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Liver biopsy

Liver biopsy is the biopsy (removal of a small sample of tissue) from the liver. It is a medical test that is done to aid diagnosis of liver disease, to assess the severity of known liver disease, and to monitor the progress of treatment.

Medical uses
Liver biopsy is often required for the diagnosis of a liver problem (jaundice, abnormal blood tests) where blood tests, such as hepatitis A serology, have not been able to identify a cause. It is also required if hepatitis is possibly the result of medication, but the exact nature of the reaction is unclear. Alcoholic liver disease and tuberculosis of the liver may be diagnosed through biopsy. Direct biopsy of tumors of the liver may aid the diagnosis, although this may be avoided if the source is clear (e.g. spread from previously known colorectal cancer). Liver biopsy will likely remain particularly important in the diagnosis of unexplained liver disease. Non-invasive tests for liver fibrosis in alcoholic, nonalcoholic and viral liver diseases are likely to become more widely used.

If the diagnosis is already clear, such as chronic hepatitis B or hepatitis C, liver biopsy is useful to assess the severity of the associated liver damage. The same is true for haemochromatosis (iron overload), although it is frequently omitted. Primary biliary cirrhosis and primary sclerosing cholangitis may require biopsy, although other diagnostic modalities have made this less necessary.

Occasionally, liver biopsy is required to monitor the progress of treatment, such as in chronic viral hepatitis. It is an effective way to measure changes in the Ishak fibrosis score.

For the last century liver biopsy has been considered as the gold standard for assessing the stage and the grade of chronic liver disease. Consensus conference statements recommended liver biopsy in the management of almost all patients with hepatitis C and B.

Biopsy results show significant variability (up to 40% for fibrosis diagnosis) which can lead to a wrong diagnosis. The result depends on the representativity of the punctured sample.

Only 5% of patients at risk of fibrosis have liver biopsy. In 2002, the consensus conferences in France and in the USA raised the possibility of treating patients with chronic hepatitis without liver biopsy. These conferences also underlined the necessity of developing reliable non-invasive tests that might be an alternative to liver biopsy both in hepatitis B and C.

Risks and limitations
Liver biopsy is generally a safe procedure, but it is invasive. Complications of liver biopsy are rare but potentially lethal. The majority of complications (60%) occur within two hours, and 96% occur within 24 hours following the procedure. Approximately 2–3% of patients undergoing liver biopsy require hospitalization for the management of an adverse event. Thirty percent of patients experience significant pain during the procedure.

Significant bleeding after a liver biopsy occurs in 1–2 out of 100 patients who are biopsied. Bleeding usually becomes apparent within three to four hours. It often stops on its own, but if it persists, a blood transfusion may be needed. Surgery or angiography (a procedure in which the bleeding site is identified and treated) may be required if the bleeding is severe or does not stop on its own. Intraperitoneal hemorrhage is the most serious consequence of bleeding. Fatal complications have been reported in up to 0.01–0.3% of biopsied patients.

Procedure and variants
Liver biopsies may be taken percutaneously (via a needle through the skin), transvenously (through the blood vessels), endoscopically (through endoscopic ultrasound fine needle biopsy), or directly during abdominal surgery. The sample is examined by microscope, and may be processed further by immunohistochemistry, determination of iron and copper content, and microbiological culture if tuberculosis is suspected

For a percutaneous biopsy, it is recommended to use a Birmingham gauge 16 or wider cutting needle, and obtaining a length of 20–25 mm of liver tissue. The presence of 10–12 portal tracts within the specimen is considered sufficient for reliable analysis, ensuring that architectural relationships between structures are maintained.

Liver biopsy results are limited by sampling error, as abnormal findings may be missed if only normal tissue is retrieved. In addition, interpretation of liver biopsy results may vary.

History
The first liver aspirate was performed by the German physician Paul Ehrlich in 1883. In 1923, the first report of percutaneous liver biopsy was described. The transjugular approach was pioneered by radiologist Charles Dotter in the 1970s.

Non-invasive alternatives
Non-invasive alternatives to liver biopsy in hepatitis C patients include both functional staging (quantitative liver function tests) and determination of fibrosis from non-invasive tests. These latter tests are described below and share the disadvantage of estimating fibrosis rather than function. Functional staging has the advantage of evaluating the whole liver and directly measuring hepatic function that determines many clinical outcomes. The ability to predict clinical outcomes is the best proof of the value of a clinical test. Quantitative hepatic function tests were better than combinations of routine blood tests and Ishak fibrosis score in predicting clinical outcomes. The best of these were the perfused hepatic mass (PHM) by quantitative laparoscopic liver spleen scan (QLSS) and oral Cholate clearance and shunt, a blood test. The QLSS measurement of spleen volume per ideal body weight was nearly as good.

Multiphasic MRI is useful in diagnosing various types of liver lesions such as hepatocellular carcinoma, cholangiocarcinoma, hepatocellular adenoma, focal nodular hyperplasia, and hemangioma.

FibroTest (FibroSure in the USA) and FibroMax are non-invasive tests using a blood sample and an algorithm. The test results correspond to stages F0-F4 and grades A0-A3 of the METAVIR scoring system. In 2007 FibroTest was validated by French Health Authorities as a first-line diagnosis of liver injury before biopsy. It was recommended to be a better predictor than biopsy staging for hepatitis C complications and death.

FibroScan is a type of ultrasound machine that uses transient elastography to measure liver stiffness. Its diagnostic performance for fibrosis is similar to that of methods based on serologic markers. Combined use of Fibroscan and Fibrotest could avoid a liver biopsy in most patients with chronic hepatitis C. Other ultrasonic techniques used to characterize liver stiffness include Acoustic Radiation Force Impulse (ARFI) Imaging.

Hepascore is a blood test developed in Australia combining the following clinical and laboratory variables: age, gender, bilirubin, GGT, hyaluronic acid, alpha 2 macroglobin to create a score. The test has been validated for patients with hepatitis B, hepatitis C and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.

APRI (AST to platelet ratio index) is a quick serum biomarker for fibrosis assessment from Italy. This simple index is made up of routine laboratory tests. The test has not been validated by any health authorities. 50% of the results are unclassifiable. APRI may be useful for excluding significant fibrosis in hepatitis C.

title: Liver biopsy


text:
Talk:Cesar Romero

Continuity Error
"Romero revealed that he had a sexual encounter with friend Desi Arnaz in a 1996 interview."

Romero died in 1994. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 73.139.136.187 (talk) 19:57, 7 July 2015 (UTC)

Grand Hotel - "The Max Factor"?
When did Cesar Romero star in the Grand Hotel, Anaheim, California dinner theatre performance of "The Max Factor"? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.122.213.79 (talk) 18:12, 22 July 2005 (UTC)

Daughters
Who are these two described as Romero's daughters ? - http://www.cubanow.net/global/loader.php?secc=5&cont=stories/num11/01.htm -- Beardo 02:46, 13 December 2006 (UTC)

Whether Romero Was Martí's Grandson
See this from Wikipedia's article on Jose Martí: "On June 30 his (Martí's) wife and son arrived in New York. After a short time, in which Carmen Zayas Bazán realized that Martí's dedication to Cuban independence surpassed that of supporting his family, she returned to Havana with her son on 27 August. Martí would never see them again. The fact that his wife never shared the convictions central to his life was an enormous personal tragedy for Martí. He turned for solace to Carmen Miyares de Mantilla, a Venezuelan who ran a boarding house in New York, and he is presumed to be the father of her daughter María Mantilla, who was in turn the mother of the actor Cesar Romero, who proudly claimed to be Martí's grandson."Godofredo29 (talk) 19:02, 6 October 2013 (UTC)

TV
Mr. Romero starred in a late 50s or early 60s TV show, not listed in this article, in which he played a secret courier who transported important documents in a brief case attached to his wrist with handcuffs. The opening credits always showed him cuffing the brief case and boarding a Super Constellation airplane. Does anyone know the name of this show? Bongorafa 19:02, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

"Passport to Danger" http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0046634/ — Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.250.191.169 (talk) 20:59, 13 February 2012 (UTC)

