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Accafellas

The MSU Accafellas are a Tenor-Bass, collegiate a cappella group from Michigan State University in East Lansing, Michigan. Founded in 1996, the group typically has between eight and eleven singers. The Accafellas have released 8 albums to date. Their arrangement of Jason Mraz's You and I Both appeared on the Best of College A Capella (BOCA) compilation in 2006. In 2010, The Accafellas performed their arrangements of Walking in Memphis by Marc Cohn and Would You Go With Me in Nashville, Tennessee before the CMA Music Festival with Josh Turner.

The group often sings at events on the campus of Michigan State, dorms, weddings (often of Accafellas' alumni) as well as various locations around the nation. The group has performed at The White House, as well as Michigan Governor Jennifer Granholm's personal residence.

History
In 1997, the Accafellas released their debut album, Accafellas Volume I. It is currently out of print. In 1998, at the University of Michigan's Monsters of A Cappella concert, the relatively new Accafellas received a standing ovation from a pro-wolverine crowd. In 2000, the Accafellas released a second album, appropriately "Accafellas Volume II". In 2004, the Accafellas released "Accafellas Volume III". The album feels much more produced than the first two albums, and would be a great influence on future Accafellas' members as a high-quality album to strive to outdo. In 2006, the Accafellas released "Accafellas Volume IV". Their version of the song You and I Both originally by Jason Mraz appeared on the Best of college a Cappella compilation that year. On April 4, 2009, the Accafellas released "Accafellas Volume V". The album was recorded at Ryan Wert's Elm Street Recording Studio in Lansing, MI. Ryan Wert claimed that Volume V was "The most ambitious of the CD's (he's) recorded."

On June 11, 2010, the Accafellas performed the song Would You Go With Me with Josh Turner in Nashville, Tennessee, at his fan club party before the CMA Music Festival.

In addition, The Accafellas have competed in the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella (ICCA). They have won awards at these competitions for their arrangements and soloists, most notably advancing to the regional semi-finals in 2008, 2013, and 2015.

In 2012, The Accafellas received two awards at their ICCA quarterfinal. Joe Caigoy won "Best Soloist" singing "Without You", and Jake Przybyla, Duncan Cooper and Richard Hofmeister won "Best Arrangement" for the song "Clocks". In 2015, The Accafellas placed 2nd in their ICCA Regional Quarterfinal sending them to the Sectional Semifinals in Ann Arbor. Their set included Hozier's Take Me to Church (Solo: Connor Ralph), Sam Smith's Lay Me Down (Solo: Andrew Lee), and Fall Out Boy's Centuries (Solo: Brad Larsen)

In 2017, the Accafellas released "Fella Favorites", their first greatest hits album. The album was released on iTunes, Spotify, YouTube, and various other streaming sources. This was the group's first album to not be sold as a physical CD copy. The album features 17 songs, 2 from each of their 7 volumes, a song from the 2017 group, and their two alumni songs, "Wonderful Tonight" by Eric Clapton, and "Yellow" by Coldplay.

The Sing-Off
The Accafellas auditioned for Season 1 of NBC's The Sing-Off. They advanced to the interview stage of the show, and were filmed performing Eric Clapton's "Wonderful Tonight" outside of the audition venue.

Discography

 * Accafellas Volume I (1997) - Out of Print
 * Accafellas Volume II (2000)
 * Accafellas Volume III (2004)
 * Accafellas Volume IV (2006)
 * Accafellas Volume V (2009)
 * Accafellas Volume VI (2011)
 * Accafellas Volume VII (2014)
 * Fella Favorites (2017)
 * Accafellas Volume VIII (2018)

title: Accafellas


text: Category:Languages of Bahrain

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Category:Languages of Bahrain


text:
David Givens

David Lamar Givens (born August 16, 1980) is an American former professional football player who was a wide receiver in the National Football League (NFL). He played college football for the Notre Dame Fighting Irish, primarily as a running back. He was selected by the New England Patriots in the seventh round of the 2002 NFL Draft.

Givens also played for the Tennessee Titans.

New England Patriots
Givens was drafted in the seventh round of the 2002 NFL Draft with the 253rd overall pick. Givens caught nine passes and one touchdown his rookie year for the New England Patriots in 2002, and improved in each of the next two seasons. He posted 34 catches and led his team with six touchdowns in 2003 and 56 catches in 2004 despite scoring just three times. His best performances in his career came in the postseason. Beginning with the 2003 AFC Championship Game against the Indianapolis Colts, Givens scored at least one touchdown the Patriots' next seven playoff games, including both Super Bowl XXXVIII and Super Bowl XXXIX. In 2005, Givens caught a career-high 59 passes and was the Patriots' number two receiver for the second year in a row.

In Super Bowl XXXIX against the Philadelphia Eagles, Givens mocked the wing-flap celebration of Eagles receiver Terrell Owens after catching a four-yard touchdown from Tom Brady.

Givens was the Patriots' record holder in postseason touchdown receptions until 2015, before being surpassed by Rob Gronkowski who scored his eighth playoff touchdown against the Kansas City Chiefs in the Divisional Round of the NFL playoffs on January 20, 2016, and has the second-longest streak of consecutive post-season games with a touchdown reception, with seven.

Tennessee Titans
Givens signed a 5-year deal worth $24 million with the Tennessee Titans on March 14, 2006. His first season with the Titans ended prematurely in Week 10, after he tore his anterior cruciate ligament. He also missed the entire 2007 season. On February 27, 2008, he was released by the Titans. In 2009 Givens sued the Titans for $25 Million claiming that his ACL tear was due to the Titans doctors failing to adequately test his knee, his lawsuit was dismissed in 2010.

title: David Givens


text:
Abd al-Muttalib

Shayba ibn Hāshim (شَيْبة بْن هاشِم; c. 497–578), better known as ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib, (عَبْد الْمُطَّلِب) was the fourth chief of the Quraysh tribal confederation and grandfather of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.

Early life
His father was Hashim ibn 'Abd Manaf, the progenitor of the distinguished Banu Hashim, a clan of the Quraysh tribe of Mecca. They claimed descent from Ismā'īl and Ibrāhīm. His mother was Salma bint Amr, from the Banu Najjar, a clan of the Khazraj tribe in Yathrib (later called Madinah). Hashim died while doing business in Gaza, before Abd al-Muttalib was born.

His real name was "Shaiba" meaning 'the ancient one' or 'white-haired' because of the streak of white through his jet-black hair, and is sometimes also called Shaybah al-Ḥamd ("The white streak of praise"). After his father's death he was raised in Yathrib with his mother and her family until about the age of eight, when his uncle Muttalib ibn Abd Manaf went to see him and asked his mother Salmah to entrust Shaybah to his care. Salmah was unwilling to let her son go and Shaiba refused to leave his mother without her consent. Muṭṭalib then pointed out that the possibilities Yathrib had to offer were incomparable to Mecca. Salmah was impressed with his arguments, so she agreed to let him go. Upon first arriving in Mecca, the people assumed the unknown child was Muttalib's servant and started calling him 'Abd al-Muttalib ("servant of Muttalib").

Chieftain of Hashim clan
When Muṭṭalib died, Shaiba succeeded him as the chief of the Hāshim clan. Following his uncle Al-Muṭṭalib, he took over the duties of providing the pilgrims with food and water, and carried on the practices of his forefathers with his people. He attained such eminence as none of his forefathers enjoyed; his people loved him and his reputation was great among them.

'Umar ibn Al-Khaṭṭāb's grandfather Nufayl ibn Abdul Uzza arbitrated in a dispute between 'Abdul-Muṭṭalib and Ḥarb ibn Umayyah, Abu Sufyan's father, over the custodianship of the Kaaba. Nufayl gave his verdict in favour of 'Abdul-Muṭṭalib. Addressing Ḥarb ibn Umayyah, he said:

Why do you pick a quarrel with a person who is taller than you in stature; more imposing than you in appearance; more refined than you in intellect; whose progeny outnumbers yours and whose generosity outshines yours in lustre? Do not, however, construe this into any disparagement of your good qualities which I highly appreciate. You are as gentle as a lamb, you are renowned throughout Arabia for the stentorian tones of your voice, and you are an asset to your tribe.

