text:
Hank Gathers

Eric Wilson "Hank" Gathers Jr. (February 11, 1967 – March 4, 1990) was an American college basketball player for the Loyola Marymount Lions in the West Coast Conference (WCC). As a junior in 1989, he became the second player in NCAA Division I history to lead the nation in scoring and rebounding in the same season. Gathers was a consensus second-team All-American as a senior in 1990. His No. 44 was retired by the Lions, who also placed a statue of him in his honor outside their home arena Gersten Pavilion.

Gathers began his college career with the USC Trojans, but transferred with teammate Bo Kimble to Loyola Marymount after his freshman year. Playing under Lions coach Paul Westhead and his fast-paced system, Gathers was a three-time first-team All-WCC selection. In his first season with the Lions, he earned the first of two consecutive most valuable player (MVP) honors in the WCC tournament. As a junior, he was named the WCC Player of the Year and began receiving All-American recognition. Early in his senior year in 1989–90, Gathers was diagnosed with an abnormal heartbeat after he collapsed during a game. He was placed on medication and returned a few weeks later, but he initially struggled, which he attributed to his medication. The dosage was gradually decreased, and his play recovered. Gathers died at age 23 after collapsing for the second time that season during the semifinals of the 1990 WCC tournament.

Early life
Gathers was born to Lucille and Eric Gathers Sr. in Philadelphia. Growing up in the Raymond Rosen Projects, one of the toughest neighborhoods in Philadelphia, he stayed out of trouble by playing basketball.

Gathers played prep ball at Dobbins Technical High School, located among the housing projects in North Philadelphia. He was joined on the team by his younger brother, Derrick Gathers, Bo Kimble and Doug Overton. The Mustangs reached the Philadelphia Public League championship game in consecutive years, losing to a Pooh Richardson-led Benjamin Franklin High in 1984 before winning the title over Lionel Simmons' South Philadelphia High in 1985.

USC
Gathers and Kimble were not friends until their senior year at Dobbins. Both of them were recruited to the University of Southern California (USC) by head coach Stan Morrison and his top assistant David Spencer. During a visit to USC, the two recruits were told that the area around campus was deemed a slum. Gathers and Kimble, however, considered the area to be a suburb compared to their home of Philadelphia. Gathers made up his mind early that he would join USC, while Kimble decided independently and only after spurning Temple late. They were joined on the Trojans by high school All-American, Tom Lewis, and Rich Grande as the "Four Freshmen" star recruiting class. Following an 11–17 season in 1985–86, Morrison and Spencer were fired despite having won the Pac-10 Conference the previous year. It was reported that the players would not remain unless certain conditions were met, including having a say in the next coaching staff.

USC hired George Raveling as the next head coach of the Trojans. Raveling gave the players a deadline to respond whether they would remain on the team. When they did not respond, he revoked the scholarships of Gathers, Kimble, and Lewis. Raveling's controversial statement was, "You can't let the Indians run the reservation," he said. "You've got to be strong, too. Sometimes you have to tell them that they have to exit." Kimble and Gathers transferred together from USC to Loyola Marymount University (LMU). Lewis transferred to Pepperdine. Grande remained at USC.

Loyola Marymount
Due to NCAA regulations, Gathers and Kimble could not play in the season following their transfer. They helped lead the Lions to a 28–4 record in 1987–88. Gathers led the team that year in both scoring and rebounding (averaging 22.5 points and 8.7 rebounds per game), was named first-team All-WCC and was awarded the WCC tournament MVP. In the 1988–89 season, Gathers became the second player in NCAA Division I history to lead the nation in scoring and rebounding in the same season, averaging 32.7 points and 13.7 rebounds per game. He was named WCC Player of the Year and again won the WCC Tournament MVP. On December 30, 1988, he scored a career-high 49 points along with 26 rebounds in a 130–125 win over Nevada. After the season, he decided against declaring for the NBA draft.

As a senior in 1989–90, he was a candidate for national player of the year and projected as an NBA lottery pick. Gathers' head coach while at LMU, Paul Westhead, had instituted an extraordinarily fast-paced game plan. On offense, the Lions took numerous three-point shots, and typically shot the ball within 10 seconds of gaining possession. Their defense was a full-court press designed to force their opponents into a frenzied up-and-down game. Gathers' teams led Division I in scoring in 1988 (110.3 points per game), 1989 (112.5), and 1990 (122.4). LMU's 122.4 point per game in 1990 is still a record as of April 2012. As of April 2012, Loyola Marymount held the five highest combined score games in Division I history. Four of the five occurred during Gathers' career, including a record 331 in the 181–150 win over United States International University on January 31, 1989.

At 6 ft and 210 lb, Gathers was Loyola Marymount's strongest inside player. He had a high field goal percentage because he seldom shot from beyond 10 ft. He used his power and quickness for follow-up baskets and scoring on fast breaks. "I don't care much about the points," said Gathers. "In fact, I should lead the nation in scoring because of my rebounding. Anybody can score 30 points a night if that's what he's concentrating on. But rebounding is special because it comes from the heart."

Heart condition and death
On December 9, 1989, Gathers collapsed at an LMU home game against UC Santa Barbara. He was found to have an abnormal heartbeat (exercise-induced ventricular tachycardia), and was prescribed a beta blocker, Inderal. However, Gathers felt that the medication adversely affected his play, and his dosage was gradually cut back. Originally prescribed at 240 milligrams per day, his Inderal dosage was cut to 40 mg per day over the next three months. Gathers returned after sitting out for three weeks and missing two games, and he averaged 29.3 minutes and 29.15 points in his 20 games through the remainder of the season. However, he struggled with his play for weeks after returning. His play recovered in a nationally televised game against LSU on February 3, 1990, when he scored 48 points along with 13 rebounds while being guarded by future NBA first-round draft picks Stanley Roberts and Shaquille O'Neal in a 148–141 overtime loss. The Lions won seven of their next eight games, and Gathers recorded a career-high 30 rebounds against Saint Mary's.

On February 26, 1990, as the WCC Tournament neared, Gathers' medication was reduced one last time from 80 to 40 mg, on the condition that he undergo testing in a couple of days to determine if it was safe and effective at suppressing the arrhythmias. He did not show up for his test that week and avoided calls from his cardiologist's office. On March 2, he had a long talk with the cardiologist, who told him to play and come in for the testing after the tournament concluded. It was later suspected Gathers was not taking any dosage on game days. The following day in the WCC tournament quarterfinals in Los Angeles, he recorded 28 points and 11 rebounds in a 121–84 win over Gonzaga.

On Sunday, March 4, Gathers collapsed again with 13:34 left in the first half of the semifinal game against the Portland Pilots. He had just scored a dunk on an alley-oop pass from point guard Terrell Lowery that put the Lions up 25–13. Thirteen seconds later while positioned around midcourt in the Lions' fullcourt press, he collapsed a yard or two away from Pilots point guard Erik Spoelstra. He attempted to get up, telling the athletic trainers, "I don't want to lay down!" Shortly after, he stopped breathing. Gathers was pronounced dead at nearby Marina Del Rey Hospital at 6:55 PM PST. He was 23 years old.

Minutes after Gathers was taken to the hospital, the WCC commissioner suspended the game indefinitely. ESPN showed graphic footage of Gathers' collapse on SportsCenter; the network was at the game recording advance footage for the championship game it was scheduled to televise the next night. Late that night, the WCC canceled the tournament and awarded Loyola the conference's automatic bid to the NCAA tournament due to its WCC regular season title.

Gathers was buried at the Mount Lawn Cemetery in Sharon Hill, Pennsylvania. An autopsy found that he suffered from a heart-muscle disorder, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. His family later filed a $32.5 million lawsuit charging negligence. Loyola Marymount settled out of court for $1.4 million, while the cardiologist who treated Gathers settled for $1 million.

Legacy
Loyola Marymount was placed in the West Regional as the No. 11 seed in that season's NCAA tournament. Before the tournament, the right-handed Kimble vowed to shoot his first free throw of each game left-handed, in memory of Gathers. Though naturally right-handed, Gathers was a poor free-throw shooter and had switched to shooting them left-handed. The Lions advanced to the Elite Eight, including a victory over defending national champion Michigan, before falling to the eventual champions, UNLV. Kimble finished a perfect 3-for-3 on his left-handed free throws during the tournament. Both LMU's Cinderella story without Gathers and Kimble's left-handed tributes to him became part of NCAA tournament lore.

Gathers was named a consensus second-team All-America and first team All-WCC selection for the season. He finished his career averaging 28.0 points and making 59 percent of his field goals, which were both school records as of 2010. He also averaged 11.1 rebounds for his career. He was voted WCC Player of the Decade for the 1980s.

Gersten Pavilion, LMU's on-campus athletics facility, is known to Lions fans as "Hank's House", although that is not part of its official name. His No. 44 and Kimble's No. 30 were retired by LMU in a joint ceremony in 2000. In 2005, the entire 1989–90 team was inducted into Loyola Marymount's Hall of Fame. On February 29, 2020, four days before the 30th anniversary of his death, a statue of Gathers was unveiled outside Gersten Pavilion. The statue was created by Rotblatt-Amrany, which designed multiple statues outside of the Staples Center in Los Angeles, as well as the Michael Jordan statue in Chicago.

Gathers' life was dramatized in a 1992 TV movie, Final Shot: The Hank Gathers Story, with Victor Love starring as Gathers. Gathers was part of the storyline in the ESPN film Guru of Go about Westhead, part of their 30 for 30 series.

Gathers' death reemerged in national news wires during the 2016 NBA Playoffs when Kimble, interviewed for the celebrity gossip website TMZ.com, urged that Miami Heat star Chris Bosh retire for health reasons. Bosh has been suffering from blood clotting issues that forced him to miss the last several months of both the 2014–15 and 2015–16 seasons, as well as the entirety of the 2016–17 season. While Bosh felt that he was healthy enough to continue playing, Kimble disagreed: "There are so many other things he could do with his life. Hank Gathers had the same thing, Hank could have been a comedian, an actor or did speaking engagements. It's not worth the risk. I would just say absolutely not, don't do it. If Hank had the ability to do it again he wouldn't have paid the ultimate price ... I am sure [Bosh] has children and they are going to need their father around as much as possible."

