text:
Naturalisation (biology)

Naturalisation (or naturalization) is the ecological phenomenon through which a species, taxon, or population of exotic (as opposed to native) origin integrates into a given ecosystem, becoming capable of reproducing and growing in it, and proceeds to disseminate spontaneously. In some instances, the presence of a species in a given ecosystem is so ancient that it cannot be presupposed whether it is native or introduced.

Generally, any introduced species may (in the wild) either go extinct or naturalise in its new environment.

Some populations do not sustain themselves reproductively, but exist because of continued influx from elsewhere. Such a non-sustaining population, or the individuals within it, are said to be adventive. Cultivated plants, sometimes called nativars, are a major source of adventive populations.

Botany
In botany, naturalisation is the situation in which an exogenous plant reproduces  and disperses on its own in a new environment. For example, northern white cedar is naturalised in the United Kingdom, where it reproduces on its own, while it is not in France, where human intervention via cuttings or seeds are essential for its dissemination.

Two categories of naturalisation are defined from two distinct parameters: one, archaeonaturalised, refers to introduction before a given time (introduced over a hundred years ago), while the second, amphinaturalised or eurynaturalised, implies a notion of spatial extension (taxon assimilated indigenous and present over a vast space, opposed to stenonaturalised).

Degrees of naturalisation
The degrees of naturalisation are defined in relation to the status of nativity or  introduction of taxons or species:
 * Accidental taxon: non-native taxon growing spontaneously, which appears sporadically as a result of accidental introduction due to human activities (as opposed to intentional introductions)
 * Subspontaneous taxon: taxon naturalised following an introduction of accidental origin (fortuitous introduction linked to human activities) or unknown, and which, after acclimatization, can reproduce like native plants but is still poorly established
 * Spontaneous taxon: native or non-native taxon growing and reproducing naturally, without intentional human intervention in the territory considered, and is well established (mixes with local flora or fauna)

Zoology
Animal naturalisation is mainly carried out through breeding and by commensalism following human migrations.

The concerned species are thus:
 * either introduced voluntarily into an ecosystem where they are not native;
 * either accidentally introduced or become feral;
 * or by naturally following human migratory flows by commensalism (eg: arrival of house sparrow in Western Europe following Huns, and previously in Eastern Europe from Asia Minor in Antiquity).

It sometimes happens that a naturalised species hybridizes with a native.

Introduction and origin areas
The introduction site or introduction area is the place or, in a broadlier way, the new environment where the candidate species for naturalisation takes root. It is generally opposed to the origin area, where this same species is native.

There is also a more ambiguous notion that is the "natural distribution area" or "natural distribution range", particularly when it comes to anthropophilic species or some species benefiting from anthropogenic land settlement (canals, bridges, deforestation, etc.) that have connected two previously isolated areas (e.g. the Suez Canal, which causes Lessepsian migration).

Impact on the ecosystem
Naturalisation is sometimes done with human help in order to replace another species having suffered directly or indirectly from anthropogenic activities, or deemed less profitable for human use.

Some naturalised species eventually become invasive. For example, the European rabbit, native to Europe and which abounds in Australia; or the Japanese knotweed which is invading Europe and America where it is considered to be amongst the one hundred most invasive species in the 21st century. Apart from direct competition between native and introduced populations, genetic pollution by hybridization can add up cumulatively to environmental effects that compromise the conservation of native populations.

Some naturalised species, such as palms, can act as ecosystem engineers, by changing the habitat and creating new niches that can sometimes have positive effects on an ecosystem. Potential and/or perceived positive impacts of naturalised species are less studied than potential and/or perceived negative impacts.

However, the impact on local species is not easy to assess in a short period. For instance, the African sacred ibis (Threskiornis aethiopicus) escaped in 1990 from an animal park in Morbihan (France), gave rise to an eradication campaign in 2008. In 2013, however, the CNRS stated that this bird species is not a threat in France, and may even promote Eurasian spoonbill and limit the development of the invasive Louisiana crayfish.

Naturalised species may become invasive species if they become sufficiently abundant to have an adverse effect on native species (e.g. microbes affected by invasive plants ) or on biotope.

title: Naturalisation (biology)


text:
Catholicon

Catholicon may refer to:

 * Catholicon, the conventual church at the centre of an abbey
 * Katholikon, the primary church in an Orthodox or Eastern Catholic monastery
 * Catholicon (1286), book written in 1286 by Johannes de Balbis of Genoa (Summa grammaticalis quae vocatur Catholicon)
 * Catholicon (trilingual dictionary), Breton–Latin–French dictionary written in 1464 by Jehan Lagadeuc and printed in 1499
 * Catholicon (electuary), an alleged all-purpose cure (panacea) used in pre-modern medicine

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Catholicon


text:
Chapman Mortimer

Chapman Mortimer was the pen name of William Charles ("W. C.") Chapman Mortimer (15 May 1907 – 1988 ), a Scottish novelist. He won the James Tait Black Award for fiction in 1951 for his novel Father Goose.

Works

 * A Stranger on the Stair (novel) (1950)
 * Father Goose (novel) (1951)
 * Young Men Waiting (novel) (1952)
 * Mediterraneo (novel) (1955)
 * Here in Spain (travel) (1955)
 * Madrigal (novel) (1960)
 * Amparo (novel) (1971)

title: Chapman Mortimer


text:
Workmen's village

A workmen's village is a settlement of workers, foremen's, scribes, architects, etc. usually located in the area of a major ancient site in Egypt, and mostly connected to the construction and decoration of tombs.

Examples include:
 * Workmen's Village, Amarna – Settlement of workers for the Royal Tombs at Amarna
 * Deir el-Medina (Thebes) – Settlement of workers for the Valley of the Kings, Valley of the Queens and Tombs of the Nobles
 * El-Lahun – Settlement of workers for the Pyramid of Senusret II

title: Workmen's village


text:
Talk:Horace Slughorn

Previously redirected to: Talk:Hogwarts staff

title: Talk:Horace Slughorn


text:
Talk:WWF Shotgun Saturday Night

Bill Crider Novel
Shotgun Saturday Night is the second Dan Rhodes novel by Bill Crider, but at the moment here it is just a redirect to WWF Shotgun Saturday Night. Is it advisable to remove that redirect and create a disambiguation page? Btw the page about the novel does not exist. Schickaneder (talk) 14:30, 30 March 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:WWF Shotgun Saturday Night


text: Category:Portuguese heavy metal musical groups


text:
History of the French Navy

Although the history of the French Navy goes back to the Middle Ages, its history can be said to effectively begin with Richelieu under Louis XIII.

Since the establishment of her present territory, France had to face three major challenges on the naval level:
 * Geographically France had two large sections of coastline separated by the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal), so she had to keep two naval forces and divide resources between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.
 * Politically and strategically France's main threats came overland from Central Europe which required a strong army rather than a strong navy.
 * Inconsistent support for her navy. To be effective, navies require infrastructure, ports, dockyards, foundries which must be maintained in peacetime. Officers and crews need plenty of experience at sea. Shortage of resources and political misunderstanding repeatedly damaged the service, creating a series of brilliant eras followed by disasters.

The history of the French Navy can be divided into the following eras:
 * The creation of the first actual State Navy, under Louis XIII, thanks to the politics of Richelieu. This navy was largely ruined by the troubles of the Fronde.
 * A rebuilt and brilliant era under Louis XIV, largely thanks to Jean-Baptiste Colbert. The effort was not pursued under the Régence of Philippe d'Orléans and the beginning of the reign of Louis XV; consequently, the Seven Years' War and the French and Indian War ended in disaster.
 * A period of rebirth under the impulsion of Choiseul, which culminated under Louis XVI with de Grasse's victory at the Battle of the Chesapeake during the American Revolutionary War. In the same period, explorers like Bougainville expanded French geography, naval maps, and founded outposts. The downfall occurred during the French Revolution and the First Empire, leaving the British with undisputed control of the seas.
 * Under Napoleon III, a modern navy was built, taking advantage of new technologies like steam and ship armour, which made older fleets effectively obsolete. This force was an important instrument in the constitution and keeping of the French Empire. The fleet maintained a high standard, and between the two world wars (1925–1939), a significant effort was made counter the threat of the German and Italian navies. With the Fall of France in 1940, most of the Navy never got a chance to fight. What survived Mers-el-Kebir was eventually annihilated in the scuttling of the French fleet at Toulon.

Name
The French Navy is affectionately known as La Royale ("the Royal"). The reason for this nickname is uncertain. Speculation includes: it might be for its traditional attachment to the French monarchy; because, before being named "nationale", the Navy had been named "royale" (the navy did not sport the royal titles common with other European navies like the British Royal Navy); or simply because of the location of its headquarters, rue Royale in Paris.

Middle Ages

Medieval fleets, in France as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into naval service in time of war. But the early beginning of the French Navy goes back to the Middle Ages, when it defeated the English Navy at the Battle of Arnemuiden, on 23 September 1338. The Battle of Arnemuiden was also the first naval battle using artillery. The most notable naval battle involving the French was the severe defeat they suffered at Sluys, losing almost 200 ships and up to 20,000 killed while the English lost only 2 ships and 600 men.

Louis XIII and Richelieu
The tears of our sovereigns have the salted taste of the sea that they ignored. During the reign of Henry IV, France was in an unstable state, and striving to guarantee her independence from Spanish and papal influences. This prompted both an emphasis on land forces, which drained resources, and an alliance with England, which would have unfavourably seen France challenging her naval supremacy.

When Richelieu became Minister of the Navy, he decided on a plan to rebuild a powerful navy, divided into two distinct forces.

The Mediterranean force was to be completely composed of galleys, to take advantage of the relatively calm sea. Initially, the plan called for 40 galleys, but was downsized to 24 of them, notably because of a lack of galley slaves — each galley was 400 or 500 slave strong.

The oceanic force was to be composed of men-of-war. The designs were moderately large ships, for a lack of harbours fit for very large units, but very heavily armed with large calibre guns; these ships displaced between 300 and 2000 tonnes and bore up to 50 24-pound cannons, firing 150mm-round shots. The first ships were ordered from the Dutch, and French production started with the famous FRENCH SHIP Couronne, a prestige ship typical of this era.

In 1627, the Navy was not ready to challenge the English fleet at the Siege of La Rochelle, which led to the construction of a seawall to establish a blockade. Fleets of this period were often largely composed of merchant vessels, hastily loaded with cannons, undercrewed and poorly handled.