It is a slight on the memory of Cesar Romero to disregard his most iconic "straight" role
You only have to read the reference in IMDb to realize that "Captain from Castile" was a blockbuster, an epic, and made Romero a credible major star for as least a decade. Any standard text on Cortez will show the Aztec Codex illustrations of the spanish in metal suits of armor, with classic visored "enclosed helmets", that we associate with the age of jousting and taking castles...The conquistadors were spanish kinghts, and armoured ground troopers. In order to show the gleeming smiles of the two leading men, the costumers played a bit loose with historical accuracy. A double visored "knights" helmet whould confuse the public, and hide the dimpled chin of Mr. Power. These looked so good, and were seen by so many people, that the icon stuck. It was the english, 70 years later, who most commonly wore the type of "morion helmet" used to show off the two stars. Wikipedia is not supposed to use original research, true, but any jr. college art history major has seen the Aztec codex and European woodcuts depicting the real event. It is a pity that Wikipedia has no meaningful reference to this extremely important film. The musical score, by Alfrem Newman, is still played marching bands in parades and at football games. Romero's TV career is a footnote to his huge, passing stardom from this famous role. Please expain your actions, if you delete ALL of this reference again. 3dnatureguy 08:30, 17 April 2007 (UTC)

Um... what the hell are you on about? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.9.50.240 (talk) 19:37, 23 January 2012 (UTC)

Who's Maria?
it says on his page: There was some speculation that Maria was fathered by Martí who was a boarder in the Mantilla household but he never claimed Maria as his daughter in his lifetime.

who the hell is maria? her name is not mentioned anywhere else on the page. if it's nothing to do with romero, why is it here? it should be on Martí's page, not romero's. 194.221.133.211 14:27, 21 August 2007 (UTC)

What's in a name?
I have a question. Is his name "Caesar" Romero, and how it's spelled in the bio is an error?

Or is it "Cesar" and Cesar is the Spanish version of Caesar?

I've seen both spellings on the web.

On the Batman TV show, William Dozier, the producer of the show as well as the narrator, pronounced it "SAY-SAR" Romero although it was spelled C-A-E-S-A-R; if he was correct, then that was how Mr.Romero himself pronounced it which is a strong argument for CESAR. Which is which? Or are both spellings equally valid? Are their any Latino fans who want to settle this?Bernard ferrell 16:18, 9 November 2007 (UTC)

Howard Johns and 200.56.197.252 & 200.56.197.206
The edits by (on 30 December 2007) &  (on 2 January 2008) are either Howard Johns himself, or his publicist. Please review all entries noted to Johns, and verify with a second verifiable source, or remove it. They constitute Original Research and POV. Thanks. IP4240207xx (talk) 03:23, 15 May 2008 (UTC)
 * Removed. IP4240207xx (talk) 05:40, 15 May 2008 (UTC)

Liberation theology
I just deleted parts of the first sentence about Romero's liberationist stance, as they were clearly biased. Liberation theology is not a blend of "religion" and "communism", and Marx' views about religion are even further away from the topic. --87.169.28.188 (talk) 23:51, 13 July 2008 (UTC)

TV remake
If someone can't come up with a citation for that, it should be removed. It seems highly unlikely that WB is going to make a camp batman series and devalue their serious and valuable film property. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.181.64.177 (talk) 03:03, 12 July 2010 (UTC)

Contradition in his categories?
Why is Romero listed (under Categories, bottom of the page) as a "Christian Socialist" and as a "California Republican"? Republicans are the complete opposite of socialism. Please advise. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Sopm (talk • contribs) 02:52, 5 February 2010 (UTC)

And why are there still links to LGBT categories when all references to his bisexuality have been ruthlessly purged? — User:Dutchman Schultz —Preceding undated comment added 05:00, 23 February 2010 (UTC).

 * I do find evidence Romero supported Nixon in 1960 and 1972. I don't find much evidence for "liberation theology" outside IMDB and mirrors of Wikipedia. Possibly he was more private on that or maybe the IMDB person is confusing Cesar Romero with either César Chávez or Óscar Romero. (Although I think bishop Romero was on the moderate end of liberation theology)--T. Anthony (talk) 06:04, 26 April 2010 (UTC)

 * His sexual orientation is disputed and he never made any claims to what his sexulaity was, so the categories don't belong (confirmed bachelor =/= homosexuality). As for politics.. it's fuzzy, mostly he said/she said. 98.198.83.12 (talk) 23:52, 16 February 2011 (UTC)

Regarding the Republicans & socialism, they may be opposites now, but historically US parties weren't so clearly defined ideologically and there were socialists aligned to the Republicans - Vito Marcantonio began his career as a Republican and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota operated through the Republicans in the early years. Timrollpickering (talk) 11:53, 7 June 2011 (UTC)

 * We do have a contradiction here with the main page saying he's just a bachelor (who could never find the right girl, had too many bad ones, or some other unhappy heterosexual scenario) and this page saying otherwise. I certainly remember being surprised many, many years ago to read he was homosexual, but I don't recall where that was, or whether it would pass our current standards of reliability.
 * But if you guys are saying that it's not definitely established, well then I guess that's the case.
 * I was told in the '90s that Tom Cruise was definitely gay because he was at some gay resort on Long Island by someone who'd seen him there. I offered an alternative explanation, namely, he's an open-minded guy and his gay buddy invited him over for the weekend (since his wife was having her curlers put in, for example) for a swim in the pool, and it means nothing whatsoever. The response was: No, no, no, no, no, no, no, it doesn't work that way. So who knows? Sorry, this wasn't firsthand; it was this fellow's best friend who was the eyewitness. And we're already well into hearsay at this point. God knows.
 * Republicanism and socialism. Hmmm, National Socialism. Mussolini started as a socialist from a family of socialists who named him after socialist hero, Juarez. That does not equate Fascism and socialism; I think that demonstrates that people change their stripe. I was pro-Nixon in 1970. Reagan was Democrat when his wife was, and Republican when his wife was.
 * Liberation theology. Things in Central America were pretty nasty in the 1980s with Reagan and his terror armies and those cigar-smoking scumbag Contra leaders lounging around in Miami on the US taxpayer's dime. (I was pro-Reagan at that time. Hard to believe now. That is how propaganda works.) Liberation theology explicitly, or ideas of that sort, were broadly popular at the time, for obvious reasons. So Romero having sympathy with that, at that time, wouldn't necessarily be something worthy of note; everybody was thinking along those lines in the 1980s. It was normal; it was probably even more normal if your background was Hispanic.
 * Varlaam (talk) 16:46, 14 June 2011 (UTC)

"Confirmed bachelor"
The use of "Confirmed Bachelor" is a euphanism meaning "homosexual." It was ascribed to Caesar Romareo for a definite reason, and that reason was widely know in and out of hollwood...this is why he never married. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 209.244.188.132 (talk) 04:16, 27 November 2007 (UTC)

 * So he was gay then ? Why doesn't Wiki say this then ? The dead can't sue. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 116.30.196.158 (talk) 14:43, 14 October 2011 (UTC)

 * That's his business. Wikipedia isn't a tabloid. Span (talk) 14:54, 14 October 2011 (UTC)

 * A Confirmed bachelor, while it has a homosexual meaning, can also mean one who is "wild" and never plans to settle down. Traditionally a man people never think will settle down or marry, who is too wild, or jaded against relationships (with males or females). As there is no evidence to the contrary, its pretty presumptuous to assume he was gay, and even then it was his business. source: Urban Dictionary--69.18.234.5 (talk) 18:43, 12 June 2012 (UTC)

 * "That's his business. Wikipedia isn't a tabloid." It was part of his life, and you're an asshole for simply write it off as "tabloid". He was open to friends and there are a handful of books he was interviewed for where he talks about it. See "Hollywood Gays" by Boze Hadleigh. The author interviewed him a number of different times between 1977 and the year of Romero's death. --98.246.156.76 (talk) 03:23, 2 October 2013 (UTC)
 * @98.246.156.76 -- this is an extremely belated (I just noticed it) warning regarding your unacceptably abusive conduct and language towards other editors on Wikipedia. Quis separabit?  00:46, 2 March 2018 (UTC)

 * OK... so somebody just site the book and boom, we can say he's gay on here. Do the work IP guy. Stop bitching about it.--Dr who1975 (talk) 21:56, 14 November 2013 (UTC)