Awards

 * 1989 WCC Player of the Year
 * 2× WCC Tournament MVP (1988, 1989)
 * Consensus second-team All-American (1990)
 * 3× First-team All-WCC (1988, 1989, 1990)
 * 2× All-WCC Tournament (1988, 1989)

Records
WCC LMU
 * Career points (2,490)
 * Field goals made, career (1,037)
 * Field goals made, season (419)
 * Free throws attempted, career (745)
 * Free throws attempted, season (315)
 * Career scoring average (28.0)
 * Field goals made, game (24)
 * Field goals attempted, game (37)
 * Field goal percentage, career (.590)
 * Rebounds, game (29)

Achievements

 * 1989 NCAA Division I scoring leader
 * 1989 NCAA Division I rebounding leader

Personal life
Gathers was 16 when his son, Aaron Crump, was born. Crump was age six when his father died. He received $1.5 million from Gathers' wrongful-death lawsuits. He gained control of the money when he turned 18. It became a problem for Crump, who later described himself as a "young black male with no guidance" at that time. He pleaded guilty to aggravated assault with a weapon, and was in a state prison from 2007 until 2012. By the time he was released, the settlement money he received from Gathers' death had been squandered. Crump became a salesperson. He also mentors children through the Hank Gathers Legacy Group that he founded.

Gathers' nephew, D.J. Rivera, played college basketball at St. Joesph's University before transferring to Binghamton University and leading the America East Conference in scoring with the Binghamton Bearcats in the 2008–09 season, in which they won the conference for the first time and earned their first bid to the NCAA tournament, where Rivera scored 20 points in a first-round loss against Duke. He later transferred to the University of Montevallo, losing in the Division II championship game in 2012. Another nephew, Jordan Gathers, earned a bachelor's degree at St. Bonaventure University and played three seasons for their Bonnies basketball team from 2011 to 2014. He played a final season with Butler in 2015–16 as a graduate transfer.

title: Hank Gathers


text:
Open-channel flow

In fluid mechanics and hydraulics, open-channel flow is a type of liquid flow within a conduit with a free surface, known as a channel. The other type of flow within a conduit is pipe flow. These two types of flow are similar in many ways but differ in one important respect: open-channel flow has a free surface, whereas pipe flow does not, resulting in flow dominated by gravity but not hydraulic pressure.

Classifications of flow
Open-channel flow can be classified and described in various ways based on the change in flow depth with respect to time and space. The fundamental types of flow dealt with in open-channel hydraulics are:

 * Time as the criterion
 * Steady flow
 * The depth of flow does not change over time, or if it can be assumed to be constant during the time interval under consideration.
 * Unsteady flow
 * The depth of flow does change with time.
 * Space as the criterion
 * Uniform flow
 * The depth of flow is the same at every section of the channel. Uniform flow can be steady or unsteady, depending on whether or not the depth changes with time, (although unsteady uniform flow is rare).
 * Varied flow
 * The depth of flow changes along the length of the channel. Varied flow technically may be either steady or unsteady. Varied flow can be further classified as either rapidly or gradually-varied:
 * Rapidly-varied flow
 * The depth changes abruptly over a comparatively short distance. Rapidly varied flow is known as a local phenomenon. Examples are the hydraulic jump and the hydraulic drop.
 * Gradually-varied flow
 * The depth changes over a long distance.
 * Continuous flow
 * The discharge is constant throughout the reach of the channel under consideration. This is often the case with a steady flow. This flow is considered continuous and therefore can be described using the continuity equation for continuous steady flow.
 * Spatially-varied flow
 * The discharge of a steady flow is non-uniform along a channel. This happens when water enters and/or leaves the channel along the course of flow. An example of flow entering a channel would be a road side gutter. An example of flow leaving a channel would be an irrigation channel. This flow can be described using the continuity equation for continuous unsteady flow requires the consideration of the time effect and includes a time element as a variable.

States of flow
The behavior of open-channel flow is governed by the effects of viscosity and gravity relative to the inertial forces of the flow. Surface tension has a minor contribution, but does not play a significant enough role in most circumstances to be a governing factor. Due to the presence of a free surface, gravity is generally the most significant driver of open-channel flow; therefore, the ratio of inertial to gravity forces is the most important dimensionless parameter. The parameter is known as the Froude number, and is defined as:$$\text{Fr} = {U\over{\sqrt{gD}}}$$where $$U$$ is the mean velocity, $$D$$ is the characteristic length scale for a channel's depth, and $$g$$ is the gravitational acceleration. Depending on the effect of viscosity relative to inertia, as represented by the Reynolds number, the flow can be either laminar, turbulent, or transitional. However, it is generally acceptable to assume that the Reynolds number is sufficiently large so that viscous forces may be neglected.

Formulation
It is possible to formulate equations describing three conservation laws for quantities that are useful in open-channel flow: mass, momentum, and energy. The governing equations result from considering the dynamics of the flow velocity vector field $${\bf v}$$ with components $${\bf v} = \begin{pmatrix} u & v & w \end{pmatrix}^{T}$$. In Cartesian coordinates, these components correspond to the flow velocity in the x, y, and z axes respectively. To simplify the final form of the equations, it is acceptable to make several assumptions:
 * 1) The flow is incompressible (this is not a good assumption for rapidly-varied flow)
 * 2) The Reynolds number is sufficiently large such that viscous diffusion can be neglected
 * 3) The flow is one-dimensional across the x-axis

Continuity equation
The general continuity equation, describing the conservation of mass, takes the form:$${\partial \rho\over{\partial t}} + \nabla \cdot (\rho {\bf v}) = 0$$where $$\rho$$ is the fluid density and $$\nabla \cdot$$ is the divergence operator. Under the assumption of incompressible flow, with a constant control volume $$V$$, this equation has the simple expression $$\nabla \cdot {\bf v} = 0$$. However, it is possible that the cross-sectional area $$A$$ can change with both time and space in the channel. If we start from the integral form of the continuity equation:$${d\over{dt}}\int_{V}\rho \; dV = -\int_{V} \nabla\cdot(\rho {\bf v}) \; dV$$it is possible to decompose the volume integral into a cross-section and length, which leads to the form:$${d\over{dt}}\int_{x}\left(\int_{A}\rho \; dA \right) dx = -\int_{x}\left[\int_{A}\nabla\cdot(\rho {\bf v}) \; dA \right] dx$$Under the assumption of incompressible, 1D flow, this equation becomes:$${d\over{dt}}\int_{x}\left(\int_{A}dA \right) dx = -\int_{x}{\partial\over{\partial x}}\left(\int_{A} u \; dA \right) dx$$By noting that $$\int_{A}dA = A$$ and defining the volumetric flow rate $$Q = \int_{A}u \; dA$$, the equation is reduced to:$$\int_{x}{\partial A\over{\partial t}} \; dx = -\int_{x}{\partial Q\over{\partial x}} dx$$Finally, this leads to the continuity equation for incompressible, 1D open-channel flow:$$

Momentum equation
The momentum equation for open-channel flow may be found by starting from the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations :$$\overbrace{\underbrace_{\begin{smallmatrix} \text{Local} \\ \text{Change} \end{smallmatrix}} + \underbrace{{\bf v}\cdot\nabla {\bf v}}_{\text{Advection}}}^{\text{Inertial Acceleration}} = -\underbrace{{1\over{\rho}}\nabla p}_{\begin{smallmatrix} \text{Pressure} \\ \text{Gradient} \end{smallmatrix}} + \underbrace{\nu \Delta {\bf v}}_{\text{Diffusion}} - \underbrace{\nabla \Phi}_{\text{Gravity}} + \underbrace_{\begin{smallmatrix} \text{External} \\ \text{Forces} \end{smallmatrix}}$$where $$p$$ is the pressure, $$\nu$$ is the kinematic viscosity, $$\Delta$$ is the Laplace operator, and $$\Phi = gz$$ is the gravitational potential. By invoking the high Reynolds number and 1D flow assumptions, we have the equations:$$\begin{aligned} {\partial u\over{\partial t}} + u{\partial u\over{\partial x}} &= -{1\over{\rho}}{\partial p\over{\partial x}} + F_{x} \\ -{1\over{\rho}}{\partial p\over{\partial z}} - g &= 0 \end{aligned}$$The second equation implies a hydrostatic pressure $$p = \rho g \zeta$$, where the channel depth $$\eta(t,x) = \zeta(t,x) - z_{b}(x)$$ is the difference between the free surface elevation $$\zeta$$ and the channel bottom $$z_{b}$$. Substitution into the first equation gives:$${\partial u\over{\partial t}} + u{\partial u\over{\partial x}} + g{\partial \zeta\over{\partial x}} = F_{x} \implies {\partial u\over{\partial t}} + u{\partial u\over{\partial x}} + g{\partial \eta\over{\partial x}} - gS = F_{x}$$where the channel bed slope $$S = -dz_{b}/dx$$. To account for shear stress along the channel banks, we may define the force term to be:$$F_{x} = -{1\over{\rho}}{\tau\over{R}}$$where $$\tau$$ is the shear stress and $$R$$ is the hydraulic radius. Defining the friction slope $$S_{f} = \tau/\rho g R$$, a way of quantifying friction losses, leads to the final form of the momentum equation:$$

Energy equation
To derive an energy equation, note that the advective acceleration term $${\bf v}\cdot\nabla {\bf v}$$ may be decomposed as:$${\bf v}\cdot\nabla {\bf v} = \omega \times {\bf v} + {1\over{2}}\nabla\|{\bf v}\|^{2}$$where $$\omega$$ is the vorticity of the flow and $$\|\cdot\|$$ is the Euclidean norm. This leads to a form of the momentum equation, ignoring the external forces term, given by:$${\partial {\bf v}\over{\partial t}} + \omega \times {\bf v} = -\nabla\left({1\over{2}}\|{\bf v}\|^{2} + {p\over{\rho}} + \Phi \right )$$Taking the dot product of $${\bf v}$$ with this equation leads to:$${\partial\over{\partial t}}\left({1\over{2}}\|{\bf v}\|^{2} \right ) + {\bf v}\cdot \nabla \left({1\over{2}}\|{\bf v}\|^{2} + {p\over{\rho}} + \Phi \right ) = 0$$This equation was arrived at using the scalar triple product $${\bf v}\cdot (\omega \times {\bf v}) = 0$$. Define $$E$$ to be the energy density:$$E = \underbrace{{1\over{2}}\rho\|{\bf v} \|^{2} }_{\begin{smallmatrix} \text{Kinetic} \\ \text{Energy} \end{smallmatrix}} + \underbrace{\rho\Phi}_{\begin{smallmatrix} \text{Potential} \\ \text{Energy} \end{smallmatrix}}$$Noting that $$\Phi$$ is time-independent, we arrive at the equation:$${\partial E\over{\partial t}} + {\bf v}\cdot\nabla (E+p) = 0$$Assuming that the energy density is time-independent and the flow is one-dimensional leads to the simplification:$$E + p = C$$with $$C$$ being a constant; this is equivalent to Bernoulli's principle. Of particular interest in open-channel flow is the specific energy $$e = E/\rho g$$, which is used to compute the hydraulic head $$h$$ that is defined as:$$with $$\gamma = \rho g$$ being the specific weight. However, realistic systems require the addition of a head loss term $$h_{f}$$ to account for energy dissipation due to friction and turbulence that was ignored by discounting the external forces term in the momentum equation.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Open-channel flow


text:
Luigi Traglia

Luigi Traglia (3 April 1895 – 22 November 1977) was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Vicar General of Rome from 1965 to 1968, and Dean of the College of Cardinals from 1974 until his death. Traglia was elevated to the cardinalate in 1960.