With newly built ships, designed as ships of war and crewed by sailors and trained gunners, fighting experience was gained in the Franco-Spanish War and the Thirty Years' War with notable victories at the Battle of Cádiz (1640) won by France's first Grand Admiral Jean Armand de Maillé-Brézé, son of Marshall Urbain de Maillé-Brézé and nephew of Cardinal Richelieu. The Navy built a French empire, conquering the "Nouvelle-Guyenne" (now Acadia), "Nouvelle France" (now Canada), Tortuga, Martinique, Guadeloupe, several other islands in the Caribbean, the Bahamas, and Madagascar.

Louis XIV and Colbert
Under the tutelage of the "Sun King," the French Navy was well financed and equipped, managing to score several early victories in the Nine Years' War against the Royal Navy and the Dutch Navy. Financial troubles, however, forced the navy back to port and allowed the English and the Dutch to regain the initiative.

Under the impulsion of Jean-Baptiste Colbert's ambitious policy of ship building, the French Navy began to gain a magnificence matching the symbolism of the Louis XIV era, as well as an actual military significance. The ship of the line FRENCH SHIP Soleil Royal is illustrative of the trend of the time. Colbert is credited with forging a good part of the naval tradition of France.

The French Navy of this period was also in the forefront of the development of naval tactics. Paul Hoste (1652–1700) produced the first major work on naval tactics.

Before the Nine Years' War, in the Franco-Dutch War, the French Navy managed to score a decisive victory over a combined Spanish-Dutch fleet at the Battle of Palermo (1676).

During the War of the Grand Alliance, Admiral Tourville won a significant victory in the Battle of Beachy Head (1690, Bataille de Bévezier). France gained control of the English Channel. The event is regarded as one of the most glorious deeds of the French Navy, and Tourville earned a fame which lasts to present times (a number of ships were named Bévezier or FRENCH SHIP Tourville to commemorate the battle).

The Battles of Barfleur and La Hougue in 1692 saw a French fleet engage an Anglo-Dutch fleet, with both sides suffering heavily. However, once wind and tide changed, the French suffered heavily as they tried to get back to port for repairs. Some of the damaged French ships were forced to beach themselves at Cherbourg, where they were annihilated by English long boats and with fire ships. The crews were saved, but the lost fifteen ships of the line were not replaced and France did not seriously challenge the combined English and Dutch fleet for decades.

France turned to commerce-raiding rather than large fleet actions with great success under such captains as Jean Bart, Claude de Forbin and René Duguay-Trouin.

Louis XV
Until what the British called the Annus Mirabilis of 1759, the French and British navies had a roughly even record of success in their many conflicts. This changed decisively in that year with a series of disasters for the French, who had begun the year planning to invade Britain. The British responded by blockading the French fleets at both Toulon and Brest; when the French emerged they were decisively defeated in the battles of Lagos, Portugal and Quiberon Bay. The French Navy was also unable to prevent the loss of the important colonies of New France (Quebec) and Guadeloupe. The year marked the beginning of the period of clear British dominance on the seas.

Following the disasters of the Seven Years' War, France was financially incapable of building up a fleet to challenge Britain's Royal Navy. However, efforts were made, and by the time of Louis XV's death in 1774, the Marine Royale was somewhat larger than it had been in 1763, and, crucially, had replaced numerous old vessels with more effective modern designs. Also worthy of note: in 1766, Bougainville led the first French circumnavigation of the world.

Louis XVI
King Louis XVI was keen on technical subjects and geography, and encouraged explorations including the commissioning of Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse to undertake far reaching voyages of discovery. (L’expédition de Lapérouse, 1785–1788, réplique française au voyage de Cook ). Upon King Louis XVI's orders, Lapérouse departed Brest, France, in command of L'Astrolabe and La Boussole on 1 August 1785 on a scientific voyage of the Pacific inspired by the voyages of James Cook. He never returned and his ships were later found wrecked at the island of Vanikoro, which is part of the isolated Santa Cruz group of islands in the South Pacific. Vessels designed by French engineer Jacques-Noël Sané started being constructed during the American Revolutionary War. He created what were to be, in effect, the ultimate designs of wind-powered fighting ship, with standard frigates carrying 18-pounder guns, and standard ships of the line of 64, 74, 80 and 118 guns ; his 74-gun ship of the line became the backbone of the French and British navies. The largest units, the 118-guns, were said to be "as manoeuvrable as a frigate" (the Océan-class ship of the line is a typical example).

During the American War of Independence the French Navy played a decisive role in supporting the American side. The French Navy was the only standing navy to fight the British, alongside the modest Continental and American state navies and American privateers. In a hard-fought effort, the French under de Grasse managed to repulse a British fleet at the Battle of the Chesapeake in 1781, ensuring that the Franco-American ground forces would win the ongoing Battle of Yorktown. The career of de Grasse ended when he was captured during the decisive French defeat at the 1782 Battle of the Saintes.

In India, Suffren fought in a series of campaigns against the British (1770–1780), contending for supremacy against Vice-Admiral Sir Edward Hughes.

In 1789, the French Navy had 71 ships of the line, 64 frigates, 45 corvettes and 32 smaller units; a further 12 ships of the line and 10 frigates were under construction and expected to be launched within the year. The crews counted 75,000 sailors, 5,000 gunners, 2,000 officers and 14,000 Fusiliers Marins. Ships were based mostly in Brest, Toulon and Rochefort, and in Lorient, Le Havre, Dunkerque, Bordeaux, Bayonne and Marseille.

French Revolution and the First Empire

The French Revolution, in eliminating numerous officers of noble lineage (among them, Charles d'Estaing), all but crippled the French Navy.

The National Convention dissolved the Fleet Gunners Corps, which effectively put a halt to the training in gunnery, abysmally degrading the rate of fire and precision of batteries; in addition, the French doctrine was to fire at the rigging of enemy ships to disable them; this doctrine could prove effective with highly trained crews, but was impractical with poorly trained gunners, and resulted in a number of instances where French ships did not manage to score a single hit on dangerously exposed British ships (as happened with the fight of the FRENCH SHIP Ça Ira, or at the beginning of the Battle of Trafalgar). By contrast, the Royal Navy doctrine was for their well-trained gunners to fire at the enemy's hull, a much easier target, to kill and maim the crew and gradually degrade firepower.

Efforts to make the navy into a powerful force under Napoleon were dashed by the death of Latouche Tréville in 1804, and the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, where the British all but annihilated a combined Franco-Spanish fleet. This disaster guaranteed British naval domination during the Napoleonic Wars.

From then on, the French Navy was limited to frigate actions and privateers such as Robert Surcouf. This started the French tendency to prefer large numbers of smaller but powerful and swift units, rather than large capital ships.

From the Bourbon Restoration to the Second Empire
In the nineteenth century, the navy recovered to become the second finest in the world after the Royal Navy.

During this period, explorer and naval officer Dumont d'Urville contributed to geography in Southern and Western Pacific, Australia, New Zealand, and Antarctica, and brought back previously unknown plants and animal species.

The French Navy also conducted a successful blockade of Mexico in the Pastry War of 1838 and obliterated the Imperial Chinese Navy at the Battle of Fuzhou in 1884. It also served as an effective link between the growing parts of the French empire. The French Navy were leaders in many areas of warship development, first with incremental improvements upon existing designs with the Commission de Paris, but also pioneering the introduction of several new technologies: steam propulsion, the screw propeller,  armour plate protection, steel construction, and protected gun mounts.
 * France led in the development of artillery firing shells for the Navy, invented by Henri-Joseph Paixhans
 * In 1850, FRENCH SHIP Napoléon became the first purpose-built steam-powered battleship.
 * FRENCH IRONCLAD Gloire became the first seagoing ironclad when she was launched in 1853.
 * In 1863, the French Navy launched FRENCH SUBMARINE Plongeur, the first mechanically propelled submarine.
 * In 1876, the FRENCH IRONCLAD Redoutable became the first steel-hulled warship.

Global interventions
In a speech in 1852, Napoleon III famously proclaimed that "The Empire means peace" ("L'Empire, c'est la paix"), although he was determined to follow a strong foreign policy to extend France's power and glory. The French Navy was involved in a multitude of actions around the world.

Crimean War
Napoleon III's challenge to Russia's claims to influence in the Ottoman Empire led to France's successful participation in the Crimean War (March 1854–March 1856). During this war Napoleon successfully established a French alliance with Britain, which continued after the war's close.

The French line-of-battle ship FRENCH SHIP Henri IV and the corvette Pluton ran aground after a storm that destroyed many Allied ships. The remains of Henri IV were used to construct a fortress. The Pluton was a total loss.

East Asia

Napoleon III took the first steps to establishing a French colonial influence in Indochina. He approved the launching of a naval expedition in 1858 to punish the Vietnamese for their mistreatment of French Catholic missionaries and force the court to accept a French presence in the country. An important factor in his decision was the belief that France risked becoming a second-rate power by not expanding its influence in East Asia. Also, the idea that France had a civilizing mission was spreading. This eventually led to a full-out invasion in 1861. By 1862 the war was over and Vietnam conceded three provinces in the south, called by the French Cochinchina, opened three ports to French trade, allowed free passage of French warships to Cambodia (which led to a French protectorate over Cambodia in 1867), allowed freedom of action for French missionaries and gave France a large indemnity for the cost of the war.

In China, France took part in the Second Opium War, and in 1860 French troops entered Beijing. China was forced to concede more trading rights, allow freedom of navigation of the Yangtze river, give full civil rights and freedom of religion to Christians, and give France a huge indemnity. This, combined with the intervention in Vietnam, set the stage for further French influence in China, leading up to a sphere of influence over parts of Southern China.

In 1866, French Navy troops made an attempt to colonize Korea. The French Navy also had a small presence in Japan in 1867–1868, around the actions of a French military mission to Japan, and the subsequent Boshin War.

Mexico
The French Navy was heavily involved in French intervention in Mexico (January 1862–March 1867). Napoleon III, using as a pretext the Mexican Republic's refusal to pay its foreign debts, planned to establish a French sphere of influence in North America by creating a French-backed monarchy in Mexico, a project which was supported by Mexican conservatives tired of the anti-clerical Mexican republic.

