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Wormshill

Wormshill, historically Wormsell, is a small village and civil parish within the Borough of Maidstone, Kent, England. The parish is approximately 7 mi south of the Swale and 8 mi east of Maidstone. The village of Frinsted lies 0.6 mi to the east and Bicknor 1+1/2 mile to the north-west; while Hollingbourne is 3 mi to the south-west. The village lies on an exposed high point of the North Downs, within the Kent Downs Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty.

Archaeological and toponymic evidence of Wormshill's existence predates its appearance in the Domesday Book of 1086. The village contains a number of heritage-listed buildings, which include a Norman church, a public house and one of the oldest surviving post office buildings in the United Kingdom. The fields and woodland surrounding Wormshill have changed little in the past 500 years, and the village itself remains rural with a low population density compared to the national average. The population of 200 is a mixture of agricultural workers employed by local farms, and professional residents who commute to nearby towns.

Toponymy
Wormshill was listed under the name Godeselle in the Domesday Book of 1086. The village is thought to be much older, its name deriving from the Anglo-Saxon god Wōden (a cognate with the Norse god, Odin) and meaning "Woden's Hill". The area was also described in a paper in Archaeologia Cantiana, 1961, as "Wormshill, an ancient possession of the Kings of Kent, the hill where they worshipped the heathen Woden". The University of Nottingham's Institute for Name-Studies has offered the suggestion that the name means "shelter for a herd of pigs".

The Latinised form, Wornesell, appears in the Kent Hundred Rolls of 1274–75 and in a mediaeval will recorded in September 1409. A corruption of the name, Wormsell, is mentioned as the birthplace of a Cistercian Abbot at the nearby Boxley Abbey in 1474; a further variant, Wormysell, is found in a will of 1487, and court papers concerning a land dispute in 1534 use the name Wormeshell.

Early history
A 1994 landscape survey identified woodland to the north of the village as having contained ancient flint tools and what appeared to be flint boundary markers, the latter apparently gathered from loose-lying surface flints. The area around the village features ancient deneholes, or agricultural chalk mines, some of which are pre-Roman. These holes, which may be up to 30 m deep, were often dug at the edges of fields, onto which the chalk marl would be spread. A Lower Palaeolithic (Acheulian) hand axe was unearthed in the garden of Blacksmiths cottage in the village. In 1966, the remains of a U-shaped mediaeval pastoral enclosure for controlling the movement of stock were recorded in woodland to the north of the village. The extensive woodland in the parish also meant that it was one of several sources of wooden planking for the piers of Rochester Bridge (16 mi away) from the early 11th century (and theoretically was still liable to do so until the passing of the Rochester Bridge Act 1908.

The parish of Wormshill was originally appended to the village and parish of Boughton Malherbe, since both had the same patron; the patron of a parish was the land-owner who often built the church on the estate and who had the right (known as advowson) to appoint the parish priest. The first recorded patron of Wormshill was Robert de Gatton, who owned the Manor of Wormsell during the reign of Henry III (1207–72). From the Gatton family, the village passed by marriage in the 13th century to Sir Simon de Northwood, whose coat of arms appears in the stained glass of St Giles, the village's only church, and whose name (Norwood) is given to the farm at the north of the village.

Patronage of the parish subsequently transferred through a number of landholding families, vesting by the 17th century with the prominent Kent family of Sir Charles Sedley, which at times held the barony of Aylesford. During this period the Tylden (or Tilden) family, believed to have had links to the Crusades of Richard I, were also significant landholders in the area in the early 17th century; a memorial to William Tylden, who died in 1613, rests in the north chancel of St Giles church. Around the same time in the late 16th century, recruits of Sir Francis Drake's navy may have used a track, now known as Drake Lane, in the south west of the parish or camped nearby as they marched from the Weald of Kent to the dockyards at Sheerness.

Patronage is believed to have lapsed from the Sedley family to the Archbishop of Canterbury and then to Sir Joseph Aylosse before being conveyed by gift from a Mr. Serjeant Moses to the charity of the president and governors of Christ's Hospital in London in gratitude for a University of Cambridge scholarship he had received. As late as 1798 the parish was still paying its traditional castle-guard rent to Dover Castle and retained a court baron; this fee was a substitute for a feudal obligation requiring the provision of knights to defend the castle.

Little (if any) information exists about the village's population or demographics before 1801; however evidence from the first census indicates that the village grew steadily, reaching a peak in 1871. A possible indication of the growth in the agricultural output of the village is the construction of two windmills (possibly used for the production of oil from linseed or rapeseed) marked at "Beddington" (present-day Bedmonton) on Ordnance Survey drawings dated 1797 and an Ordnance Survey map published between 1819 and 1843. The mills stood north and south of each other and were approximately 1/2 mile to the north-west of the church. House building continued during the mid-to-late 19th century, together with a post office and school. Like much of rural Kent during the time of the Swing Riots (1830), Wormshill experienced a degree of civil unrest and Home Office records indicate that "a large body of men, numbering 50-100" assembled at Wormshill with the purpose of "intimidation and to enforce demands on farmers ... inducing other labourers to join them".

20th century

Records indicate that at least one former resident of the village fought as part of the Australian contingent in the Gallipoli Campaign of the First World War. Private Frederick George Kite, born at Wormshill on 16 February 1894, and educated at Wormshill and Milstead, enlisted on 8 September 1915. Originally employed as a fireman, after training at Blackboy and Broadmeadows camps in Victoria, he sailed from Melbourne as part of the Australian Imperial Force, 16th Infantry Battalion aboard HMAT Ceramic A40 on 23 December 1914. He participated in the landing at Gallipoli and was wounded in the left arm and shoulder, ending his active service.

During the Second World War, Wormshill joined a number of similar settlements in the region to form part of the anti-invasion network. On the outskirts of the village, near the hamlet of Ringlestone, there are the remains of a zero station (or Operational Base), a secret underground communications relay post operated by Auxiliary Units of the British Home Guard. In the event of a German invasion the zero station was to be used by defending forces to receive and transmit coded messages between a series of similar stations in the area as well as to the operational command headquarters at Hannington Hall in Wiltshire. A concealed underground concrete bunker, it was designed to be invisible from the surface and is located in woodland about 140 m from the road. Although its primary purpose was a communications post, the zero station was also designed to hold ammunition and explosives and provide living quarters for the radio equipment operators. Anecdotal evidence also indicates that anti-aircraft guns were sited near the village and that a Bren gun emplacement was installed in the valley between Wormshill and Frinsted.

A Diver Battery was located to the southwest of the village. Forming part of the Kentish Gun Belt, designed to provide a defence to attacks by V-1 flying bombs or "doodlebugs", it was armed with eight mobile 3.7-inch guns, and manned by 424 Battery of 138 Regiment of the 40th Anti Aircraft Brigade. It was initially equipped with Predictor AA No.10 and No.3 Mark V radar, and was manned by 57 Brigade in July 1944. There are records of a V-1 being shot down by a Supermarine Spitfire to the west of the village. Flt Lt A. R. Cruikshank is reported as having "Sited a Diver north of Ashford and attacked from astern at 100 yards range. Saw strikes and Diver fell and exploded in a field".

Villagers resident during the war also recall a V-1 being shot down in orchards near Norwood Farm and a fighter aircraft crashing in fields to the south of Yew Tree Farm. Roadside checkpoints were set up on the main routes into the village to the north and south and Allied forces moving through the region camped overnight in the area, including a detachment of New Zealand troops in fields near Home Farm.

Following an initial decline in the population at the beginning of the 20th century, more houses were constructed between the Great War and the Second World War and again in the 1950s and 1960s, adding to the cluster of cottages from the 19th century and earlier.

