials estimate that 25 million members of the Russian diaspora are eligible for nationality. The Foreign Ministry has sent emissaries to countries around the world to urge the descendants of Russian emigrants to return home. The majority of these emigrants have returned from Ukraine, many of them young men looking for better education and job opportunities. The Crimean War in 2014 triggered a mass exodus of ethnic Russians living in Crimea.

Spain
There are three categories of Spanish nationality:

 * 1) de origen ('original')
 * 2) por residencia ('by residence')
 * 3) por opción ('by choice')

De origen is (almost exclusively) acquired at the moment of birth, mainly to a Spanish parent, and can never be lost. Por residencia is acquired through a predetermined period of legal residency in Spain. This distinction is important because Spanish nationality laws primarily follow iure sanguinis, including those relating to the right of return.

The third category, por opción ('by choice'), is given to some people of Spanish origins that, though not complying with the requisites to attain nationality through origin, are able to prove close ties to Spain; this option is given mainly to the children of people that have attained or recovered Spanish nationality after their birth, but it has age limits and one must exercise this choice prior turning 20 (in some countries, like Argentina, prior turning 23, as majority of age is attained at 21 there). Most of the por opción clauses do not confer original status (except those included in the Historical Memory Law), thus it can be lost, and, in case one possesses nationality other than those described below as historically related to Spain (e.g., United States), renounce their current nationality in front of Spanish consular officials.

In practice this renunciation has little practical effect, and in some cases no effect, as only renunciations made to one's own country's officials has an effect on the linked nationality. The Historical Memory Law (Ley de Memoria Histórica) which took effect in December 2008, introduced temporary two-year changes to current Spanish nationality laws. Those whose father or mother were born original Spaniards (regardless of their place of birth, whether they are still living, or whether they currently hold Spanish nationality) and those whose grandparents emigrated due to political or economic reasons will have the right to de origen Spanish nationality. Until and while the Law of Historic Memory takes effect, the following laws will also apply:

 * 1) Natural-born Spanish emigrants (mainly exiles from the Spanish Civil War and economic migrants) and their children are eligible to recover their de origen Spanish nationality without the requirement of residence in Spain. They also have the right to maintain any current nationality they possess.
 * 2) Regardless of their place of birth, the adult children and grandchildren of original Spaniards (original Spaniards are those who, at the moment of their birth, were born to people who possessed Spanish citizenship) can also access Spanish nationality on softer terms than other foreigners: they require just 1 year of legal residence, and they are exempted from work restrictions. This law in practice also benefits the great-grandchildren of emigrant Spaniards as long as their grandparents (born outside of Spain) are/were original Spaniards.
 * 3) Ibero-Americans and nationals of other countries historically related to Spain (Portugal, Andorra, Philippines, and Equatorial Guinea) also have a Right of Return: They can apply to Spanish nationality after 2 years of legal residence (the usual time is 10 years for most foreigners) and they have the right to keep their birth nationality.
 * 4) Those of Sephardic Jewish origin also have the right to apply for nationality after a year of legal residency in Spain. Since the rediscovery of Sephardi Jews during the campaigns of General Juan Prim in Northern Africa, the Spanish government has taken friendly measures towards the descendants of the Jews expelled from Spain in 1492 under the Alhambra Decree and persecuted by the Spanish Inquisition. The motivation for these measures was a desire to repair a perceived injustice, the need of a collaborative base of natives in Spanish Morocco, and an attempt to attract the sympathy of wealthy European Sephardis like the Pereiras of France. The Alhambra Decree was revoked.

In November 2012, the Spanish government announced that it would eliminate the residency period for Sephardic Jews, and permit them to maintain dual nationality, on the condition that such naturalization applicants presented a certificate of their Sephardic status from the Federation of Jewish Communities in Spain.

Spanish diplomacy exercised protection over Sephardis of the Ottoman Empire and the independent Balkanic states succeeding it. The government of Miguel Primo de Rivera decreed in 1924 that every Sephardi could claim Spanish nationality. This right was used by some refugees during the Second World War, including the Hungarian Jews saved by Ángel Sanz Briz and Giorgio Perlasca. This decree was again put to use to receive some Jews from Sarajevo during the Bosnian War.

In October 2006, the Andalusian Parliament asked the three parliamentary groups that form the majority to support an amendment that would ease the way for Morisco descendants to gain Spanish nationality. The proposal was originally made by IULV-CA, the Andalusian branch of the United Left. Such a measure might have benefited an indeterminate number of people, particularly in Morocco. However, the call went unheeded by the central Spanish authorities.

Ukraine
According to Ukrainian law, anyone who was a citizen of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic who was residing in Ukraine at the time of its declaration of independence and any stateless person living on the territory of Ukraine at the moment of its declaration of independence was granted nationality. Anyone born abroad to at least one parent with Ukrainian nationality, including permanent residents of Ukraine, is entitled to Ukrainian nationality. Children born within the territory of Ukraine to at least one Ukrainian parent, stateless persons with at least one Ukrainian grandparent, and children adopted by Ukrainian citizens are also eligible to become nationals.

United Kingdom
The British Nationality Act 1948 conferred full and equal nationality and settlement rights in Britain on all 800 million subjects of the worldwide British Empire. The Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1968, amending legislation passed in 1962, removed the right of entry from 200,000 south Asians long resident in British East Africa who had become the victims of the Africanization drive in newly independent Kenya and wished to move to Britain. The act required "substantial connection" to Britain, defined as:

1. birth or the birth of a parent or grandparent in the United Kingdom;

2. a parent or grandparent who was Naturalised in the United Kingdom;

3. a parent or grandparent who became a national of the United Kingdom or its colonies by adoption;

4. had acquired British Nationality under legislation passed in 1948 or 1964.

Further provisions extended rights to stepchildren. The wording of this legislation refers to 'Citizenship', 'Naturalisation' and 'Residence', and at no point refers to any specific ethnicity or ethnic group. Announcing his support for right of return legislation in Britain, Member of Parliament Quintin Hogg stated that, "All the great nations of the earth have what the Jews call a Diaspora," and affirmed that nations "special and residual obligation(s) toward them," which include recognizing their right to nationality.

The Immigration Act 1971 affirmed the principles of the 1968 legislation, giving the right of immigration to the grandchildren of British nationals and nationals born in the Commonwealth nations. It was in effect long enough to enable the descendants of ethnic Britons to return to Britain from the former colonies.

The British Nationality Act 1981 differentiated between British nationality, British Overseas Citizenship, and British Dependent Territory Citizenship, recognizing the right of settlement only for British nationals. It is notable that it was enacted after the contraction of the Empire was completed, and was offered to all substantial populations of descendants of ethnic Britons in the former colonies.

United States
The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, the latest of a series of such Acts, establishes nationality law of the United States. This is codified in Chapter 12 of Title 8 of the U.S. Code, in which section 101(a)(22) states that the term "national of the United States" means:

1. "a citizen of the United States;" or

2. "a person who, though not a citizen of the United States, owes permanent allegiance to the United States." The explanatory comments of this section, when originally written in 1940, provided clarification that all citizens were nationals of the United States but not all nationals were citizens.