Life and career in Church
Traglia was born in Albano Laziale, and studied at the Pontifical Lateran University and Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome. He was ordained to the priesthood by Cardinal Basilio Pompili on 10 August 1917, and then finished his studies in 1919. While teaching at the Pontifical Urbaniana University from 1919 to 1936, Traglia was also an official of the Sacred Congregations of Seminaries and Universities and of the Propagation of the Faith from 1927 to 1930. On 18 August 1930, he became assessor and subpromoter-general of the faith in the latter congregation. He was raised to the rank of Domestic Prelate of His Holiness on 22 February 1932, and later Auditor of the Roman Rota on 17 September 1936.

On 21 December 1936, Traglia was appointed Vicar General of The Diocese of Rome and Titular Archbishop of Caesarea in Palaestina. He received his episcopal consecration on 6 January 1937, from Cardinal Francesco Marchetti-Selvaggiani, with Archbishop Domenico Spolverini and Bishop Angelo Calabretta serving as co-consecrators, in the Lateran Basilica. Traglia was later named President of the Special Committee for the Marian Holy Year on 7 October 1953, and of the commission for the first Roman synod in 1959.

He was made Cardinal-Priest of S. Andrea della Valle by Pope John XXIII in the consistory of 28 March 1960. Pope Paul VI changed Traglia's titular church to that of San Lorenzo in Damaso on 28 April 1969. On 15 March 1972, he was elevated to Cardinal Bishop of Albano.

From 1962 to 1965, Traglia participated in the Second Vatican Council, during the course of which he served as a cardinal elector in the 1963 papal conclave that selected Pope Paul VI. He was named Vicar General of Rome on 30 March 1965. In this position, he governed the diocese in the name of the Pope, who is the Bishop of Rome. After resigning as Cardinal Vicar on 9 January 1968, Traglia was appointed Apostolic Chancellor on the following 13 January. He resigned that post on 7 February 1973, not long before the office was abolished on 27 February of that same year. Traglia was elected and confirmed as Vice-Dean of the College of Cardinals on 24 March 1972, later becoming Dean of the College of Cardinals and Cardinal Bishop of Ostia, while retaining his previous suburbicarian title, on 7 January 1974. On 24 December of that year, he served as papal legate to the opening of the Holy Door at the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls.

Traglia died in Rome in 1977.

title: Luigi Traglia


text:
Mick Fitzpatrick

Michael Fitzpatrick (1893 – 8 October 1968) was an Irish republican, Chief of Staff of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and Clann na Poblachta politician.

Biography
Born in Kilkenny in 1893, Fitzpatrick lived in Dublin and was described as "a man with the common touch and a good organizer." He was one of the 'driving forces' behind the anti-Treaty IRA in Dublin during the Irish Civil War. He was briefly the Officer commanding of the IRA's Dublin Brigade and was interned in 1923.

Fitzpatrick was a full-time official of the Grocers' trade union and secretary of its social club at the Banba Hall in Dublin's Parnell Square. He also managed the Balalaika Ballroom and restaurant in the same area.

IRA leadership
He was the central figure in IRA contacts with the Soviet Union during the late 1920s and in 1927, he represented the IRA Army Council at the first International Congress of the Friends of Soviet Russia (FOSR) in Moscow where he was elected to the presidium of the FOSR. In 1928 he helped establish an Irish section of the FOSR. During 1929 he was involved in launching the Irish Labour Defence League and the Workers' Revolutionary Party of Ireland. He was also involved in Comhairle na Poblachta, a body set up the same year to heal the rift between the military and political anti-Treaty forces in Ireland. In 1931 Fitzpatrick was elected to the National Executive board of Saor Éire - a far-left political organisation established in September 1931 by communist-leaning members of the IRA. He visited the Soviet Union again in 1932.

Fitzpatrick chaired the 1933 IRA General Army Convention (GAC). At the 1934 GAC he disagreed with the call for a Republican Congress and remained within the IRA. His union was involved in a strike with O'Mara's Bacon Shops in late 1934 in which the IRA intervened violently. During 1935 he was involved in the IRA's intervention in the Dublin transport strike.

In 1936 he was appointed as the IRA Quartermaster General and was the unsuccessful candidate for Cumann Poblachta na hÉireann, a political party set up by the IRA. Fitzpatrick succeeded Tom Barry as Chief of Staff in 1937, only to be ousted by Seán Russell at the 1938 GAC.

He was involved in the 1946 launch of Clann na Poblachta - a political party which drew support from people who were tired of the old Civil War politics and wanted more concern for social issues. Fitzpatrick was a member of its national executive. At the 1948 general election, he was elected as a TD for Dublin North-West, winning 2,395 votes (10.3%). At the 1951 general election, he received 458 votes (1.9%) and lost his seat.

Mick Fitzpatrick died in 1969 and is buried in Glasnevin Cemetery, Dublin.

title: Mick Fitzpatrick


text:
Indiranagar, Bangalore

Indiranagar (officially Indiranagara), is an affluent, mid-sized neighbourhood in east Bangalore, Karnataka, India. Indiranagar is one of the most expensive cosmopolitan neighbourhoods in Bangalore.

Community
The Indiranagar Sangeetha Sabha organises music and dance programmes. It also conducts promotional activities, seminars, puppet shows and annual cultural programmes such as vocal and instrumental music concerts. Sangeetha Sabha constructed Purandhara Bhavan which promotes performing arts, theatre and drama. Close to the Sangeetha Sabha is the Indiranagar Club spread across 2.5 acres of land. The membership fee is high at 10 lakh rupees and the club boasts of some of the best gym and work out equipment, yoga clubs, tennis courts, basketball ground, billiards tables, an exclusive cards room and a small library. Indiranagar has the Defence Colony Playground, located next to the Defence Colony Children's Park and the Old People's Park; the Defence Colony Park maintained by DECORA is close by. There are five big schools: Sree Cauvery School, Kairalee Niketan Edu Trust, National Public School, The Frank Anthony Public School and New Horizon Public School within the residential locality, as well as the Sri Rakum School for the Blind. In addition, Indiranagar is also famous for having 100 ft. road, which has several high-end fashion brands as well as bars and pubs.

History
Indiranagar was formed as a BDA layout in the late 1970s, and was named after the former Prime Minister of India Indira Gandhi. In the beginning, the locality was primarily a suburb, dotted with large bungalows and independent houses, mostly owned by defence personnel and public sector employees.

The Information Technology boom in Bengaluru in the late 1990s converted Indiranagar and its two arterial roads (100 Feet Road and Chinmaya Mission Hospital Road) into a semi-commercial area. Today, Indiranagar is an important residential and commercial hub of Bengaluru.

Indiranagar is divided into 2 stages, with the 1st stage being the largest. The villages which existed prior to the formation of Indiranagar such as Binnamangala, Lakshmipuram, Motappanapalya, Appareddy Palya, Doopanahalli, Kodihalli and Thippasandra as well as the neighbouring BDA layouts such as HAL 2nd Stage and HAL 3rd Stage are often considered as a part of Indiranagar.

Localities
Localities of Indiranagar include Indiranagar 1st and 2nd stage, HAL 2nd and 3rd Stages, Doopanahalli, Mottappana Palya, Michaelpalya, Defence Colony, Jeevanbheemanagar, Kodihalli, Old Thippasandra.

Transport
The Namma Metro Purple Line runs through Indiranagar and has two stations within the neighbourhood – Indiranagar and Swami Vivekananda Road.It was the first section of the Bangalore metro to be operational. Indiranagar is well connected to most areas of Bengaluru with the buses of the BMTC, which also maintains a bus depot in the area.

title: Indiranagar, Bangalore


text:
Wikipedia:Featured picture candidates/Petronas Towers

Petronas Towers

An impressively lit night-time shot of the Petronas Towers by Commons user Angel Riesgo.
 * Nominate and support - Solipsist 21:09, 14 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Oh, that's nice. It's really hard to take a picture of a skyscraper and get a proper idea of its sheer bulk, and this really achieves that. -- Finlay McWalter |  Talk 21:22, July 14, 2005 (UTC)
 * Support either version (although the edited version loses the highlighting around the top edge, which I liked). -- Finlay McWalter | Talk 15:44, July 17, 2005 (UTC)
 * To become one of the best pictures on Wikipedia. Phoenix2 22:39, July 14, 2005 (UTC)
 * Support, grainy issue was cleared up in the edited version. -- Phoenix 00:08, 18 July 2005
 * Looks like it's taken straight out of a sci-fi movie... unreal. Enochlau 05:18, 15 July 2005 (UTC)
 * The hi-res picture is very grainy. Phil s 10:12, 15 July 2005 (UTC)
 * That is indeed true. Perhaps run it over with a blur. Enochlau 11:00, 15 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Done, hope you like it --Fir0002 08:50, July 16, 2005 (UTC)
 * Support edited version. Enochlau 11:05, 17 July 2005 (UTC)
 * edited version --Fir0002 08:50, July 16, 2005 (UTC)
 * Wow, this one caught my eye as I was scrolling down. Very nice. --coblin 10:56, July 16, 2005 (UTC)
 * Support either version --coblin 05:20, July 27, 2005 (UTC)
 * Support -- great image. - Longhair | Talk 03:56, 17 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Support edited version. The sheer size and bulk of the building is amazing... TomStar81
 * Support --ZeWrestler 15:30, 17 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Support edited version. James F. (talk) 23:16, 17 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Support - Very nice. Sango  123  18:14, July 18, 2005 (UTC)
 * Question - What are the American laws on pictures of buildings? In Icelandic law, which is all I know, a picture which has a building (or a sculpture) as its main content can be hampered by the architect's copyright. Is there something similar over there? In any case the picture is amazing. - Haukurth 01:36, 19 July 2005 (UTC)
 * This came up at a conference I was at, and I believe it can be an issue, but only if money is made off of it. This would be a strong candidate for 'fair use', in my non-professional opinion. --DNicholls 02:30, 24 July 2005 (UTC)

+20 / -0 preference for the edited version, but I have now overloaded that on the Commons original since they are otherwise similar -- Solipsist 20:42, 3 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Support - Either version. Stunning Ferg2k 05:13, 19 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Support either version. This will end up in the front page sooner or later. -- Titoxd 03:29, 20 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Support Malaysia Boleh!!!
 * Strong support, dazzling and one of the best images I've ever seen here. — Stevey7788 (talk) 20:57, 20 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Support - Great photo! --Andylkl (talk) 17:13, July 22, 2005 (UTC)
 * Support, the nicest photo of a skyscraper I've seen in a while. Ben Lunsford 18:33, July 22, 2005 (UTC)
 * Support. Edited version. Very striking. Balster neb 17:30, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Support. Looks like one of those 'artist's conceptions'. Striking edges. Jogloran 09:00, July 24, 2005 (UTC)
 * Strongly Support --ScottyBoy900Q ∞ 20:47, 27 July 2005 (UTC)


text: File:Torres Petronas Mayo 2004.jpg

title: File:Torres Petronas Mayo 2004.jpg


text:
Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar

The Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar or Serbian Voivodeship and the Banate of Temes (Woiwodschaft Serbien und Temeser Banat, Војводство Србија и Тамишки Банат, Voivodina sârbească și Banatul timișan, Szerb Vajdaság és Temesi Bánság), known simply as the Serbian Voivodeship (Serbische Woiwodschaft), was a crownland of the Austrian Empire that existed between 1849 and 1861.