 * Was he gay? Well, there again, we enter a minefield of semantics.  In the time of which we are talking, gay had quite an innocent meaning - footloose, fancy-free - and only latterly moved from euphemism to definition of homosexual; indeed, without context, it is just as opaque as confirmed bachelor.  (A modern viewer could get quite the wrong idea about The Gay Divorcé...) 2 B Promoted (talk) 20:17, 29 June 2014 (UTC)
 * I just wanted to mention that it's also my understanding that it was known in the industry that Cesar was gay, based on discussions with a friend who worked with him on two pictures (his nickname was 'Butch'). However, my assertions and others probably don't hold much water regarding Wikipedia - such an assertion probably needs to come from a reputable source and I don't see such reputable published sources, just tell-all style publications. For this reason, I think the current article wording is fair. Indieshack (talk) 16:05, 1 September 2022 (UTC)

Speculation and conjecture -- however many citations can be dredged up -- have no place on Wikipedia, which is not, as has been noted, a tabloid. I am removing the offending text. Quis separabit? 18:44, 5 August 2017 (UTC)

The book 'Hollywood Gays' is likely utter fiction with all the stars who were allegedly interviewed being unusually candid and conveniently all long dead when the book was published. It's worthless as a factual document, because it's not one. (Sellpink (talk) 00:36, 2 March 2018 (UTC))

 * I agree re Hollywood Gays. Supposedly these interviews were taped, and everyone sounded the same. And I'll never believe Cary Grant gave him an interview and made a pass at him.Chandler75 (talk) 01:11, 4 December 2018 (UTC)

Gender-neutral language
Re: this revert, I just went back and read MOS:GNL carefully. Though it uses pronouns as examples, it does seem to say to use gender-neutral language in general. In addition to the brief statement, it also links to gender-neutral language which covers the broad topic, and to Gender-neutral language for suggestions and more examples, though obviously neither of those pages are a vetted part of the MOS. -- Beland (talk) 19:57, 4 June 2019 (UTC)
 * Cuprum17 commented while reverting "crewed": "In the interest of accuracy, all naval ships of the era were manned. It is a historically accurate term that has been used by navies for centuries. Boats might be crewed, but ships are manned." I'm not sure what the difference between a boat and a ship is, or why that would make a difference to the genderedness of language. -- Beland (talk) 18:54, 14 June 2019 (UTC)
 * lol...well, as one old sailor told it...a boat can be on board a ship, but a ship can not be on board a boat. In actuality, it isn't the size that counts. In the case of the USS Cavalier, it was a commissioned ship in the U.S. Navy. Boats are not commissioned. In the civilian world a ship and a boat might be the same in some contexts, however to the U.S. Navy there is a distinction; a ship has a commissioned officer who is in charge, a boat has a coxswain, an enlisted rating operating the boat. During World War II, ships were referred to as 'manned". It is historically accurate to use the term "manned". Using the term "crewed" implies that Cavalier was a boat. The Navy never "staffed" either a ship or a boat. Maybe Carnival Cruise Lines staffs their vessels, but not the Navy, and in this case, context is important. Cavalier was not "The Love Boat"; it was a warship. Cuprum17 (talk) 21:32, 14 June 2019 (UTC)
 * All else being equal, I'd say the ship/boat manned/crewed distinction would be fine to maintain, even though it is not respected in the general English audience that Wikipedia targets. As a matter of house style, Wikipedia, when speaking in its own voice, does not use historic terminology appropriate to the period; it uses modern terminology. For example, in African-American history, we do not use the term "negro" when talking about time periods where that term was used, except in proper nouns and quotations. In this case, there's an MOS rule to use gender-neutral terminology, which specifically mentions not using "manned". By my reading, that means the ship/boat manned/crewed distinction cannot be maintained if MOS:GNL is followed. Does that make sense? -- Beland (talk) 09:35, 5 January 2022 (UTC)
 * I would be willing to bet that there were no Sailors or Coast Guardsmen; active, former, or retired that participated in the writing of that particular section of the MOS. While Wikipedia has moved on for better or worse, the Navy and the Coast Guard take tradition seriously. For a ship (or cutter) to be "crewed" sounds strange to this Coast Guardsman's ear. The term "boat crew" is very familiar, as I was part of a "boat crew" during part of my service, but the boss on the boat only headed a crew of five and his job title while operating the boat was "coxswain". Since the question is in the MOS and most Wikipedians who decide these things never served on a ship, I can guess the outcome of this. As a side note, the term "Coast Guardsman" is the offical title of a person serving in the Coast Guard, regardless of gender. The same can be said of a person serving in the Air Force, they are officially known as "Airman" regardless of gender. Main stream media when writing about those serving in the Coast Guard tend to use the term "member of the Coast Guard". Try telling a Marine that they are "members of the Marine Corps" instead of Marines...you won't get very far without getting corrected. I feel the same way when being referred to as a "member of the Coast Guard". I am and always will be a Coast Guardsman. The Commandant of the Coast Guard, Admiral Papp, said that we were to be referred to as Coast Guardsmen in an ALCOAST message effective 1 December 2011 to the whole Coast Guard. Tradition rules. But I suppose that Wikipedia will ignore history and "crew" ships. Carry on. Cuprum17 (talk) 19:30, 5 January 2022 (UTC)
 * Well, I'm pretty sure there were no women at the table when the U.S. Navy decided its ships would be "manned", so if representation is required for decisions to be legitimate, that could argue either way in this case. Anyway, I wasn't a participant in that MOS discussion, so I have no light to shed on the process. Though Wikipedia doesn't use dated language when speaking in its own voice, its purpose is to document history, not ignore it. If you feel the ship/boat manned/crewed terminology is noteworthy and can find it documented in reliable sources, perhaps United States ship naming conventions would be a good place to mention it, and if so to note that the official use of "manned" is both traditional and considered by some critics to perpetuate gender stereotypes. -- Beland (talk) 20:13, 5 January 2022 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Cesar Romero


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Homeirah

 This page is an archive of the proposed deletion of the article below. Further comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination). No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was delete. Sasquatch ↔讲↔看 06:01, August 4, 2005 (UTC)

Homeirah
I could likely claim speedy for little or no content, but I was kinda hoping that someone here would enlighten me as to who this is. All I'm getting on google is some link farms. Delete as the content is too minimal to even expand apon. humblefool® 18:13, 22 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete sub-stub for a nn singer. JamesBurns 04:35, 23 July 2005 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


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White box (computer hardware)

In computer hardware, a white box is a personal computer or server without a well-known brand name.

The term is usually applied to systems assembled by small system integrators and to homebuilt computer systems assembled by end users from parts purchased separately at retail. In this sense, building a white box system is part of the DIY movement.

The term is also applied to high volume production of unbranded PCs that began in the mid-1980s with 8 MHz Turbo XT systems selling for just under $1000.

In 2002, around 30% of personal computers sold annually were white box systems.

Operating systems
While PCs built by system manufacturers generally come with a pre-installed operating system, white boxes from both large and small system vendors and other VAR channels can be ordered with or without a pre-installed OS. Usually when ordered with an operating system, the system builder uses an OEM copy of the OS.

Whitebook or Intel "Common Building Blocks"
Intel defined form factor and interconnection standards for notebook computer components, including "Barebones" (chassis and motherboard), hard disk drive, optical disk drive, LCD, battery pack, keyboard, and AC/DC adapter. These building blocks are primarily marketed to computer building companies, rather than DIY users.

Costs
While saving money is a common motivation for building one's own PC, today it is generally more expensive to build a low-end PC than to buy a pre-built one from a well-known manufacturer, due to the build quality and the total cost of the parts being used. For these reasons, it is usually better to just buy a pre-assembled computer from a well-known manufacturer or brand name rather than just have people build it themselves (unless one has the talent, skills, budget, and the knowledge to do so).

title: White box (computer hardware)


text:
Lucky Star (Madonna song)

"Lucky Star" is a song by American singer Madonna from her self-titled debut studio album (1983). Produced by Reggie Lucas, it was written by Madonna with the intention that her friend Mark Kamins would play it in his sets at Danceteria, where he was the resident DJ. In 1982, Madonna was signed on by Sire Records for the release of two 12" singles; after the success of first single "Everybody", the label approved the recording of an album, and the singer decided to work with Lucas. However, problems between Madonna and the producer arose and he ended up leaving the project; she then called John "Jellybean" Benitez, her boyfriend at the time, to work on the remaining songs.