Discovery of Zam Zam Well
'Abdul-Muṭṭalib said that while sleeping in the sacred enclosure, he had dreamed he was ordered to dig at the worship place of the Quraysh between the two deities Isāf and Nā'ila. There he would find the Zamzam Well, which the Jurhum tribe had filled in when they left Mecca. The Quraysh tried to stop him digging in that spot, but his son Al-Ḥārith stood guard until they gave up their protests. After three days of digging, 'Abdul-Muṭṭalib found traces of an ancient religious well and exclaimed, "Allahuakbar!" Some of the Quraysh disputed his claim to sole rights over water, then one of them suggested that they go to a female shaman who lived afar. It was said that she could summon jinns and that she could help them decide who was the owner of the well. So, 11 people from the 11 tribes went on the expedition. They had to cross the desert to meet the priestess but then they got lost. There was a lack of food and water and people started to lose hope of ever getting out. One of them suggested that they dig their own graves and if they died, the last person standing would bury the others. So all began digging their own graves and just as Abdul-Muṭṭalib started digging, water spewed out from the hole he dug and everyone became overjoyed. It was then and there decided that Abdul-Muttalib was the owner of the Zam Zam well. Thereafter he supplied pilgrims to the Kaaba with Zam Zam water, which soon eclipsed all the other wells in Mecca because it was considered sacred.

The Year of the Elephant
According to Muslim tradition, the Ethiopian governor of Yemen, Abrahah al-Ashram, envied the Kaaba's reverence among the Arabs and, being a Christian, he built a cathedral on Sana'a and ordered pilgrimage be made there. The order was ignored and someone desecrated (some saying in the form of defecation ) the cathedral. Abrahah decided to avenge this act by demolishing the Kaaba and he advanced with an army towards Mecca.

There were thirteen elephants in Abrahah's army  and the year came to be known as 'Ām al-Fīl (the Year of the Elephant), beginning a trend for reckoning the years in Arabia which was used until 'Umar ibn Al-Khaṭṭāb replaced it with the Islamic Calendar in 638 CE (17 AH), with the first year of the Islamic Calendar being 622 CE.

When news of the advance of Abrahah's army came, the Arab tribes of Quraysh, Kinānah, Khuzā'ah and Hudhayl united in defence of the Kaaba. A man from the Ḥimyar tribe was sent by Abrahah to advise them that he only wished to demolish the Kaaba and if they resisted, they would be crushed. "Abdul-Muṭṭalib told the Meccans to seek refuge in the nearest high hills while he, with some leading members of Quraysh, remained within the precincts of the Kaaba. Abrahah sent a dispatch inviting 'Abdul-Muṭṭalib to meet him and discuss matters. When 'Abdul-Muṭṭalib left the meeting he was heard saying, "The Owner of this House is its Defender, and I am sure He will save it from the attack of the adversaries and will not dishonour the servants of His House."

It is recorded that when Abrahah's forces neared the Kaaba, Allah commanded small birds (abābīl) to destroy Abrahah's army, raining down pebbles on it from their beaks. Abrahah was seriously wounded and retreated towards Yemen but died on the way. This event is referred to in the following Qur'anic chapter:

"Have you not seen how your Lord dealt with the owners of the Elephant? Did He not make their treacherous plan go astray? And He sent against them birds in flocks, striking them with stones of baked clay, so He rendered them like straw eaten up."

- Qur'an sura 105 (Al-Fil)

Most Islamic sources place the event around the year that Muhammad was born, 570 CE, though other scholars place it one or two decades earlier. A tradition attributed to Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri in the musannaf of ʽAbd al-Razzaq al-Sanʽani places it before the birth of Muhammad's father.

Sacrificing his son Abdullah
Al-Harith was 'Abdul-Muṭṭalib's only son at the time he dug the Zamzam Well. When the Quraysh tried to help him in the digging, he vowed that if he were to have ten sons to protect him, he would sacrifice one of them to Hubal at the Kaaba. Later, after nine more sons had been born to him, he told them he must keep the vow. The divination arrows fell upon his favourite son Abdullah. The Quraysh protested 'Abdul-Muṭṭalib's intention to sacrifice his son and demanded that he sacrifice something else instead. 'Abdul-Muṭṭalib agreed to consult a "sorceress with a familiar spirit". She told him to cast lots between Abdullah and ten camels. If Abdullah were chosen, he had to add ten more camels, and keep on doing the same until his Lord accepted the camels in Abdullah's place. When the number of camels reached 100, the lot fell on the camels. 'Abdul-Muṭṭalib confirmed this by repeating the test three times. Then the camels were sacrificed, and Abdullah was spared.

Wives
Abd al-Muttalib had six known wives.
 * Sumra bint Jundab of the Hawazin tribe.
 * Lubnā bint Hājar of the Khuza'a tribe.
 * Fatima bint Amr of the Makhzum clan of the Quraysh tribe.
 * Halah bint Wuhayb of the Zuhrah clan of the Quraysh tribe.
 * Natīla bint Janab of the Namir tribe.
 * Mumanna'a bint Amr of the Khuza'a tribe.

Children
According to Ibn Hisham, ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib had ten sons and six daughters. However, Ibn Sa'd lists twelve sons.

By Sumra bint Jundab:
 * 1) Al-Ḥārith.  He was the firstborn and he died before his father.
 * 2) Quthum.  He is not listed by Ibn Hisham.

By Fatima bint Amr:
 * 1) Al-Zubayr.  He was a poet and a chief; his father made a will in his favour.  He died before Islam, leaving two sons and daughters.
 * 2) Abu Talib, born as Abd Manaf,   father of the future Caliph Ali. He later became chief of the Hashim clan.
 * 3) Abdullah, the father of Muhammad.
 * 4) Umm Hakim al-Bayda,   the maternal grandmother of the third Caliph Uthman.
 * 5) Barra,   the mother of Abu Salama.
 * 6) Arwa.
 * 7) Atika,   a wife of Abu Umayya ibn al-Mughira.
 * 8) Umayma,   the mother of Zaynab bint Jahsh and Abd Allah ibn Jahsh.

By Lubnā bint Hājar:
 * 1) Abd al-'Uzzā, better known as Abū Lahab.

By Halah bint Wuhayb:
 * 1) Ḥamza,  the first big leader of Islam. He killed many leaders of the kufar and was considered as the strongest man of the quraysh. He was martyred at Uhud.
 * 2) Ṣafīyya.
 * 3) Al-Muqawwim.  He married Qilaba bint Amr ibn Ju'ana ibn Sa'd al-Sahmia, and had children named Abd Allah, Bakr, Hind, Arwa, and Umm Amr (Qutayla or Amra).
 * 4) Hajl.  He married Umm Murra bint Abi Qays ibn Abd Wud, and had two sons, named Abd Allah, Ubayd Allah, and three daughters named Murra, Rabi'a, and Fakhita.

By Natīlah bint Khubāb:
 * 1) al-'Abbas,   ancestor of the Abbasid caliphs.
 * 2) Ḍirār,  who died before Islam.
 * 3) Jahl, died before Islam
 * 4) Imran, died before Islam

By Mumanna'a bint 'Amr:

 * 1) Mus'ab, who, according to Ibn Saad, was the one known as al-Ghaydāq.  He is not listed by Ibn Hisham.
 * 2) Al-Ghaydaq, died before Islam.
 * 3) Abd al-Ka'ba, died before Islam.
 * 4) Al-Mughira,  who had the byname al-Ghaydaq.

Death
Abdul Muttalib's son 'Abdullāh died four months before Muḥammad's birth, after which Abdul Muttalib took care of his daughter-in-law Āminah. One day Muhammad's mother, Amina, wanted to go to Yathrib, where her husband, Abdullah, died. So, Muhammad, Amina, Abd al-Muttalib and their caretaker, Umm Ayman started their journey to Medina, which is around 500 kilometres away from Makkah. They stayed there for three weeks, then, started their journey back to Mecca. But, when they reached halfway, at Al-Abwa', Amina became very sick and died six years after her husband's death. She was buried over there. From then, Muhammad became an orphan. Abd al-Muttalib became very sad for Muhammad because he loved him so much. Abd al-Muttalib took care of Muhammad. But when Muhammad was eight years old, the very old Abd al-Muttalib became very sick and died at age 81-82 in 578-579 CE.