Governance
At the time of the Kent Hundred Rolls in 1275, Wormshill was in the Hundred of Eyhorne, a regional sub-division used in the Middle Ages by feudal and crown officials to administer communities. Although the Hundred of Eyhorne (including Wormshill) still exists, it is a mediaeval anachronism and no longer has any practical or administrative significance. In the 19th century, the village was within the lathe of Aylesford, the Bearsted petty sessional division and the Hollingbourne Rural District. The village was also incorporated into the Hollingbourne Poor Law Union (a means of funding and administering the operation of the Poor Laws in the area). The parish of Wormshill in part sits astride the West Kent and East Kent divide, a demarcation which until 1814 applied to an administrative boundary for the purposes of the law courts' Quarter Sessions. According to Edward Hasted (writing in 1798): "northward of the church, including the borough of Bedmanton, is in the division of East Kent, but the rest of it, including the church and village, is in that of West Kent". This differs from the traditional distinction between Men of Kent and Kentish Men, which are separated by the River Medway, accordingly persons born in Wormshill would be Men of Kent.

Since 1975, Wormshill has been administered within the North Downs ward and, together with surrounding communities, elects a representative councillor for the ward in the Borough of Maidstone. The incumbent councillor for the North Downs ward is Patrik Garten. The village forms the central focus of the civil and church parishes of Wormshill. The parish chairman is Simon Bass. Wormshill is part of the parliamentary constituency of Faversham and Mid Kent, whose Member of Parliament is Helen Whately of the Conservative Party. Prior to Brexit in 2020, it was in the South East England constituency in the European Parliament.

Geography
At 51.28444°N, 0.69556°W, the village is in central Kent, approximately 38 mi south-east of London. The nearest town is Sittingbourne, 4 mi to the north. Wormshill is surrounded by villages and hamlets of a similar size, including Frinsted, Bicknor, Bedmonton and Hucking.

The village is on a high point of the North Downs. The nearby road intersection of Black Post is recorded on the Ordnance Survey maps at 191 m above sea level. The landscape is primarily characterised by undulating calcareous grassland and ancient deciduous woodland over chalk downland. The settlement itself (as opposed to the wider parish) is on a downland ridge between two shallow dip slope valleys that separate it from Bicknor to the north-west and Frinsted to the east.

Wormshill's elevated and exposed position on the North Downs means it occasionally experiences extreme weather conditions such as the heavy snowfalls of 11–14 January 1987, March 2005, February 2009 and January 2010. In the late 18th century Hasted commented: "Being exposed to the northern aspect, it lies very bleak and cold."

Much of the local woodland was devastated by the Great Storm of 1987, which in October swept across south-east England with hurricane-force winds. A significant part of the exposed woodland to the north-east of Wormshill was felled and, after replanting, has only recently shown signs of maturing. An ancient yew tree believed to have stood for several hundred years in the grounds of the house at Norwood Farm was destroyed along with other long-standing trees. However, some 25 years later, the village displays few obvious signs of the damage.

The countryside around the village has been described as "an area where the whole landscape is a piece of history—a valley where time has stood still and the pattern of woods and fields is much as it was 500 years ago". A designated ancient woodland lies to the north-west of the village. Predominantly centred on Barrows Wood but also including High Wood and Trundle Wood, this is likely a remnant of the woodland described by Hasted: "... at the northern boundary of the parish there is a considerable quantity of wood, consisting mostly of hazel and oak, with numbers of trees of the latter, interspersed among them, which are but small, never here growing to any size." An ancient track that passes through the remnants of this woodland has been damaged by the use of off-road vehicles leading to attempts by local landowners to block Drake Lane, a byway that runs through Drake Lane Wood in the south-west of the parish and which may have been used by recruits of Sir Francis Drake's navy. Deep water-logged ruts in the track have resulted in the partial resurfacing of the route.

The village stretches primarily along a single carriageway road known as The Street. The north-eastern end of The Street is a designated Conservation Area. The lack of development stems from its position within the Kent Downs Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) and a Site of Nature Conservation Interest, which influences local planning laws and limits permission to build new housing. All development is subject to a high level of scrutiny; any development that would adversely affect the natural beauty of the landscape will automatically be resisted, and large-scale development proposals must be accompanied by an environmental impact assessment. The last major development was that of the residential cul-de-sac Draysfield.

Demography
The record in the Domesday Book does not give the population in 1086, though several people are named. By the late 19th century the village and parish were described as: "WORMSHILL, a parish in Hollingbourn [sic] district, Kent; 5 miles S by W of Sittingbourne r. station. It has a post-office under Sittingbourne. Acres, 1,467. Real property, £1,295. Pop., 253. Houses, 46. The property is divided among a few. The living is a rectory in the diocese of Canterbury. Value, £260.*Patron, Christ's Hospital, London. The church is plain. Charities, £12." Wormshill's location remains rural. Because of geography and restrictions on development, building in the village has been scant since the 1960s and 1970s. In 1821, the parish contained only 26 dwellings: by 2001, the total number of houses had risen to 82.

The rural nature of the area is indicated by a population density of approximately 0.4 persons per hectare (1 person for every 6.9 acres), compared to the average for the south-east of England of 4.2 persons per hectare (1 person for every 0.6 acres).

The village has been recorded as a distinct parish unit for the purpose of census statistics since the first United Kingdom census in 1801. The majority of the official population of 198 (per United Kingdom Census 2001) is aged 45 or over and lives in homes comprising married family units. The total population has increased by around 40 people since 1801 however, during the past 200 years, it has fluctuated more widely within that range. In 1801 the population was 157 before peaking at 253 in 1861. In 1901 census records indicate a parish population of either 163 or 169. Data for the ethnicity of the wider Maidstone area show that the population is around 97 per cent white and that the remainder is of mixed, black, and Asian descent. Specific figures for Wormshill held by Kent County Council indicated in 2001 that all the villagers were of white ethnicity.

Economy
Wormshill includes two farms: Yew Tree Farm (dairy farming) at the south end of the village, and Norwood Farm (fruit and other crops) at the north end. A third farm, Home Farm appeared on late 19th and early 20th centuries Ordnance Survey maps in the centre of the village. This farm is no longer in use, but some outbuildings remain. Wormshill at one time included a blacksmith's shop, which is recorded on Ordnance Survey maps until 1898. According to the 1831 Census, 40 of the 48 adult males in the village were employed in the agricultural sector. Census records from the mid-to-late 19th century show a marked increase in the construction of new homes, representing the largest growth in the village for the next 100 years; however, the 1901 Census still described the majority of workers as "labourers and servants". The population spike between 1821 and 1901 is a trend typical to the general growth in the need for physical labour from parishes in the Kent downland agricultural region in the 19th century which was followed in the early 20th century by the increasing mechanisation of farming activity. Although the farms continue to employ from the village, as of 2008 Wormshill is largely a dormitory village, with residents employed in nearby towns or commuting to London. The socio-economic classification of Census 2001 indicated that the most common occupations were "lower managerial and professional occupations" (21.9 per cent) and "small employers and own account workers" (15.2 per cent).

Landmarks

Until the end of the 20th century, the village had a post office and general stores along with a public house, The Blacksmiths Arms, a Grade II listed building, in part of 17th century origin.

The original post office opened in 1847 and was run by church warden Tom Clements from a building next to the rectory. The building, which now forms part of a Grade II*listed private dwelling, is thought to be the second-oldest surviving post office building in England with a service dating from 1847. The post office briefly moved to another location in The Street under the stewardship of local schoolmistress Fanny Harris (who operated the service from 1926); however, it returned to the original site in 1946 under the new sub-postmistress Irene Bugden and was run as a small general stores until it closed in 1976. Fanny Harris (then 92 years old and the village's oldest inhabitant) and Robin Leigh-Pemberton were passengers on the first postbus service on 4 March 1974. A new post office and stores operated at a different property in the village for a further 20 years until it was closed in the 1990s. Today, the village retains only the Blacksmiths Arms and a traditional red post box.