Other countries

 * Belarus: The Citizenship Act of the Republic of Belarus (2002) states that permanent-residence term requirements may be waived for ethnic Belarusians and descendants of ethnic Belarusians born abroad.
 * Croatia: Article 11 of Croatia's law on nationality (Zakon o hrvatskom državljanstvu) defines emigrants (iseljenik), and provides privileges by excluding them from certain conditions imposed on others. The Croatian diaspora makes use of this to obtain dual nationality or to return to Croatia.
 * Estonia: Article 36 (3) of the Constitution of Estonia states that "Every Estonian is entitled to settle in Estonia."
 * Ghana: Ghana's right of abode law allows for people of African descent to settle in the country.
 * Hungary: In 2010, Hungary passed a law granting nationality and the right of return to descendants of Hungarians living mostly on the former territory of the Hungarian Kingdom and now residing in Hungary's neighbouring countries. Slovakia, which has 500,000 ethnic Magyar citizens (10% of its population) objected vociferously.
 * Iraq: see Iraqi nationality law.
 * Kazakhstan: see Oralman.
 * Lithuania: From the Constitution of Lithuania, Article 32(4): "Every Lithuanian person may settle in Lithuania."
 * Poland: From the Constitution of Poland, Article 52(5): "Anyone whose Polish origin has been confirmed in accordance with statute may settle permanently in Poland." (see Polish nationality law.)
 * Portugal: On April 12, 2013, the Portuguese parliament approved unanimously an amendment to its nationality laws which would permit the descendants of Jews expelled from Portugal in the 16th century to become Portuguese citizens.
 * Romania: Romania extends nationality to all former nationals, as well as to the children and grandchildren of those who have lost their Romanian nationality, regardless of ethnic background.
 * South Korea: "Overseas Korean" are eligible for dual nationality.
 * Serbia: Article 23 of the 2004 nationality law provides that the descendants of emigrants from Serbia, or ethnic Serbs residing abroad, may take up nationality upon written declaration.

title: Nationality law


text: User talk:69.173.208.195

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:69.173.208.195


text:
User talk:81.182.153.8

This is your last warning. The next time you insert a spam link, you will be blocked from editing Wikipedia. andy 11:13, 20 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:81.182.153.8


text:
Talk:Cisco Videoscape

Company Name
NDS does NOT stand for "News Digital Systems", thus the title of this topic is wrong. Try checking this on Google.
 * True, it actually stands for "NDS" now, but the company is best known as News Datacom still. --21:55, 9 September 2005 (UTC) Unsigned comment by User:Kiand
 * News Datacom is not acceptable as the title for this article. It is officially NDS Group plc, as such I have moved it to NDS Group. Moving it to News Datacom is like moving British Airways to BOAC (what it was called in 1974). Mark83 00:54, 2 November 2005 (UTC)
 * I moved it to the name thats most commonly used, which is the usual procedure - find any satellite box maker that doesn't use the term "News Datacom" as the 'friendly' name for Videoguard's CA provider ID.
 * Not asking for it to be moved back, mind. I didn't move it to NDS as thats a disambig page and assumed this would be the best possible alternative. --Kiand 19:34, 7 November 2005 (UTC)
 * So did the company acronym at least originally stand for "News Digital Systems"? Maikel 10:04, 22 January 2006 (UTC)
 * I'd guess it means "News Datacom Systems". --Kiand 13:17, 22 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Thanks for your input, but according to the folks over at NDS it's News Digital Systems. Maikel 15:15, 23 January 2006 (UTC)

"News Digital Systems" is indeed correct.Briefnexact 03:25, 20 April 2007 (UTC) Briefnexact

scanning electron microscope ?
Can someone explain this ? As far as I understand ... if it's on the smart-card (and it's needed by the box) the reader will read it eventually.
 * When attempting to extract information from a card that isn't available to a box, you can't just use a reader. And you generally destroy secure microprocessors generally fuse themselves if you attempt to use them in the 'wrong type' of reader anyway. --Kiand 16:50, 1 August 2006 (UTC)

scanning electron microscope - Availability
A google search with the terms "scanning electron microscope unit university" suggests almost every university has one in their biology department. 81.99.206.182 (talk) 06:50, 28 May 2008 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Nds color.jpg
Image:Nds color.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot 04:23, 7 November 2007 (UTC)
 * Is it OK now? lkitross (talk) 06:40, 17 April 2009 (UTC)

Tax evasion investigation
I think this subject should be removed; literally dozens of companies are investigated for tax evasion in Israel yearly - if they haven't been indicted, it means absolutely nothing... 79.182.177.251 (talk) 17:04, 11 April 2008 (UTC)
 * "literally dozens" (dozen = 12 - thus dozens is a multiple of 12) out of how many? I would imagine "dozens" are investigated in most countries each year, that doesnt make it potentally any less serious.
 * It also needs better sourcing and perhaps more detail of what happened - and that should be the sole arbiter of whether it remains in. Pit-yacker (talk) 17:30, 11 April 2008 (UTC)

Too advertisement-like?
Flag for this? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 217.35.76.243 (talk) 13:27, 3 July 2012 (UTC)

Messed Up
As a Jew, I am entitled to say that News Corp. has messed up an Israeli company.

173.57.39.131 (talk) 23:56, 4 July 2012 (UTC)Anonymous

This page is indeed completely messed up. Synamedia Holdings Limited is a new company and not the same as the Israeli company NDS Group Ltd. which was integrated into it: https://beta.companieshouse.gov.uk/company/11305472

--D00kSI (talk) 23:19, 3 December 2019 (UTC)

M&A
Not all of Synamedia is NDS/Videoscape. There's a lot of SA in there too. I think some other acquisitions also. It's disingenuous to say NDS makes up the entire company -- it's a bit over half the company I think.

Not editing the article, I am a biased insider. 208.116.162.162 (talk) 15:34, 13 September 2019 (UTC)

Restoring recently deleted factual history
Reading this page, I noticed that factual information had been deleted and that there were several historical inconsistencies. Following are points to note: Moshe Rubin (talk) 13:39, 3 February 2022 (UTC)
 * The original founders' names were removed from the article. The names, originally inserted in this article on 24 June 2015, were deleted on 3 February 2021.
 * The sentence beginning "The company was established in Har Hotzvim" was removed because of two factual inaccuracies:
 * The company was established in downtown Jerusalem.
 * It did not receive special tax incentives for starting in Jerusalem; rather it was the city where all the founders lived.
 * Minor typos (e.g., correcting Bruce Hundertmark's family name, "Datacom" with a small 'c')

title: Talk:Cisco Videoscape


text:
Simon Trumper

Simon Trumper (born 31 May 1963) is an English professional poker player from South Kensington, London, England. He is chiefly noted as the winner of Late Night Poker series 2 and runner-up of series 4. Trumper also commentated on the Late Night Poker Ace spin-off series alongside Jesse May.

As a child, Trumper was expelled from secondary school for playing poker dice after finishing a mathematics exam. He started playing in 1995 when he entered a £10 tournament in Reading with a friend on a night out. He was also bullied a lot due to his surname 'Trumper'.

At the World Series of Poker he has had a 4th-place finish in the 2002 $3,000 No Limit Hold-Em event, which also featured Johnny Chan and Kathy Liebert, and a 4th-place finish in the 2005 $10,000 Pot Limit Omaha event, which also featured Todd Brunson, Barry Greenstein (who lost a critical pot to Simon and then complained about it in his blog), Erik Seidel, and Julian "The Kid" Gardner. He has not yet featured in the World Poker Tour.

In May 2005, he reached the fourth round of the €2,000 World Heads-Up Championship, earning €3,250.

Trumper owns a pair of gold and diamond aces to cap his cards as a good luck charm. He admires Dave "The Devilfish" Ulliott, T. J. Cloutier and Erik Seidel above all other poker players.

He is a non-smoker, and would like to see smoking banned from all poker games. Trumper suffers from the hair loss condition, Alopecia.

As of 2023, he has had consistent success in events around the world and his total live tournament winnings exceed $1,600,000.

title: Simon Trumper


text:
Fokker D.XXI

The Fokker D.XXI fighter was designed in 1935 by Dutch aircraft manufacturer Fokker in response to requirements laid out by the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force (Militaire Luchtvaart van het Koninklijk Nederlands-Indisch Leger, ML-KNIL).

The D.XXI was designed as an inexpensive, rugged, and compact fighter aircraft that would possess respectable performance for its era. Entering operational use in the early years of the Second World War, it provided yeoman service for both the Luchtvaartafdeling (Dutch Army Aviation Group) and the Finnish Air Force. Additionally, a few examples were constructed by the El Carmolí factory before it fell into rebel hands during the Spanish Civil War. Following the invasion and occupation of the Netherlands in May 1940, several captured Dutch D.XXIs were subsequently placed into service with the Luftwaffe.

Origins
On 14 November 1934, design proposals for a new fighter aircraft were submitted by Fokker to the Luchtvaartafdeling (Dutch Army Aviation Group). Fokker's design team, led by Erich Schatzki, and based at the firm's newly completed plant in the southern district of Amsterdam, had sought to incorporate and combine various new concepts and recent features from successful fighter aircraft, including the previous C.X and D.XVII aircraft. The proposed aircraft was a low-wing monoplane which adopted an entirely enclosed cockpit; initial design work had been conducted in cooperation with British engine manufacturer Rolls-Royce, and it had been originally envisaged that the type would be powered by a Rolls-Royce Kestrel IV. Projections of the aircraft's performance included a maximum speed of 420 km/h at an altitude of 4,350 meters, a range of 888 km, and an altitude ceiling of 10,000 meters. The planned armament included rifle-calibre machine guns or 20mm cannons, which were to be embedded into the wings and fuselage.