Shaybah ibn Hāshim's grave can be found in the Jannat al-Mu'allā cemetery in Makkah, Saudi Arabia.

Legacy
He sired his own sub-clan of Banu Abd Al-Muttalib under the Banu Hashim sub-clan.

He was the ancestor of two prominent Muslim dynasties the Fatimids and the Abbasids.

At the battle of hunayn Muhammad chanted "I am the Prophet undoubtedly; I am the son of `Abdul Muttalib."

title: Abd al-Muttalib


text:
Alpes Maritimae

The Alpes Maritimae (English: 'Maritime Alps') was a small province of the Roman Empire founded in 63 AD by Nero. It was one of the three provinces straddling the Alps between modern France and Italy, along with the Alpes Graiae et Poeninae and Alpes Cottiae. The Alpes Maritimae included parts of the present-day French departments of Alpes-Maritimes (in which the name survives), Alpes-de-Haute-Provence and Hautes-Alpes.

The capital of the province was Cemenelum (modern Cimiez, a neighbourhood of Nice), until it was replaced by Eburodunum (modern Embrun) during the reign of Diocletian (284–305).

History
Following the subjugation of the local Ligurian tribes in the summer of 14 BC, the region was ruled by a praefectus civitatium, then was given Latin Rights in 63 AD and placed under the administration of a procurator. Cemenelum (modern Cimiez), the chief town of the Vediantii, became the capital of the new province.

Under Diocletian (284–305), the province was extended via the incorporation of parts of Gallia Narbonensis and Alpes Cottiae, and was allocated to the praefectura Galliarum (Diocese of Vienne). The capital was transferred to Eburodunum (modern Embrun), which had been part of the Alpes Cottiae until that time.

Settlements
Major settlements within the province included:
 * Cemenelum (Cimiez)
 * Nicaea (Nice)
 * Antipolis (Antibes)
 * Portus Herculis Monoeci (Monaco)
 * Salinae (Castellane)
 * Sanitium (Senez)
 * Vintium (Vence)

After 297 the province was expanded to include:
 * Ebrodunum (Embrun)
 * Brigantio (Briançon)
 * Brigomagus (Briançonnet)
 * Civitas Rigomagensium / Rigomagus (Chorges)

title: Alpes Maritimae


text:
User talk:Bad apple

Deleting information withthe edit summary "fixed language and mistakes, wikified links" is fraudulent. If there are mistake, then correct them. Simply deleting half of a "discography" list, for example, is not the same as "wikifying" it. Please be more careful. Thanks, -Willmcw 00:29, July 11, 2005 (UTC)

 * Please do not keep removing information from the Biff Rose article. "Molly" was the name of a song, wasn't it? It is often repeated that he appeared 12 times on the Carson show. The names of the music companies that distributed his albums are relevant. Please use the talk p[age of the article to explain any errors. Also, please be aware that repeated "reverts" to earlier versions are not helpful to the collaboration. If you make several in a day can may be temporarily banned. This article is not a place to carry out any personal issues regarding Rose. This is an encyclopedia and that article is a biography. Thanks, -Willmcw 06:06, July 11, 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Bad apple


text:
Marin Hinkle

Marin Elizabeth Hinkle (born March 23, 1966) is an American actress. Among many television and movie roles, she is best known for playing Judy Brooks on the ABC television drama Once and Again, Judith Harper-Melnick on the CBS sitcom Two and a Half Men, and Rose Weissman on the comedy-drama series The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel on Amazon Prime Video. For her role in The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel, Hinkle was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series in 2019 and 2020.

Early life
Hinkle was born in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, to American parents. She is the daughter of Margaret R. (Polga) Hinkle, a judge of the Superior Court of Massachusetts, and Rodney Hinkle, a college dean and teacher, who met while serving in the Peace Corps. Her family moved to Boston, Massachusetts, when she was four months old. Two years later, her brother Mark was born. After graduating from Newton South High School, she attended Brown University and New York University's Graduate Acting Program at the Tisch School of the Arts, graduating in 1991.

Career
Hinkle played Juliet in Romeo and Juliet, opposite Jean Stapleton playing the Nurse, at the Shakespeare Theatre Company in Washington DC from January 25 to March 13, 1994, at the Lansburgh Theatre in Washington DC. On Broadway, she played Kuroko and was the understudy for Miranda in The Tempest from November 1 to December 31, 1995, at the Broadhurst Theatre. She played Sandra Markowitz in A Thousand Clowns from July 14 to August 10, 1996, at the Criterion Center Stage Right. She also played Chrysothemis in Electra from December 3, 1998, to March 21, 1999, at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre. Hinkle started her TV career on the soap opera Another World. She also portrayed Judy Brooks on ABC's drama series Once and Again from 1999 to 2002. Hinkle starred on the CBS sitcom Two and a Half Men with Charlie Sheen, Jon Cryer, Angus T. Jones, and later Ashton Kutcher as Alan's neurotic ex-wife, Judith. Despite being a main cast member, she rarely made appearances after the show's eighth season. She was quietly phased out of the series, and her last appearances as a regular were in the ninth season of the series. She made only one appearance each in the last three seasons, though she was still credited as a regular. This may have been due to commitments to her new role as Samantha Bowers in the NBC drama series Deception with Tate Donovan, Victor Garber and Katherine LaNasa.

Hinkle has had roles in films such as I'm Not Rappaport, Frequency, The Next Big Thing, I Am Sam, and Dark Blue. She has also performed on stage in 2005 as the titular character in Miss Julie, opposite Reg Rogers. She appeared in the 2008 thrillers Quarantine and The Haunting of Molly Hartley, and has made guest appearances on shows such as Spin City, Law & Order: SVU, Without a Trace, ER, House, and twice as characters on Law & Order.

title: Marin Hinkle


text:
Kelvin Hayden

Kelvin Darnell Hayden Jr. (born July 23, 1983) is an American former professional football player who was a cornerback in the National Football League (NFL). He played college football for the Illinois Fighting Illini and was selected by the Indianapolis Colts in the second round of the 2005 NFL draft. In Super Bowl XLI he returned a Rex Grossman interception (the first of his career) 56 yards for a touchdown in a win over his hometown team, the Chicago Bears. Hayden played for the Bears and the Atlanta Falcons.

Early life
Hayden attended Hubbard High School in Chicago, Illinois, where he was a four-year starter in football. As a freshman cornerback, he was a first-team All-PowerBar team selection and an All-Area selection after posting ten interceptions. As a sophomore quarterback, he passed for 21 touchdowns and rushed for seven more scores. As a junior tailback, he rushed for 2135 yd, and was an All-Conference pick and an All-Area selection.

Hayden was a Chicago Bears fan during his youth.

Joliet Junior College
Hayden attended Joliet Junior College for two years, where he finished his career with 115 receptions for 1,839 yards (16.13 yards per rec. avg.) and 17 touchdowns and was a two-time All-Conference and an All-Region pick. After losing his first junior college game, he led Joliet JC to 21 consecutive victories and the 2002 NJCAA National Championship.

As a sophomore, he was the NJCAA National Offensive Player of the Year, won first-team JC All-America accolades, and was named the Conference Player of the Year, after making 72 receptions for 1,297 yards (18.1 yards per reception) and 13 touchdowns. He was named the MVP of the 2002 NCAA National Championship game. As a freshman, he made 42 receptions for 542 yards (12.9 yards per reception) and four touchdowns. He then transferred to Illinois.

University of Illinois
In 2003, Hayden led the Fighting Illini in receptions and receiving yards with 52 receptions for 592 yards. Prior to the 2004 season, he switched to cornerback. He started all 11 games and had 71 tackles and four interceptions.

Indianapolis Colts
Hayden was drafted in the second round (60th overall) by the Indianapolis Colts.

In his second season, Hayden recorded his first career interception in Super Bowl XLI when he took a Rex Grossman pass 56 yards for a touchdown, en route to a Colts 29–17 victory over the Chicago Bears. His stats as a Colt were 239 total tackles and nine interceptions, including three returned for touchdowns. Hayden scored a touchdown on a 26-yard fumble recovery in a game against the Philadelphia Eagles during the 2006 season.

Atlanta Falcons
Hayden had 16 total tackles and two interceptions during his one-year tenure in Atlanta.