Pre-dreadnought battleships
In the 1880s, the Jeune École doctrine had a more powerful influence within the French Navy than elsewhere. Derived from the traditions of privateer warfare, the Jeune École emphasised small, maneuverable craft such as torpedo boats and cruisers carrying shell-firing guns, and prematurely deemed the battleship obsolete. However, in the early 1890s the pre-dreadnought battleship revived with surprising vigour and new protections against torpedoes and mines, and the torpedo boats proved to have inadequate nautical qualities for the open ocean.

French capital ships of this time were instantly identifiable by their small size (10,000 tons), huge spur rams, great height and pronounced tumble-home. Often carrying only half the main armament of their British contemporaries, French battleships had armoured masts with electric elevators inside, outsized funnels, and elaborate davit systems to swing out boats from the narrow upper decks.

France built a considerable fleet of these vessels, though seldom with such uniform class characteristics as seen in Britain and Germany. The FRENCH BATTLESHIP Bouvet, FRENCH BATTLESHIP Masséna, and FRENCH BATTLESHIP Jauréguiberry were built as "sample battleships", as the design for a true class of battleships was fiddled with. It eventually materialised with the 3-ship Charlemagne-class battleship, which introduced armament nearly on a par with its British contemporaries.

France's conceptual and technological edge proved attractive to the newly industrialising Japan, when the French engineer Émile Bertin was invited for four years to design a new fleet for the Imperial Japanese Navy, which led to her success in the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894. French yards busily turned out warships for foreign customers, especially Imperial Russia, which copied French styles in designing many of its cruisers and battleships. Despite her leads in some areas of technology (boilers, metallurgy), France did not have the productive capacity of her rival across the Channel, or her new nemesis, Germany.

Right at the turn of the century, French design absorbed influences from foreign practice. Her newer battleships had two twin-300mm gun turrets instead of single mounts, less exaggerated tumble-home of the hull, and abandonment of the ram bow. This led to improved seakeeping characteristics, though the ships remained small.

In the Liberté-class battleship (completed 1907), French pre-dreadnought design finally caught up with U.S. and British standards; but 1907 also saw the debut of HMS Dreadnought (1906), which made all the world's capital ships obsolete overnight. Through 1911, while rival navies were turning out new dreadnoughts, all France's available shipyards were dedicated to producing the six-ship Danton-class battleship pre-dreadnoughts which, though they featured turbine/quad screw propulsion, still mounted only four heavy guns each, as against at least ten for a dreadnought.

The first French dreadnoughts did not appear until 1914, and two classes totalling seven ships, the Courbet-class battleship and Bretagne-class battleshipes, were completed during World War I. With the alliance with Britain, France's naval assets were concentrated in the Mediterranean, largely to face off the Austro-Hungarian fleet in the Adriatic Sea. Meanwhile, a large cruiser fleet was also built, seeing service in the Mediterranean, the Channel, and in France's imperial dominions in Indochina, Pacific Islands, West Africa, and the Caribbean.

World Wars
The development of the French Navy slowed down in the beginning of the 20th century, and as a result, it was outnumbered by the German and US Navies. It was late to introduce new dreadnought battleships and light cruisers, and it entered the First World War with relatively few modern vessels: only one dreadnought in commission at war's start, with all four Courbets by the end of 1914 and three improved dreadnoughts by mid-1916. During the war, the main French effort was on land. While capital ships already on the ways were completed, few new warships were laid down. Despite its dated roster, the Marine Nationale performed well in World War I. The main operation of the French Navy was the Dardanelles Campaign. France's most significant losses during the war were four pre-dreadnought battleships, victims of mines and U-boat torpedoes.

A number of major ships of the French Navy at the outbreak / end of World War I:
 * dreadnought battleships: 4/7
 * pre-dreadnought battleships: 17/13
 * armoured cruisers: 22/18
 * protected cruisers: 13/12
 * destroyers: 35/42 (capacity over 500 tons)
 * torpedo boats: 180/164
 * submarines: 50/61

The first proto-aircraft carrier
The invention of the seaplane in 1910 with the French Fabre Hydravion led to the earliest development of ships designed to carry aircraft, float planes. In 1911 the French Navy FRENCH SEAPLANE CARRIER Foudre became the first seaplane carrier. She was commissioned as a seaplane tender, and carried float-planes in hangars on the main deck, from where they were lowered onto the sea with a crane. Foudre was further modified in November 1913 with a 10-metre flat deck to launch her seaplanes.

Genesis of the flat-deck carrier
As heavier-than-air aircraft developed in the early 20th century, various navies began to take an interest in their potential use as scouts for their big gun warships. In 1909 the French inventor Clément Ader published in his book L'Aviation Militaire the description of a ship to operate airplanes at sea, with a flat flight deck, an island superstructure, deck elevators and a hangar bay. That year the US Naval Attaché in Paris sent a report on his observations and the first experiments to test the concept were made in the United States from 1910.

Fleet construction between the World Wars
Every naval fleet consists of a variety of ships of different sizes, and no fleet has enough resources to make every vessel supreme in its class. Nonetheless, different countries strive to excel in particular classes. Between the world wars, the French fleet was remarkable in its building of small numbers of ships that were "over the top" with relation to their equivalents of other powers.

For example, the French chose to build "super-destroyers" which were deemed during World War II by the Allies as the equivalent of light cruisers. This was a way of bypassing the Treaty of Washington, which imposed restrictions on cruisers and battleships, but not on destroyers and smaller units. The Le Fantasque-class destroyer of destroyer is still the world's fastest class of destroyer. The FRENCH SUBMARINE Surcouf submarine was the largest and most powerful of its day.

In 1933, the French Navy was considering building a super-battleship, the Lyon-class battleship, but the plans were canceled when the Germans produced the so-called "pocket battleships" ; the French responded with a class of two ships of the Dunkerque-class battleship type, a fast battleship class falling somewhere in between battlecruisers and battleships. The large battleship niche was filled with the Richelieu-class battleship.

Second World War
At the outset of the war, the French Navy participated in a number of operations against the Axis powers, patrolling the Atlantic and bombarding Genoa. The French surrender and its armistice terms, however, completely changed the situation: the French fleet immediately withdrew from the fight.

Destruction of the French fleet and Vichy France
The British perceived the French fleet as a potentially lethal threat, should the French become formal enemies or, more likely, should Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine gain control. It was essential that they should be put out of action. Some vessels were in British-controlled ports in Britain or Egypt and these were either persuaded to re-join the Allies as Free French ships or were boarded and disarmed.

Important parts of the fleet, however, were in Dakar and Mers-el-Kebir. The Royal Navy delivered an ultimatum but, when agreement proved impossible, they opened fire and sank or damaged much of the French fleet (Operation Catapult) on 3 July 1940, to stop the fleet from falling into Axis hands. The action soured Anglo-French relations and inhibited further defections to the Allies. From this point on, the ships remaining in Vichy French hands spent the war trying to observe neutrality towards the Axis powers, while avoiding capture by the Allies and the Free French. They obtained anecdotal tactical successes which weighted for nought against the overall strategic disaster, like the battles of Dakar and Ko Chang.

In November, 1942, the Allies invaded French North Africa. In response, the Germans occupied (Case Anton) Vichy France, including the French naval port of Toulon, where the main part of the surviving French fleet lay. This was a major German objective and forces under SS command had been detailed to capture them (Operation Lila). French naval authorities were divided on their response: Admiral Jean de Laborde, the commander of the Forces de Haute Mer (the High Seas Fleet) advocated sailing to attack the Allied invasion fleet while others, such as the Vichy Secretary of the Navy, Contre-Amiral Gabriel Auphan favoured joining the Allies. On several warships, there were spontaneous demonstrations in favour of sailing with the Allies, chanting "Vive de Gaulle! Appareillage!".

The orders to French commanders to scuttle their ships in case of an attempted take-over had been reinforced, however, and, often despite the presence of German troops, this was done in the scuttling of the French fleet at Toulon. No capital ships and few others were taken in reparable condition. A few ships fled Toulon and joined the Allies, notably the submarine FRENCH SUBMARINE Casabianca.

Free French Naval Forces

In the wake of the Armistice and the Appeal of 18 June, Charles de Gaulle founded the Free French Forces, including a naval arm, the Free Naval French Forces (Forces navales françaises libres, FNFL). To distinguish the FNFL from the Vichy French forces, Vice-Admiral Émile Muselier created the bow flag displaying the French colours with a red cross of Lorraine, and a cocarde also featuring the cross of Lorraine for aircraft.

The French fleet was widely dispersed. Some vessels were in port in France; others had escaped from France to British-controlled ports, mainly in Britain itself or Alexandria in Egypt. At the first stage of Operation Catapult, the ships in the British ports of Plymouth and Portsmouth were simply boarded on the night of 3 July 1940. The then-largest submarine in the world, the FRENCH SUBMARINE Surcouf, which had sought refuge in Portsmouth in June 1940 following the German invasion of France, made an effort to resist the boarding. In capturing the submarine, two British officers and one French sailor were killed. Other ships were the two obsolete battleships FRENCH BATTLESHIP Paris and FRENCH BATTLESHIP Courbet, the destroyers FRENCH DESTROYER Le Triomphant and the FRENCH DESTROYER Léopard, 8 torpedo boats, 5 submarines and a number of other ships of lesser importance.

Most of these ships were surrendered to the FNFL (notably the submarine Surcouf), and other were leased by the British (like the corvette FRENCH CORVETTE Aconit), constituting the embryo of a naval force.

When French Africa joined the Allies, important ships based in Dakar were obtained (notably the cruisers FRENCH CRUISER Suffren, FRENCH CRUISER Gloire, FRENCH CRUISER Montcalm, FRENCH CRUISER Georges Leygues, and the battleship FRENCH BATTLESHIP Richelieu).

Beside warships, the FNFL developed special forces: Captain Philippe Kieffer took inspiration from the British commandos to train new units of "Commandos Fusiliers-Marins", which later would become the Commandos Marine. These commandos distinguished themselves during the Battle of Normandy, climbing cliffs under fire to destroy German shore batteries. Captain Henri Honoré d'Estienne d'Orves attempted to unite the French Resistance, and became an inspiring symbol when he was arrested, tortured by the Gestapo and executed.

The FNFL also harboured technical innovators, like Captain Jacques Cousteau, who invented the modern aqua-lung, and Yves Rocard, who improved radar. The aqua-lung became a major improvement for commando operations.

French warships of the FNFL supported the landings in southern France (Operation Dragoon) and Normandy (Operation Neptune). These units also played their parts in the war in the Pacific. Richelieu was present in Tokyo Bay during the signing of the Japanese Instrument of Surrender.