In the 19th century, an additional public house existed at the northern edge of the village near Norwood Farm and was known as The Woodman's Arms (and possibly also as The Norwood Arms). The pub was recorded on Ordnance Survey maps of the village between 1870 and 1946, but as of May 2012, the building is a Grade II listed private dwelling. Other listed buildings in the village include the timber-framed houses Norwood Manor and Blacksmiths Cottage. A large country house now known as Wormshill Court and bordered to the north and east by a brick wall includes the outbuildings of Manor Farm. The property is part of a large estate which has for several generations belonged to the Nightingale family. The house and farm is also shown on a map of 1636 and at that time appears to represent the only building in the village other than the church and the rectory. In 1858 a further map of the manor named the property Court Lodge Farm and included an inset plan showing the exchange of land between the governors of Christ's Hospital and a Mr. Henry Hudson.

Wormshill retained its own telephone exchange until the 1990s, when it became part of the Maidstone exchange. A red telephone box remains in the village after residents insisted that it not be replaced with a modern design however the telephony was disconnected (and the box sealed) in November 2009 as a result of lack of use. An informal village noticeboard is on the side of an old flint and wood barn that was part of the former Home Farm. The post box and telephone box are at the same location. The telephone box is a listed building.

The Bredgar and Wormshill Light Railway attracts tourists and railway enthusiasts throughout the summer season. The railway is a narrow gauge light railway run between two small stations on about 0.5 mi of track built in woodland between Bredgar and Wormshill.

Transport
A number of ancient trackways including the Pilgrims' Way and the North Downs Way (now designated as footpaths or byways) pass within a few miles of the village. Wormshill is not on any major roadways and has no rail service. No standard public transport facilities or taxicab operations exist in the village. A daily Postbus service, incorporated into the village postal delivery and collection timetable and which ran for 35 years, stopped on 14 November 2009. It was one of the last remaining postbus services in the United Kingdom.

The service, run by the Royal Mail and subsidised by the county council, began in March 1974 and collected residents from Wormshill and other villages en route to Sittingbourne. The closure of the only means of public transport to and from the village was controversial and, following a campaign by local councillors and journalists, the postbus was replaced by a temporary minibus service, funded by the county council. Royal Mail postal deliveries continue to be made to the village. The village lies between the M2 and M20 motorways, and the nearest railway station is at Harrietsham on the Maidstone Line, 3.8 mi to the south by road.

Education
A small one-roomed National school (a school established by the National Society for Promoting Religious Education) was built in the village in 1872 for about 30 children. However some evidence exists that it had "accommodation for forty-two children and an average attendance of twenty-eight". The school was recorded on maps of the village until 1909, although it was dissolved in 1930 (school mistresses Miss Fanny Harris and Miss Pepper later ran the post office and general store from an outhouse at Flint Cottage). The building that housed the school has since been converted to a private dwelling. The school's small playground was lined by lime trees planted in memory of a general at the end of the Boer Wars. As of November 2011 the lime trees are still there. The nearest primary school to the village is the Milstead and Frinsted Church of England School at Milstead. Secondary school pupils are educated in the towns of Sittingbourne or Maidstone.

Religion

The church, parts of which date back to the Norman era, is dedicated to Saint Giles and forms part of the united benefice of Tunstall and Bredgar, along with the villages of Rodmersham, Milstead, Bicknor and Frinsted. The ecclesiastical parish of Wormshill is in the Diocese of Canterbury and the Sittingbourne deanery (within the archdeaconry of Maidstone). As of March 2018, the rector was the Reverend Alan Pinnegar.

In 1995, the church received a new ring of six bells after a campaign by villagers begun in 1944 by Michael Nightingale of Cromarty, who at age 16 opened a savings account with 10 shillings for the restoration of the church's bells. Fifty years later, he completed the full ring of six bells: one of the six was original, and the other five were rescued from abandoned churches. The last major renovations of the church occurred in 1789 and 1901. Of note within the church are a Norman font and Tudor pulpit. The church also contains a 13th century chest, first discovered in the early 20th century. The former rectory is now a private dwelling.

Notable people
A vicar at the Rectory of Wormshill in the 19th century, Reverend Josiah Disturnell, was the subject of a debate about exceptional human longevity; it was claimed that he lived to age 107. References to the rector's memorial stone in the church ultimately provided evidence that his actual age of death was "either 91 or 93". Sir Henry Rew, a leading authority on agricultural economics, a former assistant secretary at the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food and president of the Royal Statistical Society (1920–1922) died at his home in the village on 7 April 1929.

Filmography
In January 2007, the church and its surroundings were used as locations in the filming of an episode of EastEnders, broadcast in the United Kingdom over the Easter 2007 holiday season. The production crew added mock gravestones and a temporary Victorian-style street lamp to the churchyard. Also featured were other locations in and near the village, including exterior shots of the Blacksmiths Arms combined with interior views of the nearby Ringlestone Inn.

Recreation
The village holds typical English rural festivals during the year. The spring and harvest festivals are horticultural shows that include the surrounding villages. The country fair (or fête) in the summer previously included traditional country games, stalls and attractions such as hay bale throwing, tug of war and a coconut shy, although the village has not held a fête since 2009. Wormshill contains a community village hall and recreation ground, including a small playground. The 9th Sittingbourne (Tunstall and Wormshill) Scout Group are associated with the village and group meetings are occasionally held at the village hall. Wormshill, together with the united benefice villages of Bredgar, Milstead, Bicknor and Frinsted, also produces a free monthly Parish Magazine including village news, announcements and occasional articles. In common with a number of rural communities in the county, Wormshill also receives a weekly mobile library service run by Kent County Council.

title: Wormshill


text:
José Santiago Bueso

José Santiago Bueso (1815–1857) was President of Honduras from 18 October to 8 November 1855.

He served as Vice President of Honduras in the cabinet of José Trinidad Cabañas from 1852 to 1855.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: José Santiago Bueso


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Surface charge

A surface charge is an electric charge present on a two-dimensional surface. These electric charges are constrained on this 2-D surface, and surface charge density, measured in coulombs per square meter (C•m−2), is used to describe the charge distribution on the surface. The electric potential is continuous across a surface charge and the electric field is discontinuous, but not infinite; this is unless the surface charge consists of a dipole layer. In comparison, the potential and electric field both diverge at any point charge or linear charge.

In physics, at equilibrium, an ideal conductor has no charge on its interior; instead, the entirety of the charge of the conductor resides on the surface. However, this only applies to the ideal case of infinite electrical conductivity; the majority of the charge of an actual conductor resides within the skin depth of the conductor's surface. For dielectric materials, upon the application of an external electric field, the positive charges and negative charges in the material will slightly move in opposite directions, resulting in polarization density in the bulk body and bound charge at the surface.

In chemistry, there are many different processes which can lead to a surface being charged, including adsorption of ions, protonation or deprotonation, and, as discussed above, the application of an external electric field. Surface charge emits an electric field, which causes particle repulsion and attraction, affecting many colloidal properties.

Surface charge practically always appears on the particle surface when it is placed into a fluid. Most fluids contain ions, positive (cations) and negative (anions). These ions interact with the object surface. This interaction might lead to the adsorption of some of them onto the surface. If the number of adsorbed cations exceeds the number of adsorbed anions, the surface would have a net positive electric charge.

Dissociation of the surface chemical group is another possible mechanism leading to surface charge.