In early 1935, the Luchtvaartafdeling signed a contract for a single prototype of the proposed fighter to be constructed for an evaluation to be performed by the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army. This prototype, designated FD-322, which was powered by a single Bristol Mercury VI-S radial engine which drove a three-blade, two-pitch propeller, performed its maiden flight at Welschap Airfield, Eindhoven, on 27 March 1936. According to aviation author G.H. Kamphuis, the prospects for series production of the new fighter looked doubtful shortly after the first flight was performed due to a high level change in Dutch defence policy; Minister for Foreign Affairs Hendrik Colijn informed the Ministry of War that, in response to the changing international situation, a higher priority would be placed on building up a substantial bomber capability over new fighter aircraft. The change in policy emphasising bombers over fighters was somewhat controversial, in part due to order for new fighters and reconnaissance aircraft being both under consideration at this time, while a requirement for a new training aircraft had also been identified.

In addition to the Luchtvaartafdeling's interest in a trainer aircraft, the service had also attached great importance to the concept of a heavily armed 'cruiser' aircraft capable of performing multiple mission types. Further doubts and confusion were added by the emergence of a competing aircraft proposal in the form of the Koolhoven F.K.58, which had also been designed by Ir. Schatzki. The F.K.58 was somewhat more advanced than the D.XXI, possessing a retractable undercarriage and a higher top speed of 520 kmh. It was decided that the D.XXI and F.K.58 should participate in a series of comparative tests against one another, leading to the D.XXI prototype being dispatched to Soesterberg Air Base, Utrecht, in November 1936. However, head-to-head testing between the two types was delayed by the F.K.58, which did not perform its first flight until September 1938.

Into production
During 1937, the Dutch government gave funding and its approval for a limited expansion of the Army Aviation Group, which resulted in an order being placed for 36 Fokker D.XXI fighters, to be powered by the 830 h.p. Bristol Mercury VII or VIII engines. According to Kamphuis, Dutch interest in the D.XXI had been revived, in part, due to an examination of the first aircraft by an evaluation board, which itself had been conducted due to interest expressed by the Finnish Air Force, which itself would result in export sales being made to Finland. On 20 July 1938, the first Luchtvaartafdeling D.XXI conducted its first flight, after which it participated in test flights prior to deliver to Soesterberg. On 8 September 1939, the final aircraft of the first batch of 36 was delivered.

Even as the domestic demand for the D.XXI was being questioned, the type had attracted the attention of a number of foreign governments. In 1937, the Finnish government decided to place an order for an initial batch of seven aircraft, further negotiations were also conducted towards the acquisition of a manufacturing license, under which Finland proceeded to domestically produce further aircraft as well. Between 1939 and 1944, the State Aircraft Factory (Valtion Lentokonetehdas) at Tampere manufactured a total of 93 aircraft.

Throughout 1940 and 1941, the Finnish State Aircraft Factory set about reconditioning the aircraft that had been used in the Winter War for continued service; an additional 50 D.XXIs were ordered in 1941, which were powered by the Pratt & Whitney R-1535 Twin Wasp Junior engine, acquired via Sweden. These can be identified by their longer cockpit glazing, smooth cowl, and large ventral air intake under the cowl. The two fuselage-mounted machine guns on these D.XXIs were relocated in the wings and the vertical tail surface was increased in size to offset the new engine. Owing to the increased loaded weight, the R-1535-powered D.XXI had a slightly reduced performance and was not as maneuverable as the Mercury-powered versions. In 1944, five additional Finnish D.XXIs were assembled from spares.

The Danish government ordered a pair of D.XXI fighters along with arrangements for its own manufacturing license. The Danish D.XXI fighters were powered by a 645 h.p. Bristol Mercury VI-S radial and carried a Madsen 20 mm cannon under each wing. Ten aircraft were completed by the Royal Army Aircraft Factory in Copenhagen prior to the German invasion of Denmark in April 1940. The Second Spanish Republic also acquired a manufacturing license for the D.XXI. Reportedly, a total of 50 fuselages were manufactured on the Spanish production line; however, the Spanish plant in which the fighter was being produced was overrun by Nationalist forces before any of the Spanish-built aircraft were completed. Some sources say that a single Spanish D.XXI managed to escape capture after the production facility was captured.

Design

The Fokker D.XXI was a low-wing monoplane fighter aircraft. Following standard Fokker design practice of the period, it featured a welded steel tube fuselage that was largely covered by fabric, including the flight control surfaces; element forward of the trailing edges of the wings were covered by detachable aluminum panels instead. The wings were of a wooden construction, being composed of two box spars attached to ribs made of plywood. The aircraft was outfitted with a fixed spatted undercarriage with cantilever legs; braking was provided by independently-operated pedals using compressed air.

The cockpit of the D.XXI was fully enclosed by a plexiglas hood featuring large sliding sections, and was entirely jettisonable in an emergency situation to enable pilots to bail out. Pilots were protected against turnover injuries by means of a pylon built into the structure of the aircraft set behind the seat. Fuel was housed in a 77 impgal tank located aft of the engine, wing-mounted auxiliary fuel tanks could also be installed. The main armament consisted of two pairs of 7.92mm M36 FN-Browning machine guns, one pair housed within the wings, carrying 300 rounds of ammunition each, and the other pair within the forward fuselage and shooting through the propeller blades, carrying 500 rounds each.

Upon its entry to service in 1938, the D.XXI represented a significant leap forward for the Dutch Army Aviation Group, whose fighter force had until that time consisted of aging biplanes with open cockpits. The new Fokker quickly proved to be an extremely sturdy aircraft, being capable of attaining a speed of 700 km/h in a dive.

During the early production of the D.XXI, Fokker's design office considered a number of developments to the basic design, including a wing re-design. A number of alternative engines were considered, including such power plants as the 650 hp Rolls-Royce Kestrel V and the 750 hp Pratt and Whitney Twin Wasp Junior. During 1938, work on three extensively modified versions known as the 150, 151 and 152 were initiated. These aircraft were to be powered by the 1375 hp Bristol Hercules, the 1050 hp Rolls-Royce Merlin and the 1090 hp Daimler-Benz DB 600H. Retractable landing gear was incorporated into these redesigns.

Operational history
The Fokker D.XXI was first used in combat by the Finnish Air Force during the 1939–1940 Winter War between the Soviet Union and Finland. Upon the war's outbreak, a total of 41 aircraft were in Finnish service, all powered by the Mercury VIII engine. On 1 December 1939, the D.XXI achieved its first victory with the shooting down of a Soviet Tupolev SB. The Fokker was evenly matched against the aircraft of the Soviet Air Force, and its rugged design with a radial engine and fixed undercarriage made it well suited for Finnish conditions. The performance of the Finnish D.XXI allegedly won the admiration of many Soviet pilots.

As the Winter War continued and newer models of Soviet fighters appeared, the Fokker D.XXI proved to be increasingly underpowered and too lightly armed (with only four 7.92 mm/.312 in machine guns) to compete; plans to arm the Fokkers with 20 mm cannons were dropped, and only one fighter was armed with two 20 mm cannons and two 7.92 mm/.312 in machine guns. Another fighter was equipped with retractable landing gear, but due to less than anticipated performance improvement was not continued in the series. The fixed undercarriage lent itself to both unimproved runways and conversion to skis for winter use, both of which were advantages in the Finnish theater. A total of 12 D.XXI aircraft were lost during the conflict, six being lost to accidents rather than enemy action.

The conflict between Finland and the Soviet Union was resumed in the Continuation War (1941–1944), the D.XXI was again a key element of the Finnish Air Force. During the first air battle, six Mercury-engined D.XXIs shot down a pair of Soviet Ilyushin DB-3 bombers. Several Finnish Air Force pilots became fighter aces with the Fokker D.XXI. The top scoring Fokker ace, Jorma Sarvanto, obtained 12 5/6 victories with the type; many other future aces also scored at least one victory with the Fokker. The highest scoring airframe was FR-110, achieving 10 victories; this aircraft survived the war and is on display at the Central Finland Aviation Museum. Finland continued to operate their D.XXIs until 1949, and classified them as surplus to requirements in 1952.