Modern navy
French naval doctrine calls for two aircraft carriers, but the French only have one, the FRENCH AIRCRAFT CARRIER Charles de Gaulle.

The navy is in the midst of major technological and procurement changes. A naval version of the Rafale is replacing older aircraft. Newer strategic submarines of the SNLE-NG type have mostly replaced the elder SNLE, and a new nuclear ballistic missile is under test, due for 2008. The experience acquired with the building of the SNLE-NG will also lead to a newer type of nuclear attack submarines, which are expected for 2017. Surface forces are upgrading in numbers and modernity, with two large destroyers and 11 frigates planned. More modern missiles are being issued, notably adding cruise missile capabilities.

People

 * Raoul Castex, the admiral was a major theorist in 20th century

Politicians

 * Richelieu
 * Colbert
 * Choiseul
 * Georges Leygues

Heroes of the Ancien Régime

 * Jean de Vienne
 * Forbin, famous privateer
 * Duquesne
 * Tourville
 * Jean Bart, famous privateer
 * Duguay-Trouin, famous privateer
 * Admiral de Grasse, commander of the French fleet which help the USA secure independence

Heroes of the First Republic

 * Casabianca
 * Dupetit-Thouars
 * du Chayla
 * Surcouf
 * Latouche-Tréville
 * Admiral Villaret-Joyeuse

Explorers

 * Jacques Cartier
 * Champlain
 * Bougainville
 * Lapérouse
 * d'Entrecasteaux
 * Nicolas Thomas Baudin
 * Dumont d'Urville
 * Savorgnan de Brazza
 * Captain Cousteau

Other important French naval officers

 * Admiral Courbet
 * Pierre-Charles Villeneuve, commander of the French and Spanish fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar
 * Pierre Loti, mostly known for his literary works

Lists of ships

 * List of ships of the line of France
 * List of French sail frigates
 * List of battleships of France
 * Current French Navy ships
 * List of French Navy ship names
 * Three ships were named for the Grand Admiral of France: see FRENCH SHIP Maillé Brézé

List of naval battles

 * List of French naval battles

title: History of the French Navy


text:
1908 in archaeology

Below are notable events in archaeology that occurred in 1908.

Explorations

 * January: Skeleton Cave (Arizona) rediscovered, containing remains of Yavapai massacred in the Battle of Salt River Canyon (1872).

Excavations

 * At Avebury in Wiltshire, England, by Harold St George Gray.
 * At Knap Hill in Wiltshire, the first excavation of a causewayed enclosure, begun by Ben and Maud Cunnington.
 * First excavations at Samaria begun by a Harvard expedition.
 * Sakçagözü excavated by John Garstang.
 * Ulugh Beg Observatory is discovered in Samarkand by Russian archaeologist V. L. Vyatkin, having been partly destroyed in 1449.

Publications

 * A. Hadrian Allcroft - Earthwork of England: Prehistoric, Roman, Saxon, Danish, Norman, and Mediæval.
 * Joseph Déchelette begins publishing his Manuel d'Archéologie Préhistorique, Celtique, et Gallo-romaine.

Finds

 * 3 July: Phaistos Disc.
 * 3 August: "La Chapelle-aux-Saints 1", a 56,000- to 47,000-year-old Neanderthal adult male skeleton, is found at La Chapelle-aux-Saints in central France by Amédée and Jean Bouyssonie and L. Bardon.
 * A 40,000-year-old Neanderthal boy skeleton is found at Le Moustier in southwest France by Otto Hauser.
 * Venus of Willendorf found by Josef Szombath.
 * The largest ever coin hoard is found, 150,000 13th century silver pennies in Brussels.

Births

 * November 25: Jia Lanpo, Chinese prehistorian (died 2001)
 * December 17: Willard Frank Libby, American developer of radiocarbon dating (died 1980)

Deaths

 * May 31: Sir John Evans, English archaeologist (born 1823)
 * Frank Calvert, English archaeologist (born 1828)

title: 1908 in archaeology


text:
Atlantic, Seattle

Atlantic is a neighborhood in the Central District of Seattle, Washington, United States. It is the northernmost neighborhood in the Rainier Valley area, located between Mount Baker Ridge and Beacon Hill, and may also be considered part of South Seattle. It is home to the Judkins Park neighborhood.

Atlantic
Atlantic is triangular, bounded on the north by E Yesler Way, beyond which are Mann and Minor neighborhoods; on the east by Martin Luther King, Jr. Way S, beyond which is Leschi on the Mount Baker Ridge; and on the west by Rainier Avenue S, beyond which is Yesler Terrace and the International District of Downtown Seattle as well as North Beacon Hill (with S Jackson Street and 12th Avenue S filling out a northwest corner).

Judkins Park
Judkins Park is rectangular within Atlantic, bounded on the south by Interstate 90, and on the west by 20th Avenue S. Judkins Park contains two baseball fields, a soccer field, a playground, and a small water park. (Like Atlantic, Judkins Park is bounded on the north by E Yesler Way, on the east by Martin Luther King, Jr. Way S.)

The neighborhood suffered greatly during the 1960s through the early 1990s with the disruptions and widenings of Interstate 90 that wiped out many homes in the area and divided the west of the neighborhood.

title: Atlantic, Seattle


text:
Chuck Fusina

Charles Anthony Fusina (born May 31, 1957) is an American former football quarterback who played for seven seasons in the National Football League (NFL) and United States Football League (USFL) from 1979 to 1986. He played college football for the Penn State Nittany Lions, and was recognized as an All-American. Fusina played for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and the Green Bay Packers of the NFL, and the Philadelphia / Baltimore Stars of the USFL.

Early life
Fusina was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He played quarterback for the Pittsburgh area Sto-Rox High School in McKees Rocks, Pennsylvania, where his old football jersey is on display outside of the gymnasium.

College career
Fusina capped an outstanding career at Penn State by winning the 1978 Maxwell Award, All-America honors, and was the runner-up in the Heisman Trophy balloting. He led the Nittany Lions to a .900 mark as a starter, including an 11–0 regular season in 1978. He passed for 1,859 yards and 11 touchdowns.

Fusina earned a Bachelor of Science in Marketing from Penn State in 1979. He also earned an MBA from La Salle University in 1988.

Professional career
At 6'1" 195-lb., Fusina was a 5th round draft pick (#133 overall) of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in the 1979 NFL draft. He spent his first three professional seasons as back-up to Doug Williams. In 1983, he left for the fledgling USFL. Fusina signed with the Philadelphia/Baltimore Stars where he blossomed under coach Jim Mora. In his three seasons with the team, he passed for over 10,000 yards and led all USFL quarterbacks with 66 touchdowns and a QB rating of 88.6 and led the Stars to back-to-back USFL titles in 1984 and 1985. He was named MVP of the 1984 USFL Championship Game. When the league folded in August 1986, Fusina returned to the NFL for one season with the Green Bay Packers.

Personal life
Fusina has been an instructor at the Gus Purcell Quarterback School in Charlotte, North Carolina. He and his wife, Jacquelyn live in Pittsburgh Pennsylvania, and his children Matt and Shannon currently live in Washington, DC.

Hall of Fame
In 2015 Fusina was elected to the Pennsylvania Sports Hall of Fame (PSHF) along with his head coach Joe Paterno and teammate, kicker Matt Bahr.

title: Chuck Fusina


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Ejaz Fiaz

 This page is an archive of the proposed deletion of the article below. Further comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination). No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was Keep. --Tony Sidaway Talk 08:25, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

Ejaz Fiaz
This article was created at a time when his name was being associated with the London tube bombings; there seems to be no evidence for this, and another person has been named as the bomber he was suspected of being. As far as I can tell, he is no longer a suspect, and the article should be deleted as being based on erroneous speculation. Delete -- Karada 16:56, 21 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. After he has been left out from the investigation hypothesis, it's really unnecessary to keep this article. --Neigel von Teighen 17:00, 21 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Keep. Zacarias Moussaoui didn't actually hijack any planes on 9/11, and Lotfi Raissi was found innocent on charges stemming from original theories he was involved in 9/11.  Fiaz is a fairly major secondary player in an event of global proportions, I can't imagine not having an article about who he is.  When the Kennedy files get released, would we delete Lee Harvey Oswald's article?  I think not.  Sherurcij 17:31, July 21, 2005 (UTC)

 * Weak Keep. Adding to Sherurci's reasoning, I'll toss in Richard Jewell, although Jewell did have greater notability owing to his actions at the time of the bombing, his libel lawsuits, and Janet Reno's public apology.  Nonetheless, I think we've established an... acceptable, if not ideal... precedent of including articles for persons falsely accused of responsibility for major terrorist attacks.  In the event we decide that Ejaz Fiaz is not notable enough a falsely accused person, then we just merge to 7 July 2005 London bombings.  If it turns out he did have a role and isn't innocent at all, then I'd think there's no question that the article should be kept in that case.  The Literate Engineer 20:07, 21 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Wait. His brother Naveed Fiaz will remain in custody through at least 23 July. There hasn't been a mention of Ejaz/Jacksy since 7/14 (via Google News), but he also hasn't, apparently, been found -- which may mean nothing. If the other Fiaz is released without charges, I'll have no objections. --Dhartung | Talk 20:30, 21 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. It's not unthinkable someone will hit his name in future research on the event. I think keeping an article on falsely accused people (clearly labelled as such) should be kept. - Mgm|(talk) 20:55, July 21, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep I agree that being accused, then swiftly cleared, under intense media scrutiny in the aftermath of a major crime is independently notable, under the precedent of Richard Jewell. Xoloz 04:53, 22 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep, notably involved (if accidentally) in a notable event. -Splash 18:18, 22 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep I agree with Splash. Edit article so it is clearer that he is not guilty if it is the case. --AI 00:13, 24 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep as per Mgm|(talk). Especially in the context of "intense media scrutiny". There is social justice in having innocence disseminated as heavily as guilt is (as per Richard Jewell's comment). While social justice is not necessarily the function of an encyclopedia, it does not detract from the fact that the dissemination of truths (facts) certainly is. L-Bit 07:03, 27 July 2005 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


text: User talk:81.10.89.24

title: User talk:81.10.89.24


text:
1940 in archaeology

Below are notable events in archaeology that occurred in 1940.