Density
Surface charge density is defined as the amount of electric charge, q, that is present on a surface of given area, A: $$\sigma=\frac{q}{A}$$

Conductors
According to Gauss’s law, a conductor at equilibrium carrying an applied current has no charge on its interior. Instead, the entirety of the charge of the conductor resides on the surface, and can be expressed by the equation: $$\sigma = E\varepsilon_0$$ where E is the electric field caused by the charge on the conductor and $$\varepsilon_0$$ is the permittivity of the free space. This equation is only strictly accurate for conductors with infinitely large area, but it provides a good approximation if E is measured at an infinitesimally small Euclidean distance from the surface of the conductor.

Colloids and immersed objects
When a surface is immersed in a solution containing electrolytes, it develops a net surface charge. This is often because of ionic adsorption. Aqueous solutions universally contain positive and negative ions (cations and anions, respectively), which interact with partial charges on the surface, adsorbing to and thus ionizing the surface and creating a net surface charge. This net charge results in a surface potential [L], which causes the surface to be surrounded by a cloud of counter-ions, which extends from the surface into the solution, and also generally results in repulsion between particles. The larger the partial charges in the material, the more ions are adsorbed to the surface, and the larger the cloud of counter-ions. A solution with a higher concentration of electrolytes also increases the size of the counter-ion cloud. This ion/counterion layer is known as the electric double layer.

A solution's pH can also greatly affect surface charge because functional groups present on the surface of particles can often contain oxygen or nitrogen, two atoms which can be protonated or deprotonated to become charged. Thus, as the concentration of hydrogen ions changes, so does the surface charge of the particles. At a certain pH, the average surface charge will be equal to zero; this is known as the point of zero charge (PZC). A list of common substances and their associated PZCs is shown to the right.

Interfacial potential
An interface is defined as the common boundary formed between two different phases, such as between a solid and gas. Electric potential, or charge, is the result of an object's capacity to be moved in an electric field. An interfacial potential is thus defined as a charge located at the common boundary between two phases (for example, an amino acid such as glutamate on the surface of a protein can have its side chain carboxylic acid deprotonated in environments with pH greater than 4.1 to produce a charged amino acid at the surface, which would create an interfacial potential). Interfacial potential is responsible for the formation of the electric double layer, which has a broad range of applications in what is termed electrokinetic phenomena. The development of the theory of the electric double layer is described below.

Helmholtz
The model dubbed the 'electric double layer' was first introduced by Hermann von Helmholtz. It assumes that a solution is only composed of electrolytes, no reactions occur near the electrode which could transfer electrons, and that the only Van der Waals interactions are present between the ions in solution and the electrode. These interactions arise only due to the charge density associated with the electrode which arises from either an excess or deficiency of electrons at the electrode's surface. To maintain electrical neutrality the charge of the electrode will be balanced by a redistribution of ions close to its surface. The attracted ions thus form a layer balancing the electrode's charge. The closest distance an ion can come to the electrode will be limited to the radius of the ion plus a single solvation sphere around an individual ion. Overall, two layers of charge and a potential drop from the electrode to the edge of the outer layer (outer Helmholtz Plane) are observed. Given the above description, the Helmholtz model is equivalent in nature to an electrical capacitor with two separated plates of charge, for which a linear potential drop is observed at increasing distance from the plates. The Helmholtz model, while a good foundation for the description of the interface does not take into account several important factors: diffusion/mixing in solution, the possibility of adsorption on to the surface and the interaction between solvent dipole moments and the electrode.

Gouy-Chapman
Gouy-Chapman theory describes the effect of a static surface charge on a surface's potential. "Gouy suggested that interfacial potential at the charged surface could be attributed to the presence of a number of ions of given charge attached to its surface, and to an equal number of ions of opposite charge in the solution." A positive surface charge will form a double layer, since negative ions in solution tend to balance the positive surface charge. Counter ions are not rigidly held, but tend to diffuse into the liquid phase until the counter potential set up by their departure restricts this tendency. The kinetic energy of the counter ions will, in part, affect the thickness of the resulting diffuse double layer. The relation between C, the counter ion concentration at the surface, and $$C_o$$, the counter ion concentration in the external solution, is the Boltzmann factor: $$C = C_0 e^{-\frac{\psi z e}{k_\mathrm{B} T}}$$ where z is the charge on the ion, e is the charge of a proton, kB is the Boltzmann constant and ψ is the potential of the charged surface.

This however is inaccurate close to the surface, because it assumes that molar concentration is equal to activity. It also assumes that ions were modeled as point charges and was later modified. An improvement of this theory, known as the modified Gouy-Chapman theory, included the finite size of the ions with respect to their interaction with the surface in the form of a plane of closest approach.

Surface potential
The relation between surface charge and surface potential can be expressed by the Grahame equation, derived from the Gouy-Chapman theory by assuming the electroneutrality condition, which states that the total charge of the double layer must be equal to the negative of the surface charge. Using the one-dimensional Poisson equation and assuming that, at an infinitely great distance, the potential gradient is equal to 0, the Grahame equation is obtained: $$\sigma = \sqrt{8 c_0 \varepsilon \varepsilon_0 k_\mathrm{B} N_a T} \sinh\left(\frac{ze\psi_0}{2k_\mathrm{B} T}\right)$$

For the case of lower potentials, $$\sinh(x)$$ can be expanded to $$\sinh(x) = x + x^3/3!+\cdots$$ $$\approx$$ $$x$$, and $$\lambda_D$$ is defined as the Debye length. Which leads to the simple expression: $$\sigma=\frac{\varepsilon \varepsilon_0 \psi_0}{\lambda_D}$$

Stern
The Otto Stern model of the double layer is essentially a combination of Helmholtz and Gouy-Chapman theories. His theory states that ions do have finite size, so cannot approach the surface closer than a few nanometers. Through a distance known as the Stern Layer, ions can be adsorbed onto the surface up to a point referred to as the slipping plane, where the ions adsorbed meet the bulk liquid. At the slipping plane the potential Ψ has decreased to what is known as the  zeta potential. Although zeta potential is an intermediate value, it is sometimes considered to be more significant than surface potential as far as electrostatic repulsion is concerned.

Applications
Charged surfaces are extremely important and are used in many applications. For example, solutions of large colloidal particles depend almost entirely on repulsion due to surface charge in order to stay dispersed. If these repulsive forces were to be disrupted, perhaps by the addition of a salt or a polymer, the colloidal particles would no longer be able to sustain suspension and would subsequently flocculate.

Electrokinetic phenomena
Electrokinetic phenomena refers to a variety of effects resulting from an electrical double layer. A noteworthy example is electrophoresis, where a charged particle suspended in a media will move as a result of an applied electrical field. Electrophoresis is widely used in biochemistry to distinguish molecules, such as proteins, based on size and charge. Other examples include electro-osmosis, sedimentation potential, and streaming potential.

Proteins
Proteins often have groups present on their surfaces that can be ionized or deionized depending on pH, making it relatively easy to change the surface charge of a protein. This has particularly important ramifications on the activity of proteins that function as enzymes or membrane channels, mainly, that the protein's active site must have the right surface charge in order to be able to bind a specific substrate.

Adhesives/coatings
Charged surfaces are often useful in creating surfaces that will not adsorb certain molecules (for example, in order to prevent the adsorption of basic proteins, a positively charged surface should be used). Polymers are very useful in this respect in that they can be functionalized so that they contain ionizable groups, which serve to provide a surface charge when submerged in an aqueous solution.

title: Surface charge


text:
Marit Bergman

Liv-Marit Bergman (born 21 May 1975) is a Swedish pop musician.