A dance song with disco influences, the lyrics to "Lucky Star" are a double-entendre that compare a lover's body with the stars in the sky. It was first released as a double-A-side promotional single with "Holiday" on August 1983. One month later, it was published as a stand-alone single in Europe and the United Kingdom; in the United States, a release was issued on August 8, 1984. Critics reacted positively towards "Lucky Star", highlighting its optimistic sound; in retrospective reviews, it is now considered one of Madonna's best singles. It reached the fourth spot of the US Billboard Hot 100, giving Madonna her first top-five hit. It also peaked within the top-ten in Canada, and the top 20 in Ireland and the United Kingdom.

The song's music video shows the singer dancing against a white backdrop with her brother Christopher and her friend Erika Belle. Some authors noted that in the video Madonna portrayed herself in a narcissistic way, that she was referring to herself as the titular lucky star. Additionally, after the visual's release, the singer's fashion became a trend among the younger generation. Madonna has performed "Lucky Star" in four of her concert tours, the last being 2015–2016's Rebel Heart Tour. The single has been referenced in movies like Pulp Fiction (1994), and covered and sampled by artists such as Chris Colfer and Carly Rae Jepsen.

Background
In 1982, Madonna was living with her former Michigan boyfriend Stephen Bray in an unused rehearsal studio in New York City. Since "funky dance records were in style on the radio and dance floor", the singer and Bray created a demo tape with four dance tracks, including "Everybody", "Burning Up", and "Ain't No Big Deal". While pitching the tape, she met and befriended DJ Mark Kamins at Danceteria nightclub. After listening to "Everybody", Kamins took her to Sire Records, where Seymour Stein, the label's president, signed Madonna for two 12" singles. Released in October, "Everybody" became a hit in the dance scene. The single's success led to the label approving the recording of an album, but Madonna chose not to work with either Bray or Kamins, opting instead for Warner Bros. producer Reggie Lucas. Upon meeting her, Lucas wasn't impressed with the singer's "boho-punk style", and thought she was "the weirdest person I'd ever met".

"Lucky Star" was one of three songs Madonna wrote prior to entering the studio, along with "Think of Me" and "I Know It". According to Andrew Morton, the singer wrote the lyrics to "Lucky Star" on a yellow legal notepad, and created the music on a Casiotone keyboard with a cassette player Kamins had given to her. She wrote it as a thank you to him, and with the hope that he'd play it in his sets at Danceteria. One of the earliest recorded versions of "Lucky Star" Madonna and Lucas created was described as being very "R&B-leaning", while another one was heavy on guitars, but due to a negative experience involving Madonna and a rock guitarist, was quickly discarded. However, problems between Madonna and Lucas soon arose, as she felt he was "moving [the songs] away from the sparse form of the original demos", something she did not approve of; the producer ended up leaving the project without altering the tracks. The singer then invited John "Jellybean" Benitez, her boyfriend at the time, to work on the remaining songs. In the case of "Lucky Star", Benitez added additional guitars and vocals, a "synthesized disco beat with soulful flourishes", and elements of New Wave. Benitez would recall that Madonna was "overwhelmed by how great it all sounded [...] As much as she could be a bitch, when you were in groove with her, it was very cool, very creative".

Composition and release
"Lucky Star" was recorded at the Sigma Sound Studios in New York. Personnel working on the song included Fred Zarr on keyboard arrangement and synthesizers, alongside Dean Gant; Ira Siegel on guitars, Benitez was in charge of audio mixing, and Bobby Malach played tenor saxophone. It has been described as a "medium-paced" dance track with disco influences. The lyrics are a double-entendre and compare a lover's "heavenly body" with the stars in the sky, while the "simple" refrain refers the nursery rhyme "Star Light, Star Bright". The line Shine your heavenly body tonight is considered the closest the song has to a sexual innuendo.

The song begins with the sound of a "shimmering, programmed" glissando, which is followed by "clanging rhythm guitars, synth atmospherics, and [a] chugging bass". Madonna then sings the lines You must be my lucky star/Cause you shine on me wherever you are/I just think of you and I start to glow with a "youthful chirp". According to the sheet music published by Alfred Publishing Inc., "Lucky Star" is set in the time signature of common time with a moderate dance tempo of 108 beats per minute. It is set in the key of G major, with Madonna's voice spanning from the tonal nodes of G3 to F♯5. The song has a basic sequence of Em7–D as its chord progression.

A double-A-side single of "Holiday" and "Lucky Star" was first released to dance clubs on mid August 1983. According to Rikki Rooksby, author of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna, the label wanted to release "Lucky Star" as a stand-alone single, but changed their mind after "Holiday" began receiving heavy radio play and reached the first spot of Billboard's Dance Club Songs chart. In Europe and the United Kingdom, "Lucky Star" was first published on September 9, 1983; in the United States, it was officially released almost one year later, on August 8, 1984. Music executive Jeff Ayeroff recalled that Madonna initially didn't want to release "Lucky Star" as a single; around that time, she was getting sued and needed money, so Ayeroff told her, "let me release 'Lucky Star', and I guarantee that you'll sell enough records to pay that off". According to the executive, he was right because, "['Lucky Star'] broke the first album wide open". Years later, the song was included on Madonna's compilation albums The Immaculate Collection (1990) and Celebration (2009).

Critical reception
"Lucky Star" has received positive reviews since its release; Billboard's Brian Chin named it the best song on the album, while the staff of Cash Box singled out the singer's "distinctive vocals and lyrical knack". NME described the single as, "half Stacy Lattisaw, half Marilyn Monroe", and applauded it for having a "stronger beat" than Madonna's previous single "Everybody". Mark Bego described it as a "bright, optimistic" song, while Rikky Rooksby compared Madonna's "cutesy" vocals to those of Cyndi Lauper. To Marc Andrews, it's "timeless, iconic, and funky". Simon Gage and Lisa Richards, on their book Queer, referred to "Lucky Star" as a "happy" number. Santiago Fouz-Hernández and Freya Jarman-Ivens, authors of Madonna's Drowned Worlds, noted that with songs like "Lucky Star" and "Burning Up", Madonna was introducing a "style of upbeat dance music that would prove particularly appealing to future gay audiences". Author J. Randy Taraborrelli praised the track's "simplicity", but felt it ultimately came off as "forgettable", an opinion that was shared by the Observer–Reporter's Terry Hazlett. English tenor and academic John Potter praised the song's sound, but criticized its reverb and double tracking, which he believed "de-personalized" it.

AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine singled out "Lucky Star" as "effervescent", and as one of the "great songs" on his review of the Madonna album; for Stewart Mason, from the same portal, it's a "dead simple" track with an "absolutely bare-bones arrangement and antiseptically clean production, but for some reason, it works. It's near impossible to hear this song without dancing". Slant Magazine's Sal Cinquemani commented that "Lucky Star" had, "unknowingly prefaced [Madonna's] foray into the glittery halls of electronic-pop". From the same magazine, Eric Henderson said that, "['Lucky Star'] sets the tone [of the album] right off the bat", and named it a "sonic monster worthy of David Mancuso's fine-tuned system at the Loft". On the same vein, the staff of Rolling Stone called it the "perfect" album opener. While Pitchfork's Jill Mapes opined that, with songs like "Lucky Star", Madonna had "helped resituate electronic dance-pop at Top 40’s apex", it was described as an "enjoyable earworm" by The Advocate.

While reviewing the 2001 re-release of Madonna, Michael Paoletta from Billboard pointed out that, "such tracks as 'Lucky Star' [...] remain irresistible". On his review of The Immaculate Collection on its 25th anniversary, the Daily Review's James Rose opined "Lucky Star" was "perfect for the '80s dance floor", and while not "vastly different" from "Holiday", it "offers an incrementally more complex and interesting sound". Nayer Missim from PinkNews also compared the single to "Holiday", referring to both songs as "jagged slices of irresistible disco funk" that foreshadowed Madonna's work with Nile Rodgers; he named "Lucky Star" her 16th best song. Also from PinkNews, Marcus Wratten deemed "Lucky Star" the third best song on Madonna, calling it "fizzy, effortlessly cool and subtly sexy".