Although the order by the ML-KNIL was cancelled, the Luchtvaartafdeling (Dutch Army Air Force before World War II) placed an order of 36 aircraft, which were all delivered in time to participate in the war against the Germans in May 1940. On 10 May 1940, the day that Germany launched its invasion of the Netherlands, 28 D.XXIs were serviceable and ready for operations. That first day, six D.XXIs escorted a formation of Fokker T.V bombers to attack the Meuse bridges to hinder the German advance; they were intercepted by nine German Messerschmitt Bf 109s, and during the ensuing dogfight, one Bf 109 was shot down and two more damaged for the loss of one D.XXI and two T.Vs. That same day, a flight of D.XXIs intercepted and shot down 37 out of 55 inbound Junkers Ju 52 transports which had crossed the border during the early morning.

Due to many aircraft becoming unserviceable as a result of battle damage after the first day, it was decided to regroup at Buiksloot, north of Amsterdam, on 11 May. For the following four days, missions out of Buiksloot were flown by D.XXIs flying in both solo and small formations to escort friendly units as well as in the search-and-destroy role. On 11 May, at least two Bf 109s were recorded as having been shot down by D.XXI fighters. Sorties against the numerically superior German forces continued until the middle of 14 May, at which point news of the Dutch capitulation reached Buiksloot, upon which both the remaining aircraft and the airstrip were destroyed to prevent their use by the Germans. Out of the original force of 28 D.XXI aircraft, eight fighters had remained airworthy. The D.XXI, although much slower and more lightly armed than the Bf 109, performed surprisingly well in combat due to its manoeuvrability. It was also one of the few aircraft that could follow a Stuka bomber into its dive. Nonetheless, the numerical superiority of the Luftwaffe led to the destruction of most Luchtvaartafdeling D.XXI fighters during the campaign. Some were captured during and after 15 May, but their later fates are unknown.

The LVA (Netherlands Air Force) scored a total of 38 victories against the Luftwaffe during their struggle against the German juggernaut. 16 of those went to Fokker D.XXI pilots.

Variants

 * D.XXI: Prototype serial no FD-322
 * D.XXI-1: Pattern aircraft supplied to Denmark, three built, powered by 645 hp Bristol Mercury VIS engines. Armed with 2x 8 mm machine guns and 2x 20 mm Madsen cannon
 * D.XXI-1:Production aircraft built at the Royal Army Aircraft Factory, ten built powered by 830 hp Bristol Mercury VIII engines.
 * D.XXI-2: 53 Built, of which 36 were delivered to the RNLAF.
 * D.XXI-3: Finnish license-built D.XXI-2s, fitted with additional 20 mm cannons in 1940. Number built: 35
 * D.XXI-4: Upgraded D.XXI-3, powered by 825 hp Pratt & Whitney R-1535-SB4C-G Twin Wasp Junior engines. Number built: 55
 * Project 150: Proposed version powered by a Bristol Hercules radial piston engine. Not built.
 * Project 151: Proposed version powered by a Rolls-Royce Merlin piston engine. Not built.
 * Project 152: Proposed version powered by a Daimler-Benz DB 600H engine. Not built.

Operators

 * Hærens Flyvertropper (Danish Army Aviation Troops) – Received three aircraft and built ten on license. Locally designated as "IIIJ" ("third fighter aircraft").
 * Jydske Flyverafdeling – two. Eskadrille
 * Finnish Air Force – Received seven aircraft and built 90 on license.
 * No. 10 Squadron, Finnish Air Force
 * No. 12 Squadron, Finnish Air Force
 * No. 14 Squadron, Finnish Air Force
 * No. 24 Squadron, Finnish Air Force
 * No. 26 Squadron, Finnish Air Force
 * No. 30 Squadron, Finnish Air Force
 * No. 32 Squadron, Finnish Air Force
 * Nazi Germany
 * Luftwaffe – Operated an unknown number of captured Dutch aircraft.
 * Dutch Army Aviation Group – Received 36 aircraft.
 * 🇪🇸 Spanish Republic
 * Spanish Republican Air Force – May have completed one aircraft.
 * Dutch Army Aviation Group – Received 36 aircraft.
 * 🇪🇸 Spanish Republic
 * Spanish Republican Air Force – May have completed one aircraft.

Aircraft on display

In 2022, a flyable replica was completed at by veteran aircraft restorer Jack van Egmond. A number of original parts was used and the plane was built according to original Fokker build specifications as Jack van Egmond is in possession of 397 out of 416 Fokker blueprints. It made its first flight on 23 May 2022.

title: Fokker D.XXI


text:
Talk:Plockton

Railway stations
Does Plockton have two railway stations, Plocton and Duncraig?
 * Laurel Bush 11:17, 20 July 2005 (UTC).

 * Er, no. Duncraig is nearby.  I made it as a redirect, a while before I wrote the page on the Kyle Line.  There is a small bit of information about Duncraig Castle on the Plockton page, hence the redirect.  Nowhere does it actually say that Duncraig Castle or station are actually in Plockton though... Maccoinnich 16:56, July 20, 2005 (UTC)

Er ... thanks.
 * Laurel Bush 10:16, 21 July 2005 (UTC).

Millennium
It appears that Ken Bruce presented three hours of live coverage from Plockton on BBC Radio 2 to see in the New Year in 2000. What was all that about? Was anything special going on there? Did anyone hear the programme or know what it consisted of? 11:38, 7 January 2007 (UTC)

 * I think it might have had something to do with the fact that his brother lives there. It was live from the village hall.  As I recall, it was a mixture of music and talk, and was cut between Plockton and Jerusalem!  Maccoinnich 22:25, 7 January 2007 (UTC)

Climate - year
I may be obtuse, but 29.4 (84.9) for 'year' in the climate section seems odd. Burraron (talk) 12:49, 18 May 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Plockton


text:
Talk:List of Dacian plant names

Untitled
I'm going to use this talk page to detail the source of every entry, which is the only way to get things done:

Alexander 007 11:21, 21 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Adila---I took it from . On page 22 this source says that Adila is the Dacian equivalent for Romanian Iarba balaurului (Dragon's grass or Dragon's herb). Haven't been able to find another source that says this, so it is pending verification. From what I know, Iarba balaurului is a regional name for Persicaria bistorta (which interestingly was once known in English as Dragonwort), so I indicated that in the text, but Iarba balaurului might also be applied to other plants, so my identification is provisional.
 * Amalusta---This particular spelling I took from . This site cites particular manuscripts as well as particular passages, but I have not found the key to its abbreviation of manuscripts, so it's almost useless.
 * Amolusta---I found this spelling on a number of sites, including.
 * Amulusta---This spelling is on a number of sites including.
 * Aniarsexe---This spelling I've been familiar with for awhile, but the only link I can find now is.
 * Aniassexie---This spelling I took from.
 * Aprus---I took it from.
 * Arpopria---I took from.
 * Asa---You can find it on.
 * Azila---You can find it on and . The two sources back each other up (the first says it is equivalent to "Hound's Tongue", the second says it is equivalent to "Limba-câinelui", which is surely the same plant).
 * Bles---You can find it on the Online German translation of the Materia Medica by Dr. J. Berendes, 1902 (which I'll refer to as BMM, Berendes Materia Medica), in Book II, Chapter 143, under Amaranthus blitum, and on and other sites.
 * Blis---You can find it on and  and others, where it is given as a variant spelling of Bles (see above), applied to the same plant.
 * Budalla---I took from, where it is given as the equivalent of Anchusa italica (Buglossum).
 * Budama---Was taken from, where it is given as the equivalent to "Limba-boului".
 * Budathala---Taken from, where it is given as the equivalent to "Limba-boului".
 * Dakina---You'll find it on, under Beta vulgaris.
 * Dielleina---From, where it is given as the equivalent of Mǎselariţǎ (Hyoscyamus niger=Henbane).
 * Dielina---From the same source as Dielleina, given as a variant spelling.
 * Diesema---You'll find it on this site and many others, and I've only seen it with the meaning Mullein (Verbascum thapsus or niger).
 * Diesapter---This one was taken quite a while ago from a website that I can't find anymore, a "Dacia.org" affiliated site. Google confirms it in another website however.
 * Tanidila---This site says Tanidila meant Catmint, while this site  says Tanidila in PseudoApuleis is equivalent to Latin Herba menstarum (sic?), a plant I have yet to identify.
 * Teudila---I think I took it from, where it is said to be the equivalent of Romanian Izmǎ (not sure what species, maybe Mentha piperita) and Latin Mentastrum. It's curious that Theutila and Teudila are "germanique féminin" anthroponyms, according to a French website.