Biography
Marit Bergman grew up in Rättvik, Sweden, and lives in Brooklyn, New York. She was a member of the 1990s Swedish punk band Candysuck. She has also been playing and recording with other musical groups. However, it is as a solo artist that she has risen to national fame, debuting in 2002 with the album 3.00 A.M. Serenades on her own record company Sugartoy Recordings. The record was a success with the critics and was re-released by RCA/BMG in 2003. Björn Yttling of Peter Bjorn and John produced the album.

Her second album, Baby Dry Your Eye, was released in 2004 to critical acclaim and commercial success. It was produced by Marco Manieri. The grand arrangements of its pop songs, in a style sometimes compared to Phil Spector, earned Bergman five Swedish Grammis nominations and two awards – Composer of the Year and Female Artist of the Year. In 2005, a live DVD Live at Rival was released.

In 2006, Bergman released her third solo album, I Think It's a Rainbow. It was produced by Bergman and Yttling and earned five Swedish Grammis nominations.

In 2007, she signed an international deal with US indie label Hypnote, while still keeping a licensing deal for Scandinavia with SonyBMG.

She has been touring in Spain, Italy, Germany, France, Norway, Finland, Poland, Denmark, the US and the UK.

In 2008, she launched a subscription service through her website. She also appeared on Swedish producer Kleerup's self-titled album, contributing vocals to the track "3AM".

Her fourth album, The Tear Collector, was released in March 2009, produced by Marit Bergman. Singers like Frida Hyvönen, Jens Lekman and Larkin Grimm appeared on the album.

In 2011, she took part in a competition called Maestro 2011 arranged by SVT (Swedish Television). She won that competition that had as goal to train the participants to conduct a symphony orchestra.

Albums

 * 3.00 A.M. Serenades (2002, re-released in 2003) (DNC)
 * Baby Dry Your Eye (2004) (#1)
 * I Think It's a Rainbow (2006) (#1)
 * The Tear Collector (2009) (#14)
 * Molnfabriken (2016) (#56)

title: Marit Bergman


text:
Victoriano Castellanos

Victoriano Castellanos Cortes (1795–1862) was President of Honduras from 4 February 1862 to 4 December 1862.

Biography
Victoriano Castellanos Corte was born in Santa Rosa de Copan on 23 March 1795. He was educated by the Catholic parish priest Pedro Antonio Pineda, and worked as a miner before becoming a politician.

On 3 February 1860, he was elected Vice President of Honduras, the president being the General Jose Santos Guardiola, who was killed in Comayagua on 11 January 1862 by his own Presidential Guard. Mr. Victoriano became the provisional president of the nation on February 4 of that year, in the town of Guarita, today part of the Department of Lempira. When returning from traveling in the Republic of El Salvador, he transferred the capital of the Honduras from Comaguya to Santa Rosa. The Government House was situated on the opposite corner of the Central Market, on the North side. After some time passed as president, he decided to move the capital back to Comayagua.

In addition to Decree No. 3 in which it is ordered that the nation should be called "Republic of Honduras" instead of the State of Honduras, he also signed other decrees which created the Department of Islas de la Bahia (Bay Islands). He ordered the construction of schools in the cities of Danli and another in Tegucigalpa.

Castellanos died on 11 December 1862 in Comayagua.

title: Victoriano Castellanos


text:
Francisco Inestroza

Francisco Inestroza (1810 – ) was President of Honduras from 31 December 1863 – 15 February 1864.

He served as Vice President of Honduras in the cabinet of José María Medina from June 1863 to December 1863.

title: Francisco Inestroza


text:
Ponciano Leiva

Ponciano Leiva Madrid (November 19, 1821 – December 12, 1896) was President of Honduras 13 January 1874 – 8 June 1876 and 30 November 1891 – 7 August 1893. Leiva was a conservative.

Leiva was a soldier and initially came to power through the support of the military. He rose to the rank of general.

Leiva initially came to power by overthrowing his predecessor in a coup. In 1876 he left office due to pressure from Justo Rufino Barrios, the president of Guatemala.

He later served as minister of war to Luis Bográn, and then was elected to the presidency in 1891. In this election held on 10 November 1891 Leiva received the majority of the vote. His main opponent in the election was Policarpo Bonilla. In 1893 Leiva resigned from office due to the threat of revolution and was replaced by Domingo Vasquez.

title: Ponciano Leiva


text:
Neuchâtel Xamax FCS

Neuchâtel Xamax Football Club Serrières or Neuchâtel Xamax FCS is a Swiss football club based in Neuchâtel. It was created in 1970 through a merger between FC Cantonal, founded in 1906 and Swiss champions of 1916, and FC Xamax founded in 1912. The name Xamax comes from legendary Swiss international player 'Xam' Max Abegglen, one of the founding members. Xamax Neuchâtel FCS obtained its current name after a merger with FC Serrières, another side from Neuchâtel, in May 2013.

History
Students at the Collège Latin in Neuchâtel began playing organized football in 1910. Soon after, in 1912, Neuchâtel Xamax was officially founded.

They have been champions of Switzerland on two occasions, in successive years in 1987 and 1988. The club has also made it to five Swiss Cup finals, the most recent in 2011, but have failed to win any of them.

After many financial crises, the club declared bankruptcy on 26 January 2012 and was consequently excluded from Swiss Super League. The club was reformed, but had to restart in the Swiss amateur leagues, entering the 2. Liga Interregional, the fifth tier of the Swiss football league system, for the 2012–13 season. The club finished first in 2013 and was promoted to the 1. Liga Classic for 2013–14. Once again, Xamax finished first, winning the play-off to secure a second successive promotion. Xamax won 1. Liga Promotion, the third tier of Swiss league system was and promoted to the Challenge League after having a third successive promotion in 2014–15 season.

The club finally won promotion back to the Swiss Super League in 2018, marking the end of a six-year absence from the top flight of Swiss football. At the end of the 2019–20 Swiss Super League season, the club was relegated back to the second division after finishing bottom of the table.

Stadium
The club plays its home matches at the Stade de la Maladière, which began construction in 2004 and was opened in 2007. It has a capacity of 12,500 spectators.

Notable players

 * Cameroon
 * 🇨🇲 Freddy Mveng
 * Central African Republic
 * 🇨🇫 Louis Mafouta
 * Egypt
 * 🇪🇬 Hossam Hassan
 * Ivory Coast
 * 🇨🇮 Eric Tia
 * Nigeria
 * Brown Ideye
 * Kalu Uche
 * Senegal
 * 🇸🇳 Papa Bouba Diop
 * Sierra Leone
 * 🇸🇱 Umaru Bangura
 * Philippines
 * Michael Kempter
 * Saudi Arabia
 * 🇸🇦 Hussein Abdulghani
 * Bosnia and Herzegovina
 * 🇧🇦 Mustafa Sejmenović
 * 🇧🇦 Ensar Arifović
 * Bulgaria
 * 🇧🇬 Trifon Ivanov
 * Hungary
 * 🇭🇺 Lajos Détári
 * West Germany
 * Uli Stielike
 * Ireland
 * 🇮🇪 Don Givens
 * Liechtenstein
 * 🇱🇮 Noah Frick
 * Spain
 * 🇪🇸 Víctor Sánchez
 * Switzerland
 * Johan Djourou
 * Lucien Favre
 * Mario Gavranović
 * Haris Seferovic
 * Netherlands
 * Rene van der Gijp

Honours

 * Leagues
 * Swiss Super League
 * Winner (2): 1986–87, 1987–88
 * Swiss Challenge League
 * Winner (3): 1972–73, 2006–07, 2017–18
 * Swiss Promotion League
 * Winner: 2014–15
 * 1. Liga Classic
 * Winner: 2013–14
 * 2. Liga Interregional
 * Winner: 2012–13
 * Cups
 * Swiss Super Cup
 * Winner (3): 1987, 1988, 1990

title: Neuchâtel Xamax FCS


text:
User talk:Allmaechtig~enwiki

Welcome
Welcome to Wikipedia, but the content of Mia Jacobson was not sufficently noteworthy to merit an article on Wikipedia, and was removed.