It was a separate crownland named after two former provinces: Serbian Vojvodina and Banat of Temeswar. Its former area is now divided between Serbia, Romania and Hungary. The Voivodeship gave its name to the present Serbian Vojvodina.

Names
In contemporary German, the crown land was officially known as Woiwodschaft Serbien und Temeser Banat ('Voivodeship of Serbia and Temes Banat'; die Woiwodschaft Serbien und das Temeser Banat when definite). The forms die serbische Wojwodschaft und das Temeser Banat ('the Serbian Voivodeship and the Temes Banat') and die serbische Wojwodschaft mit dem Temeser Banate ('the Serbian Voivodeship with the Temes Banat'; the -e on Banat is a now mostly obsolete dative ending) also appeared frequently in official documents. Other variations also appear as a result of grammatical inflection (see German grammar), such as der serbischen Wojwodschaft und des Temeser Banates (genitive case), but these should not be considered distinct. The spellings Woiwodschaft and Wojwodschaft are typographic variations; Woiwodschaft was used officially until 1852, Wojwodschaft from 1853.

In contemporary Serbian it was known as Vojvodina Srbska i Tamiški Banat (Войводина Србска и Тамишки Банат) and Vojvodstvo Srbija i Tamiški Banat (Војводство Србија и Тамишки Банат). In Hungarian it was known as Szerb Vajdaság és Temesi Bánság, and in Romanian as Voivodina Sârbească și Banatul Timișan.

As in German, in Serbian sources there are two somewhat different variants of the name of the voivodeship; one could be translated into English as Voivodeship of Serbia and Temes Banat and another as Serbian Voivodeship and Temes Banat.

Also in modern English use, the term Temes Banat or Banat of Temes is sometimes incorrectly replaced with term Banat of Temeschwar or Temeschwar Banat. In the original name in all native languages, there is no mention of the city of Temeschwar (Timișoara) in the title of Voivodeship. As shown above, the reference to the Temes region is always used, and should be translated into English as Temes Banat or Banat of Temes.

History
The Voivodeship was formed by a decision of the Austrian emperor in November 1849, after the Revolutions of 1848/1849. It was formed in accordance with privilege given to Serbs by the Habsburg emperor in 1691, recognizing the right of Serbs to territorial autonomy within the Habsburg monarchy.

It consisted of the regions of Banat, Bačka and northern Syrmian municipalities of Ilok and Ruma. An Austrian governor seated in Temeschwar ruled the area, and the title of Voivode belonged to the emperor himself. The full title of the emperor was "Grand Voivod of the Voivodeship of Serbia" (Großwoiwode der Woiwodschaft Serbien). Even after the Voivodeship was abolished, the emperor kept this title until the end of Austro-Hungarian Monarchy in 1918.

In 1860, the Voivodeship of Serbia and Temes Banat was abolished and most of its territory (Banat and Bačka) was incorporated into the Habsburg Kingdom of Hungary, although direct Hungarian rule began only in 1867, after the Austro-Hungarian Compromise. Unlike Banat and Bačka, in 1860 Syrmia was incorporated into the Kingdom of Slavonia, another separate Habsburg crown land. The Kingdom of Slavonia subsequently merged with the Kingdom of Croatia, forming the new kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, which concluded an agreement with the Kingdom of Hungary in 1868, becoming an autonomous region of the Kingdom of Hungary within Austria-Hungary.

Languages
The two official languages of the Voivodeship were German and "Illyrian" (what would come to be known as Serbian).

Demographics
The Voivodeship was ethnically very mixed, since the southern parts of Syrmia, Banat and Bačka with compact Serbian settlements were not included in it, while eastern Banat, with a Romanian majority was added to it.

1846
According to the 1846 census, the territory that in 1849 formed the voivodeship included:
 * Vlachs (Romanians) = 417,000
 * Serbs = 402,000
 * Germans = 352,000
 * Hungarians = 233,000
 * Slovaks = 27,000
 * Bulgarians = 24,000
 * Jews = 16,000
 * Romani = 12,000
 * Rusyns = 7,000
 * Croats = 3,000
 * Greeks = 3,000

1857
In 1857, population of the voivodeship numbered 1,526,105 inhabitants, including:
 * Latin Catholics = 698,189 (45.75%)
 * Eastern Orthodox Christians = 691,828 (45.33%)
 * Evangelic-Lutherans = 56,871 (3.73%)
 * Evangelic-Reformists = 29,281 (1.92%)
 * Greek Catholics and Armenian Catholics = 26,244 (1.72%)
 * Jews = 23,203 (1.52%)
 * others = 489 (0.03%)

1850/51
According to the 1850/51 census, ethnic composition of the voivodeship was as follows:
 * Romanians = 347,459
 * Germans = 335,080
 * Serbs = 321,110 (*)
 * Hungarians = 221,845
 * Bunjevci and Šokci = 62,936 (*)
 * Rusins = 39,914
 * Slovaks = 25,607
 * Bulgarians = 22,780
 * Jews = 15,507
 * Gypsies = 11,440
 * Czechs = 7,530
 * Croats = 2,860 (*)
 * Greeks and Cincars = 2,820

(*) Total number of "Illyrian Slavs" (Serbs, Bunjevci, Šokci, and Croats) was 386,906.

According to another source, in 1850/1851, the population of the voivodeship numbered 1,426,221 inhabitants, including:
 * 397,459 (27.87%) Romanians
 * 335,080 (23.49%) Germans
 * 321,110 (22.52%) Serbs
 * 221,845 (15.56%) Hungarians
 * others.

By religious makeup:

In 1851, population of the voivodeship numbered 1,426,221 inhabitants, including:
 * Eastern Orthodox Christians = 694,029 (48.66%)
 * Roman Catholics = 624,839 (43.81%)
 * Evangelic-Lutherans = 51,724 (3.63%)
 * Evangelic-Reformists = 26,621 (1.87%)
 * Jews = 16,252 (1.14%)
 * Greek Catholics and Armenian Catholics = 12,756 (0.89%)

1860
In 1860, population of the voivodeship numbered 1,525,523 inhabitants, including:
 * 432,523 Serbs
 * 414,490 Romanians
 * 396,156 Germans
 * 256,164 Hungarians

Administrative divisions
At first, the crown land was divided into two districts:
 * 1) Batschka-Torontal (Bačka-Torontal)
 * 2) Temeschwar-Karasch (Timișoara-Caraș)

Later, it was divided into five districts (contemporary Districte, modern spelling Distrikte), which were largely based on the pre-1849 Hungarian counties which made the majority of the crown land. From 1851 they were subdivided into political districts ((politische) Bezirke). In the reforms of 1853, implemented in the crown land in 1854, the Districte became Kreise, which were subdivided into Amtsbezirke (formally Bezirke but of a different type than in 1851). These reforms also separated the capital, the city of Temesvár, from district-administration, placing it under the direct authority of the Statthalterei.

Great Voivodes

 * Francis Joseph I, (1849–1916)
 * Charles I, (1916–1918)

 * Note: the voivodeship was abolished in 1860, but Francis Joseph kept the title of "Great Voivode" until his death in 1916, and the title was also inherited by the last Emperor of Austria, Charles I.

Governors

 * Ferdinand Mayerhofer, (1849–1851)
 * Johann Coronini-Cronberg, (1851–1859)
 * Josip Šokčević, (1859–1860)
 * Karl Bigot de Saint-Quentin, (1860)


text:
Ian Williams (musician)

Ian Williams (born August 31, 1970) is an American rock guitarist and singer-songwriter. He became noted for his finger tapping guitar playing in bands such as Don Caballero, Storm & Stress and currently in Battles. He is known for his one-handed guitar playing technique, often while playing keyboards or Ableton Push simultaneously with the other hand.

Biography
Williams was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and spent part of his childhood in Malawi, before returning to the US in the 6th grade.

He graduated from the University of Pittsburgh in Pittsburgh, where he studied history and political science.

Musical career
In his teenage years Williams was a drummer and vocalist for Pittsburgh-based band 'Sludgehammer'.

Williams joined Pittsburgh math rock pioneers Don Caballero as a second guitarist in 1992 until 2000. He had also played in the Chicago-based, avant-garde band Storm & Stress from 1997 to 2000. Williams moved to New York City in the early 2000s and formed Battles in 2002.

Williams is well known for his approach to finger tapping on guitar and uses Gibson's Echoplex looping system. His propensity towards guitar tapping allows him to accompany himself on keyboard at live performances, using one hand for each instrument.

Williams made a short cameo appearance in the 2000 film High Fidelity as a customer in the music store (shortly after John Cusack's character announces, "I will now sell five copies of The Three E.P.'s by The Beta Band."). He also had small cameos in Heaven's a Drag and Bloodmoon, a 1997 martial arts action film.

(Battles: 2004 - 2010)

 * Guitars
 * Gibson Les Paul Studio

 * Keyboards
 * M-Audio ProKeys Sono 88

 * Software
 * Native Instruments Kontakt 4

 * Computers
 * Apple Mac

 * Rack Mount Units
 * Gibson Echoplex Digital Pro - w/Footswitch

 * Amplifiers
 * Roland JC-120
 * Ampeg SVT VR Head
 * Marshall 4x12 Cabinet

(Battles: 2011 - present)

 * Guitars
 * Gibson Les Paul
 * Gibson SG

 * Keyboards
 * M-Audio Axiom 61 - X 2 (2011 - 2013)
 * Novation 61 SL MkII (2014 - 2016)
 * M-Audio Keystation 61 II (2014–Present)

 * Software
 * Native Instruments Kontakt 5
 * Ableton Live
 * Mainstage (Software) (2011 - 2013)

 * Sequencer
 * Akai APC40 (2011 - 2013)
 * Ableton Push (2014–Present)

 * Computers
 * Apple Mac - X 2 (2011 - 2013)
 * Apple Mac - X 1 (2014–Present)
 * Apogee Duet

 * Rack Mount Units
 * Gibson Echoplex Digital Pro - w/Footswitch (2011 - 2013)

 * MIDI Footswitches
 * Roland FC-300 (2011 - 2013)
 * Keith McMillen SoftStep 2 (2014–Present)

 * Amplifiers
 * Roland JC-120
 * Ampeg SVT-VR Head
 * Ampeg SVT-CL Head
 * Ampeg 6x12 Cabinet
 * Marshall 4x12 Cabinet

As a band member

 * Don Caballero - For Respect (1993)
 * Don Caballero - Don Caballero 2 (1995)
 * Don Caballero - What Burns Never Returns (1998)
 * Don Caballero - Singles Breaking Up (Vol. 1) (1999)
 * Don Caballero - American Don (2000)
 * Storm & Stress - Storm and Stress (1997)
 * Storm & Stress - Under Thunder & Fluorescent Lights (2000)
 * Battles — EP C / B EP (2006)
 * Battles — Mirrored (2007)
 * Battles — Gloss Drop (2011)
 * Battles – La Di Da Di (2015)
 * Battles - Juice B Crypts (2019)

title: Ian Williams (musician)


text:
Anna Karenina principle

The Anna Karenina principle states that a deficiency in any one of a number of factors dooms an endeavor to failure. Consequently, a successful endeavor (subject to this principle) is one for which every possible deficiency has been avoided.