Chicago Bears
On April 5, 2012, he signed with the Chicago Bears on a one-year contract worth $825,000. In Week 9 against the Tennessee Titans, Hayden recovered two forced fumbles. In 2012, Hayden and four other players led the league in defensive fumble recoveries with four. Despite becoming an unrestricted free agent in 2013, on March 26, Hayden signed a one-year deal to return to the Bears. On August 7, 2013, the Bears announced that Hayden suffered a torn hamstring and would miss the entire 2013 season. The injury occurred during Family Fest practice at Soldier Field on August 3, 2013. Hayden was eventually placed on injured reserve. Hayden became a free agent after the 2013 season but was re-signed on February 28, 2014. On August 30, 2014, the Bears waived him along with others during their final roster cuts. On September 2, 2014, he was re-signed by the Bears to fill an opening on the roster when wide receiver Marquess Wilson was placed on injured reserve. On September 13, 2014, the Bears released him and two others as they needed to fill some depth due to multiple injuries.

Personal life
Hayden got engaged to Taraji P. Henson on May 13, 2018, but Henson disclosed the end of the engagement during the October 19, 2020, episode of The Breakfast Club radio show.

title: Kelvin Hayden


text: Category:Languages of Kuwait

title: Category:Languages of Kuwait


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Socio-Nationalism

 This page is an archive of the proposed deletion of the article below. Further comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination). No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was Delete. --Conti|✉ 02:58, July 19, 2005 (UTC)

Socio-Nationalism
Neologism. Denni ☯ 00:30, 2005 July 11 (UTC)
 * Delete, neologism with just 15 unique Google hits and 2 matches on Usenet posts. (Also, anybody choosing to describe themselves with this neologism should take into account how eerily similar to National Socialism it sounds). — Ливай | Ⓣ 01:12, 11 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Duly noted, Ливай. The last sentence is pretty sketchy as well, trying to claim that it's not advertising, and as per above, it's also nn. -mysekurity 01:26, 11 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Neologism. -- M P er el ( talk 02:17, 11 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete neologism. Poli (talk • contribs) 08:27, 2005 July 11 (UTC)
 * Delete neologism. JamesBurns 09:04, 11 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete neologism. Djadek 15:36, 11 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete neologism. Axon 16:33, 11 July 2005 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


text:
See That My Grave Is Kept Clean

"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean" (also known as "One Kind Favor") is a song recorded by American blues musician Blind Lemon Jefferson in two slightly differing versions in October 1927 and February 1928, that became "one of his most famous compositions". Son House used the melody on his 1930 recording of "Mississippi County Farm Blues".

Versions
Bob Dylan recorded the song for his 1962 debut album Bob Dylan. He recorded it again with the Band, which is included on The Basement Tapes.

Other artists to cover the song include B.B. King, Peter, Paul and Mary (as "One Kind Favor"), Lightnin' Hopkins (as "One Kind Favor"), Canned Heat (as "One Kind Favor" on Living the Blues), the Grateful Dead (as "One Kind Favor"), Mike Bloomfield, Keiji Haino, Diamanda Galás, Meindert Talma & the Negroes, Laibach, Lou Reed, Furry Lewis, Chrome Cranks, the Dream Syndicate, Dave Van Ronk, Hobart Smith, Mavis Staples, Martin Simpson, Thelonious Monster, Peter Parcek, and Widespread Panic. Staples' version of the song from her 2015 album Your Good Fortune won the 2016 Grammy Award for Best American Roots Performance.

Pat Donohue performed this song as "One Kind Favor" live on Garrison Keillor's A Prairie Home Companion. It was later released on Donohue's CD, Radio Blues.

The British band Half Man Half Biscuit recorded a parody titled "See That My Bike's Kept Clean" on their 1997 album, Voyage to the Bottom of the Road.

On August 4, 2017, the American Jam/Rock band Phish performed this song to open night 11 of their 13 night residency at Madison Square Garden named the Bakers Dozen. Each show was donut themed, with night 11 being "lemon donut" night.

title: See That My Grave Is Kept Clean


text: Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Log/2005 July 11


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Byron Preiss

Byron Preiss (April 11, 1953 – July 9, 2005) was an American writer, editor, and publisher. He founded and served as president of Byron Preiss Visual Publications, and later of ibooks Inc. Many of his projects were in the forms of graphic novels, comics, illustrated books, and children's books. Beyond traditional printed books, Preiss frequently embraced emerging technologies, and was recognized as a pioneer in digital publishing and as among the first to publish in such formats as CD-ROM books and ebooks.

Early life and career
A native of Brooklyn, New York City, Byron Preiss graduated magna cum laude from the University of Pennsylvania in 1972, and earned a master's degree in communications from Stanford University.

In 1971, while Preiss was teaching at a Philadelphia elementary school, he conceived, and with Jim Steranko, produced an anti-drug comic book, The Block, designed for low-level reading skills. Published by Steranko's company, Supergraphics, it was distributed to schools nationwide.

He founded Byron Preiss Visual Publications in 1974 to publish original works, including Weird Heroes (1975). His 1976 Fiction Illustrated series of illustrated novels began with Schlomo Raven: Public Detective, a Preiss collaboration with Tom Sutton; followed by Starfawn, illustrated by Stephen Fabian; Steranko's Chandler: Red Tide; and the 1977 Son of Sherlock Holmes, illustrated by Ralph Reese. Other publications included a 1978 adaptation of Alfred Bester's The Stars My Destination as a two-volume graphic novel, illustrated by Howard Chaykin.

Publishing career
As a book packager, he developed titles for such publishers as HarperCollins and Random House. One such project, created in conjunction with the Bank Street College of Education, resulted in a series of educational comic books adapting well-known genre authors: The Bank Street Book of Creepy Tales, The Bank Street Book of Fantasy, The Bank Street Book of Mystery and The Bank Street Book of Science Fiction.

He published children's books by celebrities, including Billy Crystal, Jane Goodall, Jay Leno, LeAnn Rimes and Jerry Seinfeld, and worked closely with such established illustrators as Ralph Reese, William Stout and Tom Sutton.

Preiss was co-author, with Michael Reaves, of the children's novel Dragonworld (Doubleday, 1979), with 80 illustrations by Joseph Zucker. Dragonworld was originally planned to be the fifth Fiction Illustrated title.

In 1982, Preiss published The Secret, a puzzle book that combined 12 short verses and 12 elaborate fantasy paintings by John Jude Palencar. Readers were expected to pair each painting with a verse in a way that would provide clues to finding one of 12 plexiglass boxes buried in various parks around North America. Each box contained a ceramic box that contained a key that could be redeemed for a jewel worth $1,000. The book was inspired by the success of Masquerade, written and illustrated by Kit Williams and published in England in August 1979, but The Secret never led to the same level of treasure hunting frenzy. One of the ceramic boxes was found in Chicago in 1983, one in Cleveland in 2004, and one in Boston in October 2019. The remaining nine boxes have yet to be found, and reportedly Preiss was the only one who knew where they were when he died.

He edited the recording of the audiobook The Words of Gandhi, released by Caedmon in 1984 and narrated by Ben Kingsley who won a Grammy Award in the category of Best Spoken Word or Non-Musical Recording for the work.

Later life and death
Preiss was married to Sandi Mendelson, with whom he had daughters Karah and Blaire. On July 9, 2005, he died in a traffic accident at East Hampton, New York, on Long Island. Both Byron Preiss Visual Publications and ibooks Inc. filed for Chapter 7 Bankruptcy on February 22, 2006, after his death.