Excavations

 * Start of excavations at Tell Uqair by Iraqi Directorate General of Antiquities (Seton Lloyd, Taha Baqir and Fuad Safar).
 * Start of excavations at Ahichatra.
 * Start of excavations in the Vatican Necropolis.
 * Excavations at Brahmagiri by M. H. Krishna of the Mysore state Archaeological Department.

Publications

 * Gisela M. A. Richter - Handbook of the Etruscan Collection (Metropolitan Museum of Art).

Finds

 * September 12 - Lascaux caves. Painted c. 15,000 BC - 13,000 BC. Closed to the public in 1963.
 * After ten-year expedition at Tanis, "Silver Pharaoh" tomb uncovered by Pierre Montet. It is the first ever intact tomb found.
 * Ferriby Boat 2 discovered by Ted Wright.
 * Balline Hoard in Ireland.

Births

 * October 14 - Ruth Tringham, Neolithic household and feminist archaeologist.

Deaths

 * February 26 - John Lamplugh Kirk, British archaeologist, collector and museum curator (b. 1869)
 * April 25 - Wilhelm Dörpfeld, German archaeologist of Troy (b. 1853)
 * June 27 - Harry Burton, English archaeological photographer, known for his photos of the excavation of Tutankhamun's tomb (b. 1879).

title: 1940 in archaeology


text:
Movement for Democracy and Independence

The Movement for Democracy and Independence (Mouvement pour la Démocratie et l'Indépendence, MDI) was a political party in the Central African Republic.

History
Established on 17 January 1981, the MDI was led by François Gueret, who had served in David Dacko's cabinet, but resigned. The MDI was fiercely anti-Soviet and somewhat pro-China. In the 1981 presidential elections the MDI nominated Gueret as its candidate, although he did not contest the elections.

The party was banned on 2 September 1981.

title: Movement for Democracy and Independence


text: User talk:66.219.228.90

title: User talk:66.219.228.90


text:
Los

LOS, or Los, or LoS may refer to:

Science and technology

 * Length of stay, the duration of a single episode of hospitalisation
 * Level of service, a measure used by traffic engineers
 * Level of significance, a measure of statistical significance
 * Line-of-sight (disambiguation)
 * LineageOS, a free and open-source operating system for smartphones and tablet computers
 * Loss of signal
 * Fading
 * End of pass (spaceflight)
 * Loss of significance, undesirable effect in calculations using floating-point arithmetic

Medicine and biology

 * Lipooligosaccharide, a bacterial lipopolysaccharide with a low-molecular-weight
 * Lower oesophageal sphincter

Arts and entertainment

 * The Land of Stories, a series of children's novels by Chris Colfer
 * Los, or the Crimson King, a character in Stephen King's novels
 * Los (band), a British indie rock band from 2008 to 2011
 * Los (Blake), a character in William Blake's poetry
 * Los (rapper) (born 1982), stage name of American rapper Carlos Coleman
 * "Los", a song from the Rammstein album Reise, Reise
 * Los, or 'Legion of Skanks', is a comedy podcast on Gas Digital Network.

Games and sports

 * Line of scrimmage, in American football
 * Lucas Oil Stadium, Indianapolis, Indiana, the home of the Indianapolis Colts football team

Locations

 * Îles de Los, Guinea
 * Los, Sweden
 * Łoś, Masovian Voivodeship, Poland
 * Los, a small crater on Mars

Business

 * LOS AS, a Norwegian electricity supplier and subsidiary of Agder Energi
 * Loan Origination System

Weapons

 * PZL.37 Łoś, Polish bomber aircraft
 * Los (Лось), Soviet hunting rifle

Other uses

 * Los (surname)
 * Law of the sea
 * London Oratory School, a Catholic secondary school in Fulham, London; commonly known as The Oratory
 * League of the South, a neo-Confederate group
 * los, ISO 639 code for the Loniu language of Papua New Guinea
 * los, a determiner in the Spanish language
 * los, a pronoun in the Spanish language
 * LOS, the IATA code for Murtala Muhammed International Airport in Lagos, Nigeria
 * LOS, the National Rail code for Lostwithiel railway station in Cornwall, UK

title: Los


text:
1893 in archaeology

Below are notable events in archaeology that occurred in 1893.

Excavations

 * September 11–October 25 - Augustus Pitt Rivers excavates Wor Barrow ditch.
 * Wilhelm Dörpfeld begins his excavations of Troy.
 * House of the Silver Wedding, Pompeii. Built in early 1st century AD. Excavated the year of silver wedding anniversary of Italy's King Humbert and his wife, Margherita of Savoy, who have supported archaeological fieldwork at Pompeii.
 * March 31 - The Dartmoor Exploration Committee commence their excavations of the Bronze Age settlement of Grimspound.

Publications

 * Baron J. de Baye - The Industrial Arts of the Anglo-Saxons. Sonnenschein, London.
 * Gustaf Nordenskiöld - The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde, Southwestern Colorado, Their Pottery and Their Implements. P. A. Norstedt and Soner, Stockholm-Chicago.
 * Alois Riegl - Stilfragen: Grundlegungen zu einer Geschichte der Ornamentik, George Siemens, Berlin.

Finds

 * Jacques de Morgan discovers six boats near the Middle Kingdom pyramid of Senwosret III at Dahshur.
 * First of the Abusir Papyri from Egypt.
 * First finds from the Butmir culture near Sarajevo.

Births

 * August 9: Frans Blom, Mayanist (d. 1963)

Deaths

 * November 28: Alexander Cunningham, archaeologist of India (b. 1814)

title: 1893 in archaeology


text:
Talk:2nd Canadian Division during World War II

Assessment
The reason I only gave this article a "start" assessment is the lack of references. Other than that it looks great. With a few in line references you should think about putting this one up for GA status.--Looper5920 22:57, 16 August 2006 (UTC)

Major General V.W. Odlum
20 May 1940 - 6 November 1941

Major General Victor Odlum,CB, CMG, DSO, VD was a decorated veteran of the First World War and had previous to his appointment as GOC been the Inspector General of the 2nd Division. By the end of 1941, Canada had begun the process of replacing older soldiers like Odlum with younger men, as they became available and trained. Many of the 1939 originals in the Calgary Highlanders were also replaced as a matter of policy, including Lieutenant Colonel J. Fred Scott.

Major General H.D.G. Crerar
23 December 1941 - 5 April 1942
 * Never actually commanded; appointed to temporary command of I Cdn Corps 23 December 1941

Major General Henry Duncan Graham "Harry" Crerar, DSO was an artilleryman who had served in the First World War. He would never actually command the Second Division despite being named its commander in December of 1941. He would go on to command I Canadian Corps, and in August 1944 landed in Normandy as commander of First Canadian Army, to whom the II Canadian Corps and 2nd Canadian Division belonged.

Major General J.H. Roberts
7 November 1941 - 5 April 1942 Acting Commander
 * ''Confirmed in position 6 April 1942 - 12 April 1943

Major General John Hamilton "Ham" Roberts, DSO, MC had won the Military Cross in the First World War as a gunner, and was promoted rapidly after the fall of France. During the evacuation from France in 1940, as commanding officer of 1 Canadian Field Regiment (RCHA) he used his initiative to rescue his entire regiment of field guns from abandonment on the Continent, and was quickly promoted to various staff and command positions before assuming divisional command. He led the division at Dieppe, for which he was decorated with the Distinguished Service Order, but in the spring of 1943, after poor showings in formation level exercises by the 2nd Division, he was sent to command reinforcement units.

Major General G.G. Simonds
13 April 1943 - 28 April 1943

Major General Guy Granville Simonds, CBE was born to a Major of the Royal Artillery in 1903, and upon graduation from Royal Military College elected to join the Royal Canadian Horse Artillery. After he left the Second Division, he would serve in Italy and return to command II Canadian Corps in Normandy, the formation to which the Second Canadian Division belonged. Simonds would be regarded, by British officers, Canadian officers, and historians alike, as the greatest commander Canada produced in the Second World War.

Major General E.L.M. Burns
6 May 1943 - 10 January 1944

Major General Edson Louis Millard "Tommy" Burns, OBE, MC was a veteran of the Great War who had served in signals units, being decorated for bravery under fire. He was also a scholar, who was published in both fiction and non-fiction. Between the wars, he served with the Royal Canadian Engineers. In 1939 he assumed the first of a string of senior staff positions, but was reduced from Brigadier to Colonel in 1941 when a letter to a married woman in Montreal - with whom he was having an affair - was found to contain many frank opinions of senior war leadership in Britain. He assumed an administrative post with the new Canadian Armoured Corps, commanded a brigade in the 4th Division (which he helped create), and eventually was given command of the 2nd Canadian Division. He would leave the division to assume command of I Canadian Corps in Italy where he oversaw some of Canada's greatest military successes in that theatre - the Hitler Line and the Gothic Line.

Major General C. Foulkes
11 January 1944 - 9 November 1944

Major General Charles Foulkes, CBE was a prewar Permanent Force officer, who became Brigadier, General Staff of First Canadian Army, and assumed command of the Second Canadian Division in January 1944. He left the division to take over I Canadian Corps from E.L.M. Burns, who - despite his tactical successes in the field - was considered not to have the personality required of a corps commander. Foulkes was a rarity among senior commanders in the Canadian Army in World War II in that his background was as an infantry officer.

Major General A.B. Matthews
10 November 1944 - 6 October 1945 Division disbanded

Major General Albert Bruce Matthews, CBE, DSO, ED was also a gunner, and moreover, had been a Militia officer before the war rather than a full time Permanent Force officer. He commanded a battery of field guns in Toronto, and after Mobilization held positions as battery and later field regiment commander. In January 1943 he was named Commander Royal Artillery of the 1st Canadian Division (Hamilton Roberts had held the exact same appointment earlier in the war). The CRA commanded the divisional artillery (three field regiments, an anti-tank regiment and an anti-aircraft regiment) and served as the GOC's artillery advisor in combat in Sicily and Italy. He returned to the UK and became CCRA (Commander Corps Royal Artillery) of II Canadian Corps - meaning he now commanded the artillery of not just one division, but of all units in the corps (including the artillery of the Second Canadian Division when II Canadian Corps Headquarters moved to Normandy in August 1944).

When Charles Foulkes left for Italy to assume command of I Canadian Corps, Matthews was selected to replace him. Commanders in NW Europe were dubious at first - fearing that the perception would be that artillerymen were favouring each other for top appointments - but Matthews brought a unique perspective to the job of division commander. Canadian doctrine had evolved to be very much artillery based in any event, and the division benefited from having a gunner in command.