The name of the principle derives from Leo Tolstoy's 1877 novel Anna Karenina, which begins:

In other words: happy families share a common set of attributes which lead to happiness, while any of a variety of attributes can cause an unhappy family. This concept has been generalized to apply to several fields of study.

In statistics, the term Anna Karenina principle is used to describe significance tests: there are any number of ways in which a dataset may violate the null hypothesis and only one in which all the assumptions are satisfied.

Failed domestication
The Anna Karenina principle was popularized by Jared Diamond in his 1997 book Guns, Germs and Steel. Diamond uses this principle to illustrate why so few wild animals have been successfully domesticated throughout history, as a deficiency in any one of a great number of factors can render a species undomesticable. Therefore, all successfully domesticated species are not so because of a particular positive trait, but because of a lack of any number of possible negative traits. In chapter 9, six groups of reasons for failed domestication of animals are defined:
 * Diet – To be a candidate for domestication, a species must be easy to feed. Finicky eaters make poor candidates. Non-finicky omnivores make the best candidates.
 * Growth rate – The animal must grow fast enough to be economically feasible. Elephant farmers, for example, would have to wait perhaps twelve years for their herd to reach adult size.
 * Captive breeding – The species must breed well in captivity. Species having mating rituals prohibiting breeding in a farm-like environment make poor candidates for domestication. These rituals could include the need for privacy or long, protracted mating chases.
 * Disposition – Some species are too ill-tempered to be good candidates for domestication. Farmers must not be at risk of life or injury every time they enter the animal pen. The zebra is of special note in the book, as it was recognized by local cultures and Europeans alike as extremely valuable and useful to domesticate, but it proved impossible to tame. Horses in Africa proved to be susceptible to disease and attack by a wide variety of animals, while the very characteristics that made the zebra hardy and survivable in the harsh environment of Africa also made it fiercely independent.
 * Tendency to panic – Species are genetically predisposed to react to danger in different ways. A species that immediately takes flight is a poor candidate for domestication. A species that freezes, or mingles with the herd for cover in the face of danger, is a good candidate. Deer in North America have proven almost impossible to domesticate and have difficulty breeding in captivity. In contrast, horses thrived from when they were re-introduced to North America in the sixteenth century.
 * Social structure – Species of lone, independent animals make poor candidates. A species that has a strong, well-defined social hierarchy is more likely to be domesticated. A species that can imprint on a human as the head of the hierarchy is best. Different social groups must also be tolerant of one another.

Ecological risk assessment
Ecologist Dwayne Moore describes applications of the Anna Karenina principle in ecology:

"Successful ecological risk assessments are all alike; every unsuccessful ecological risk assessment fails in its own way. Tolstoy posited a similar analogy in his novel Anna Karenina : 'Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.' By that, Tolstoy meant that for a marriage to be happy, it had to succeed in several key aspects. Failure on even one of these aspects, and the marriage is doomed . . . the Anna Karenina principle also applies to ecological risk assessments involving multiple stressors."

Aristotle's version
Much earlier, Aristotle states the same principle in the Nicomachean Ethics (Book 2):

"Again, it is possible to fail in many ways (for evil belongs to the class of the unlimited, as the Pythagoreans conjectured, and good to that of the limited), while to succeed is possible only in one way (for which reason also one is easy and the other difficult – to miss the mark easy, to hit it difficult); for these reasons also, then, excess and defect are characteristic of vice, and the mean of virtue; For men are good in but one way, but bad in many."

Order in chaos of maladaptation
Many experiments and observations of groups of humans, animals, trees, grassy plants, stockmarket prices, and changes in the banking sector proved the modified Anna Karenina principle.

"By studying the dynamics of correlation and variance in many systems facing external, or environmental, factors, we can typically, even before obvious symptoms of crisis appear, predict when one might occur, as correlation between individuals increases, and, at the same time, variance (and volatility) goes up.... All well-adapted systems are alike, all non-adapted systems experience maladaptation in their own way,... But in the chaos of maladaptation, there is an order. It seems, paradoxically, that as systems become more different they actually become more correlated within limits."

This effect is proved for many systems: from the adaptation of healthy people to a change in climate conditions to the analysis of fatal outcomes in oncological and cardiological clinics. The same effect is found in the stock market. The applicability of these two statistical indicators of stress, simultaneous increase of variance and correlations, for diagnosis of social stress in large groups was examined in the prolonged stress period preceding the 2014 Ukrainian economic and political crisis. There was a simultaneous increase in the total correlation between the 19 major public fears in the Ukrainian society (by about 64%) and also in their statistical dispersion (by 29%) during the pre-crisis years.

General mathematical backgrounds
Vladimir Arnold in his book Catastrophe Theory describes "The Principle of Fragility of Good Things" which in a sense supplements the Principle of Anna Karenina: good systems must meet simultaneously a number of requirements; therefore, they are more fragile:

"... for systems belonging to the singular part of the stability boundary a small change of the parameters is more likely to send the system into the unstable region than into the stable region. This is a manifestation of a general principle stating that all good things (e.g. stability) are more fragile than bad things. It seems that in good situations a number of requirements must hold simultaneously, while to call a situation bad even one failure suffices."

title: Anna Karenina principle


text:
International Ultraviolet Explorer

International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE or Explorer 57, formerly SAS-D), was the first space observatory primarily designed to take ultraviolet (UV) electromagnetic spectrum. The satellite was a collaborative project between NASA, the United Kingdom's Science and Engineering Research Council (SERC, formerly UKSRC) and the European Space Agency (ESA), formerly European Space Research Organisation (ESRO). The mission was first proposed in early 1964, by a group of scientists in the United Kingdom, and was launched on 26 January 1978 aboard a NASA Thor-Delta 2914 launch vehicle. The mission lifetime was initially set for 3 years, but in the end it lasted 18 years, with the satellite being shut down in 1996. The switch-off occurred for financial reasons, while the telescope was still functioning at near original efficiency.

It was the first space observatory to be operated in real time by astronomers who visited the groundstations in the United States and Spain. Astronomers made over 104,000 observations using the IUE, of objects ranging from Solar System bodies to distant quasars. Among the significant scientific results from IUE data were the first large scale studies of stellar winds, accurate measurements of the way interstellar dust absorbs light, and measurements of the supernova SN 1987A which showed that it defied stellar evolution theories as they then stood. When the mission ended, it was considered the most successful astronomical satellite ever.

Motivation
The human eye can perceive light with wavelengths between roughly 350 (violet) and 700 (red) nanometres. Ultraviolet light has wavelengths between roughly 10-nm and 350-nm. UV light can be harmful to human beings, and is strongly absorbed by the ozone layer. This makes it impossible to observe UV emission from astronomical objects from the ground. Many types of object emit copious quantities of UV radiation, though: the hottest and most massive stars in the universe can have surface temperatures high enough that the vast majority of their light is emitted in the UV. Active Galactic Nuclei, accretion disks, and supernovae all emit UV radiation strongly, and many chemical elements have strong absorption lines in the UV, so that UV absorption by the interstellar medium provides a powerful tool for studying its composition.

Ultraviolet astronomy was impossible before the Space Age, and some of the first space telescopes were UV telescopes designed to observe this previously inaccessible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. One particular success was the second Orbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO-2), which had a number of 20 cm UV telescopes on board. It was launched in 1968, and took the first UV observations of 1200 objects, mostly stars. The success of OAO-2 motivated astronomers to consider larger missions.

Conception

The orbiting ultraviolet satellite which ultimately became the IUE mission was first proposed in 1964 by British astronomer Robert Wilson. The European Space Research Organisation (ESRO) was planning a Large Astronomical Satellite (LAS), and had sought proposals from the astronomical community for its aims and design. Wilson headed a British team which proposed an ultraviolet spectrograph, and their design was recommended for acceptance in 1966.

However, management problems and cost overruns led to the cancellation of the LAS program in 1968. Wilson's team scaled down their plans and submitted a more modest proposal to ESRO, but this was not selected as the Cosmic Ray satellite was given precedence. Rather than give up on the idea of an orbiting UV telescope, they instead sent their plans to NASA astronomer Leo Goldberg, and in 1973 the plans were approved. The proposed telescope was renamed the International Ultraviolet Explorer.

Design and aims
The telescope was designed from the start to be operated in real time, rather than by remote control. This required that it would be launched into a geosynchronous orbit – that is, one with a period equal to one sidereal day of 23h 56m. A satellite in such an orbit remains visible from a given point on the Earth's surface for many hours at a time, and can thus transmit to a single ground station for a long period of time. Most space observatories in Earth orbit, such as the Hubble Space Telescope, are in a low Earth orbit in which they spend most of their time operating autonomously because only a small fraction of the Earth's surface can see them at a given time. Hubble, for example, orbits the Earth at an altitude of approximately 600 km, while a geosynchronous orbit has an average altitude of 36000 km.

As well as allowing continuous communications with ground stations, a geosynchronous orbit also allows a larger portion of the sky to be viewed continuously. Because the distance from Earth is greater, the Earth occupies a much smaller portion of the sky as seen from the satellite than it does from low Earth orbit.

A launch into a geosynchronous orbit requires much more energy for a given weight of payload than a launch into low Earth orbit. This meant that the telescope had to be relatively small, with a 45 cm primary mirror, and a total weight of 312 kg. Hubble, in comparison, weighs 11.1 tonnes and has a 2.4 m mirror. The largest ground-based telescope, the Gran Telescopio Canarias, has a primary mirror 10.4 m across. A smaller mirror means less light-gathering power, and less spatial resolution, compared to a larger mirror.