Here are some useful links if you need any help:

 * How to edit a page
 * How to write a great article
 * Manual of Style
 * What Wikipedia is not

Again, welcome. Stewart Adcock 22:19, 13 July 2005 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Allmaechtig. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Allmaechtig~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 21:52, 19 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 10:22, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Allmaechtig~enwiki


text:
Crescencio Gómez

Crescencio Gómez Valladares (1833–1921) served as President of Honduras on two occasions. However his total time as president was less than six months.

Gomez's terms of office were:
 * 2 October 1865 – 2 February 1866 (José María Medina served between the two first terms, but returned power to Crescencio Gómez due to ill health)
 * 13 June 1876 – 12 August 1876

He served as Minister of Finance of Honduras in 1865, and also Vice President of Honduras in the cabinet of José María Medina in 1870.

title: Crescencio Gómez


text:
Luis Bográn

Luis Bográn Barahona (3 June 1849 – 9 July 1895) was a president of Honduras, who served two consecutive terms from 30 November 1883 to 30 November 1891. He was born in the northern Honduran department of Santa Bárbara on 3 June 1849 to Saturnino Bográn Bonilla and Gertrudis Barahona Leiva. He was a member of a prominent and wealthy political family. The last name "Bográn" derives from the French surname "Beaugrand". Luis Bográn was the brother of future president Francisco Bográn (5 October 1919 – 1 February 1920) and first cousin of future president Miguel Paz Barahona (1 February 1925 – 1 February 1929).

Background
After successfully completing his secondary school studies in his home town, Bográn pursued a law degree at the University of San Carlos in Guatemala, and later pursued a career in the military. Bográn reached the rank of general within a few years, after successful military campaigns against Salvadoran military adversaries attempting to infiltrate national territory. He married Teresa Morejon Ferrera in 1878. Soon after, he became involved in politics, and later became ex-president Marco Aurelio Soto's protégé.

Politics
Bográn's two consecutive terms as president were considered to be very prosperous for the nation. He is known for greatly expanding the educational system by establishing a number of learning institutions around the country, attracting considerable foreign investment (especially into the agricultural sector), improving the infrastructure of the capital city, and encouraging research and investigation of the ancient Mayan city of Copán. As a strong supporter of Francisco Morazán's ideal, President Bográn was a unionist and attempted to bring about, with the help of then-Guatemalan President Justo Rufino Barrios, the unification of the five Central American states. Ultimately, the unionist agenda was defeated as the ultra-conservative power elites in these states successfully thwarted unification attempts.

Bográn died in Guatemala city, Guatemala on 9 July 1895.

As president of Honduras
Bográn is renowned in Honduras for greatly expanding the educational system throughout the major cities and towns of Honduras. He founded the Escuela de Artes y Oficios (National School of Arts), the Academia Científico-Literario (Literary-Scientific Academy), and the Tipografia Nacional (National Typography/Press). He also attracted substantial foreign investment, especially into the agricultural arena, which resulted in job creation and economic development of the northern coast. He improved the infrastructure of the capital city, Tegucigalpa. Bográn also initiated the process of research and investigation in the ruins of the ancient Mayan city of Copan by inviting foreign universities to study the artifacts and architecture left behind by the Mayans. He was also one of the founding members of the Partido Nacional de Honduras, PNH (National Party of Honduras).

title: Luis Bográn


text:
User talk:BobGeldof

Choice of Username
I have raised your choice of username on Requests for Comment as it seems to violate the username policy. David | Talk 22:22, 13 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:BobGeldof


text:
Domingo Vásquez

Domingo Vásquez (August 3, 1846 – December 11, 1909) was President of Honduras 7 August 1893 – 22 February 1894. He lost power as a result of Honduras being defeated in a war with Nicaragua and was replaced by Policarpo Bonilla.

title: Domingo Vásquez


text:
Juan Ángel Arias

Juan Ángel Arias (1800–1842) served as the acting Supremo Director of Honduras (24 December 1829 – 22 April 1830).

When the general Francisco Morazán arrives to take possession as the Head of State, December 4, 1829, the people of the Olancho Department and Opoteca were in revolt against the central government of the Federal Republic of Central America. Morazán addressed a proclamation to the people of Honduras, which was the first document printed in the Gaceta del Gobierno before their campaign in Olancho. Morazán named Senator Juan Angel Arias his deputy, December 24, 1829. His time as head of state was dedicated it to submit reports on the pacificación de Olancho, highlighting the agreements with the factious, and the defeat of surveys led by the opotecan priest Antonio Rivas.

Juan Ángel Arias opened the first elementary school in Yoro. Juan Ángel Arias married Juana López. His son was Céleo Arias. Juan Ángel Arias, was killed in Quelapa, Honduras in March 1842.

title: Juan Ángel Arias


text:
Miguel Oquelí Bustillo

Miguel Oquelí Bustillo (25 February 1856 – 8 April 1938) was President of Honduras for two months (as Chairman of the Provisional Government Junta) 25 February - 18 April 1907.

Oquelí came to power in a revolution backed by José Santos Zelaya and the government of Nicaragua to oust the previous Honduran president, Manuel Bonilla. This action caught the attention of the United States. U.S. forces landed marines at Puerto Cortés to protect the commercial interests of American banana companies. This chain of events led to the 1907 Central American Peace Conference.

He was the President of National Congress of Honduras in 1923.

title: Miguel Oquelí Bustillo


text:
Set redress

In film, a redress is the redecoration of an existing movie set so that it can double for another set. This saves the trouble and expenses of constructing a second, new set, though they face the difficulty of doing it so the average viewer does not notice the same set is reused. Also there could be logistical problems, such as conflicting shooting schedules, continuity if the set is not quite the same as it was (if it should be the same) or different (if it should be). The latter problem arises because the set dresser may be unaware of changes created by the action.

Examples
A good example of a successful redress occurred in the film Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan where the bridges of the Enterprise and the Reliant were filmed on the same set. Some of the reasons for its success are as follows:
 * All the scenes on the Reliant bridge were shot after the scenes on the Enterprise bridge, eliminating difficulty with continuity and conflicting shooting schedules. Only one actor, Walter Koenig, had to be present on both the Reliant and the Enterprise.
 * The film was edited so that the scenes on Reliant and Enterprise are intercut with each other, strengthening the illusion that both exist simultaneously.
 * It is readily apparent to the audience which ship they are on due to the presence of different characters, a different musical motif, different lighting and different seat covers.
 * The Enterprise set was built so that portions of it could be moved around for filming. Therefore, the set of each bridge could be made to look slightly different, making it less readily obvious that the set was the same.
 * Both Enterprise and Reliant are Federation starships, so their bridge designs would likely be similar.

However, such perfect circumstances are rare and any Trekkie will be quick to point out that the schematics seen on Reliant are clearly those of the Enterprise.

During Hollywood's studio era, the disparate studios often maintained standing sets (interior and exterior) which were intended for long-term use over multiple productions, with only minimal re-dressing. This often led to audience members recognising sets which had appeared in previous films. A double feature of two Twentieth Century-Fox films of the mid-1950s, O. Henry's Full House and We're Not Married, caused unintended laughter when two different street scenes from the respective films—a street in Manhattan circa 1900, and a street in New Orleans in the present—were very obviously the same exterior set.

title: Set redress


text:
Gladstone's Library

Gladstone's Library, known until 2010 as St Deiniol's Library (Llyfrgell Deiniol Sant), is a residential library in Hawarden, Flintshire, Wales, UK.