Matthew Jacobs from HuffPost placed the song at number 10 of his ranking of the singer's singles, calling it her "most '80s-sounding hit". Louis Virtel, writing for The Backlot, named "Lucky Star" the singer's 19th best, referring to it as "so determinedly chipper that you might forget its naughtiest element – the way Madonna croons". He further compared it to Prince's 1991 song "Gett Off", with the exception that, "['Lucky Star'] is softer [and] sexier". The Arizona Republic's Ed Masley noted how "young and innocent" the singer sounded, and concluded that, "sometimes a sassy delivery and a slinky post-Chic disco groove is all it takes to launch a proper pop sensation"; he named it Madonna's 9th greatest song. "Lucky Star" was considered the singer's 26th best song by Entertainment Weekly's Chuck Arnold, who described it as a "radiant twirler [that] feels as if it comes equipped with its own disco ball". In Billboard's ranking, where it was placed at number 16, Katie Write praised Madonna's composition and referred to "Lucky Star" as an "irresistible dance hit".

Chart performance
On August 27, 1983, the "Holiday" / "Lucky Star" release debuted on Billboard's Dance Club Songs chart at number 31. Almost one month later, it reached the chart's top spot ―where it spent five weeks― becoming Madonna's very first number one on any Billboard chart. By the end of the year, "Holiday" / "Lucky Star" was ranked third on the Dance Club Songs chart. On August 25, 1984, Billboard reported that "Lucky Star" was the most added song on radio stations, which caused it to enter the Hot 100 at number 49. Almost two months later, it peaked at number four, becoming the singer's first top-five hit. The single also entered the Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary chart, were it peaked at number 19. "Lucky Star" came in at number 66 of the Hot 100 year-end chart for 1984. In Canada, the single debuted in the 89th position of RPM's Top Singles chart on the week of September 22, 1984; two months later, it peaked at number eight. "Lucky Star" came in at number 72 on the official year-end chart.

In the United Kingdom, "Lucky Star" debuted at the 47th position of the UK Singles Chart on March 17, 1984, and, three weeks later, peaked at number 14; it spent 9 weeks on the chart overall. According to Music Week magazine, over 117,000 copies of the single have been sold in the United Kingdom as of 2008. On March 10, the single debuted at number 74 of the European Hot 100 Singles chart, where it eventually peaked at number 29. "Lucky Star" saw a moderate response across Europe, peaking within the top 30 and top 20 of Belgium and Ireland, respectively. In Australia, it reached the chart's 36th spot.

Background and synopsis

The music video for "Lucky Star" was directed by Arthur Pierson, and produced by Glenn Goodwin; Wayne Isham was in charge of photography. Initially, Mary Lambert was appointed director, but was soon replaced by Pierson. Warner Bros. gave Pierson a $14,000 budget for the shooting, which took place in Los Angeles in February 1984. Christopher Ciccone, the singer's brother, and Erika Belle appeared in the video as dancers; Ciccone recalled that, "[Madonna] asked us to dance in her 'Lucky Star' video [...] We shoot at the old Charlie Chaplin studio [...] I get paid just $200 and don't get any royalties either. However, at the time, I am happy just to be a part of it. The camaraderie between Madonna, Erika, Martin [Burgoyne], and me is enough for me".

In the video, Madonna wore a black outfit consisting of a mesh crop top, fingerless lace gloves, skirt over leggings, and stars and crucifixes dangling from her ears and around her waist. Although Belle was credited with coming up with the ensemble, biographer Mary Cross noted that Madonna was wearing her "day-to-day" clothing. At the time of the song's release, the singer's fashion was catching on as a statement among club kids and her fans, with the crucifixes she wore as earrings being the most prominent; Madonna herself commented that, "[wearing a crucifix] was kind of offbeat and interesting. I mean, everything I do is sort of tongue-in-cheek. Besides, [the crucifixes] seem to go with my name." Cross, however, wrote that the singer was trying to find a distinctive image for herself, and stand out among artists like Boy George, Cyndi Lauper, and David Bowie. "Lucky Star" was added to MTV the week of June 2, 1984; afterwards, it was added to Madonna's video compilations The Immaculate Collection (1990) and Celebration: The Video Collection (2009).

The visual starts with a black and white close-up of Madonna's face, as she slides her sunglasses down her nose. The image then fades to white and resumes in color. Scenes of Madonna, Ciccone and Belle dancing against a plain white background are interspersed with closeups of the singer's "mesmerized" gaze. The video ends with the initial black-and-white image repeated, but in retrograde, as Madonna puts back on the sunglasses.

Analysis and reception
Dance historian Sally Banes, one of the authors of Before, between, and beyond: three decades of dance writing, noted that the video portrayed Madonna as both the subject and the object of the song; the shot of her taking off her sunglasses depicted her as a movie star, thus creating an ambiguous characterization of herself, and giving the visual a narcissistic theme. Peter Goodwin commented that, although "Lucky Star" is not a narrative video, the singer played at least three characters ― the peeper in sunglasses, a break dancer, and a seductress. The juxtaposition of all these characterizations portrayed her, according to the author, as a narcissistic self-lover. Goodwin concluded that the images of Madonna's body writhing against the white background generated the question of whether she is addressing her lover or herself in the song. Adam Sexton, author of Desperately Seeking Madonna: In Search of the Meaning of the World's Most Famous Woman, noted that although the clip seems to be made for a "male fetishistic gaze", Madonna takes control of "what is to be looked at and how it is to be looked at" by mockingly opening her mouth and flicking her tongue. Time's John Skow noted that, "[s]he's sexy, but she doesn't need men [...] she's kind of there all by herself".

AllMusic's Stewart Mason deemed the video "powerfully effective [...] about 500 times sexier than the entire Sex book". The Quietus' Matthew Lindsay referred to it as a "showcase for Madonna as auto-erotic magnet", and noted that at one point, the singer did a pose similar to Keith Haring's Radiant Baby. Matthew Jacobs highlighted the singer's "seminal look", and said that, "['Lucky Star'] spawned the bulk of the copycat costumes still seen at Halloween parties far and wide", and made her a fashion icon. In retrospective reviews, Idolator's Mike Nied considered "Lucky Star" to be Madonna's 19th greatest music video, praising its "classic '80s vibes", and saying it was "evidence of the then-rising star’s undeniable appeal". It came in at the same spot of The Backlot's ranking; Louis Virtel wrote that, "even on a stark white backdrop, Madonna is a resplendent shooting star", highlighting her "hungry stare" and dance moves.

Live performances
On October 13, 1983, Madonna sang "Lucky Star" at the Camden Palace in London; she wore a black top, black skirt, leggings, her hair in ringlets, and sang in a "husky, black-sounding voice", according to The Guardian's Bart Mills. The single was then included on four of the singer's concert tours: Virgin (1985), Who's That Girl (1987), Confessions (2006), and Rebel Heart (2015–2016). On the first one, Madonna wore a black crop top beneath a vest with a silver cross pattée, matching fringed gloves and miniskirt, leggings, low-heeled leather boots, and a crucifix earring in one ear. The performance of the song at Detroit's Cobo Arena was included on the Madonna Live: The Virgin Tour video release (1985).

The song's performance at the Who's That Girl World Tour found the artist singing underneath a disco ball hung from above the stage. She wore the same black bustier from her "Open Your Heart" (1987) video, with her platinum blonde hair done in a big bushy style. From the Chicago Tribune, Scott A. Zamost and Elizabeth Snead felt that, although Madonna's voice sounded strong, she was "drowned out frequently and annoyingly by an overpowering back-up band" in numbers such as "Lucky Star". Two different performances can be found on the videos Who's That Girl: Live in Japan and Ciao Italia: Live from Italy, filmed in Tokyo on June and in Turin on September, respectively.

A "modernized" "Lucky Star" with a techno beat was sung on the Confessions Tour. Following the performance of "La Isla Bonita" (1987), Madonna lies face-down on the stage; afterwards, two backup singers wrap an illuminated white cape with "Dancing Queen" embroidered on the back around her and, together, proceed to perform "Lucky Star". Towards the end, the original beat of the song slowly begins to morph into "Hung Up" (2005), the concert's final number. From The Providence Journal, Rick Massimo opined the song was given "even more dance thump". The performance from the August 15-16 London concerts was included on the singer's second live album, The Confessions Tour (2007).