The stated aims of the telescope at the start of the mission were:

 * To obtain high-resolution spectra of stars of all spectral types to determine their physical characteristics
 * To study gas streams in and around binary star system
 * To observe faint stars, galaxies and quasars at low resolution, interpreting these spectra by reference to high-resolution spectra
 * To observe the spectra of planets and comets
 * To make repeated observations of objects with variable spectrum
 * To study the modification of starlight caused by interstellar dust and gas

Construction and engineering

The telescope was constructed as a joint project between NASA, ESRO (which became ESA in 1975) and the United Kingdom's SERC. SERC provided the Vidicon cameras for the spectrographs as well as software for the scientific instruments. ESA provided the solar arrays to power the spacecraft as well as a ground observing facility in Villafranca del Castillo, Spain. NASA contributed the telescope, spectrograph, and spacecraft as well as launching facilities and a second ground observatory in Greenbelt, Maryland at the Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC).

According to the agreement setting up the project the observing time would be divided between the contributing agencies with 2/3 to NASA, 1/6 to ESA and 1/6 to the UK's SERC.

Mirror
The telescope mirror was a reflector of the Ritchey–Chrétien telescope type, which has hyperbolic primary and secondary mirrors. The primary was 45 cm across. The telescope was designed to give high quality images over a 16 arcminute field of view (about half the apparent diameter of the Sun or Moon). The primary mirror was made of beryllium, and the secondary of fused silica – materials chosen for their light weight, moderate cost, and optical quality.

Instruments

The instrumentation on board consisted of the Fine Error Sensors (FES), which were used for pointing and guiding the telescope, a high resolution and a low resolution spectrograph, and four detectors.

There were two Fine Error Sensors (FES), and their first purpose was to image the field of view of the telescope in visible light. They could detect stars down to 14th magnitude, about 1500 times fainter than can be seen with the naked eye from Earth. The image was transmitted to the ground station, where the observer would verify that the telescope was pointing at the correct field, and then acquire the exact object to be observed. If the object to be observed was fainter than 14th magnitude, the observer would point the telescope at a star that could be seen, and then apply "blind" offsets, determined from the coordinates of the objects. The accuracy of the pointing was generally better than 2 arcsecond for blind offsets

The FES acquisition images were the telescope's only imaging capability; for UV observations, it only recorded spectrum. For this, it was equipped with two spectrographs. They were called the Short Wavelength Spectrograph (SWS) and the Long Wavelength Spectrograph (LWS), and covered wavelength ranges of 115 to 200 nanometres and 185 to 330-nm respectively. Each spectrograph had both high and low resolution modes, with spectral resolutions of 0.02 and 0.60-nm respectively.

The spectrographs could be used with either of two apertures. The larger aperture was a slot with a field of view roughly 10 × 20 arcsecond; the smaller aperture was a circle about 3 arcsecond in diameter. The quality of the telescope optics was such that point sources appeared about 3 arcsecond across, so use of the smaller aperture required very accurate pointing, and it did not necessarily capture all of the light from the object. The larger aperture was therefore most commonly used, and the smaller aperture only used when the larger field of view would have contained unwanted emission from other objects.

There were two cameras for each spectrograph, one designated the primary and the second being redundant in case of failure of the first. The cameras were named LWP, LWR, SWP and SWR where P stands for prime, R for redundant and LW/SW for long/short wavelength. The cameras were television cameras, sensitive only to visible light, and light gathered by the telescope and spectrographs first fell on a UV-to-visible converter. This was a caesium-tellurium cathode, which was inert when exposed to visible light, but which gave off electrons when struck by UV photons due to the photoelectric effect. The electrons were then detected by the TV cameras. The signal could be integrated for up to many hours, before being transmitted to Earth at the end of the exposure.

Launch
The IUE was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida on a Thor-Delta launch vehicle, on 26 January 1978. It was launched into a transfer orbit, from which its on-board launch vehicle fired it into its planned geosynchronous orbit. The orbit was inclined by 28.6° to the Earth's equator, and had an orbital eccentricity of 0.24, meaning that the satellite's distance from Earth varied between 25669 km and 45887 km. The ground track was initially centred at a longitude of approximately 70° West.

Commissioning
The first 60 days of the mission were designated as the commissioning period. This was divided into three main stages. Firstly, as soon as its instruments were switched on, the IUE observed a small number of high priority objects, to ensure that some data had been taken in the event of an early failure. The first spectrum, of the star Eta Ursae Majoris, was taken for calibration purposes three days after launch. The first science observations targeted objects including the Moon, the planets from Mars to Uranus, hot stars including Eta Carinae, cool giant stars including Epsilon Eridani, the black hole candidate Cygnus X-1, and galaxies including Messier 81 (M81) and Messier 87 (M87).

Then, the spacecraft systems were tested and optimised. The telescope was focussed, and the prime and redundant cameras in both channels were tested. It was found that the SWR camera did not work properly, and so the SWP camera was used throughout the mission. Initially, this camera suffered from significant electronic noise, but this was traced to a sensor used to align the telescope after launch. Once this sensor was switched off, the camera performed as expected. The cameras were then adjusted for best performance, and the slewing and guiding performance of the telescope evaluated and optimised

Finally, image quality and spectral resolution were studied and characterised, and the performance of the telescope, spectrographs and cameras were calibrated using observations of well-known stars. After these three phases were completed, the "routine phase" of operations began on 3 April 1978. Optimisation, evaluation and calibration operations were far from complete, but the telescope was understood well enough for routine science observations to begin.

Usage

Use of the telescope was divided between NASA, ESA and United Kingdom in approximate proportion to their relative contributions to the satellite construction: two thirds of the time was available to NASA, and one sixth each to ESA and United Kingdom. Telescope time was obtained by submitting proposals, which were reviewed annually. Each of the three agencies considered applications separately for its allocated observing time. Astronomers of any nationality could apply for telescope time, choosing whichever agency they preferred to apply to. If an astronomer was awarded time, then when their observations were scheduled, they would travel to the ground stations which operated the satellite, so that they could see and evaluate their data as it was taken. This mode of operation was very different from most space facilities, for which data is taken with no real time input from the astronomer concerned, and instead resembled the use of ground-based telescopes.

Ground support
For most of its lifetime, the telescope was operated in three eight-hour shifts each day, two from the U.S. ground station at the Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland, and one from the ESA ground station at Villanueva de la Cañada near Madrid. Because of its elliptical orbit, the spacecraft spent part of each day in the Van Allen radiation belts, during which time science observations suffered from higher background noise. This time occurred during the second U.S. shift each day, and was generally used for calibration observations and spacecraft "housekeeping", as well as for science observations that could be done with short exposure times. The twice-daily transatlantic handovers required telephone contact between Spain and the U.S. to coordinate the switch. Observations were not coordinated between the stations, so that the astronomers taking over after the handover would not know where the telescope would be pointing when their shift started. This sometimes meant that observing shifts started with a lengthy pointing manoeuvre, but allowed maximum flexibility in scheduling of observing blocks.

Data transmission
Data was transmitted to Earth in real time at the end of each science observation. The camera read-out formed an image of 768 × 768 pixels, and the analogue-to-digital converter resulted in a dynamic range of 8 bits. The data was then transmitted to Earth via one of six transmitters on the spacecraft; four were S-band transmitters, placed at points around the spacecraft such that no matter what its attitude, one could transmit to the ground, and two were Very high frequency (VHF) transmitters, which could sustain a lower bandwidth, but consumed less power, and also transmitted in all directions. The VHF transmitters were used when the spacecraft was in the Earth's shadow and thus reliant on battery power instead of solar power.

In normal operations, observers could hold the telescope in position and wait approximately 20 minutes for the data to be transmitted, if they wanted the option of repeating the observation, or they could slew to the next target and then start the data transmission to Earth while observing the next target. The data transmitted were used for "quick look" purposes only, and full calibration was carried out by IUE staff later. Astronomers were then sent their data on magnetic tape by post, about a week after processing. From the date of the observation, the observers had a six-month proprietary period during which only they had access to the data. After six months, it became public.

Scientific results

The IUE allowed astronomers their first view of the ultraviolet light from many celestial objects, and was used to study objects ranging from Solar System planets to distant quasars. During its lifetime, hundreds of astronomers observed with IUE, and during its first decade of operations, over 1500 peer reviewed scientific articles based on IUE data were published. Nine symposia of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) were devoted to discussions of IUE results.

Solar System
All the planets in the Solar System except Mercury were observed; the telescope could not point at any part of the sky within 45° of the Sun, and Mercury's greatest angular distance from the Sun is only about 28°. IUE observations of Venus showed that the amount of sulfur monoxide and sulfur dioxide in its atmosphere declined by a large amount during the 1980s. The reason for this decline is not yet fully understood, but one hypothesis is that a large volcanic eruption had injected sulfur compounds into the atmosphere, and that they were declining following the end of the eruption.

Halley's Comet reached perihelion in 1986, and was observed intensively with the IUE, as well as with a large number of other ground-based and satellite missions. UV spectra were used to estimate the rate at which the comet lost dust and gas, and the IUE observations allowed astronomers to estimate that a total of 3×108 tons of water evaporated from the comet during its passage through the inner Solar System.

Stars
Some of the most significant results from IUE came in the studies of hot stars. A star that is hotter than about 10,000 K emits most of its radiation in the UV, and thus if it can only be studied in visible light, a large amount of information is being lost. The vast majority of all stars are cooler than the Sun, but the fraction that is hotter includes massive, highly luminous stars which shed enormous quantities of matter into interstellar space, and also white dwarf stars, which are the end stage of stellar evolution for the vast majority of all stars and which have temperatures as high as 100,000 K when they first form.

The IUE discovered many instances of white dwarf companions to main sequence stars. An example of this kind of system is Sirius, and at visible wavelengths the main sequence star is far brighter than the white dwarf. However, in the UV, the white dwarf can be as bright or brighter, as its higher temperature means it emits most of its radiation at these shorter wavelengths. In these systems, the white dwarf was originally the heavier star, but has shed most of its mass during the later stages of its evolution. Binary stars provide the only direct way to measure the mass of stars, from observations of their orbital motions. Thus, observations of binary stars where the two components are at such different stages of stellar evolution can be used to determine the relationship between the mass of stars and how they evolve.

Stars with masses of around ten times that of the Sun or higher have powerful stellar winds. The Sun loses about 10−14 solar masses per year in its solar wind, which travels at up to around 750 km/s, but the massive stars can lose as much as a billion times more material each year in winds travelling at several thousand kilometres per second. These stars exist for a few million years, and during this time the stellar wind carries away a significant fraction of their mass, and plays a crucial role in determining whether they explode as supernova or not. This stellar mass loss was first discovered using rocket-borne telescopes in the 1960s, but the IUE allowed astronomers to observe a very large number of stars, allowing the first proper studies of how stellar mass loss is related to mass and luminosity.