I'll continue this later. All the forms on the list now are correct forms, though a few of the correspondances to a given plant may need to be double-checked, which I'll do, as well as fill out the list and note variants and different meanings. Alexander 007 15:49, 21 July 2005 (UTC)

The online Materia Medica that I'm using is the German translation by Dr. J. Berendes, Stuttgart, 1902. His translation does not seem to take into account the many variant manuscripts, but seems to be a particular and limited recension. For my own further reference, I will eventually note (in the list above) in which Books (there are five in total) and Chapters the Dacian words can be found in his online translation. Alexander 007 11:23, 22 July 2005 (UTC)

Plants of the hills
It's interesting that the plants in this list are characteristic especially to the hilly areas around the Carpathians and not to the plains or the high mountains. bogdan ʤjuʃkə | Talk 18:20, 21 July 2005 (UTC)

Romanian names of the plants
It's interesting that while few plants have Latin etymology in Romanian, there are relatively many of them in this list: sambucum (soc), plantago (patlagină), urtica (urzică), hedera (iederă).

Most (probably as much as 80%) of the plants in Romanian have their names some internal derivations: "Laptele cucului", "Mierea ursului", "Coada şoricelului", "Scaiul dracului" etc. The rest is 5% Slavic, 5% Latin and 10% unknown origin. bogdan ʤjuʃkə | Talk 18:42, 21 July 2005 (UTC)

Diodela
I need help ascertaining what plant or plants Diodela corresponds to. This site  says Duodela corresponds to Romanian Maghiran (Marjoram, Origanum majorana) and Latin Solis oculis (Medieval Latin for some type of Daisy?) in Dioscorides, while Diodela corresponds to Latin Herba millefolium (Yarrow?) in Pseudoapuleis (are Duodela and Diodela different plant names for different plants rather than variants?). Alexander 007 05:31, 22 July 2005 (UTC)

Another site says duodela, diodela, and ziodela corresponds to Chamomile (though this site notes that Amulusta also corresponds to Chamomile). Alexander 007 05:31, 22 July 2005 (UTC)

Vaczy Coloman, "Nomenclatura dacica a plantelor la Dioscorides si Pseudo-Apuleius" in "Acta Museii Napocensis", Cluj, 1968 p.112-124 is quoted in Valer Butura "Enciclopedie de etnobotanica romaneasca", Editura stiintifica si enciclopedica, Bucuresti, 1979 p.14 for Matricharia chamomilla L. as duodela in Dioscorides and diodela in Pseudo-Apuleius. Gabrieli (talk) 12:41, 6 May 2009 (UTC)

Cercer
What plant is Cebarea din fenicia (Cebarea of Phoenicia)? Is it the Cebare which the DEX says is Sanguisorba minor (probably not, though they're both associated with the color red)? My link says that what Romanians call Cebarea din fenicia  and the Romans called Macia (which Perseus says means Anagallis), the Dacians called Cercer (Kerker). So, is Cebarea din fenicia an Anagallis species? Alexander 007 08:06, 25 July 2005 (UTC)

 * I googled and found the name here: and it says that it's "Poterium" species of the Rosaceae (Poterium sanguisorba and Poterium polygamum). According to Rosoideae article, both Poterium and Sanguisorba genera are part of the Sanguisorbinae subtribus. bogdan ʤjuʃkə | Talk 08:22, 25 July 2005 (UTC)

Probably is Poterium. I'm guessing it has red flowers, which is why it's called "of Phoenicia" or "from Phoenicia". Alexander 007 08:31, 25 July 2005 (UTC)

 * here's a pic http://www.hanosan.de/B0107200409481175_2.jpg bogdan ʤjuʃkə | Talk 08:38, 25 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Alright, looks good. Alexander 007 08:43, 25 July 2005 (UTC)

This Kerker name has the same etymology as Kerkeraphron (Anagallis), and I'm guessing Kerk- or Kerker- meant 'red' (or possibly even 'blood', but I go with 'red') in Dacian (as I wrote in my Lexicon). Alexander 007 08:12, 25 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Hmm... There's a Russian word "КРАСНЫЙ" (Krasnyj) that means "red". bogdan ʤjuʃkə | Talk 14:55, 25 July 2005 (UTC)

That crossed my mind. If kerker actually meant 'red' in Dacian as I think it does, then that Russian word might be a cognate. I don't remember what root that Russian word is from however. Bosnian crven ('red') and Czech and Slovak červený ('red') also look close. Or, maybe the word krv ('blood'), found in Bosnian, Czech, Slovak, etc. I'll check it out. Alexander 007 17:37, 25 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Forget about those Slavic words for a second and look in Pokorny under PIE *kei-, relating to dark colors. There are numerous cognates to this hypothetical Dacian ker-, meaning "red". There is, for example, Proto-Celtic *koiro- (<PIE *kei-), "dark brown". There is also ancient Greek kirros, "orange yellow". The Slavic cognates begin with an s, unfortunately, while the Dacian with a k. Alexander 007 00:21, 29 January 2006 (UTC)

Number of plants
I. Russu claims that there were 57 plant names, but currently, we only have 52. We still need to find the other 5. :-) bogdan | Talk 19:12, 3 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Yup. I'm surprised we found 52 (51 rather, since Duodela and Diodela may be considered as one, and eventually we may have to list it as one, unless that is too impractical) of them with the limited resources available on the net (I gathered every single one off some internet site or another). If Russu's right, we should have only 5 or 6 more to find. Alexandru 007 00:57, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

Update, New edits
I added 9 more:Aurumetti, Calox Cardiatos, Coicodila (and its variant), Curioneccum (and its variants), Dicotella, Dracontos, Nemenepsa, Phithophthethela, Usazila (this last one is probably actually a variant of Azila). I'll link the source later. The good thing about this source is that it quotes the primary source and the passage, but not the exact manuscript (and I will quote them as well in a moment). Alexander 007 17:02, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

 * According to my sources, four of these plants may refer to the White Bryony, Bryonia alba. Alexander 007 14:23, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

 * My source, while specific in citing primary sources, gave only three scientific names. For Aurumetti (a new addition) it simply said "Crow's Foot". There are several plants which may be referred to as "Crow's Foot" or "Crow's Feet" or "Crows' Feet". I suspect that from these, the reference is to the Wild Geranium, which (probably) grew in the area. I speculate that the Latin name of the Wild Geranium is Geranium sylvaticum. While that species exists, my identification is provisional, hence the question mark [?] in the article. Alexander 007 15:09, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I counted 61 on a quick count [note to the Reader: I since added at least one more, Mendruta]. Substracting two which may be variants (Azila, Usazila=1; Diodela and its variants + Duodela and its variants=1) that makes 59. Two more than Russu. Either he was mistaken or more are considered true variants. And maybe Asa (Bessian) is not included in his count. Alexander 007 17:09, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Help needed: my source says that koikolida meant "Sleepy Nightshade" (no scientific name given). What species is this? Solanum nigrum? a species of Atropa? or something else? Of course, it is a species in the family Solanaceae. Alexander 007 18:06, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

 * In Romania, also can be found Solanum dulcamara and Solanum luteum, but Solanum nigrum is by far the most commonly seen plant in that family. Anyway, it's interesting that none of the plants of this list are really obscure or endemic just to a small area. bogdan 18:56, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I do not know details about the distribution of various flora in Romania (or neighboring countries). If you have links... Alexander 007 19:03, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Flora Europaea is a very complete source. Enter a genus and it will list all species, subspecies and synonyms and in what country (Rm is the country code for Romania). However, the only information it gives is whether the species is present in the country or not. bogdan 19:58, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

Using notes
Alexander, don't you think that it would be much easier to use this style of notes? The notes in the right side clutter the screen. bogdan 20:25, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

 * My cat likes catnip.
 * My other cat also likes catnip.