Royal visit
On 27 March 1941 came a Royal Visit, described as a "tonic" to morale in the division.

 * 5th Canadian Inf. Bde. proceeded to HORNLEY COMMON and formed up in a concentration area to be inspected by their Majesties King George and Queen Elizabeth. The King and Queen seemed to be very pleased with the turn out of the Bttn. The Carriers demonstrated their ability to go into action quickly. Each Company (of The Calgary Highlanders) did a different type of training while the band marched up and down the road to the skirl of the pipes. The officers and men of the unit feel highly honoured to have been inspected by their Majesties.

Identification
General Odlum expressed a desire to revive the blue battle patches worn in World War I as early as September 1940 and these patches were adopted in April 1941. These battle patches designated the various battalions within the division through the use of coloured geometric shapes atop the blue rectangular division patch; the same system that had been used in the Great War.

The Division also adopted a gold maple leaf on blue background as its vehicle insignia. Individual units came to be denoted by unit signs which were consistent from division to division. A C-II device (pronounced "See-Too") was incorporated in the division sign which appears to have been phased out by 1944. This device was a matter of some controversy; officers in the division wore a gold-wire C-II on their division patch when in Service Dress; General McNaughton later suggested this was an "unfortunate precedent" when other divisions desired similar devices on their patches. The C-II device has been worn in a similar fashion by officers of the 2nd Canadian Division in the First World War.

Victory campaign
I see that one of the headings has been changed to the above. I don't recognise it as one of the official campaign titles - even the Juno beach article doesn't use it. Where did it spring from (besides the book title). It sounds a bit triumphal / POV? Stephen Kirragetalk - contribs 07:43, 15 August 2008 (UTC)

Now hold on!
I deleted "rather than in a series of diversionary "holding attacks" & "21st Army Group then decided the primary task of the newly-activated First Canadian Army would be to pin down German formations south of Caen, diverting attention from the highly successful American breakout in the west. " because this is self-serving Monty fiction, & there's no place for it here.  TREKphiler   hit me ♠  08:26 & 08:30, 29 August 2008 (UTC)

Shoot me kangaroo down, sport
"1st mechanized infantry"? I really doubt it, since the Germans had used HTs long before... And am I wrong thinking 272nd Grenadier Infantry Division =272d Pzgrenadier? TREKphiler  hit me ♠  09:07, 29 August 2008 (UTC)
 * I'll check the mechanized infantry bit with my references. As for the 272nd, it was technically the 272nd Infantry Division (Germany), although many of my sources on the conflicts around verrieres (particularly Roman Jarymowycz and Terry Copp) refer to it as the "272nd Grenadier Infantry Division", while the division that was formed from the wreckage of it was the 272nd Volksgrenadier Division (Germany).  In addition, the organization of a grenadier-infantry division VS a panzergrenadier division differed, as most PzGren divisions had 2 infantry battalions and 2 panzer battalions, whereas the 272nd had 3 infantry battalions and 1 tank battalion.  I'll do a bit more digging into this. Cam (Chat) 22:30, 4 September 2008 (UTC)
 * Thanks. When you find it, will you message my talk with your sources? I'm always looking for good ones.  TREKphiler   hit me ♠  00:05, 5 September 2008 (UTC)

 * Just a note, the only thing I can find for the 272. Grenadier is mention of a Panzerjäger battalion, and that is specified as 12 towed 75-mm antitank guns (the unit was apparently missing any self-propelled antitank vehicles), this equipment quote is dated 25 May 1944. Also found this "According to an organization chart for 3 August 19446 minor changes had occurred. The Pz.Jäg.Abt. had been expanded by the addition of a Flak company with ten 8,8 cm Flak guns, one platoon with three towed 7,5 cm AT guns and one platoon with three SP 7,5 cm AT guns. It seems however that the organization chart depicts authorized organization, not actual for the date indicated. There are no indications in the records that any SP 7,5 cm AT guns were sent to the division.7" - this from Zetterling's OOB page for Normandy. Cheers, --W. B. Wilson (talk) 03:56, 24 October 2008 (UTC)

Copyedit
Apologies for the delay (busy busy busy!). I'll post comments, questions etc below. EyeSerene talk 10:53, 24 September 2008 (UTC)

General

 * I've delinked the dates per MOS:UNLINKDATES (it's a recent change!). The other Wikilinks could do with going over too - current practice, at FA at least, is to include only high-value links, so, for example, it might be feasible to delink things like the names of countries and places. Your thoughts?
 * In places the article refers to eg "1st Canadian Division" rather than "the 1st Canadian Division". This sometimes comes over as grammatically awkward. I realise that sometimes it's referring to the division's 'proper' name, but I wonder if there's a consistent way we can indicate this (maybe by using "First Division" rather than "1st Division"?)
 * I've added in a few tags as I've gone along - I hope you don't mind.

Lead

 * I'll leave this until last - usually easier that way, as it may need to reflect changes in the article. Done

Early organisation

 * I've tabulated the 2nd Div organisation, but have a couple of issues:
 * Sourcing: do we have a source for the information?
 * It seems slightly odd to only have this information for the division at the start of the war, when we are told within a few sentences that by 1940 it changed. Perhaps it might be worth including updated organisational tables in significant places elsewhere in the article? (This could involve the rather listy ORBAT at the end). Alternatively, it could be hived off into a separate article, maybe with the eventual aim of including a similar table for the 1st Div, and the multiple tables organised by date that reflect the various changes in organisations during the war. I'm not sure what you'd prefer though, or if you want to leave it as-is. ''Addendum: I've had a play with a table for the ORBAT for 1944 anyway, trying to shrink the section a little. Feel free to make alterations etc, and we need sources for that info too!.

Garrison duties and reorganization

 * The Churchill quotation needs an explicit source, and "(commanding Canadian troops in the UK)" should be in square brackets if it's something that's been added in clarification, which I get the impression it might be...

Changes in organization

 * "Due to equipment shortages, it was often difficult to adequately supply newly arrived divisions in England." Presumably this was in the aftermath of Dunkirk - can we include and cite this?
 * Quite a few fact tags added (for which I apologise!). I'm copyediting with FA in mind, so if you find them excessive, please take them back out ;)

 * I made various heading and organisational tweaks at this point, so hopefully everything above is not too confusing :P

Battle of the Scheldt

 * Added additional content (and citation tags) - I'll source these later ;)
 * Do we have a date for the start of 2nd Div's move on the Albert Canal?

North of the Rhine (March–May 1945)

 * I changed 'disbanded' to 'stood down' in the last sentence (trying to avoid repetition of 'disbanded'). I'm aware there are semantic differences, so do you think this is ok?

Being ex-military, I can say that these are two different things. If a unit is disbanded, it   ceases to exist as a unit. If it "stands down," it can simply be taken off the line, but it continues to exist. That seems to me to be more than a "semantic" difference. Or is that the dreaded "original research?"

Terry J. Carter (talk) 03:23, 27 November 2011 (UTC)

Move suggestion / A-class re-appraisal
G'day, this article is currently undergoing a Milhist A-class re-appraisal: WikiProject Military history/Assessment/2nd Canadian Infantry Division. As part of this, there is a proposal to move the article to 2nd Canadian Division during World War II to make it clearer that it is a child article of the broader 2nd Canadian Division article and to make it more consistent with the approaches of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division, 3rd Canadian Infantry Division, and 4th Canadian Infantry Division articles, which redirect back to the parent article. If anyone has an opinion on whether this article meets the Milhist A-class criteria, and/or about the proposed move, please join the discussion. Regards, AustralianRupert (talk) 03:21, 26 November 2016 (UTC)
 * This move has been completed now. Regards, AustralianRupert (talk) 23:13, 3 December 2016 (UTC)


text:
Tassilo III, Duke of Bavaria

Tassilo III (c. 741 – c. 796) was the duke of Bavaria from 748 to 788, the last of the house of the Agilolfings. He was the son of Duke Odilo of Bavaria and Hitrud, daughter of Charles Martel.

Tassilo, then still a child, began his rule as a Frankish ward under the tutelage of his uncle, the Carolingian Mayor of the Palace Pepin the Short (later king) after Tassilo's father, Duke Odilo of Bavaria, had died in 748 and Pepin's half-brother Grifo had tried to seize the duchy for himself. Pepin removed Grifo and installed the young Tassilo as duke, but under Frankish overlordship in 749.

In 757, according to the Royal Frankish Annals, Tassilo became Pepin's vassal and the lord for his lands at an assembly held at Compiegne. There, he is reported to have sworn numerous oaths to Pepin and, according to reports that may have been written much later, promised fealty to him and his sons, Charles and Carloman. However, the highly legalistic account is quite out of character for the period. K. L. Roper Pearson has suggested that it probably represents a reworking of the original document by the annalist to emphasise Charlemagne's overlordship over Tassilo during the period of hostilities between the two rulers.

Around 760, Tassilo married Liutperga, daughter of the Lombard king, Desiderius, continuing a tradition of Lombardo-Bavarian connections. He made several journeys to Italy to visit his father-in-law and to establish political relations with the pope. It is reported that Tassilo had gained such a reputation that he was regarded as a kingly ruler when his cousins Charles and Carloman assumed power in the Frankish realm in 768. That year, he founded Gars Abbey on the Inn River, in southern Bavaria. In the following year, 769, Tassilo issued in Bolzano the foundation charter of the Innichen Abbey. He was, however, not able to protect the pope against Lombard expansions, which has been seen as a reason for Rome's lack of support for him during his later conflict with Charlemagne. Still, there is a consensus among historians that Tassilo, despite acting as a kingly sovereign, did not intend to become king himself.

Tassilo nevertheless undertook such kingly duties as founding Kremsmünster Abbey. In 772, Tassilo sent his son Theodo to Italy to visit the court of his grandfather, Desiderius, and to be baptised by Pope Adrian I in Rome on May 19. In 773, Tassilo sent an embassy to the pope, but it was blocked by Charles, who was suspicious of the duke's alliances with Saxons, Wends, and Avars.