SN 1987A
In 1987, a star in the Large Magellanic Cloud exploded as a supernova. Designated SN 1987A, this event was of enormous importance to astronomy, as it was the closest known supernova to Earth, and the first visible to the naked eye, since Kepler's star in 1604 – before the invention of the telescope. The opportunity to study a supernova so much more closely than had ever been possible before triggered intense observing campaigns at all major astronomical facilities, and the first IUE observations were made about 14 hours after the discovery of the supernova.

IUE data were used to determine that the progenitor star had been a blue supergiant, where theory had strongly expected a red supergiant. Hubble Space Telescope images revealed a nebula surrounding the progenitor star which consisted of mass lost by the star long before it exploded; IUE studies of this material showed that it was rich in nitrogen, which is formed in the CNO cycle – a chain of nuclear reactions which produces most of the energy emitted by stars much more massive than the Sun. Astronomers inferred that the star had been a red supergiant, and had shed a large amount of matter into space, before evolving into a blue supergiant and exploding.

The interstellar medium
The IUE was used extensively to investigate the interstellar medium (ISM). The ISM is normally observed by looking at background sources such as hot stars or quasars; interstellar material absorbs some of the light from the background source and so its composition and velocity can be studied. One of IUE's early discoveries was that the Milky Way is surrounded by a vast halo of hot gas, known as a galactic corona. The hot gas, heated by cosmic rays and supernova, extends several thousand light years above and below the plane of the Milky Way.

IUE data was also crucial in determining how the light from distant sources is affected by dust along the line of sight. Almost all astronomical observations are affected by this interstellar extinction, and correcting for it is the first step in most analyses of astronomical spectra and images. IUE data was used to show that within the galaxy, interstellar extinction can be well described by a few simple equations. The relative variation of extinction with wavelength shows little variation with direction; only the absolute amount of absorption changes. Interstellar absorption in other galaxies can similarly be described by fairly simple "laws".

Active Galactic Nuclei
The IUE vastly increased astronomers' understanding of active galactic nuclei (AGN). Before its launch, 3C 273, the first known quasar, was the only AGN that had ever been observed at UV wavelengths. With IUE, UV spectra of AGN became widely available.

One particular target was NGC 4151, the brightest Seyfert galaxy. Starting soon after IUE's launch, a group of European astronomers pooled their observing time to repeatedly observe the galaxy, to measure variations over time of its UV emission. They found that the UV variation was much greater than that seen at optical and infrared wavelengths. IUE observations were used to study the black hole at the centre of the galaxy, with its mass being estimated at between 50 and 100 million times that of the Sun. The UV emission varied on timescales of a few days, implying that the region of emission was only a few light days across.

Quasar observations were used to probe intergalactic space. Clouds of hydrogen gas in between the Earth and a given quasar will absorb some of its emission at the wavelength of Lyman alpha. Because the clouds and the quasar are all at different distances from Earth, and moving at different velocities due to the expansion of the universe, the quasar spectrum has a "forest" of absorption features at wavelengths shorter than its own Lyman alpha emission. Before IUE, observations of this so-called Lyman-alpha forest were limited to very distant quasars, for which the redshift caused by the expansion of the universe brought it into optical wavelengths. IUE allowed nearer quasars to be studied, and astronomers used this data to determine that there are fewer hydrogen clouds in the nearby universe than there are in the distant universe. The implication is that over time, these clouds have formed into galaxies.

Ultraviolet Spectrograph Package
This experiment included the ultraviolet spectrograph package carried by the IUE, consisting of two physically distinct echelle-spectrograph/camera units capable of astronomical observations. Each spectrograph was a three-element echelle system composed of an off-axis paraboloidal collimator, an echelle grating, and a spherical first-order grating that was used to separate the echelle orders and focus the spectral display on an image converter plus SEC Vidicon camera. There was a spare camera for each unit. The camera units were able to integrate the signal. The readout/preparation cycle for the cameras took approximately 20 minutes. Wavelength calibration was provided by the use of a hollow cathode comparison lamp. The photometric calibration was accomplished by observing standard stars whose spectral fluxes had previously been calibrated by other means. Both echelle-spectrograph/camera units were capable of high-resolution (0.1 Angstrom (A)) or low-resolution (6 A) performance. The dual high/low-resolution capability was implemented by the insertion of a flat mirror in front of the echelle grating, so that the only dispersion was provided by the spherical grating. As the SEC Vidicons could integrate the signal for up to many hours, data with a signal-to-noise ratio of 50 could be obtained for B0 stars of 9th and 14th magnitudes in the high- and low-resolution modes, respectively. The distinguishing characteristic of the units was their wavelength coverage. One unit covered the wavelength range from 1192 to 1924 A in the high-resolution mode and 1135 to 2085 A in the low-resolution mode. For the other unit, the ranges were from 1893 to 3031 A and 1800 to 3255 A for the high-and low-resolution modes, respectively. Each unit also had its own choice of entrance apertures: either a 3-arcsecond hole or a 10- by 20-arcsecond slot. The 10- by 20-arcsecond slots could be blocked by a common shutter, but the 3-arcsecond aperture was always open. As a result, two aperture configurations were possible: (1) both 3-arcsecond apertures open and both 10- by 20-arcsecond slots closed, or (2) all four apertures open. With this instrumentation, the observational options open to an observer were long-wavelength and/or short-wavelength spectrograph, high or low resolution, and large or small apertures. Exposures could be made with the two spectrographs simultaneously, but the entrance apertures for each were distinct and separated in the sky by about 1 arcminute. An additional restriction was that data could be read out from only one camera at a time. However, one camera could be exposed while the other camera was being read out. The choice of high or low resolution could be made independently for the two spectrographs.

Particle Flux Monitor (Spacecraft)
The particle flux monitor experiment was placed in IUE to monitor the trapped electron fluxes that affected the sensitivity of the ultraviolet sensor in the IUE spectrograph package experiment, NSSDC ID 1978-012A-01. The particle flux monitor was a lithium-drifted silicon detector with a half-angle conical field of view of 16°. It had an aluminum absorber of 0.357 g/cm2 in front of the collimator and a brass shield with a minimum thickness of 2.31 g/cm2. The effective energy threshold for electron measurements was 1.3 MeV. The experiment was also sensitive to protons with energies greater than 15 MeV. The instrument was used as an operational tool to aid in determining background radiation and acceptable camera exposure time. The data were also useful as a monitor of the trapped radiation fluxes. The instrument was provided by Dr. C. Bostrom of the Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University. The instrument was turned off on 4 October 1991 because it was giving erroneous information.

Mission termination
The IUE was designed to have a minimum lifetime of three years, and carried consumable sufficient for a five-year mission. However, it lasted far longer than its design called for. Occasional hardware failures caused difficulties, but innovative techniques were devised to overcome them. For example, the spacecraft was equipped with six gyroscopes to stabilise the spacecraft. Successive failures of these in 1979, 1982, 1983, 1985 and 1996 ultimately left the spacecraft with a single functional gyroscope. Telescope control was maintained with two gyros by using the telescope's Sun sensor to determine the spacecraft's attitude, and stabilisation in three axes proved possible even after the fifth failure, by using the Sun sensor, the Fine Error Sensors and the single remaining gyroscope. Most other parts of the telescope systems remained fully functional throughout the mission.

In 1995, budget concerns at NASA almost led to the termination of the mission, but instead the operations responsibilities were redivided, with ESA taking control for 16 hours a day, and GSFC for the remaining 8 only. The ESA 16 hours was used for science operations, while the GSFC 8 hours was used only for maintenance. In February 1996, further budget cuts led ESA to decide that it would no longer maintain the satellite. Operations ceased on 30 September 1996, and all the remaining hydrazine was discharged, the batteries were drained and switched off, and at 18:44 UTC on 30 September 1996, the radio transmitter was shut down and all contact with the spacecraft was lost.

It continues to orbit the Earth in its geosynchronous orbit, and will continue to do so more or less indefinitely as it is far above the upper reaches of the atmosphere of Earth. Anomalies in the Earth's gravity due to its non-spherical shape meant that the telescope tended to drift West from its original location at approximately 70°W longitude towards approximately 110°W. During the mission, this drift was corrected by occasional rocket firings, but since the end of the mission the satellite has drifted uncontrolled to the West of its former location.

Archives
The IUE archive is one of the most heavily used astronomical archives. Data were archived from the start of the mission, and access to the archive was free to anyone who wished to use it. However, in the early years of the mission, long before the advent of the World Wide Web and fast global data transmission links, access to the archive required a visit in person to one of two Regional Data Analysis Facilities (RDAFs), one at the University of Colorado and the other at GSFC.

In 1987, it became possible to access the archive electronically, by dialling into a computer at Goddard Space Flight Center. The archive, then totalling 23 Gb of data, was connected to the computer on a mass storage device. A single user at a time could dial in, and would be able to retrieve an observation in 10–30 seconds.

As the mission entered its second decade, plans were made for its final archive. Throughout the mission, calibration techniques were improved, and the final software for data reduction yielded significant improvements over earlier calibrations. Eventually, the entire set of available raw data was recalibrated using the final version of the data reduction software, creating a uniform high quality archive. Today, the archive is hosted at the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes at Space Telescope Science Institute and is available via the World Wide Web and APIs.

Impact on astronomy

The IUE mission, by virtue of its very long duration and the fact that for most of its lifetime it provided astronomers' only access to UV light, had a major impact on astronomy. By the end of its mission it was considered by far the most successful and productive space observatory mission. For many years after the end of the mission, its archive was the most heavily used dataset in astronomy, and IUE data has been used in over 250 PhD projects worldwide. Almost 4,000 peer-reviewed papers have now been published based on IUE data, including some of the most cited astronomy papers of all time. The most cited paper based on IUE data is one analysing the nature of interstellar reddening, which has subsequently been cited over 5,500 times.

The Hubble Space Telescope has now been in orbit for 31 years (as of 2021) and Hubble data has been used in almost 10,000 peer-reviewed publications at that time. In 2009, the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph was installed on HST by astronauts launched with the instrument by the Space Shuttle, and this device records ultraviolet spectrum, thus proving some ultraviolet observation ability in this period. Another ultraviolet space telescope, quite different in focus, was the wide-angle imaging GALEX space telescope operated between 2003 and 2013.

Some telescope visions such as Habex or Advanced Technology Large-Aperture Space Telescope (ATLAST) have included an ultraviolet capability, although its not clear if they have any real prospects. In the 2010s, many telescope projects were struggling, and even some ground observatories saw their potential for being shut down ostensibly to save budget.

title: International Ultraviolet Explorer


text:
William H. Spinks

William Hooey Spinks (July 23, 1873 – May 25, 1949 ) was a politician in Manitoba, Canada. He served in the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba from 1920 to 1932, as a member of the Conservative Party.