Gladstone's Library is Britain's only Prime Ministerial Library and serves as the national memorial to William Ewart Gladstone. It is home to a large collection of printed items and archives that reflects Gladstone's main interests in history, literature, theology, and politics.

History
The library was founded by William Gladstone in 1894. He was eager to share his personal library with others, especially those who faced financial constraint. He would allow bright children and young adults of the village of Hawarden to use his collection. His daughter Mary Gladstone said that his desire was to "bring together books who had no readers with readers who had no books".

In 1895, at the age of 85, William Gladstone gave £40,000 to the library as well as much of his own book collection. With the help of his daughter and his valet, he wheeled a selection of his books three quarters of a mile (1.2km) between his home at Hawarden Castle and the library. He unpacked them and put them onto shelves using his own classification system.

In a diary entry dated 23 December 1895, he described the library's founding: "I have this day constituted my trust at St Deiniol's. The cost of the work has been I think £41 to £42000, including some charges of maintenance to Dec. 31. 95. May God of His mercy prosper it."

Following his death in 1898, a public appeal was launched for funds to provide a permanent building to house the collection and replace the temporary structure. The £9,000 raised provided an imposing building, designed by John Douglas, which was officially opened by Earl Spencer on 14 October 1902 as the National Memorial to W.E. Gladstone. The Gladstone family fulfilled the founder's vision by funding the residential wing, which welcomed its first resident on 29 June 1906.

Facilities
The library is a Grade I listed building and a registered charity.

The building includes historical reading rooms, 26 bedrooms for overnight guests, a guest lounge, cafe and restaurant.

The library runs regular tours, talks, workshops, masterclasses and residential courses.

Collections
The library holds 20,000 volumes belonging to William Ewart Gladstone in its Foundation Collection, many of which contain Gladstone's own annotations, as well as over 150,000 books, pamphlets, and journals in its circulating collection.

It also holds the Glynne-Gladstone Archive, containing the personal, family, business, and estate correspondence and papers of the Glynne and Gladstone families.

title: Gladstone's Library


text:
XBAND

XBAND (stylized as XBⱯND) was one of the first competitive online console gaming networks and was available for the Genesis and Super NES. It was produced by Catapult Entertainment in Cupertino, California. It is the only modem released in America to have been officially licensed by Nintendo. It debuted in various areas of the United States between November 1994 and June 1995 and was later released nationwide between October 2 and 8, 1995.

History
The Genesis version of the XBAND was released in November 1994, with the Super NES version following in June 1995, and the Super Famicom version in April 1996. The Genesis version also works with the Genesis Nomad. In Brazil the Mega Drive service was released as the Mega Net 2, named after the Sega Meganet.

In 1995, Catapult Entertainment signed a deal with General Instrument, producers of the Sega Channel, which stipulated that the XBAND modem would henceforth be built into new Sega Channel adapters, and that the top 5 to 10 games offered by Sega Channel each month would be playable over XBAND.

Initially, Catapult Entertainment had a limited staff and virtually no advertising. By January 1997, XBAND network playability had reached practically every metropolitan area and several rural areas in the U.S. The actual XBAND modems were carried by a few software and video rental chains across the United States. Internationally, the XBAND had some limited growth in the Japanese market, and Catapult was working on PC and Sega Saturn support, though it merged with Mpath Interactive. The focus shifted to the online PC gaming service Mplayer.com which was taken offline and integrated into GameSpy Arcade in 2001, after being acquired by GameSpy on December 2000.

Service
The concept of playing online was fairly new at the time. Arcades were still quite popular, and online gaming was not yet a household idea.

The XBAND modem was widely available at Blockbuster Video for US$19.99 1995, with additional charges based on usage. Two pricing plans were available. One had a monthly fee of $4.95 and allowed the user to connect to the service up to 50 times a month with each additional connection costing 15 cents. The other had a monthly fee of $9.95 with unlimited connections. Activities that consumed a player's monthly allowance of connections included dialing into the XBAND service for matchmaking, downloading mail (called "XMAIL"), and downloading the daily edition of the two XBAND newsletters, one containing generic news and the other containing platform-specific information such as leaderboards and contest announcements. Players were assessed a fee of $3.95/hour for connecting to opponents outside their local calling area; player-to-player connections inside their local calling area were free.

The modem features built-in storage for up to four user codenames. It stores user friend lists, which can contain the codenames of up to ten of the user's friends; the users' XMAIL boxes, storing up to ten incoming and ten outgoing messages for each user; the users' rankings, win–loss records, and accumulated scores; a short profile section; and the user's avatar (chosen from 40 preset avatars). Text entry is done either through an on-screen keyboard or an optional XBAND keyboard add-on ($29.95 MSRP) released later in the network's lifespan.

The client-side system worked by manipulating the game's memory in a way similar to Game Genie and third-party computer game modifications such as Multi Theft Auto.

The XBand operating system was designed to ensure that connections are not lost due to phone activity; in the case of call waiting, the system would alert the user to the call and allow the game to be resumed.

XBAND had an official website to check other players' statistics, along with other information and updates that were not viewable on consoles.

At its height, XBAND had 15,000 subscribers.

Gaming
A 1995 article in Next Generation stated that the XBAND modem's "ultra-low latency is the key to its successful handling of realtime videogaming". The modem's data transfer rate is 2,400 bits per second, which, though low compared to PC modems of the time, was sufficient to handle the simple one-on-one games for XBAND.

When connecting to play, unless specifying a particular user from the friend list, players were matched with a random player elsewhere in the country (or the player's local area code depending on preference) who was also connecting to play the same game. The server would attempt to match players of like skill levels, using the Elo rating system. When the network matched two players up, the newly-connected player's XBAND modem would disconnect from the server and dial the other player, whose own XBAND modem would answer. At that point, the players saw the XBAND logo slide together, followed by the matchup screen, which displayed each player's codenames, avatars, locations, and a pre-typed "taunt".

In December 1995, XBAND launched its first national tournament. This was the first modem to modem tournament ever to be held over a console. The grand prize winner received a special Genghis Khan icon for their XBAND profile and a $200 cash prize from Catapult. Peter Kappes aka "SphiNX" of Orlando, Florida became the first person in history to win a modem to modem national tournament over a console.

Icon hacking
During the last few months of service, several users discovered a way to use a Game Genie to hack the icons of XBAND players. This enabled players to use icons that were otherwise restricted, such as unreleased icons or icons reserved for matches between XBAND team members. Icon hacking resulted in complaints from other users. Rumors about XBAND icon hackers often claimed they were part of elite hacking organizations or members of Catapult Entertainment. Eventually, the method used by the hackers was leaked and inevitably spread throughout the community.

Demise
By March 16, 1997, people could only play within their local area code. On April 30, 1997, the entire network was discontinued, with Mpath citing a lack of new games for the Genesis and Super NES.

XBAND had announced in its previous monthly newsletter that it was shutting down. According to Next Generation, XBAND "never turned a significant profit". During XBAND's existence, only a handful of advertisements were ever made, and only one game, Weaponlord, has the XBAND logo on its box. XBAND stated in its newsletter that players were their best form of advertising, and offered the "XBAND 6 pack", where members could order six modems at a discounted rate and receive a month of free gaming in exchange for signing up a certain number of people to the service.

Heavy contributors to XBAND's demise were the lack of support from game developers and limited internal resources. With the exception of Weaponlord and Doom, Catapult had to individually reverse engineer each game's code, then develop a hack to intercept two-player activity so the game could be shared over a low-latency (fast response time), 2,400-bit/s modem connection.