Wiktionary cat links
I created a Wiktionary category for Romanian plant names (see Wiktionary:Category:ro:Plants) and will create one for Albanian plant names, and I'll link them under ===See also== in this article, for cross-reference. On the other hand, I may agree to relocate the notes if the space is used for the Romanian and Albanian equivalents. Alexander 007 21:20, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I think that Romanian and Albanian equivalents may be useful. The plant names are often calqued, for example, Forget-me-not has the same name in more than 35 European languages, from Irish to Tatar. bogdan 21:35, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

 * However, sometimes, plants have many names, for example:
 * STELÍŢĂ s. (BOT.; Aster amellus) (reg.) gălăţence (pl.), ruşcă, scânteiuţe (pl.), stelişoară, vărsă-toare, flori-cojocăreşti (pl.), flori-de-Ierusalim (pl.), iarba-vântului, ochiul-boului, rujă-de-toamnă, rujă-vânătă.
 * bogdan 21:37, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I know that, but things often slip the mind when editing in a hurry. Then perhaps linking the categories is better, which was my first choice. Alexander 007 21:46, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

 * By the way, once I fill it up some more, I'm going to gather the Romanian phytonyms which are or may be of substrate origin into one sub-cat of Wiktionary:Category:ro:Plants, and probably the Latin (inherited Latin) ones in another. Alexander 007 05:06, 28 January 2006 (UTC)

c. vs k.

 * Coicolida, Koikolida
 * Cotiata, Kotiata
 * ...etc.

Apparently, this is just a transliteration issue from Greek. There is just one variant in the original text and it was transliterated in two ways. Wouldn't it be better to use just one version? bogdan 21:53, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Yes, but some forms may only be attested in a Latin manuscript for all I know. I noted that this arrangement was "for now", and what I intended there was "until we review the primary sources and their variants". If all the variants for a given Dacian plant name are from Greek primary manuscripts, then K will be used; but for example, if cercer is only attested in a Latin translation, I'd prefer to list the name and its variants under C, which comes first. And when we have the original manuscript forms for review, I'd prefer Greek script for those that are attested in Greek script, with transliteration next to it. Alexander 007 21:59, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

Books on Dacian plants names
I found that there were two works published on the Dacian plant names:
 * I sinonimi "daci" delle piante descritte da Dioscoride possono servire alla ricostruzione della lingua daca? / Valeriu L. Bologa, Roma : Casa Editrice Leonardo Da Vinci, 1930
 * Fitonimele atribuite dacilor în lucrarile lui Dioscorides şi Pseudo-Apuleius / Natalia Trandafirescu, Bucuresti : Universitatea din Bucureşti, Facultatea de Filologie, 1994

bogdan 22:19, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

 * They are also studied in Dimitir Detschew's Die thrakischen Sprachreste (pgs. 541--565), Vienna, 1957. These will be added in ==Further reading==, and if used as references, in ==References==. Aside from works specifically devoted to them or having chapters on them, Thracologists like Georgiev, Duridanov and Olteanu have written about them here & there, about their possible etymologies, etc. Alexander 007 22:23, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

 * And thanks for reminding me (indirectly) about the term Phytonym! I will be milking it now :) Alexander 007 22:31, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Here is my source for most of the new info, by the way, if you want to take a look and maybe add notes (though I plan on adding more notes later):. This will be added as a reference probably. It also names a review of Detschew's work. [[User:Alexander 007|Alexander 007] 22:58, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Also interesting for comparison---and this may be discussed in text below the table of phytonyms---: as I was collecting Dacian, Bessian, and Moesian plant names, I also tried to collect Gaulish plant names, as well as others, my idea being: how much of the Gaulish language can one gather just from these phytonyms? Is the picture that is painted deceiving, when compared to what we know of Gaulish? Gaulish is an attested (though not richly attested) language, whereas Dacian is unattested aside from some rather marginal lexical items drawn from the Dacian onomastics. Those who know a bit about Indo-European phytonymy know that an Indo-European language's stock of phytonyms (even modern IE languages) often contain many pre-IE phytonyms, because the pre-IE populations were more familiar with the local flora. Going through Demiraj's Albanian Inherited Lexicon, I saw how perhaps most Albanian inherited phytonyms are probably pre-IE (Demiraj notes those that are probably pre-IE, and there are a lot). In Romanian as well, many phytonyms are of unknown origin and unknown etymology. Alexander 007 00:09, 27 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Also, there are some phytonyms that are probably cognate to some Latin words, but do not fit at all any phonetic change scenario. For example, jneapăn and ienupăr (two different words for the same plant) are akin to Latin "juniperus", but the phonetic laws say it should be "junepăr". bogdan 17:06, 27 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I also wonder why Dioscorides, for example, regularly gave (besides of course native Greek) Roman, Egyptian, Syrian, Dacian, and Gaulish names, but aside from a few Bessian or Moesian names, I think Thracian phytonyms are absent, as are Illyrian (except for perhaps some Dardanian ones I may remember) and Paionian (and Macedonian, though that's not a surprise, as by Dioscorides' time the language was nearly extinct if not extinct, and maybe Macedonian plant names would not have been of much interest to him or his audience). I'm wondering why Thracian is pretty much missing, yet Dacian well-represented. I have some ideas though. Alexander 007 01:04, 27 January 2006 (UTC)

 * W. Tomaschek seems to be one of the earliest (1893-1894) linguists to study the Dacian plant names. I don't have his work (Die alter Thraker, "The ancient Thracians", Vienna, 1893-1894), but read quotes of it. He connected Dacian skiare with Albanian shqer, "to cut" (that looks very likely to be correct, but the form is common in IE; cf. Old German sceran, Old Irish scara(im), "I divide" <PIE *sker-, "to cut"); Georgiev, accepting Tomaschek's Albanian connection, in the mid-20th reconstructed a Dacian *skera. It will be very interesting to see how many these elements have likely Albanian correspondances which are close; so far there is Skiare (Alb. shqer), Manteia (Alb. man, "mulberry"; this also goes back to Tomaschek and still accepted), and I think some others. Alexander 007 19:39, 30 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Another of Tomaschek's works on Dacian is Les restes de la langue dace, Muséon, Louvain, 1893). Alexander 007 19:57, 30 January 2006 (UTC)

See the 'Diodela' discussion topic above for another two books, in Romanian, regarding Dacian plant names. Gabrieli (talk) 12:51, 6 May 2009 (UTC)

Latin box
I am no expert but I would say it's obvious that in the Latin box they are mixed true Latin names of plants (as historic language which had its own vocabulary) on the one side, and, on the other side, there are also binomial taxons (you know, the Linneus stuff) which doesn't have anything to do with the expected Latin name for a plant, but was invented roughly in the 18th century. Mountolive | Talk 07:22, 5 April 2007 (UTC)

Consider the source
These plant names were written down in a work on medical uses for plants. Their names in some cases derive from, or possibly influenced the medical terminology of, the condition they treated, so they are relevent. Galen (if you are worried that this is Original Research) commented on this. Galen. 66.57.190.166 (talk) 21:19, 20 January 2009 (UTC)

 * Hello, I am worried about Original research. Can you cite the section of Galen, or better yet a link? A from L.A. (talk) 20:50, 8 February 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of Dacian plant names


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Leopoldo Fregoli

Leopoldo Fregoli (2 July 1867 – 26 November 1936) was an Italian actor.

Quick-change Artist
Fregoli was thought to be the greatest, most versatile quick-change artist of his day. He was famous for his extraordinary ability in impersonations and his quickness in exchanging roles – so much so that while he was performing in London in the 1890s, unkind rumours spread that there was more than one Fregoli. He quickly quashed these rumours by inviting journalists and doubters backstage to see him at work: Fregoli had no secrets. He even went to see the host of imitators he inspired ("The Great Trickoli" and "Fregolina" were some examples) and offered them advice about how to improve their performances.

Early Professional Years
Originally an amateur entertainer, he took his first steps to professionalism while serving in the Italian army in Abyssinia under General Baldissera in 1890. A troupe of theatrical performers the general hired to entertain his soldiers did not materialise. Fregoli offered to fill in and was an immediate success. General Baldissera subsequently had Fregoli posted, not as a soldier but as a performer, to the theatre at Massowah, which he used to entertain soldiers. Fregoli became the director and stage manager of the theatre and casino. After a year he returned to Italy and performed in Rome, Genoa and Florence. In the audience at Florence was a government registry clerk, Ugo Biondi, who was so impressed with Fregoli's performance that he sought him out and asked for some lessons in how to follow in his footsteps. Fregoli generously complied and Biondi went on to be another great quick change artist – first claiming to be a pupil, but later set up as the 'original' Fregoli.