Spinks was born in Blackstock, Ontario, the son of William Spinks and Sussannah Hooey, and was educated at public schools in the Township of Cartwright. His family came west in 1894 and settled near Treherne, Manitoba. He worked as a farmer, and was the reeve of the Rural Municipality of South Norfolk in Manitoba for thirteen years. Spinks was a member of the Grain Growers' Association, was president of the Agricultural Society for eight years, and was a freemason and Orangeman. In 1902, he married Mary Eleanor Jackson.

He was first elected to the Manitoba legislature in the 1920 provincial election, defeating Liberal incumbent Andrew W. Myles by 180 votes in the rural constituency of Cypress. Spinks was one of only eight conservatives elected to the fifty-five member legislature in this cycle. He was again successful in the 1922 election, defeating John Young of the United Farmers of Manitoba by 47 votes as the Conservatives fell to seven seats across the province.

The Conservative Party recovered to fifteen seats in the 1927 election, as Spinks defeated Progressive candidate Andrew Moore by 144 votes. Five years later, in the 1932 election, he lost to Liberal-Progressive James Christie by 256 votes.

He campaigned for the House of Commons of Canada in the 1935 federal election as a candidate of the Conservative Party of Canada, but lost to Liberal-Progressive candidate William Gilbert Weir. Spinks had retired from active farm work by this time.

In 1937, he moved to Hamilton, Ontario. Spinks died in 1949 while visiting Toronto, Ontario.

His daughter Olive married Lloyd Stinson.

title: William H. Spinks


text:
Alex Shibicky

Alexandre Dimitri Shibicky (May 19, 1914 – July 9, 2005) was a Canadian ice hockey forward who played for the New York Rangers of the National Hockey League from 1935 to 1946.

Shibicky was also a Stanley Cup winner in 1940, and the vice-president of the first incarnation of the National Hockey League Players Association, but he is best known for being the first player to use a slapshot, which he did in 1937. He said he learned it in practice from teammate Fred "Bun" Cook during the 1935–36 season. He also spent three years in the Canadian Forces during the Second World War.

Awards and achievements

 * EAHL First All-Star Team (1935)
 * Stanley Cup Championship (1940)
 * Honoured Member of the Manitoba Hockey Hall of Fame
 * In the 2009 book 100 Ranger Greats, was ranked No. 57 all-time of the 901 New York Rangers who had played during the team's first 82 seasons

title: Alex Shibicky


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Glow (the club)

 This page is an archive of the proposed deletion of the article below. Further comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination). No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was delete. Dmcdevit·t 06:24, July 31, 2005 (UTC)

Glow (the club)
Delete there are many, many bars in the world. Nothing remotely suggests notability. Friday 21:11, 14 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. The SUSA guy again; may even be a hoax. Gwk 21:17, 14 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Oliver Keenan 21:26, July 14, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete nn royblumy 03:41, July 15, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete and drop a note to Wikitravel. Radiant_ >|< 08:53, July 15, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete Stirling-cruft. --Calton | Talk 03:01, July 16, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete notability not established. JamesBurns 03:51, 16 July 2005 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


text:
Leonhard Gall

Professor Leonhard Gall (24 August 1884 in Munich – 20 January 1952) was one of Adolf Hitler's architects.

Gall worked for Paul Troost and he designed a new chancellery for Munich. He was assistant to Troost on the Third Reich's first major architectural project, the House of German Art. After Troost's death in 1934, Gall took charge of the project alongside Troost's widow Gerty. He was named on the Gottbegnadeten list of artists valuable to the Nazi regime in 1944.

title: Leonhard Gall


text:
1887–88 in English football

The 1887–88 season was the 17th season of competitive football in England.

Albert Allen, of Aston Villa, scored three goals against Ireland in his only appearance for England. The last pre-league FA Cup campaign saw the first competitive "Second City derby" occur on Saturday, 5 November 1887. Villa beat Small Heath 4-0 in the fifth round. Tommy Green scored a brace before half-time with Albert Brown and Allen adding to the score in the second half.

National team
England won the 1888 British Home Championship, their first victory in the tournament, with comfortable victories over all three other home nations, in each of which England scored five goals.

* England score given first

Key
 * H = Home match
 * A = Away match
 * BHC = British Home Championship

Honours
Notes = Number in parentheses is the times that club has won that honour. * indicates new record for competition

title: 1887–88 in English football


text:
Talk:Difluoromethane

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 19 January 2021 and 27 April 2021. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Safrye8. Peer reviewers: Nstynka, Amassey1.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 08:46, 18 January 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Difluoromethane


text:
Tefnakht

Shepsesre Tefnakht (in Τνέφαχθος) was a prince of Sais and founder of the relatively short Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt; he rose to become a Chief of the Ma in his home city. He is thought to have reigned roughly 732 BCE to 725 BCE, or seven years. Tefnakht I first began his career as the "Great Chief of the West" and Prince of Sais and was a late contemporary of the last ruler of the 22nd Dynasty: Shoshenq V. Tefnakht I was actually the second ruler of Sais; he was preceded by Osorkon C, who is attested by several documents mentioning him as this city's Chief of the Ma and Army Leader, according to Kenneth Kitchen, while his predecessor as Great Chief of the West was a man named Ankhhor. A recently discovered statue, dedicated by Tefnakht I to Amun-Re, reveals important details about his personal origins. The statue's text states that Tefnakht was the son of a certain Gemnefsutkapu and the grandson of Basa, a priest of Amun near Sais. Consequently, Tefnakht was not actually descended from either lines of Chiefs of the Ma and of the Libu as traditionally believed but rather came from a family of priests, and his ancestors being more likely Egyptians rather than Libyans.

Tefnakht is absent from the Manethonian tradition, perhaps because of the abbreviated form in which the Aegyptiaca is known, perhaps because Tefnakht was considered a usurper.

Biography
Tefnakht erected two donation stelas in Years 36 and 38 of Shoshenq V as a Prince at Saïs. His Year 38 stela from Buto is significant not only because Tefnakht employs the rather boastful epithet of "Great Chief of the entire land" but due to its list of his religious titles as prophet of Neith, Edjo and the Lady of Imay. This reflects his control over Sais, Buto to the north and Kom el-Hish to the southwest even prior to the end of the 22nd Dynasty—with the death of Shoshenq V—and reflects Tefnakht's political base in the Western Delta region of Egypt. The 22nd Dynasty was politically fragmenting even prior to the death of Shoshenq V. Tefnakht established his capital at Sais, and formed an alliance with other minor kings of the Delta region in order to conquer Middle and Upper Egypt, which was under the sway of the Nubian king Piye. He was able to capture and unify many of the cities of the Delta region, thus making Tefnakht considerably more powerful than any of his predecessors in either the 22nd or 23rd dynasties.

Tefnakht was not a member of the Tanite-based 22nd Dynasty of Egypt since Tanis is located in the Eastern Delta whereas his local city of Sais was situated in the Western Delta closer to Libya. His modest title 'Great chief of the West' also hints at a non-royal background. Prior to assuming the title of "Great Chief of the West", Tefnakht managed to extend his control southward, capturing the city of Memphis and besieging the city of Herakleopolis, which was an ally of the Kushite king Piye of Nubia. This caused him to face considerable opposition from Piye, especially after Nimlot, the local ruler of Hermopolis defected from Piye's sphere of influence, to his side. A pair of naval engagements soon checked any further advances by Tefnakht's coalition into Piye's Middle Egyptian territories, and Memphis was soon recaptured by Piye. After further campaigns, Tefnakht's allies surrendered to Piye and Tefnakht soon found himself isolated. He finally dispatched a letter formally submitting his loyalty and swearing his loyalty to Piye. Tefnakht, however, was the only Lower Egyptian prince to avoid seeing Piye face to face. These details are recounted in the Great Victory stela of Piye which this Nubian ruler erected on the New Year's Day of his 21st regnal year. Shortly afterwards, Piye returned home to Nubia at Gebel Barkal, and never returned to Lower Egypt again.

Kingship
Despite this setback, Tefnakht was left alone as the local prince of his local region of Sais. He managed, over time, to soon reestablish his kingdom's control in the Delta region from the political vacuum which resulted after Piye's departure from this region. It is generally believed that prince Tefnakht officially proclaimed himself as king Shepsesre Tefnakht I and adopted a royal title sometime after Piye's departure from Lower Egypt. His successor at Sais was Bakenranef.

While most scholars such as Kenneth Kitchen have equated Manetho's Tefnakht with the king Shepsesre Tefnakht of Sais who is attested by the Year 8 Athens donation stela, a recent article by Olivier Perdu has suggested that this Tefnakht was rather Tefnakht II, a much later king of Sais who ruled in the mid-680's BCE during the late Nubian 25th Dynasty. In his paper, Perdu published a newly discovered stela dating from the second year of Necho I's reign, which he contends is similar in style, text and content to the Year 8 stela of Shepsesre Tefnakht. Perdu, thus, infers that these two kings of Sais—Necho I and Tefnakht II—were close contemporaries. However, his arguments are not currently accepted by most Egyptian scholars such as Dan'el Kahn or Kenneth Kitchen who still believe that the Year 8 Athens stela of king Shepsesre Tefnakht likely belongs to Tefnakht I rather than a hypothetical Tefnakht II who would then have assumed power in 685 BC at Sais—early during the reign of Taharqa, one of the most powerful Nubian rulers of Egypt. Kahn has also stressed at an Egyptological Conference at Leiden that Perdu's epigraphic criteria here in the famed Athens stela—such as the use of the tripartite wig, the method through which the falcon-headed god keeps his head upright in the same stela and on temple wall reliefs contemporary with Tefnakht I's time, the decoration of the stela scene: Heaven supported by wAs scepters—appear already in use in the 24th or early 25th Nubian dynasty during Piye, Shabaka or Bakenranef's reign. The invisible back side of the tripartite wig can be found on the donation stela of Shebitku from Pharbaitos and on the Bakenranef/Bocchoris vase dating to the last days of Piye and the beginning of Shabaka—all appear close in time to the presumed reign of Tefnakht I. Moreover, the head of the falcon-headed god Horus is, as Perdu himself noted, similar in style to the stela of Tefnakht, chief of the Meshwesh and Piye's chief rival.

Unlike Necho I, neither of this king's presumed Saite royal predecessors, a certain Nekauba and Tefnakht II, are monumentally attested in Lower Egypt. Hence, the latter two kings who appear in the records of Manetho's Epitome may well be fictitious. Moreover, it is improbable that Taharqa, perhaps one of the most powerful Kushite kings of the Nubian 25th dynasty for the first 18 years of his reign, would have tolerated the existence of a rival line of native Egyptian kings at Sais during the first half of his reign when he exercised full control over Memphis and the Delta region. After all, the 24th dynasty Saite rulers Tefnakht and Bakenranef had fought Taharqa's father Piye and resisted Shabaka's expansion of Kushite power into the Delta region.

title: Tefnakht