List of Byron Preiss publications
Published by Preiss, or packaged by Preiss for other publishers

 * The Electric Company Joke Book (1973) ISBN 0-307-64824-9
 * The Silent e's from Outer Space (Western Pub., 1973; Goldencraft, 1974 ISBN 0-307-64821-4)
 * One Year Affair (1976) ISBN 0-911104-86-0
 * Weird Heroes (Pyramid Books, 1975–77)
 * Vol. 1 (ISBN 0-515-03746-X) to Vol. 8 (ISBN 0-515-04257-9); collections of illustrated, pulp-inspired stories

 * Fiction Illustrated #1 – Schlomo Raven: Public Detective (Pyramid Books, 1976; by Preiss and Tom Sutton)
 * Fiction Illustrated #2 – Starfawn (Pyramid Books, 1976; by Preiss and Stephen Fabian)
 * Fiction Illustrated #3 – Chandler: Red Tide (Pyramid Books, 1976 ISBN 0-515-04241-2; Dark Horse, 2001 ISBN 1-56971-438-X)
 * Fiction Illustrated #4 – Son of Sherlock Holmes (Pyramid Books, 1977; by Preiss and Ralph Reese)
 * Empire (1978) by Samuel R. Delany, illustrated by Howard Chaykin. ISBN 0-425-03900-5
 * The Illustrated Roger Zelazny (Ace Books, 1979), illustrated by Gray Morrow ISBN 978-0441365258
 * The Beach Boys (1979; revised ed. 1983 ISBN 0-312-07026-8)
 * The Art of Leo and Diane Dillon (1981) ISBN 0-345-28449-6
 * The Dinosaurs (1981; revised 2000 as The New Dinosaurs)
 * The Secret (1982) ISBN 0-553-01408-0 – illustrated by John Jude Palencar
 * The First Crazy Word Book: Verbs (1982) ISBN 0-531-04500-5
 * The Little Blue Brontosaurus (1983) ISBN 0-89845-165-5
 * Not the Webster's Dictionary (1983) ISBN 0-671-47418-9
 * Be an Interplanetary Spy (Bantam Books, 1983–1985) — series of twelve interactive children's science fiction books, illustrated by Marc Hempel, Mark Wheatley, Tom Sutton, Alex Niño, Dennis Francis, and others
 * The Bat Family (1984) ISBN 0-89845-237-6
 * Time Machine 1 — Secret of the Knights (Bantam Books, 1984; by Jim Gasperini, illustrated by Richard Hescox) ISBN 0-553-23601-6
 * Nuts! (1985) ISBN 0-553-24725-5
 * The Planets (1985) ISBN 0-553-05109-1
 * The Universe (1987) ISBN 0-553-05227-6
 * Time Machine 19 — The Death Mask of Pancho Villa (Bantam Books, 1987; by Carol Gaskin and George Guthridge, illustrated by Kenneth Huey, cover by Jim Steranko) ISBN 0-553-26674-8
 * Dragonsword, 1st edition (1988) ISBN 1-55802-003-9
 * The Microverse (1989) ISBN 0-553-05705-7
 * First Contact: The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (1990) ISBN 0-7472-3508-2
 * Tales from the One-Eyed Crow: The Vulgmaster by Dennis L. McKiernan and Alex Nino (1991) ISBN 9780451450883
 * The Ultimate Dracula (1991) ISBN 0-7472-0552-3
 * The Ultimate Frankenstein (1991) ISBN 0-440-50352-3
 * The Ultimate Werewolf (1991 reissue ISBN 0-440-50354-X)
 * The Ultimate Dinosaur: Past, Present, and Future (1992) ISBN 0-553-07676-0
 * The Vampire State Building (1992) ISBN 0-553-15998-4
 * The Ultimate Zombie (1993) ISBN 0-440-50534-8
 * The Ultimate Witch (1993) ISBN 0-440-50531-3
 * The Ultimate Dragon (1995) ISBN 0-440-50630-1
 * The Ultimate Alien (1995) ISBN 0-440-50631-X
 * The Best Children's Books in the World (1996) ISBN 0-8109-1246-5
 * The Rhino History of Rock 'n' Roll: The '70s (1997) ISBN 0-671-01175-8
 * Are We Alone in the Cosmos? The Search for Alien Contact in the New Millennium (1999) ISBN 0-671-03892-3
 * The New Dinosaurs (2000) ISBN 0-7434-0724-5
 * The Roadkill of Middle Earth (2001) by John Carnell, illustrated by Tom Sutton, cover by Steve Fastner and Rich Larson. ISBN 0-7434-3467-6
 * Battlestar Galactica: Resurrection (2001) by Richard Hatch and Stan Timmons; ibooks. ISBN 0-7434-1326-1
 * Dying Inside (2002) ISBN 0-7434-3508-7
 * The Ultimate Dragon (2003) ISBN 0-7434-5868-0
 * The Best Bizarre But True Stories Ever! (2003) ISBN 978-0-7434-4557-3
 * Exploring The Matrix: Visions of the Cyber Present (2004) ISBN 0-312-31359-4
 * Raymond Chandler's Philip Marlowe (2005) ISBN 1-59687-847-9
 * Year's Best Graphic Novels, Comics & Manga (2005) ISBN 0-312-34326-4

Dragonworld
Dragonworld, the illustrated children's novel by Byron Preiss and Michael Reaves, was published in several editions from 1979 to 2005:
 * Doubleday hardcover, 1979
 * Bantam / Dell paperback, (1979) ISBN 0-553-01077-8
 * Spectra paperback (July 1983) ISBN 0-553-25857-5
 * Bantam / Dell paperback (Aug. 1983) ISBN 0-553-23426-9
 * ibooks, Inc. paperback (2000) ISBN 0-671-03907-5
 * ibooks, Inc. ebook (Microsoft Reader; 2001)
 * ibooks, Inc. paperback (2002) ISBN 0-7434-5253-4
 * ibooks, Inc. paperback (2005) ISBN 1-59687-233-0

title: Byron Preiss


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Arapaho language

The Arapaho (Arapahoe) language (Hinónoʼeitíít) is one of the Plains Algonquian languages, closely related to Gros Ventre and other Arapahoan languages. It is spoken by the Arapaho of Wyoming and Oklahoma. Speakers of Arapaho primarily live on the Wind River Indian Reservation in Wyoming, though some have affiliation with the Cheyenne living in western Oklahoma.

Classification
Arapaho is an Algonquian language of the Algic family.

History
By the 1850s, Arapaho bands formed two tribes: the Northern Arapaho and Southern Arapaho. Since 1878 the Northern Arapaho have lived with the Eastern Shoshone on the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming and are federally recognized as the Arapahoe Tribe of the Wind River Reservation. The Southern Arapaho live with the Southern Cheyenne in Oklahoma. Together their members are enrolled as the federally recognized Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes.

After World War II, the Northern Arapaho tribe tended to use English, not Arapaho, when raising their children. However, Arapaho speakers within the tribe still primarily speak Arapaho amongst each other. The Northern Arapaho additionally have had relatively less intermingling with other tribes and non-Native Americans compared to the Southern Arapaho who live amongst a predominantly non-Native American population.

Current status
The exact number of Arapaho speakers is not precisely known; however it has been estimated that the language currently retains between 250 and 1,000 active users. Arapaho has limited development outside of the home; however, it is used in some films and the Bible was translated into the language in 1903. According to one source, under 300 people over the age of 50 speak the language in Wyoming, and in Oklahoma the language is used by "only a handful of people . . . all near eighty or older". As of 1996, there were approximately 1,000 speakers among the Northern Arapaho. As of 2008, the authors of a newly published grammar estimated that there were slightly over 250 fluent speakers, plus "quite a few near-fluent passive understanders". In 2008, it was reported that a school had been opened to teach the language to children. Arapaho language camps were held in Summer 2015 at Wind River Tribal College and in St. Stephens, Wyoming. Currently, the language may be acquired by children, for a population estimate as recent as 2007 lists an increase to 1,000 speakers and notes that the language is in use in schools, bilingual education efforts begun on Wind River Reservation in the 1980s and the Arapaho Language Lodge, a successful immersion program, was established in 1993. "The Arapaho Project" is an effort made by the Arapaho people to promote and restore their traditional language and culture. Despite hope for the language, its relatively few active users and the fact that it has seen recent population decreases render Arapaho an endangered language. Ethnologue deems it "moribund".

Dialects
Besawunena, only attested from a wordlist collected by Kroeber, differs only slightly from Arapaho, though a few of its sound changes resemble those seen in Gros Ventre. It had speakers among the Northern Arapaho as recently as the late 1920s.