Alfred Moul
From Italy Fregoli went to Brazil, Spain, and the United States. While he was in Madrid he was watched in performance by Alfred Moul, the general manager of the Alhambra Theatre in London's Charing Cross Road (which was being refitted at that time in the Moorish style under the direction of the great designer Owen Jones). Moul had heard of Fregoli's genius and wanted to be the first impresario in Britain to sign him up. He subsequently claimed that Fregoli (and his team of supporting assistants) were being paid £350 per week to perform at the Alhambra – a remarkable amount for the time. But this was nothing compared to what Fregoli was to generate in ticket sales.

The Alhambra was scheduled to reopen early in March 1897 with the premiere of Sir Arthur Sullivan's new ballet "Victoria and Merrie England". There were a few problems with this work (it was rather over-long in its original form) and so it was thought that for a week or two, Leopoldo Fregoli could perform (he needed little in the way of permanent sets, etc.) until Sir Arthur was satisfied his work was just right. Such was Fregoli's success that it was to be late in May of that year before the Sullivan piece was finally performed.

London
Fregoli took London by storm. He did quick-fire performances, impersonating Wagner, Rossini, Verdi and Paderewski one after another. He would exit stage left as a street musician and appear almost immediately stage right as a woman. Everybody - including the great actors and performers of the day, such as Dan Leno - wanted to see him, and his run was extended and extended, as was the seating in the theatre; not bad for someone who didn't even speak English. The general view of him was that, apart from his obvious abilities as a quick change artist he was - unlike his rivals - a consummate actor and a brilliant writer. He gave private performances for royalty and aristocrats (such as the Rothschilds, for whom he calmly explained all of his tricks). He inspired a host of imitators, male and female. Every theatre in London soon had its protean artist; even Biondi was there, performing at the same time. There were spoofers and parodists: journalists claimed tipsy theatregoers were demanding their money back upon discovering that all the performers they had just witnessed were actually just one man.

Argentina
While there is no doubt Fregoli enjoyed himself and his success, he seems to have been essentially a modest man and he did not wish to carry on in London forever. Late in May 1898 he left for Argentina, promising to be back in London the following February. Whether he did so is presently unclear. Several of his performances were later filmed.

Paris and International Tours
His greatest success was in the Olympia Theatre in Paris, where he performed for more than a year. He continued to come back to Paris until 1910. He then for many years toured Italy and South America.

Rather suddenly, in 1922, while performing in Niterói, a city across the bay, opposite Rio de Janeiro, he decided to quit the world of quick change.

Final Years
He returned to Italy and subsequently inspired Futurist theatre performers, but very little information is available about him in English. He did write an autobiography (published by Rizzoli) and was the subject of another book (Fregoli, 1867–1936. Sa vie et ses secrets by Jean Nohain, Francois Caradec and Fregoli ). The poet Joan Brossa and the painter Antoni Tàpies made an artist's book relating to Fregoli.

He is buried in Italy with the words "His last transformation" on his gravestone.

Fregoli Delusion
The Fregoli delusion or Fregoli syndrome is a rare disorder in which a person holds a delusional belief that different people are in fact a single person who changes appearance or is in disguise. The syndrome may be related to a brain lesion and is often of a paranoid nature with the delusional person believing the person they believe to be in disguise is persecuting them.

Followers
The Italian magician and Quick-change artist Arturo Brachetti is one of the more classic followers of Fregoli's style. In 1979 he was the first quick change performer in the world after Fregoli. He reinvented this art and new tricks for changing. His extensive career covers a wide artistic range of versatility, acting, magic, Chinese shadows. He is listed in the Guinness World Records as the quickest and prolific performer in the world. His one-man show has been seen by more than 2,000,000 people worldwide.

Another famous Quick change artist is the Venetian Ennio Marchetto, who has created his own style of quick changes and impersonations. All his costumes, wigs and props are bi-dimensional and made out of cardboard and paper. His costumes transform in front of the audience like origami. Also called "The Living Cartoon," Ennio has enjoyed worldwide success since his first appearance at the Edinburgh Fringe in 1989.

Another follower was Lizzie Ramsden, billed as 'The Female Fregoli,' who appeared at Music Halls all over Britain and in America from about 1895 - 1904. Born in Bolton, Lancashire in 1867 she died in 1940 in Lambeth and is buried among the stars at Streatham Park Cemetery.

title: Leopoldo Fregoli


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Headington

Headington is an eastern suburb of Oxford, in the county of Oxfordshire, England. It is at the top of Headington Hill overlooking the city in the Thames valley below, and bordering Marston to the north-west, Cowley to the south, and Barton and Risinghurst to the east. The life of the large residential area is centred upon London Road, the main road between London and Oxford.

History
The site of Headington shows evidence of continued occupation from the Stone Age, as the 2001 field excavations in Barton Lane found, suggesting a date in the 11th century BC. Pottery was found on the Manor Ground, suggesting an Iron Age settlement there in the 7th century BC. Roman kilns from about 300 have been found, including one now on display at the Museum of Oxford. Anglo-Saxon burial remains from about 500 have also been discovered. Headington's toponym is derived from the Old English Hedena's dun, meaning "Hedena's hill", when it was the site of a palace or hunting lodge of the Kings of Mercia. In a charter of 1004, Æthelred the Unready, "written at the royal ville called Headan dune", gave land in Headington to St Frideswide's Priory, which included the quarry and the area around it.

Henry I granted a chapel at Headington to the Augustinian canons regular of St Frideswide's Priory, when the priory was founded in 1122. The parish church of Saint Andrew was built in the middle of the 12th century and enlarged in the 13th century. The bell tower was started in the 13th or 14th century and completed in about 1500. St. Andrew's was repaired in the 17th and 18th centuries. The Gothic Revival architect J.C. Buckler restored the building and lengthened the nave in 1862–1864.

Headington developed rapidly in the early 20th century, significant amounts of housing developing around the medieval village, now known as Old Headington, around the original parish church of St Andrew. In 1927, it became an urban district separate from the Headington Rural District and in 1929 it was added to the city of Oxford. New Headington refers to some of the area on the south side of the London Road, originating as a late 19th-century suburb. Other neighbourhoods of the modern Headington suburb include Highfield, Quarry, and Headington Hill.

The City of Oxford Silver Band began as the Headington Brass Band having been founded in the 19th century. In 2002 a re-warding of the City created a ward called Headington representing both sides of the London Road, from Bury Knowle Park to Headley Way, with two elected representatives. The first councillors for this ward were David Rundle (2002–2014) and Stephen Tall (2002–2008). Ruth Wilkinson was elected to succeed Stephen Tall in May 2008, and Mohammed Altaf-Khan to succeed David Rundle in 2014.

In 1921 the civil parish had a population of 5328. On 1 April 1929 the parish was abolished and merged with St Giles and St John, Stowood, Horspath, Forest Hill with Shotover and Elsfield.

Headington today
Headington has a large and growing population. Headington's main employment sectors are medicine, education, and research. In the centre of Headington are a number of shops, pubs, cafés, restaurants, and other services. The area also includes the main campus of Oxford Brookes University, Ruskin College (which moved in its entirety from central Oxford to its Headington site in 2012), and the city's main hospitals, including the John Radcliffe, Nuffield and Churchill. Headington's most famous modern landmark is The Headington Shark, made by John Buckley for local broadcaster Bill Heine in 1986. Headington has a number of green spaces including Headington Hill Park, Bury Knowle park and South Park. Close by is Shotover Hill, a heath and woodland area with views over Oxfordshire, and listed as a Site of Special Scientific Interest. The Warneford Meadow a wild grassland, bought in 1918 by public subscription for the adjacent Warneford Hospital, has been registered as a Town Green and has thus escaped development.

Sport and leisure
Oxford United were formed as Headington F.C. in 1893, adding the suffix United in 1911 after merging with Headington Quarry. Until 2001 their home ground was the Manor Ground, which had its main entrance on London Road. In 2001 Oxford United moved to the Kassam Stadium near Blackbird Leys. The Manor Ground has since been demolished and a private hospital built on the site. Headington has a non-league football team, Headington Amateurs, who play at the Barton Recreation Ground.