On the MDNA Tour (2012), the song was sampled on a video that led to "Turn Up the Radio". A slow, cumbia and salsa-fueled medley of "Dress You Up", "Into the Groove" (1985) and "Lucky Star", was included on the Rebel Heart Tour. The number featured Day of the Dead iconography and found Madonna, decked out in a long dress with a black shawl and a black hat, joined by a Mexican-themed dance crew. Billboard's Joe Lynch felt that, "the maracas might have been a little much, but the crisp Spanish guitar successfully made the songs sound newly organic". On July 27, 2023, Madonna posted an Instagram video of herself dancing to "Lucky Star" to commemorate the 40th anniversary of her debut album.

Media appearances and covers
"Lucky Star" was featured in the film Running on Empty (1988), in a scene where River Phoenix's character is attending music class. Six years later, the song's music video was mentioned in Quentin Tarantino's Pulp Fiction; the character Fabienne (Maria de Medeiros) tells her boyfriend Butch (Bruce Willis) that she wants a stomach "like Madonna when she did 'Lucky Star'". The song also plays in a scene of Snatch (2000), directed by Guy Ritchie, who was married to Madonna from 2000 to 2008. "Lucky Star" was mentioned on American television series Modern Family: Mitchell Pritchett (Jesse Tyler Ferguson) reveals that when he was 12, his father caught him dancing to the song, which he refers to as "the most embarrassing thing that a boy can do". In 2019, "Lucky Star" was used in the fifth episode of the first season of Euphoria.

Michael Hedges did a "decidedly rock'n'roll" rendition of "Lucky Star" during a 1993 concert. The 2000 tribute album Virgin Voices: A Tribute To Madonna, Vol. 2 included a trip hop cover of the song by Switchblade Symphony; AllMusic's Heather Phares highlighted it as one of the album's finest moments. Seven years later, a folk music cover by Alexandra Hope was included on Through the Wilderness. In 2014, "Lucky Star" was sung by Chris Colfer on "Old Dog, New Tricks", the nineteenth episode of the fifth season of American musical television series Glee. Carly Rae Jepsen sampled the track on her 2017 single "Cut to the Feeling" and, five years later, a cover by Eva Noblezada was included on the soundtrack for the film Luck.

Track listing and formats

 * US 12" promo single
 * 1) A. "Lucky Star" - 5:30
 * 2) B. "Holiday" - 6:08

 * US 7" single
 * 1) A. "Lucky Star" (7" Edit) - 3:44
 * 2) B. "I Know It" (LP Version) - 3:45

 * US 12" single
 * 1) A. "Lucky Star" (New Mix) - 7:15
 * 2) B. "I Know It" (LP Version) - 3:45

 * UK 12" single
 * 1) A. "Lucky Star" (Full Length Version) - 5:38
 * 2) B. "I Know It" - 3:47

 * 1995 Germany / UK CD Maxi single
 * 1) "Lucky Star" (U.S. Remix) - 7:15
 * 2) "I Know It" - 3:47

 * 1995 German 12" / CD single; UK CD single
 * 1) "Holiday" (LP version) – 6:07
 * 2) "Lucky Star" (LP version) – 5:37

 * 2023 Digital single
 * 1) "Lucky Star" (LP version) – 5:37
 * 2) "Lucky Star" (7" Edit) - 3:53
 * 3) "Lucky Star" (New Mix) - 7:15

Credits and personnel
Credits are adapted from the album's liner notes.
 * Madonna – vocals, writer
 * Reggie Lucas – producer
 * John "Jellybean" Benitez – audio mixing
 * Fred Zarr – synthesizer, electric and acoustic piano
 * Dean Gant – synthesizer, electric and acoustic piano
 * Ira Siegal – guitar
 * Leslie Ming – LinnDrum and Oberheim DMX claps
 * Bobby Malach – tenor saxophone

title: Lucky Star (Madonna song)


text:
Karuk language

Karuk or Karok ( or ) is the traditional language of the Karuk people in the region surrounding the Klamath River, in Northwestern California. The name ‘Karuk’ is derived from the Karuk word káruk, meaning “upriver”.

Karuk is classified as severely endangered by UNESCO with only around 12 fluent native speakers of the language left. Most members of the Karuk nation now use English in their everyday lives. Since 1949, there have been efforts to revitalize the language and increase the number of speakers led by linguists such as Dr. William Bright and Susan Gehr, as well as members of the Karuk community.

History and usage
The Karuk language originated around the Klamath River between Seiad Valley and Bluff Creek. Before European contact, it is estimated that there may have been up to 1,500 speakers. Linguist William Bright documented the Karuk language. When Bright began his studies in 1949, there were "a couple of hundred fluent speakers," but by 2011, there were fewer than a dozen fluent elders. A standardized system for writing the languages was adopted in the 1980s.

The region where the Karuk tribe lived remained largely undisturbed until beaver trappers came through the area in 1827. In 1848, gold was discovered in California, and thousands of Europeans came to the Klamath River and its surrounding region to search for gold. The Karuk territory was soon filled with mining towns, manufacturing communities, and farms. The salmon that the tribe relied on for food became less plentiful because of contamination in the water from mining, and many members of the Karuk tribe died from either starvation or new diseases that the Europeans brought with them to the area. Many members of the Karuk tribe were also killed or sold into slavery by the Europeans. Karuk children were sent to boarding schools where they were Americanized and told not to use their native language. These combined factors caused the use of the Karuk language to steadily decline over the years until measures were taken to attempt to revitalize the language.

Classification
Karuk is a language isolate, sharing few if any similarities with other nearby languages. Historically, the American linguist Edward Sapir proposed it be classified as part of the Hokan family, although little evidence supports this proposal. As Bright wrote, "The Karok language is not closely or obviously related to any other (in the area), but has been classified as a member of the northern group of Hokan languages, in a subgroup which includes Chimariko and the Shasta languages, spoken in the same general part of California as Karok itself."

Geographic distribution
Karuk is spoken within the range of the original territory where the Karuk people lived prior to European contact. The ancestral territory is in Northwestern California in Siskiyou, Humboldt, and Del Norte counties. The language originated around the Klamath River between Seiad Valley and Bluff Creek. Most Karuk speakers now live in the towns of Somes Bar, which is near the Karuk Center of the World (in Karuk, "Katimiin"), Happy Camp ("Athithufvuunupma"), and Orleans ("Panamniik").

The Karuk people originally owned 1.04 million acres of land until it was claimed as public territory in 1905 under the Forest Reserve Act during the Roosevelt administration. In 1887, some members of the Karuk tribe were given small plots of land under the General Allotment Act. In the 1970's, elders from the Karuk tribe bought back two properties in Orleans and Happy Camp and have acquired 1,661 acres of land that the tribe can use for ceremonies, housing, and resource management.

Vowels
There are 5 vowel qualities in Karuk /i e a o u/, some of which may also differ in terms of length. Vowel qualities /a i u/ occur as both long and short vowels, while mid vowels /e o/ only occur as long vowels.

Consonants
Karuk has 16 phonemic consonants (all of them with no voicing contrast), a small number compared to the relatively large consonant inventories of most California languages. Karuk also lacks secondary articulation to its consonants such as glottalization or labialization, also unusual for a Californian language.

Tones
Karuk has a tone system consisting of three tones: high, low, and falling. Falling tones only occur in long vowels.

Syllable structure
When /i u/ occur next to one another in a word, whichever is the first vowel is pronounced as a glide, as in the following examples. Note: Syllabification in these examples are from right-to-left.

The following example is a more rare case in Karuk where the syllabification is from left-to-right.

Orthography
Karuk consonants have been historically written using several different conventions. A comparison between these conventions follows:

In two-consonant sequences [sh] or [th] are distinguished from the digraphs ⟨sh th⟩ which represent the single phonemes with the use of a dash $\langles-h t-h\rangle$.

Vowels
Long vowels are represented by doubling the letters: ⟨ii⟩, ⟨aa ⟩ and ⟨uu⟩ are used for /iː/ /aː/ and /uː/.

Tones are marked for vowels in Karuk using accent marks. The high and falling tones are represented using the acute and circumflex diacritics, respectively, above the vowels. The low tone is not represented, and tones on long vowels are notated only on the first letter in the digraph.

Grammar
Karuk is a polysynthetic language known for its method of arranging old and new information: "... skilled Karuk speakers use separate words to communicate new, salient detail, or to underscore known detail; and they use affixes for background details so that a listener's attention is not diverted."