In 788 Tassilo was accused by the Franks of defaulting on his military obligations to Pepin, leaving the Frankish campaign in Aquitaine on grounds of ill health way back in 763. Roper Pearson suggests that he left because he felt an obligation to the Aquitanians in light of an earlier alliance, made between Tassilo's father and the Aquitanian duke Hunoald I during his conflict with Pepin in 743. Whatever the motivations behind Tassilo's abandonment of the campaign, the Royal Frankish Annals for that year are particularly scathing of him, saying that he "brushed aside his oaths and all his promises and sneaked away on a wicked pretext". Working on the premise that the annals may have been revised to emphasise Tassilo as a vassal, Roper Pearson suggests that to be the beginning of a campaign to depict Tassilo as an oath-breaker and someone unprepared to carry out the main function of his office, to fight, which would make him unfit for rule. Stuart Airlie has argued that the reason why Charlemagne removed Tassilo from power  was the greater power he had in the duchy of Bavaria and the greater independency he displayed, Airlie compares the duchy of Bavaria was similar to Aquitaine in the independent nature and threat to Carolingian rule.

The incident was the linchpin in Charlemagne and Pope Adrian's argument that Tassilo was not an independent prince but a rebellious vassal, deserving punishment. The punishment was carried out, after much political maneuvering, during a diet in the Imperial Palace Ingelheim in 788, when Tassilo was finally deposed and then entered a monastery. In 794, Tassilo was again compelled, at the Synod of Frankfurt, to renounce his and his family's claims to Bavaria. He formally handed over to the king all of the rights that he had held. Tassilo died reportedly on the 11th of December in 796 at Lorsch Abbey in which he had been banished to by Charlemagne.

A lost chronicle of Tassilo's reign was kept by his chancellor, Creontius. It was partially preserved in the 16th century, when Johannes Aventinus incorporated some of its material into his Bavarian history.

title: Tassilo III, Duke of Bavaria


text: User talk:81.232.129.247

title: User talk:81.232.129.247


text:
1987 Tour de France

The 1987 Tour de France was the 74th edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 1 to 26 July. It consisted of 25 stages over 4231 km. It was the closest three-way finish in the Tour until the 2007 Tour de France, among the closest overall races in Tour history and the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th place riders each wore the Yellow jersey at some point during the race. It was won by Stephen Roche, the first and so far only Irishman to do so.

The winner of the 1986 Tour de France, Greg LeMond was unable to defend his title following a shooting accident in April.

Following Stage 1, Poland's Lech Piasecki became the first rider from the Eastern Bloc to lead the Tour de France. He was one of eight different men to wear yellow, a new record for the Tour.

Teams
The number of cyclists in one team was reduced from 10 to 9, to allow more teams in the race. The 1987 Tour started with 207 cyclists, divided into 23 teams. Of these, 62 were riding the Tour de France for the first time. The average age of riders in the race was 27.05 years, ranging from the 20-year-old Jean-Claude Colotti to the 36-year-old Gerrie Knetemann. The cyclists had the youngest average age while the riders on  had the oldest.

The teams entering the race were:

Pre-race favourites
Shortly before the Tour, on 20 April 1987, the defending champion Greg LeMond was accidentally shot by his brother-in-law while hunting turkeys. He was unable to start the 1987 Tour, and because Bernard Hinault (second placed in 1986, and the only rider to seriously challenge LeMond in 1986) had retired, the Tour started without a clear favourite.

Only one previous winner started in the 1987 Tour: Laurent Fignon, winner in 1983 and 1984. Since then, Fignon had struggled with his form, but in the first months of 1987, Fignon had finally shown some good results. LeMond's place as leader of the Toshiba team was now taken by Jean-François Bernard. He had finished in twelfth place in the previous year as helper of LeMond and Hinault, so more was expected from him now. The Carrera team was led by Stephen Roche. For Roche, the months before the 1987 Tour had gone well, having won the 1987 Giro d'Italia. In the recent Tours, Pedro Delgado had shown improving results, and he had some talented helpers in his PDM team, so he was also considered a contender.

Route and stages
In 1985, it was announced that the 1987 Tour would start in West-Berlin, to celebrate the 750th anniversary of the city's founding. The 1987 Tour de France started on 1 July, and had one rest day, in Avignon. There were 25 stages (and a prologue), more than ever before. The highest point of elevation in the race was 2642 m at the summit of the Col du Galibier mountain pass on stage 21.

Race overview
The prologue was won by specialist Jelle Nijdam, and none of the favourites lost much time. The second place in the prologue was for Polish cyclist Lech Piasecki, and when he was part of a break-away in the first stage that won a few seconds, he became the new leader in the general classification, the first time that an Eastern-European cyclist lead the Tour de France. Piasecki kept his lead in the team time trial of stage 2, but lost it in the third stage when a break-away gained several minutes. Erich Maechler became the new leader. Maechler kept the lead for several stages. After stage nine, Maechler was still leading. The mass-start stages were dominated by break-aways of cyclists who were not considered relevant for the final victory; sixth-placed Charly Mottet was the only cyclist in the top 15 who had real chances of finishing high.

The tenth stage was an individual time trial, and the first real test for the favourites. It was won by Stephen Roche, with Mottet in second place; Mottet became the new leader of the general classification. After a successful escape in the eleventh stage, Martial Gayant became the new leader. The twelfth stage ended in a bunch sprint that did not change the general classification. The Tour arrived in the Pyrenees in the thirteenth stage. Non-climbers, such as Gayant lost more than fifteen minutes, and so the non-climbers were removed from the top positions of the general classification; the new top three was Mottet – Bernard – Roche, all serious contenders for the final victory.

The eighteenth stage was an individual time trial, with a finish on the Mont Ventoux. It was won with a great margin by Jean-François Bernard, who became the new leader of the general classification, and the new hope of the French cycling fans. Bernard was a good climber and a good time-trialist, and had the support of a good team, so he could be able to stay leader until the end of the race. But already in the next stage, Bernard lost considerable time. He had a flat tire just before the top of a climb, and lost contact with the other riders while he had to wait for repairs, and had to spend energy to get back. His rivals Mottet and Roche had made a plan to attack in the feed zone, where cyclists could get their lunch. Mottet and Roche had packed extra food at the start of the stage, and attacked while Bernard was at the back of the peloton. Bernard chased them, but was not able to get back to them, and lost four minutes in that stage, which made Roche the new leader, closely followed by Mottet and Delgado.

In the twentieth stage, the riders went through the Alps, to finish on the Alpe d'Huez. Roche finished in fifteenth place, and lost the lead to Delgado. The pivotal stage was stage 21. In the first part of this stage, the Colombian cyclists of the "Café de Colombia" team (including Luis Herrera and Fabio Parra, fifth and sixth in the general classification) kept a high pace, and many cyclists were dropped. Roche, Delgado and Mottet decided to work together to get rid of the Colombian cyclists on the descent of the Galibier, out of fear that Herrera and Parra would leave them behind in the next climbs. Their plan worked, but Delgado's teammates were also dropped. Roche saw this opportunity and escaped, climbing the Madeleine in a small breakaway group. Somewhat later, Delgado's teammates got back to Delgado, and together they chased Roche, and caught him just before the climb of La Plagne. Roche then anticipated that Delgado would keep attacking on the climb. Knowing Delgado was the better climber, Roche decided he would not follow Delgado's attack. Instead, he let Delgado get away until the margin was one minute, giving Delgado the impression that he could safely save energy for the next stages, and at the last part of the stage gave it everything he had to reduce the margin. Roche followed that tactic, and confused not only Delgado, but also the commentators and the Tour organisation. Roche finished a few seconds behind Delgado, and after the finish he collapsed and was given an oxygen mask in an ambulance.

Roche was only 39 seconds behind Delgado in the general classification. Roche could still win the Tour, but it depended on if he could recover in time for the 22nd stage. That stage included the last serious climb of the Tour, so Delgado had his final opportunity to gain time on Roche, and he attacked. However, Roche was able to come back to Delgado twice. Then, Roche attacked, and Delgado could not keep up. Roche won back 18 seconds on Delgado, so he had reduced his margin to 21 seconds. Being a talented time-trialist, he knew that he could easily make up for it on the penultimate stage (an individual time trial at Dijon). Indeed, Roche won almost a minute on Delgado, and this was enough to secure the overall win. This time trial was won by Jean-François Bernard finished the Tour in third place after losing four minutes after the flat tire in the nineteenth stage.

Doping
Bontempi was originally declared winner of the 7th stage, but a few days later, his doping test came back positive for testosterone. Bontempi was set back to the last place of the stage, was penalised with 10 minutes in the general classification, and received a provisional suspension of one month.

One day later, it became public that Dietrich Thurau had tested positive after the eighth stage. At that point, Thurau had already left the race. He was set back to the last place of that stage, and also received a provisional suspension of one month.

The third rider to test positive was Silvano Contini, after the thirteenth stage. He received the same penalty.

Classification leadership and minor prizes
There were several classifications in the 1987 Tour de France, six of them awarding jerseys to their leaders. The most important was the general classification, calculated by adding each cyclist's finishing times on each stage. The cyclist with the least accumulated time was the race leader, identified by the yellow jersey; the winner of this classification is considered the winner of the Tour.

Additionally, there was a points classification, where cyclists were given points for finishing among the best in a stage finish, or in intermediate sprints. The cyclist with the most points lead the classification, and was identified with a green jersey.

There was also a mountains classification. The organisation had categorised some climbs as either hors catégorie, first, second, third, or fourth-category; points for this classification were won by the first cyclists that reached the top of these climbs first, with more points available for the higher-categorised climbs. The cyclist with the most points lead the classification, and wore a white jersey with red polka dots.

There was also a combination classification. This classification was calculated as a combination of the other classifications, its leader wore the combination jersey.

Another classification was the intermediate sprints classification. This classification had similar rules as the points classification, but only points were awarded on intermediate sprints. Its leader wore a red jersey.

The sixth individual classification was the young rider classification. This was decided the same way as the general classification, but only riders under 26 years were eligible, and the leader wore a white jersey. In 1987 the race organisers changed the rules for the young rider classification; from 1983 to 1986, this classification had been as a "debutant classification", open for cyclist that rode the Tour for the first time. In 1987, the organisers decided that the classification should be open to all cyclists less than 25 years of age at 1 January of the year.

For the team classification, the times of the best three cyclists per team on each stage were added; the leading team was the team with the lowest total time. The riders in the team that led this classification were identified by yellow caps. There was also a team points classification. Cyclists received points according to their finishing position on each stage, with the first rider receiving one point. The first three finishers of each team had their points combined, and the team with the fewest points led the classification. The riders of the team leading this classification wore green caps.