Phonology
Among the sound changes in the evolution from Proto-Algonquian to Arapaho are the loss of Proto-Algonquian *k, followed by *p becoming either or ; the two Proto-Algonquian semivowels merging to either  or ; the change from *s to  in word-initial position, and *m becoming  or  depending on the following vowel. Arapaho is unusual among Algonquian languages in retaining the contrast between the reconstructed phonemes *r and *θ (generally as and, respectively). These and other changes serve to give Arapaho a phonological system very divergent from that of Proto-Algonquian and other Algonquian languages, and even from languages spoken in the adjacent Great Basin. Some examples comparing Arapaho words with their cognates in Proto-Algonquian can illustrate this:

Vowels
At the level of pronunciation, Arapaho words cannot begin with a vowel, so where the underlying form of a word begins with a vowel, a prothetic is added.

Arapaho has a series of four short vowels (pronounced ) and four long vowels  (customarily written $\langleii ee oo uu\rangle$ and pronounced ). The difference in length is phonemically distinctive: compare hísiʼ, 'tick' with híísiʼ, 'day', and hócoo, 'steak' with hóócoo, 'devil'. and are mostly in complementary distribution, as, with very few exceptions, the former does not occur after velar consonants, and the latter only occurs after them. does have some exceptions as in the free variants kokíy ~ kokúy, 'gun'; kookiyón ~ kookuyón, 'for no reason'; and bííʼoxíyoo ~ bííʼoxúyoo, 'Found in the Grass' (a mythological character). There is only one minimal pair to illustrate the contrast in distribution: núhuʼ, 'this' versus níhiʼ-, 'X was done with Y', in which níhiʼ- only occurs in bound form.

Remarkably, unlike more than 98% of the world's languages, Arapaho has no low vowels, such as.

In addition, there are four diphthongs,, and several triphthongs, as well as extended sequences of vowels such as  with stress on either the first or the last vowel in the combination.

Consonants
The consonant inventory of Arapaho is given in the table below. When writing Arapaho, is normally transcribed as $\langley\rangle$,  as $\langlec\rangle$,  as $\langleʼ\rangle$, and  as $\langle3\rangle$.

Allophony
The phoneme (the voiced bilabial stop) has a voiceless allophone [p] that occurs before other consonants or at the end of a word. The plosives, , and are pronounced without aspiration in most environments, but are aspirated before other consonants or at the end of a word, or when preceding a syllable-final sequence of short vowel +. In this same environment is aspirated and devoiced. For example, the grammatical prefix cih- is pronounced, the grammatical prefix tih- is pronounced , and the word héétbihʼínkúútiinoo, 'I will turn out the lights' is hetihʼínkúútiinoo}.

Syllable structures
Syllables tend to have the structure CV(C), where the final consonant, if it is present, is either a single consonant, or. In general, consonant clusters in Arapaho can only be two consonants long. Consonant clusters do not occur word initially, and is the only that occurs word finally. The only consonant cluster that is "base generated" (exists in the most underlying representation of words) is. At the "surface" (at the level of actual pronunciation), other clusters arise by phonological processes including vowel syncope, or by juxtaposition of morphemes.

Vowel-initial, onset-less syllables, however, can occur due to partitioning of vowel clusters. An example of partitioning a cluster of 3 identical vowels into syllables is ní.ii.non, 'tepee'. The vowel cluster is not always split into short vowel followed by long vowel; the location of the partition depends on Arapaho's complex pitch accent system. For example, another word with a sequence of three vowels, but with a different partitioning of vowels into syllables is hóo.ó. 'bed'.

However, sometimes the vowel cluster does not divide and the whole cluster becomes the nucleus of the syllable. One example is hi.héio, 'his/her aunt (obviative)'.

Prosody
Arapaho is a pitch accent language. There are two phonemic tones: high (marked with an acute accent) or "normal" (unmarked). The contrast can be illustrated with the pair hónoosóóʼ, 'it is fancy' and honoosóóʼ, 'it is raining'. Long vowels and vowel sequences can carry a contour tone from high to low, as in hou3íne-, 'to hang' (where the first syllable has a normal tone) versus hóu3íne-, "to float" (where the first syllable has a high+normal, or falling, tone). Although tonal contrasts are distinctive in Arapaho, minimal pairs such as those listed above are rare.

Morphology
Arapaho is highly synthetic; verbs in particular take a large number of grammatical and semantic morphemes.

Animacy
Nouns in Arapaho come in two classes: animate and inanimate. Which category a noun belongs to is part of the lexicon. Being animate does not necessitate "aliveness" (but aliveness does mean animate): doors, planets, ghosts, etc. are considered animate. Some nouns can also be both animate and inanimate, but in these situations, the animate version is more "active" (e.g. a log is inanimate, but a rolling log is animate).

Obviation
Animate nouns can be made obviative or proximate.

When the underlying noun is consonant final, two general patterns can occur. One pattern occurs for the class of nouns that have or  (depending on vowel harmony) as their plural marker. These nouns reuse the plural marker to mark obviative singular and both obviative and proximate plural. For example,, a stem meaning 'elk,' is hiwóxuu in the proximate singular, but becomes hiwóxuuh-uu in obviative singular, proximate plural, and obviative plural.

The other pattern occurs for most other consonant final noun stems and is summarized in the table below. C denotes the final consonant and the bracketed [C] denotes either consonant mutation of C or deletion of some number of stem-final phonemes. is 'duck'. For vowel-final stems, the general pattern is a variation of the first consonant final pattern. Namely, a single marker is used to mark all plural forms and the obviative singular form. For example,, a stem meaning 'sheep, bighorn sheep,' becomes hóte-’ in proximate singular but hóte-ii in both plural forms and the obviative singular.

Verb categorization
Verbs are divided into classes depending on the transitivity and animacy of their argument(s). Transitivity of a verb affects how many arguments are affixed to the verb. Notice in the examples below the usage of the transitive form requires the addition of INAN, the inanimate marker for the object (the shoes). Verbal inflection also depends on "orders" like imperative.

 Intransitive, Animate Subject (AI)  hootóonéénoo wo’óhno.

otoonee-noo wo’ohn-o

IC.buy(AI)-1S shoe-PL

'I am buying shoes.'/'I am shopping for shoes.'

 Transitive, Inanimate Object (TI)  hootoonóótowoo wo’óhno.

otoonoot-o-woo wo’ohn-o

IC.buy(TI)-INAN-1S shoe-PL

'I am buying [these] shoes.'

Initial change
Initial change (IC) can mark tense and aspect (in particular, "present tense and ongoing aspect or present perfect tense and aspect") under affirmative and conjunct orders. Differing phonological changes occur depending on the first vowel of the stem. If the vowel is short, it is lengthened. For example, be’éé- 'to be red' becomes bee’éé’ 'it is red'. Otherwise, an infix is placed before the first vowel. The infix is either or  and is determined based on harmony with the long vowel. For example, hoowúsee- ('to walk downward') becomes honoowúseenoo ('I am walking downward').

If the first vowel is short and is followed by an, some speakers treat the as a vowel and use the infix  or  to mark initial change. Other speakers treat the as a consonant and perform the vowel lengthening process instead.

An irregular form of initial change affects some vowel-initial preverbs by appending an before the first vowel, rather than the ordinary  that would be prepended to avoid a vowel-initial word. For example, the imperfective morpheme becomes nii- instead of the expected hii- when prefixing verbs that would undergo initial change.

Agreement
In sentences with an explicit noun phrase, separate from the verb, the verb agrees with the noun in terms of animacy, number, and whether the noun is proximate or obviative. The grammatical category, including person, of the noun also needs to agree with the verb. Note that the categories of subject and object do not affect agreement inflection. As an example of animacy agreement, the intransitive verb for 'to fall' has a form that takes an inanimate subject, nihtéésceníse ' (PAST-on top-fall(II)-0S) and a form that takes an animate subject, nihtéés' cenísi.

nihtééscenísi’.

nih-teesi-cenisi-’

{PAST-on top-fall(AI)-3}

'It fell on [her].'

If a verb has a single noun argument that is composed of two different types of noun, most speakers default to the obviative (over proximate) and inanimate (over animate) forms to refer to the composite noun argument in case of conflict. This can be seen in the example below where 'walk' takes an argument that is composed of a composite proximate and obviative noun. Both nouns are animate, but there is conflict regarding proximate or obviative. The verb thus defaults to the obviative plural (4PL).

nési noh híbetebihów ceebíseení3i.

ne-si[h] noh i-betebihew-o cebisee-ni3i

1S-uncle(PROX) and 3S-wife-OBV IC.walk(AI)-4PL

'My uncle and his wife are walking by.'