Morphology
Karuk is similar to many other American Indian Languages in showing "a complex person-marking system, where subject and object are marked in portmanteau prefixes" on its verbs. Depending on the subject and the object the speaker is referring to, there is a prefix for both positive and negative indicatives as well as a prefix for the potential mood. Through his research, William Bright found the language lacks words for cardinal directions, but uses suffixes on verbs to describe relevant direction. Many motion verbs have a singular and plural form. Through morphology, long-form vowels are used when a is next to i or u. Karuk uses accents where vowels can sound different in each word, making the language difficult to learn. Although the structure may be similar, Karuk is considered to be very different from its neighboring languages, such as Yurok.

Verbs
Karuk uses prefixes and suffixes in a way William Bright relates to how English words snort, sniff, and sneeze all start with a sn-. The following are examples of prefixes in Karuk.

Words and phrases
Note: More translations can be found online in the Dictionary section depicting Dr. Bright's research.

Work by Dr. William Bright and Susan Gehr
Dr. William Bright started studying the Karuk language in 1949 in pursuit of his doctorate in linguistics at U.C Berkeley. Bright was met with open arms by tribal elders and was given the Karuk name Uhyanapatánvaanich, or "little word-asker". Around a decade later, Bright published The Karok Language, describing the Karuk language, its grammar, and syntax. Bright set himself apart from linguists from his time for incorporating elements of the cultural context of Karuk into his descriptions.

Bright later worked with Susan Gehr, a tribe member and fellow linguist, on a Karuk dictionary, which was published in 2005. They recorded everyday conversations, songs, stories, and poetry of fluent Karuk speakers to attempt to capture the language and what it meant to those speaking it. Bright spent over fifty years studying, researching, and documenting Karuk, and is the only non-Indian to be inducted as an honorary member of the tribe thanks to his contributions to the community. Bright was buried on Karuk land when he died in 2006.

American Indian Bilingual Teacher Credential Program
In the late 1980s, Humboldt State University started the "American Indian Bilingual Teacher Credential Program", where they brought in teachers from four local tribes, the Hupa, Yurok, Karuk, and Tolowa. These teachers were bilingual in their tribe's native language as well as English, and would be employed in local public schools to teach American Indian children. The university developed this initiative to help local American Indian populations either further develop their English for higher education or develop their native language to preserve culture. Bilingual teachers in both Karuk and English would teach at Orleans and Happy Camp Elementary Schools, where children would learn how to live in America while keeping their identity.

Karuk Language Restoration Committee
In 1990, attempts were made to revive the language by the Karuk Language Restoration Committee. The committee, composed of eight volunteers, drafted a 5-year minimum plan in an attempt to preserve the Karuk language and help it regain its standing in the community. The committee was advised by Dr. William Bright and tribal member Julian Lang, a dedicated researcher of the language. Their studies suggest that the decline of the language is caused by a combination of a lack of younger fluent speakers, a decline in the number of speakers, not being typically taught at home at young ages, a feeling of disconnect between its use and the contemporary world, and the lack of literacy in the language among tribal members.

The committee ultimately created a five-step plan:
 * 1) Recording and writing down fluent speakers communicating in Karuk.
 * 2) Training more people to become fluent as a long-term goal.
 * 3) Raising tribal members' and local communities' aware of the importance of learning the language also as a vehicle of Karuk culture itself.
 * 4) Reviewing and receiving community feedback regarding the current plan.
 * 5) Facilitating the community participation in programs that have people practice and speak Karuk.

Master-apprentice program
An immersion method called the master-apprentice program was started in 1992 by Advocates for Indigenous California Language Survival to aid in Karuk revitalization efforts. In order to fully immerse a beginning speaker in Karuk, people who are interested in learning the language are paired with a fluent native speaker who they follow throughout the day. During this time spent with the native speaker, learners are only allowed to speak Karuk. The program is intensive, typically lasting 40 hours a week for 3 years. Around 20 groups had successfully gone through the entire program as of the year 2011.

Dictionaries

 * Karuk Dictionary Online Karuk dictionary hosted by UC Berkeley Linguistics.
 * William Bright (2005). Karuk Dictionary. Los Angeles, CA.

title: Karuk language


text:
St Columb Minor

St Columb Minor (Sen Kolumm Vyghan) (Latin: Columba Minor Sancta) is a village in the civil parish of Newquay, on the north coast of Cornwall, England, United Kingdom.

St Columb alone by default refers to the nearby St Columb Major; both the town and the village are named after the 6th century saint Columba of Cornwall and have churches dedicated to her. The village of St Columb Minor dates back to the 11th century, however a settlement existed much earlier under the Manor of Rialton, it has now been absorbed by its larger neighbour Newquay. While the village is still an ecclesiastical parish, St Columb Minor is no longer a civil parish, forming part of Newquay.

Parish Church
The current church dates from the 15th Century. The site of the Parish Church is probably a very ancient pagan site. Here, long before the St.Columba legend, came the first Celtic missionaries who exorcised evil spirits and they probably erected the first Christian Church which would have been a rough wooden building. The Church was replaced more than once, until in about 1100 A.D. a Norman church was built. Its outline has been traced from the present chancel step to about the position of the font at the West end of the Church, with North and South walls exactly where the nave arches stand today. Part of the original Norman foundations can be seen at the base of the pillars.

In about the middle of the 12th century, another church was erected in place of the Norman one. This had aisles which terminated at the chancel. Nothing is known about the building of this church, except that it was referred to as a chapelry to the College of Crantock in 1283. By 1417, it had been reported that the chancel was in a ruinous state and the whole church needed rebuilding. By about 1430, the Nave arcades were reconstructed.

The present church consists of a chancel, nave, and north and south aisles. The arcades are of six arches each, the chancel arches being obtuse, and the nave arches are pointed. The tower arch is plain; there is a north door, a south porch (within it is the date 1669), and a priest's door. The Tower, which is the second highest in Cornwall, is 115 feet in height and was built in the 15th Century; originally it could have been seen from every point in the parish. It is battlemented and finished with pinnacles.

The church tower is the second highest in Cornwall.

The church has undergone two major restorations: once in 1795 and again in 1884.

History
The Village was first mentioned in 1283 when it was referred to as a chapelry to the collegiate church of Crantock; it was mentioned officially in 1284 as 'Sancta Columba Minor.'

In Celtic and Anglo-Saxon times Rialton (in which the village fell under) was the head manor of the Hundred of Pydar and belonged to the monks of St Petroc at Bodmin. The monastery remained in possession after the Norman Conquest and a manor house was built here by Prior Vivian (Thomas Vivian, titular Bishop of Megara) c. 1510. The manor passed to the Duchy of Cornwall in 1538 but some of the manor house remains.

St Columb Minor was a large growing village when Newquay (Towan) was just a small fishing village with a clusters of cottages and farmland. The population of St Columb Minor in 1841 was 1,681 and only 489 of the people lived in Newquay.

The western end of the church and yard is in view of the Trevelgue clifftop twin tumuli, known locally as The Barrows. It is sheltered from the strong winds of the Atlantic and looks down the Rialton Valley and across to Castle-an-Dinas on the summit of Castle Downs. Local legend has it that the Celtic missionaries, centuries before the Columba legend arose, drove away the evil spirits and replaced pagan magic by Christian worship, and erected a wooden sanctuary. The church-town lay to the west and south while the shelving ground to the north and east prevented building. Hence, as in the case of so many villages, development in the 20th century extended further from the parish church, in this case towards Porth Bean and Henver Roads, leading into Newquay.

The oldest Cottages in the village are on Church Street. Honey-suckle cottage was a farmhouse in the early 17th century and the ships timbers from Porth were used in its construction.

As of 1896, there were a Cornish cross and four cross bases in the parish: the cross is at Cross Close and is unusual in being almost circular in section. The housing estate that was constructed in the 1950s now surround the cross. The Doublestiles Cross marks the ancient path to the village. Henver Road meaning 'the old road' that the cross was nearby is the main road into Newquay for a few hundred years.

In 1891 the civil parish had a population of 3056. In 1894 the parish was abolished and split to form Newquay and St Columb Minor Rural.

In 1960, the parish of St Columb was subsumed by Newquay of which St Columb Minor is now a suburb. Villages in this parish were: Trencreek, Chapel, Porth, Trenance and the Churchtown.