In addition, there was a combativity award, in which a jury composed of journalists gave points after each mass-start stage to the cyclist they considered most combative. The split stages each had a combined winner. At the conclusion of the Tour, Régis Clère won the overall super-combativity award, also decided by journalists. The Souvenir Henri Desgrange was given in honour of Tour founder Henri Desgrange to the first rider to pass the summit of the Col du Galibier on stage 21. This prize was won by Pedro Muñoz Machín Rodríguez.

 * In stage 19, Stephen Roche wore the combination jersey.

Aftermath
After the Giro-Tour double victory, Roche would complete the Triple Crown of Cycling by winning the 1987 road race world championship.

Jeff Pierce winning the final stage on the Champs-Élysées is thought to have impressed the presence of United States cycling in the European circuit. Cycling News's Pat Malach wrote that Pierce's win was his defining win for the remainder of his career.

title: 1987 Tour de France


text:
Nucleotide exchange factor

Nucleotide exchange factors (NEFs) are proteins that stimulate the exchange (replacement) of nucleoside diphosphates for nucleoside triphosphates bound to other proteins.

Function
Many cellular proteins cleave (hydrolyze) nucleoside triphosphates – adenosine triphosphate (ATP) or guanosine triphosphate (GTP) – to their diphosphate forms (ADP and GDP) as a source of energy and to drive conformational changes. These changes in turn affect the structural, enzymatic, or signalling properties of the protein.

Nucleotide exchange factors actively assist in the exchange of depleted nucleoside diphosphates for fresh nucleoside triphosphates. NEFs are specific for the nucleotides they exchange (ADP or GDP, but not both) and are often specific to a single protein or class of proteins with which they interact.

title: Nucleotide exchange factor


text:
1932 in archaeology

Below are notable events in archaeology that occurred in 1932.

Explorations

 * "Antro della Sibilla" cave discovered by Amedeo Maiuri in Italy.

Excavations

 * Excavations of Antioch begun by an international committee (until 1939).
 * The first organized excavations, to be pursued until 1942, are started in Classical Period Smyrna by Rudolf Naumann and Selahattin Kantar, after preliminary explorations made in 1927.
 * Excavations of Troy begun by Carl Blegen (until 1938).
 * Brattahlid, home of Erik the Red, is excavated by Danish archaeologists in southern Greenland.
 * Clovis, New Mexico, excavations reveal the tools of the Clovis culture.
 * Aage Roussell and Eigil Knuth excavate old Norse sites on the west Greenland coast.
 * Excavation of a 'tumulus' in the grounds of Fawley Court in England proves it to have been created in 1731.

Publications

 * William F. Albright - The Archaeology of Palestine and the Bible.
 * R. G. Collingwood - Roman Britain.
 * Cyril Fox - The Personality of Britain: its influence on inhabitant and invader in prehistoric and early historic times.
 * Mary Hamilton Swindler becomes the first woman editor-in-chief of the American Journal of Archaeology

Finds

 * November 22: Dura-Europos synagogue (244 CE) is discovered in Syria.
 * Baal with Thunderbolt or the "Baal stele" is excavated in Ugarit.
 * Parts of the western quay for the Diolkos in Greece are discovered by Harold North Fowler.

Miscellaneous

 * October: Secunda nave of the Nemi ships is recovered.

Births

 * Patty Jo Watson, American archaeologist

title: 1932 in archaeology


text:
User talk:Wiki2me

Welcome from Redwolf24
Welcome!

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. We as a community are glad to have you and thank you for creating a user account! Here are a few good links for newcomers:
 * The Five Pillars of Wikipedia
 * How to edit a page
 * Editing, policy, conduct, and structure tutorial
 * Picture tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style
 * Merging, redirecting, and renaming pages
 * If you're ready for the complete list of Wikipedia documentation, there's also Topical index.

Yes some of the links appear a bit boring at first, but they are VERY helpful if you ever take the time to read them.

Remember to place any articles you create into a category so we don't get orphans.

I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, please be sure to sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes (~~~~) to produce your name and the current date, or three tildes (~~~) for just your name. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome.

Redwolf24 (Talk) 17:02, 21 July 2005 (UTC)

P.S. I like messages :-P

Blanking Community Portal
Please don't blank pages, it's considered vandalism. If you want to test editing, use the sandbox. — Ambush Commander (Talk) 17:05, July 21, 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Wiki2me


text:
User talk:ISCAKirk

Welcome from Redwolf24
Welcome!

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. We as a community are glad to have you and thank you for creating a user account! Here are a few good links for newcomers:
 * The Five Pillars of Wikipedia
 * How to edit a page
 * Editing, policy, conduct, and structure tutorial
 * Picture tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style
 * Merging, redirecting, and renaming pages
 * If you're ready for the complete list of Wikipedia documentation, there's also Topical index.

Yes some of the links appear a bit boring at first, but they are VERY helpful if you ever take the time to read them.

Remember to place any articles you create into a category so we don't get orphans.

I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, please be sure to sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes (~~~~) to produce your name and the current date, or three tildes (~~~) for just your name. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome.

Redwolf24 (Talk) 17:03, 21 July 2005 (UTC)

P.S. I like messages :-P

title: User talk:ISCAKirk


text:
Mozzarella sticks

Mozzarella sticks are elongated pieces of battered or breaded mozzarella, usually served as hors d'oeuvre.

Origins
The history of frying cheese in a batter dates back to at least 1393 in medieval France, when a recipe for fried cheese sticks appeared in Le Ménagier de Paris. However, food historians believe that medieval French fried cheeses had little in common with the preparation and development of modern mozzarella sticks.

Mozzarella sticks most likely have their origins in the United States during the 1970s, through a combination of two factors, as per historian Joel Jensen: "the increasing availability of mass-produced mozzarella cheese beginning in the 1960s", and the development of new efficient frying technologies to be used in fast-paced food-serving businesses (such as bowling alleys and sports bars).

Preparation
Mozzarella sticks are prepared by coating cheese strings in breadcrumbs or batter. They may be baked or fried in oil. Mozzarella sticks are often served with tomato sauce or marinara sauce. However, they may be served with other dipping sauces such as plum sauce, jalapeño jelly, ketchup, barbecue sauce, honey mustard sauce, and ranch dressing. Restaurants often serve fried mozzarella sticks with a marinara sauce.

Variations
Popular fried cheeses other than mozzarella include provolone, Edam, cheddar, and American. Mozzarella sticks with raspberry sauce are part of the regional cuisine of New York's Capital District.

In many public schools throughout the United States, Bosco pizza sticks filled with mozzarella have become a popular staple.

title: Mozzarella sticks


text:
User talk:Sozy

Welcome from Redwolf24
Welcome!

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. We as a community are glad to have you and thank you for creating a user account! Here are a few good links for newcomers:
 * The Five Pillars of Wikipedia
 * How to edit a page
 * Editing, policy, conduct, and structure tutorial
 * Picture tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style
 * Merging, redirecting, and renaming pages
 * If you're ready for the complete list of Wikipedia documentation, there's also Topical index.

Yes some of the links appear a bit boring at first, but they are VERY helpful if you ever take the time to read them.

Remember to place any articles you create into a category so we don't get orphans.

I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, please be sure to sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes (~~~~) to produce your name and the current date, or three tildes (~~~) for just your name. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome.

Redwolf24 (Talk) 17:04, 21 July 2005 (UTC)

P.S. I like messages :-P

Image Tagging Image:15-german-stereotypes.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:15-german-stereotypes.jpg. I notice the image page currently doesn't specify who created the image, so the copyright status is therefore unclear. If you have not created the image yourself then you need to argue that we have the right to use the image on Wikipedia (see copyright tagging below). If you have not created the image yourself then you should also specify where you found it, i.e., in most cases link to the website where you got it, and the terms of use for content from that page.

If the image also doesn't have a copyright tag then you must also add one. If you created/took the picture then you can use GFDL to release it under the GFDL. If you believe the image qualifies as fair use, please read fair use, and then use a tag such as or one of the other tags listed at Image copyright tags. See Image copyright tags for the full list of copyright tags that you can use.

If you have uploaded other images, please check that you have specified their source and copyright tagged them, too. You can find a list of image pages you have edited by clicking on the "my contributions" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting "Image" from the dropdown box. Note that any unsourced and untagged images will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. cohesion ★ talk 07:00, 16 January 2006 (UTC)

Image Tagging Image:Hunebed sleen.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Hunebed sleen.jpg. I notice the 'image' page currently doesn't specify who created the content, so the copyright status is therefore unclear. If you have not created this media yourself then you need to argue that we have the right to use the media on Wikipedia (see copyright tagging below). If you have not created the media yourself then you should also specify where you found it, i.e., in most cases link to the website where you got it, and the terms of use for content from that page.

If the media also doesn't have a copyright tag then you must also add one. If you created/took the picture, audio, or video then you can use GFDL to release it under the GFDL. If you believe the media qualifies as fair use, please read fair use, and then use a tag such as or one of the other tags listed at Image copyright tags. See Image copyright tags for the full list of copyright tags that you can use.

If you have uploaded other media, please check that you have specified their source and copyright tagged them, too. You can find a list of 'image' pages you have edited by clicking on the "my contributions" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting "Image" from the dropdown box. Note that any unsourced and untagged images will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. Sherool (talk) 03:49, 8 February 2006 (UTC)

Image Tagging for Image:SleenLucht.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:SleenLucht.jpg. The image has been identified as not specifying the source and creator of the image, which is required by Wikipedia's policy on images. If you don't indicate the source and creator of the image on the image's description page, it may be deleted some time in the next seven days. If you have uploaded other images, please verify that you have provided source information for them as well.

For more information on using images, see the following pages:
 * Image use policy
 * Image copyright tags

This is an automated notice by OrphanBot. For assistance on the image use policy, see User talk:Carnildo/images. 12:53, 22 March 2006 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:Sleengemeentehuis.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Sleengemeentehuis.jpg. The image has been identified as not specifying the copyright status of the image, which is required by Wikipedia's policy on images. If you don't indicate the copyright status of the image on the image's description page, using an appropriate copyright tag, it may be deleted some time in the next seven days. If you have uploaded other images, please verify that you have provided copyright information for them as well.

For more information on using images, see the following pages:
 * Image use policy
 * Image copyright tags

This is an automated notice by OrphanBot. For assistance on the image use policy, see User talk:Carnildo/images. 14:31, 23 March 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sozy