Nouns
Arapaho has a number of derivational affixes and processes. Some operate on nouns to form verb-like clauses. For example, the morpheme can prefix a noun to ask 'what kind of '. A specific example is hoséíno’ ('meat') when prefixed becomes tohúút-oséíno’ ('What kind of meat is this?')

Verbs
Derivational morphology on verbs can be grouped into abstract and concrete. Abstract morphemes mark transitivity and the animacy of subject/object for the verb. For example, the basic root 'red' can be marked with abstract morphemes as follows

 * 1)  'to be red', intransitive and takes an inanimate subject
 * 2)  'to be red', intransitive and takes an animate subject

Concrete morphemes tend to add three types of meanings to the verb.

 * 1) patients and undergoers; attach particularly common nouns after a verb with a transitive meaning to give it an object, resulting in an intransitive verb
 * 2) *Example: to add 'wood' as an object, transform it to  before appending to verb such as  ('haul wood here') and  ('haul wood along')
 * 3) topics concerning nouns that lack volition; examples include body parts, weather and nature, sensations
 * 4) *Example: the underlying noun be-sonon ('neck') becomes before attaching to a verb such as  ('have a long neck')
 * 5) methods of achieving action; examples include tools, means of transportation, non-manmade forces such as wind
 * 6) *Example: ('walking') can be added to create an AI (animate subject, intransitive) verb such as no’usee- ('to arrive on foot') and oowusee- ('to descend on foot')

Reduplication
Reduplication is prefixal and is formed by taking the first consonant (if there is one) and the first vowel and then adding, where the colon indicates that the preceding vowel is elongated. The is deleted in the presence of a subsequent consonant. For example, cebísee- ('to walk past') after reduplication becomes cée[n]cebísee- ('to walk back and forth past').

There are multiple usages of reduplication in Arapaho including pluralizing implied, secondary, and inanimate objects of (di)transitive verbs; indicating repeating and habitual action (extend the space and time a verb occurs in general), and intensifying. One example of marking repeating action is as follows

tonooto’óótowoo.

toon-to’oot-owoo

IC.REDUP-hit(TI)-1S

'I am hitting it (over and over).'

There can be multiple reduplications in compound words, where each reduplication can have an independent effect. Some verbs appear to be only in a reduplicated form; these verbs tend to describe repeating, iterative action.

Syntax
Arapaho has no canonical word order. Some sentences/clauses consist of only the verb like below.

hoowéentóótiin.

ihoowu-entootiin-i

{NEG-be present(AI.PART)-II.IMPERS}

'No one is home.'

Single noun phrase
When a sentence contains a verb and a single noun phrase, the noun phrase can either precede or follow the verb. Preposing the noun phrase, however, gives it more importance and salience. Some instances where noun phrases are preposed include introducing a new referent (or reintroducing one that was inactive) and creating contrast.

 V-NP order

hení’bebíistiit kohyóhoé.

i’i-bebiisitii-t kohuyohoen-i

IC.INSTR(PREVERB)-fix(AI)-3S glue-SG

'He is fixing it with glue.'

 NP-V order  (additional context: a new referent, "stone monuments," is being introduced)

3í’eyóóno’ nihbí’eenéntóó3i’.

3i’eyoon-o’ nih-bi’i-eenentoo-3i’

{stone monument-PL} {PAST-only-REDUP.be located(AI)-3PL}

'There were just some stone monuments located there.' [O:Woman Captive, 4]

Two noun phrases
For a basic sentence with a single verb that takes two noun phrases as arguments, all orderings are possible, but having the verb final is less common.

Noun phrase hierarchy
A hierarchy exists in determining which noun phrase goes in which position. In the listing below, the first in the pair is treated as "higher" in the hierarchy and tends therefore to be the leftmost NP.

 * subject (object)
 * proximate (obviative)
 * actor (undergoer)
 * marked object (unmarked object)
 * animate (inanimate)

 Subject-verb-object order

he’ííteihí3i heebéhnótnoohóót niitehéíbetíít.

e’iiteihi3i eebeh-notinoohoot niiteheibetiiton-i

someone {POTENT-look for(TI)} help(AI.PART)-SG

'Someone might be looking for help.' [O:Scouts, 64]

 Verb-subject-(implied) object order

hé’ih’iixóoxookuséénino núhu’ hó3ii nííne’ééno híí3einóón.

e’ih-ii-xooxookusee-nino nuhu’ o3-ii niine’ee-no ii3einoon-[in]

{NPAST-IMPERF-REDUP.go through(AI)-4PL} this arrow-PL {here is-PL.OBV?} buffalo-OBV.PL

'Their arrows went right through the buffalos.' [O:Scouts, 60]

Saliency
Saliency determines whether a noun phrase can precede its corresponding verb. Noun phrases are deemed salient if they are referring to something new, something that is being reintroduced, something contrastive, or something that is being emphasized.

 Preposed NP  (here, the noun phrase meaning 'where the attack was taking place' precedes the verb 'see' to create emphasis)

héetbisíítooni’ nóonoohóotóú’u téí’yoonóh’o’ híseino’.

eetoh-bisiitooni-’ noonoohoot-o’u te’iyoonehe’-o’ isein-o’

where-attack.PART.IMPERS-0S see.REDUP(TI)-3PL child-PL woman-PL

'Women and children watched where the attack was taking place.' [O:Scouts, 70] Both NPs preceding Verb (uncommon)  (additional context: occurs under "contrastive focus")

hoo3óó’o’ téce’ii nih’éí’inóú’u.

oo3oo’o’ tece’-ii nih-e’in-o’u

some night-PL PAST-know(TI)-3PL

'Some knew the nighttime' [O:Eagles, 93]

Modifying nouns
Generally, noun modifiers occur before the noun. These modifiers additionally tend to occur in a particular order relative each other. For example, in the example below, note that the presentative 'here is' occurs before the demonstrative 'this'

’oh howóó niiyóúno nihíí núhu’ nihíí yóókoxuu.

’oh owoo niiyou-no nihii nuhu’ nihii yookox-ii

but also {here is-PL} well this well willow-PL

'And then there are these, well. . . these, well. . . willows.' [O:Apache Captive, 7]

Particles and verb stems
Some particles are more closely linked to verbs; these particles generally precede the verb and are often neighboring the corresponding verb.

 Particle expressing potential  nooxéíhi’ heesówobéíht.

nooxeihi’ esowobeihi-t

maybe {IC.be sick(AI)-3S}

'Maybe he’s sick.'

 Particle expressing recent past  téébe nihno’úseet.

teebe nih-no’usee-t

{just now} PAST-arrive(AI)-3S

'He just now arrived.'

Adverbials
Adverbials are a type of particle. Unlike other particles in Arapaho, however, they are not a closed class and are instead derived from or composed of other morphemes. One purpose of adverbial construction is to emphasize a morpheme by extracting it from a verb and having it stand alone. Another purpose is to convey meaning outside of what can normally be attached to a verb.

Adverbials are constructed by appending (which can become  after vowel harmony) to the end of the root.

A common usage of adverbials is to modify verbs. Adverbials can also act like prepositions and modify noun phrases; such adverbials can occur before or after the noun phrase and are thus exceptions to the rule that nominal modifiers prepose the noun (see example below).

"nih’iicebéso’onóóno’ sósoní’ii néeyóu hoh’éni’ niihííhi’" nih’íí3i’.

nih-ii-cebeso’on-oono’ sosoni’-ii neeyou ohe’en-i’ niih-iihi’ nih-ii-3i’

PAST-IMPERF-chase(TA)-12/3 Shoshone-PL {there it is} mountain-LOC along-ADV PAST-say(AI)-3PL

'“We were chasing the Shoshones along the mountain there,” they said.' [O:Shade Trees, 15]

title: Arapaho language


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User:Kbk

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title: User:Kbk


text: Category:Languages of Turkmenistan

title: Category:Languages of Turkmenistan


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Inelastic mean free path

The inelastic mean free path (IMFP) is an index of how far an electron on average travels through a solid before losing energy.