Catapult's second generation attempts were blocked by Conexant due to the increasing use of the Internet, an effect from the shift to the Information Age. The XBAND was launched in Japan on April 1, 1996 for the Sega Saturn. Unlike the SNES/Super Famicom and Genesis versions of XBAND, it did not require an XBAND-specific modem, instead utilizing Sega's own Sega NetLink device (which included a 14,400 bit/s modem in Japan and a 28,800 bit/s modem in North America). Neither the Saturn XBAND nor an expansion into the PC market succeeded, because developers frequently opted to include their own network linking rather than deal with Catapult's subscription-based service.

Service issues
A major issue for the XBAND service was free long-distance phone calls. It was discovered that a user could record the tones sent from an XBAND modem and then receive the long-distance service number, the authentication code, and phone number of the player you were connecting to. This information allowed anyone to access long-distance phone calls that were charged to Catapult.

Paging company SkyTel faced similar problems from both XBAND users and their own customers. XBAND users performed brute-force attacks against SkyTel's mobile paging system in order to discover voicemail boxes using the same number as the login and password, using these to extend their communication with each other. Most messages consisted simply of shout-outs with music playing in the background.

A common complaint was that if a player was losing a match, they could simply pull their phone cord out or reset their system. This tactic, known as "cord-pulling" among XBAND users, prevented the XBAND service from crediting either player with the win or loss. In response to complaints, the company developed a program which would detect such forced disconnections and assign a loss to the perpetrator and a win to the victim. However, this led to a flood of calls from users claiming that their reset button had been pushed by accident and demanding that the loss be erased from their record; facing unsustainable customer service costs, Catapult changed the program so that while victims of cord-pulling were awarded a win, perpetrators were no longer penalized in any way.

Publishing statistics
Though lacking market success, the XBAND team did manage some publicity gains when they joined forces with a number of gaming magazines, starting on the web with Game Zero magazine and later in Tips & Tricks Magazine. Daily stats were accessible via XBAND News on the modem, although they were not visible to the general public. Publishing stats added a "cool" factor to brag about in the early forefront of online gaming. The top-ranked gamers of the previous month were published starting in January 1996 in Game Zero and, starting in early 1996, in Tips & Tricks magazine.

Supported games
The following games have been analyzed, and online compatibility provided, by XBAND. A hidden maze game can be unlocked in the SNES version by inserting a The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past cartridge.

title: XBAND


text:
Salvador Aguirre (Honduras)

Salvador Aguirre (1862–1947) was acting President of Honduras for one week, from 9 through 16 September 1919.

In early 1919, by then President of Honduras was Francisco Bertrand Barahona, who his opponents were thrown against a Civil War, for which the provisional presidency went to Salvador Aguirre and that the surrender a week later his successor Dr. Vicente Mejia Colindres, who served as Minister of the Government.

title: Salvador Aguirre (Honduras)


text:
Francisco Bográn

Francisco Bográn Barahona (1852 – 7 December 1926) was acting President of Honduras from 5 October 1919 to 1 February 1920. He was the brother of previous president Luis Bográn. He was the President of National Congress of Honduras from 1919 to 1920.

title: Francisco Bográn


text:
Francisco Bueso

Doctor Francisco Bueso Cuéllar (born 1860) was acting president of Honduras for less than two months, from 10 March to 27 April 1924.

He served as vice president of Honduras in the cabinet of General Rafael López Gutiérrez. When López Gutiérrez died while in office, Bueso succeeded him. However, Bueso, in turn, was driven from the capital by rebels led by General Tiburcio Carías Andino, who took charge of the country as first chief of the Liberating Revolution. By 31 March, the United States had sent 176 officers and men from the cruiser USS Milwaukee (CL-5) to land at Amapala to quell the disturbance.

title: Francisco Bueso


text:
Aeminium

Aeminium was the ancient name of the city of Coimbra, Portugal.

The Romans founded the civitas of Aeminium in this place at the time of Augustus, which came under the protection of nearby Conímbriga situated some 15 km to the south.

The Roman city was encircled by a wall, and followed an orthogonal plan, with the cardo maximus and decumanus maximus crossing at the forum. An aqueduct existed, the remains of which were incorporated into a latter medieval renovation. Locations for the theater and amphitheater were also proposed, but still unconfirmed by archeology. A triumphal arch is documented, but was destroyed in 1778. Also a necropolis was located to the east of the city.

The Suebi razed the nearby township of Conímbriga in 468. Its inhabitants, who had meanwhile fled to Aeminium, kept the original name of their town.

In modern Coimbra there are few remains from ancient Aeminium. The most important is the cryptoporticus, an underground gallery of arched corridors built in the 1st or 2nd century AD to support the forum of the city. Gaius Sevius Lupus was probably the architect. During the Middle Ages the bishop's palace, now turned into the Machado de Castro National Museum, was built over the forum; the cryptoporticus is located under it. The cryptoporticus can be visited through the museum.

title: Aeminium


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Vicente Tosta

Vicente Tosta Carrasco (27 October 1886 – 7 August 1930). Honduran politician. He was the thirty-fifth president of Honduras; a provisional President of the Repuplic of Honduras for ten months, from 30 April 1924 through 1 February 1925.

Youth
He was born on October 27, 1886, in Jesús de Otoro, Intibucá, Honduras. He was the son of Pedro Tosta López, a Spaniard, and Arcadia Carrasco Paz, a native of Santa Barbara, Honduras. In 1899 he married Francisca Fiallos Inestroza, with whom he had seven children: Carlos, Miguel, Julia, Concepción, Rosario, Rosalía and Pedro Vicente.

Political career
He began his military career in 1904 when he entered the Military School, which operated in Toncontín. He received the rank of lieutenant in 1908. Appointed professor and instructor of the Presidential Honor Guard and promoted to captain in 1909. He directed the school of corporals and sergeants in Ocotepeque. He moved to Tegucigalpa and worked with Colonel Luís S. Oyarzun in the direction of the military school in Tegucigalpa. He was promoted to major in 1910.

In 1919, Civil War breaks out and the target is to take Santa Rosa, by the liberal forces who submitted first on 25 July, the towns of La Esperanza and Intibucá, commanded by General José Ramirez who died in the revolt. Commanders: Colonel Vicente Tosta Carrasco, Colonel Flavio Del Cid, Colonel and after this trigger military leave for the "Sultana of the West" with a good army who to be spotted, in an attempt to stop strengthening the guard of the town hall and prepare both the soldiers and citizens to fight that has no place until 16 August of that year, to defend the city are the commander of arms Attorney Jesus Maria Rodriguez, Colonel Alfonso Ferrari, General and Colonel Vicente Ayala, with 400 soldiers and after several hours of siege, the city was delivered and the revolutionary forces marched north to the city, en route to San Pedro Sula, Cortes also fall into their power. The U.S. diplomat accredited to Honduras, Mr. Sambola Jones, request the resignation of President Francisco Bertrand as a result of the events in Gracias, La Esperanza, Santa Rosa, Santa Barbara and San Pedro Sula. The government passed into the hands of the Liberal General Rafael Lopez Gutierrez (1854–1924), on 1 February 1920. This conflict caused the deaths of 800 people.

In 1924, The revolution broke out between the forces for recovery of the nation, against the command of General Gregorio Ferrera, Doctor and General Mr. Tiburcio Carias Andino, General Vicente Tosta Carrasco. The city of Tegucigalpa became the first Latin American capital to be bombed, the revolution had two planes which dropped flyers on hand pumps, and government forces only had the plane "BRISTOL". Again, the American ambassador Mr. Franklin E. Morales called for military intervention in his country and the cruiser anchored "Milwaukee" in the Gulf of Fonseca, where 200 marines landed on 11 March that year at 11:00 am besieged Tegucigalpa. In the cruiser Denver, negotiations began between the revolutionaries and the government, out of which was designated Provisional President General Vicente Tosta Carrasco whose regime rose in arms on General Gregorio Ferrera.

title: Vicente Tosta