Notable residents

 * Brian Aldiss, the science fiction writer, lived in Old Headington until his death in 2017.
 * Joan Clarke Murray, one of the Enigma code breakers, lived at 7 Larkfields from about 1991 until her death in 1996.
 * Elizabeth Jennings, a renowned poet, spent her latter years living at Unity House (8 St Andrew's Lane), which was formerly the home of Emily Ann Yockney, the sister of Lord Nuffield (William Morris).
 * Arthur Kerry (1879–1967), English professional footballer
 * C. S. Lewis, author of The Chronicles of Narnia, moved to the district in 1921 (he was born in Northern Ireland in 1898) and lived there until moving to The Kilns at nearby Risinghurst in 1930. He lived there until his death in 1963. Lewis is buried at Holy Trinity Church at Headington Quarry.
 * A more recent resident was John Simpson, senior editor of the Oxford English Dictionary.
 * J. R. R. Tolkien, author of The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, lived at 76 Sandfield Road in Headington from 1953 until 1968.
 * Emma Watson, Hermione Granger from the Harry Potter films, lived in Headington. She also attended Headington School.

A number of Oxford academics have lived in Headington over the years. They include Lord Krebs, David Marquand, Anthony Kenny, Sir Isaiah Berlin, the historian A. B. Emden, the chemist Dalziel Hammick, Lord Elton, Michael Ernest Sadler, Cyril Bailey, his daughter Mary Creighton Bailey who was born there, and John Johnson (the University Printer). Others included the author Elizabeth Bowen, Robert Maxwell and his daughter Ghislaine Maxwell, Lord Nuffield (William Morris), and Anne Diamond, the television presenter and author.

title: Headington


text: User talk:217.169.121.13

title: User talk:217.169.121.13


text:
User:NJGreen

NJGreen likes to write about the world of juggling.

title: User:NJGreen


text: User talk:65.34.45.160

title: User talk:65.34.45.160


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Bantwal

Bantwal is a suburb of Mangalore in Dakshina Kannada district, Karnataka, India, and the headquarters of Bantwal taluk. It is located 25 km East of Mangalore city center. BC Road-Kaikamba of Bantwal is one of the fastest developing areas in Dakshina Kannada district of Karnataka.

Along with BC Road-Kaikamba, Panemangalore & Melkar regions are also urbanized. They are also developing as the eastern suburbs of Mangalore. Towards east of Mangalore, the stretch to BC Road-Kaikamba region forms a continuous Mangalore Urban Agglomeration area which is currently the second biggest in Karnataka after Bangalore. Bantwal is the fourth largest urban area in Dakshina Kannada district after Mangalore, Ullal (both comes under Mangalore Urban Agglomeration area) & Puttur in terms of population.

History
It is situated on the banks of River Nethravati on the National Highway 73 (India). The adjacent town of B.C. Road (Bantwal Cross Road) serves as the commercial center.

Previously, the town of Bantwal was known for trade with the Persian Gulf states, being so close to Mangalore. However, flooding caused by the river Netravathi during the monsoons compelled traders and newer settlements to move to the adjacent city of B.C. Road due to its higher altitude. Gradually, most Government offices shifted to B.C. Road.

Prior to 1852, Bantwal Taluk was the largest taluk in the entire of Canara Province (then comprising North Canara, Udupi, Mangalore and Kasaragod Districts) with 411 villages and a total population of 1,69,416. In 1852, a portion of it was formed into the Taluk of Puttur. Bantwal was an entrepot for the produce of the province on its way to the Mysore Country and had derived a great benefit of late years from the extension of the coffee trade. It contained about thousand scattered houses inhabited by Billava, Bunts, Bhandary, Ganigas, Kulals, Goud Saraswat Brahmins, Konkani Catholics and a few Jains.

Geography
Bantwal is located along the coast of river Netravathi. Every year due to heavy rains the river floods. National Highway 73 cuts through B. C. Road. The highway serves as the conduit for several arterial routes leading to neighbouring towns with Mangalore. Mangalore is connected with other cities in Karnataka such as Mysore and Bangalore by National Highway 275 (India) and National Highway 75 (India) respectively. It is well connected to Uppala through Uppala-Mudipu-Bantwal Highway.

Demographics
India census, Bantwal had a population of 36,829. Males constitute 50% of the population and females 50%. Bantwal has an average literacy rate of 74%, higher than the national average of 59.5%; with 76% of the males and 72% of females literate. 12% of the population is under 6 years of age. Tulu and Beary are the two largest languages with 41.33% and 37.65% of the population. 13.22% of the population speaks Konkani and 5.72% Kannada as their first language.

According to the 2011 India census, Hindus make up 54.65% of total population, Muslims 38.42% and Christians 6.61% in Bantwal town.

Politics
U Rajesh Naik (BJP) is the MLA from the Bantval (Karnataka Assembly constituency) since 2018.

Economy
The town is still considered an important trade center for groceries, tobacco, hardware and gold.

Transport
Many buses ply to nearby places such as Mudipu, Moodabidri, Surathkal, Mulki, Kinnigoli, Vitla operate from the B. C Road bus stand. The railway station at B. C Road is maintained by south western railways. The Mangalore port is about 30 kilometres from here. Mangalore International Airport is about 45 minutes from B.C Road.

title: Bantwal


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Hockley Railway Viaduct

The Hockley Railway Viaduct is a disused railway viaduct to the south of Winchester in Hampshire, England.

History
The viaduct, originally called the Shawford Viaduct, was built in the late 1880s by the London and South Western Railway (LSWR). It provided a link over the River Itchen and water meadows, from the Didcot, Newbury and Southampton Railway (DN&SR), to the LSWR's main line. The DN&SR was originally intended to continue down the east side of the Itchen to Southampton, but had stalled at Winchester due to lack of funds. The viaduct crossed the valley to link the DN&SR to the LSWR, which ran (and still runs) down the west side of the valley.

The viaduct was last used by the railway on 2 April 1966. The line it carried closed as a result of the Beeching Axe, although all of it, with the exception of a few bricks on the walls, is still standing and is open to walkers and cyclists. It forms part of the National Cycle Network Route 23.

Construction
The structure has 33 spans. Although it appears to be a brick structure, the viaduct in fact has a solid concrete core in its pillars, with the bricks simply performing an aesthetic function. The bricks came from the Poole Brickworks in Wellington, Somerset, and the blue engineering capping bricks from Blanchards at Bishop's Waltham. It was long suspected that the viaduct's structure contained concrete, but not until recent borings into the structure were made was it realised that the majority of the bridge was made of the material. This makes it amongst the earliest modern structures to have a solid concrete core.

Preservation
Unsuccessful attempts have been made to have the structure listed in order to attract National Lottery funding to assist in its preservation. The structure is of some historic interest due to its method of construction, and the importance of the route in the lead up to D-Day. It also provides a footpath and cycleway across the Itchen, and acts as a partial screen between the water meadows and the elevated M3 motorway at the foot of Twyford Down. In 2007 Winchester City Council announced a £500,000 rolling programme of repairs over 12 years. However the City Council had held back on any repairs since Sustrans was interested in taking over the Viaduct as part of its Hampshire cycle route system. In March 2012 Hampshire County Council provided a further £250,000 in funding to assist in bringing the viaduct into use as part of National Cycle Route 23, running between Reading and the Isle of Wight. Restoration was undertaken by the combined expertise of Sustrans, Winchester City Council and Hampshire County Council. The Friends of Hockley Viaduct provided a replacement home signal and its lattice post, and an original nearby telegraph post has been restored and re-erected. Sustrans has signed a 40year maintenance contract with the City Council.

The restored viaduct was officially opened on 26 February 2013 by World Champion cyclist Dani King, who was born and brought up in Eastleigh. Over 100 invited guests attended a display concerning the history and restoration of the Viaduct in Winchester Guildhall before either cycling to the Viaduct alongside King or riding down to it in a King Alfred Buses double decker bus for the official opening. A red ribbon, held by Winchester Mayor Frank Pearson and former Councillor George Beckett, was breasted by King and her entourage.

title: Hockley Railway Viaduct


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Barkis

Barkis may refer to:
 * Ormur people
 * Challah, bread
 * Barkis, (or Bergis) a Swedish bread
 * a character in David Copperfield (novel)
 * Andrew Barkis, American politician
 * Marvin Barkis (born 1943), American politician
 * Barkis, a 1938 picture book by Clare Turlay Newberry

title: Barkis