If a monochromatic, primary beam of electrons is incident on a solid surface, the majority of incident electrons lose their energy because they interact strongly with matter, leading to plasmon excitation, electron-hole pair formation, and vibrational excitation. The intensity of the primary electrons, $I0$, is damped as a function of the distance, $d$, into the solid. The intensity decay can be expressed as follows:

 * $$ I(d) = I_0 \ e^{-d \ / \lambda(E)} $$

where $I(d)$ is the intensity after the primary electron beam has traveled through the solid to a distance $d$. The parameter $λ(E)$, termed the inelastic mean free path (IMFP), is defined as the distance an electron beam can travel before its intensity decays to $1/e$ of its initial value. (Note that this is equation is closely related to the Beer–Lambert law.)

The inelastic mean free path of electrons can roughly be described by a universal curve that is the same for all materials.

The knowledge of the IMFP is indispensable for several electron spectroscopy and microscopy measurements.

Applications of the IMFP in XPS
Following, the IMFP is employed to calculate the effective attenuation length (EAL), the mean escape depth (MED) and the information depth (ID). Besides, one can utilize the IMFP to make matrix corrections for the relative sensitivity factor in quantitative surface analysis. Moreover, the IMFP is an important parameter in Monte Carlo simulations of photoelectron transport in matter.

Calculations of the IMFP
Calculations of the IMFP are mostly based on the algorithm (full Penn algorithm, FPA) developed by Penn, experimental optical constants or calculated optical data (for compounds). The FPA considers an inelastic scattering event and the dependence of the energy-loss function (EFL) on momentum transfer which describes the probability for inelastic scattering as a function of momentum transfer.

Experimental measurements of the IMFP
To measure the IMFP, one well known method is elastic-peak electron spectroscopy (EPES). This method measures the intensity of elastically backscattered electrons with a certain energy from a sample material in a certain direction. Applying a similar technique to materials whose IMFP is known, the measurements are compared with the results from the Monte Carlo simulations under the same conditions. Thus, one obtains the IMFP of a certain material in a certain energy spectrum. EPES measurements show a root-mean-square (RMS) difference between 12% and 17% from the theoretical expected values. Calculated and experimental results show higher agreement for higher energies.

For electron energies in the range 30 keV – 1 MeV, IMFP can be directly measured by electron energy loss spectroscopy inside a transmission electron microscope, provided the sample thickness is known. Such measurements reveal that IMFP in elemental solids is not a smooth, but an oscillatory function of the atomic number.

For energies below 100 eV, IMFP can be evaluated in high-energy secondary electron yield (SEY) experiments. Therefore, the SEY for an arbitrary incident energy between 0.1 keV-10 keV is analyzed. According to these experiments, a Monte Carlo model can be used to simulate the SEYs and determine the IMFP below 100 eV.

Predictive formulas
Using the dielectric formalism, the IMFP $$\lambda^{-1}$$ can be calculated by solving the following integral:

with the minimum (maximum) energy loss $$\omega_{\mathrm{min}}$$ ($$\omega_{\mathrm{max}}$$), the dielectric function $$\epsilon$$, the energy loss function (ELF) $$\mathrm{Im}(\frac{-1}{\epsilon(k,\omega)})$$ and the smallest and largest momentum transfer $$k_{\pm}=\sqrt{2E}\pm \sqrt{2(E-\omega)}$$. In general, solving this integral is quite challenging and only applies for energies above 100 eV. Thus, (semi)empirical formulas were introduced to determine the IMFP.

A first approach is to calculate the IMFP by an approximate form of the relativistic Bethe equation for inelastic scattering of electrons in matter. Equation $$ holds for energies between 50 eV and 200 keV:

with
 * $$\alpha(E) = \frac{1+\frac{E}{2 m_e c^2}}{1+\frac{E}{m_e c^2}} = \frac{1+\frac{E}{1021}999.8}{(1+\frac{E}{510}998.9)^2}$$

and
 * $$E_p = 28.816 \left(\frac{N_{\nu}\rho}{M}\right)^{0.5} (\mathrm{eV})$$

and the electron energy $$E$$ in eV above the Fermi level (conductors) or above the bottom of the conduction band (non-conductors). $$m_e$$ is the electron mass, $$c$$ the vacuum velocity of light, $$N_{\nu}$$ is the number of valence electrons per atom or molecule, $$\rho$$ describes the density (in $$\mathrm{\frac{g}{cm^3}}$$), $$M$$ is the atomic or molecular weight and $$\beta$$, $$\gamma$$, $$C$$ and $$D$$ are parameters determined in the following. Equation $$ calculates the IMFP and its dependence on the electron energy in condensed matter.

Equation $$ was further developed to find the relations for the parameters $$\beta$$, $$\gamma$$, $$C$$ and $$D$$ for energies between 50 eV and 2 keV:

Here, the bandgap energy $$E_g$$ is given in eV. Equation $$ an $$ are also known as the TTP-2M equations and are in general applicable for energies between 50 eV and 200 keV. Neglecting a few materials (diamond, graphite, Cs, cubic-BN and hexagonal BN) that are not following these equations (due to deviations in $$\beta$$), the TTP-2M equations show precise agreement with the measurements.
 * $$\gamma = 0.191\rho^{-0.5} (\mathrm{eV^{-1}})$$
 * $$C = 19.7 - 9.1U (\mathrm{nm^{-1}})$$
 * $$D = 534 - 208U (\mathrm{eV} \mathrm{nm^{-1}})$$
 * $$U = \frac{N_{\nu}\rho}{M} = (E_p/28.816)^2$$

Another approach based on Equation $$ to determine the IMFP is the S1 formula. This formula can be applied for energies between 100 eV and 10 keV:
 * $$\lambda^{-1} = \frac{(4+0.44Z^{0.5}+0.104E^{0.872})a^{1.7}}{Z^{0.3}(1-W)}$$

with the atomic number $$Z$$ (average atomic number for a compound), $$W=0.06H$$ or $$W=0.02E_g$$ ($$H$$ is the heat of formation of a compound in eV per atom) and the average atomic spacing $$a$$:
 * $$a^3 = \frac{10^{21}M}{\rho N_A (g+h)}(\mathrm{nm^3})$$

with the Avogadro constant $$N_A$$ and the stoichiometric coefficients $$g$$ and $$h$$ describing binary compounds $$G_g H_h$$. In this case, the atomic number becomes
 * $$Z=\frac{gZ_g+hZ_h}{g+h}$$

with the atomic numbers $$Z_g$$ and $$Z_h$$ of the two constituents. This S1 formula shows higher agreement with measurements compared to Equation $$.

Calculating the IMFP with either the TTP-2M formula or the S1 formula requires different knowledge of some parameters. Applying the TTP-2M formula one needs to know $$M$$, $$\rho$$ and $$N_\nu$$ for conducting materials (and also $$E_g$$ for non-conductors). Employing S1 formula, knowledge of the atomic number $$Z$$ (average atomic number for compounds), $$M$$ and $$\rho$$ is required for conductors. If non-conducting materials are considered, one also needs to know either $$E_g$$ or $$H$$.

An analytical formula for calculating the IMFP down to 50 eV was proposed in 2021. Therefore, an exponential term was added to an analytical formula already derived from $$ that was applicible for energies down to 500 eV:

For relativistic electrons it holds:

with the electron velocity $$v$$, $$v^2=c^2 \tau(\tau+2)/(\tau+1)^2$$ and $$\tau=E/c^2$$. $$c$$ denotes the velocity of light. $$\lambda$$ and $$a_0$$ are given in nanometers. The constants in $$ and $$ are defined as following:
 * $$A = \int_{0}^{\infty} \mathrm{Im}\left(\frac{-1}{\epsilon(\omega)}\right) \, d\omega$$
 * $$A\ln{(I)} = \int_{0}^{\infty} \mathrm{Im}\left(\frac{-1}{\epsilon(\omega)}\right)\ln{(\omega)} \, d\omega$$
 * $$C = \int_{0}^{\infty} \mathrm{Im}\left(\frac{-1}{\epsilon(\omega)}\right)\omega \, d\omega$$

IMFP data
IMFP data can be collected from the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Electron Inelastic-Mean-Free-Path Database or the NIST Database for the Simulation of Electron Spectra for Surface Analysis (SESSA). The data contains IMFPs determined by EPES for energies below 2 keV. Otherwise, IMFPs can be determined from the TPP-2M or the S1 formula.

title: Inelastic mean free path