St Columb Porth
Porth Beach was originally the port for the village of St. Columb Minor, the long sheltered bay is a drowned river mouth and in the 19th century the tide reached Rialton almost two miles (3 km) inland. All the requirements of the village such as coal, salt, lime and a multitude of general cargoes were unloaded here. Grain and later china clay and stone were taken away from the port. When Newquay became a china clay port vessels discharged coal into carts on the beach at Porth and continued to Newquay to load china clay.

The Farmers Arms
The public house, the Farmers Arms, was originally built of cobb with a Thatched roof. The Landlord was Mr Samuel Argall who had owned the Inn since 1871. In October 1913, the roof caught fire the cause of which was a lighted match being thrown into the roof by a young boy. Two fire brigades arrived, one from Newquay, who arrived first wearing brand new uniforms and one brigade from St Columb Major, both brigades work together but the fire had destroyed the inn. Once the fire was out a 'water fight' between the two fire brigades began. The fight was over the use of the single hydrant which stood near the inn. The hydrant had two hose connectors and the Newquay brigade, who had arrived on the scene forty minutes before St Columb Major had attached their hoses to both connectors. St Columb Major fire brigade, who considered themselves the superior force, were extremely angry that they had to use water from the local pond to help put the fire out turned their hoses on 'rival' brigade.

The Inn was rebuilt in 1914.

Double Stiles Stone Cross
The Double stiles Cross also known as Three Stiles Cross, is a good example of the rare slab form of cross whose thick, rounded section is a rare feature of that cross type. Wayside crosses are one of several types of Christian cross erected during the medieval period, mostly from the 9th to 15th centuries AD. They were to mark unfamiliar terrain. The Stone is located at the junction of Duchy Road with the main route linking Newquay with the east, the modern A392 road. The cross is only one metre from its original location where, before the urban expansion of Newquay, it was situated on the edge of a field called `Cross Close', by the junction of the main route with a parish footpath leading to the church at St Columb Minor.

In the medieval period, the church at St Columb Minor was a chapelry of a collegiate church at Crantock, south west of Newquay. This path was of importance at that time as the direct link between these two dependent medieval religious establishments. The line of the path north east from the cross survives in a modified form as a public footpath. A second wayside cross is also located 520m to the south west along the former line of the same path. The modern parish of Newquay, within which Doublestiles Cross and its church path are situated, was only created in 1918; this medieval monument preserves the route relating to the former parish of St Columb Minor and the earlier route to the church at Crantock.

Former
The National School in the Square was built in 1842. It is on the site of the Parsonage and is now used as a Men's Institute.

St Columb Minor Fairpark Boarding School (later known as the red school) was originally designed by Silvanus Trevail and formally opened in June 1877. The School eventually closed in 1982 and today it has been converted into light industrial units.

Current
St Columb Minor is served, at primary level, by St Columb Minor Academy since 1959 – part of Kernow Learning Multi-Academy Trust.

Treviglas Academy (Treviglas College) is a secondary school serving Newquay, St Columb Minor and the surrounding area since 1960. The school part of The Roseland Multi Academy Trust.

Notable people

 * Ralph Allen, postmaster
 * William Golding the novelist ( "Lord of the Flies" ) was born in the parish (which at the time included Newquay, his actual birthplace).
 * James Morrison (singer) lived at Porth Newquay and attended Treviglas school

title: St Columb Minor


text:
User talk:Mat Dillon

Howdy Mat, just wanted to say thanks for that big edit on the history of Waynesboro, Virginia. Really nice job! –Ben Lunsford 18:15, July 22, 2005 (UTC)

Waynesboro Populations
Where did you find the historic populations of Waynesboro? Please reply back on my talk page.User:Weatherdude 23:45, 17 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mat Dillon


text: User talk:81.129.203.10

title: User talk:81.129.203.10


text:
I'll Stick Around

"I'll Stick Around" is the second single released by American rock band Foo Fighters from their 1995 self titled debut album, Foo Fighters.

Background
The song's lyrics are about American singer-songwriter Courtney Love. "I don't think it's any secret that 'I'll Stick Around' is about Courtney," Dave Grohl said in 2009. "I've denied it for fifteen years, but I'm finally coming out and saying it. Just read the fucking words!" The song has been labeled grunge, alternative rock, and power pop.

Music video
The video for this song was the first Foo Fighters music video and was directed by Jerry Casale, who was a member of and directed videos for Devo. Casale said he was chosen due to Devo's well-known surreal music videos, which would fit Grohl's request for a "non-video video", produced with a budget of just $60,000. The video shows the band performing the song in a room with a paper background while lights strobe and a giant spore floats around them (the spore, described by Casale as "Foo Ball", was inspired by the foo fighter phenomenon that named the band, and its original conception was a "bloated, charred, inflated girl representing Courtney", but as Grohl's management vetoed the idea, it was replaced by an "3D HIV virus [sic] based on medical models from Scientific America [sic] magazine"). This is interspersed with footage of Dave Grohl eating chess pieces (an idea by the singer himself, done with "frame by frame stop-action animation") and brushing his teeth with what appears to be a switchblade.

The video also appeared in Beavis and Butt-Head.

Other versions

 * A live version recorded on May 25, 1997, at the Manchester Apollo was released as a B-side to the CD2 version of the "Everlong" single.

Track listings
7-inch red vinyl single and Cardsleeve CD single
 * 1) "I'll Stick Around"
 * 2) "How I Miss You"

UK CD and 12-inch single
 * 1) "I'll Stick Around"
 * 2) "How I Miss You"
 * 3) "Ozone" (Ace Frehley cover)

Japanese CD maxi-single
 * 1) "I'll Stick Around"
 * 2) "How I Miss You"
 * 3) "Ozone" (Ace Frehley cover)
 * 4) "For All the Cows" (live at the Reading Festival, August 26, 1995)
 * 5) "Wattershed" (live at the Reading Festival, August 26, 1995)

Personnel
Musicians on the album
 * Dave Grohl – guitars, vocals, bass, drums

Musicians in the music video
 * Dave Grohl – guitar, vocals
 * Nate Mendel – bass
 * Pat Smear – guitar
 * William Goldsmith – drums

title: I'll Stick Around


text:
Pueblo Memorial Airport

Pueblo Memorial Airport is a public airport located six miles east of Pueblo, in Pueblo County, Colorado, United States. It is primarily used for general aviation.

Federal Aviation Administration records say the airport had 4,345 passenger boardings (enplanements) in calendar year 2008, 5,192 in 2009 and 11,641 in 2010. The National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2011–2015 called it a non-primary commercial service airport based on enplanements in 2008/2009 (between 2,500 and 10,000 per year).

History
Built in 1941 as the Pueblo Army Air Base, it was used as an advanced flying school to train B-17 Flying Fortress and B-24 Liberator four engine heavy bomber crews. It was under the command of the United States Army Air Forces Second Air Force 360th Army Air Force Base Unit. Known bomb groups which trained or based at Pueblo were:

 * 94th Bombardment Group (B-17) January - April 1943
 * 302d Bombardment Group (B-24) 30 September 1942 - 1 December 1942
 * 351st Bombardment Group (B-17) 1 March - 12 April 1943
 * 381st Bombardment Group (B-17) 5 April - 9 May 1943
 * 400th Bombardment Group (B-17) 2 May - 31 July 1943
 * 466th Bombardment Group (B-29) 25 July - 15 August 1945
 * 469th Bombardment Group (B-24) 1–7 May 1943
 * 471st Bombardment Group (B-24) 7 May 1943 - 28 January 1944

The history of the air base is preserved with the Pueblo Historical Aircraft Society and its Pueblo Weisbrod Aircraft Museum.

In 1948 it was handed over to the City of Pueblo. In the 1960s the main east–west runway (8/26) was extended from 6,000' to 10,000' to accommodate jet aircraft.

Today, Pueblo Memorial Airport is home of the United States Air Force's Initial Flight Training (IFT) program under the cognizance of the 12th Flying Training Wing at Randolph AFB, Texas and the 306th Flying Training Group at the U.S. Air Force Academy, Colorado. IFT began operations on October 1, 2006, replacing the former Pilot Indoctrination Program (PIP) for USAF Academy cadets, the Flight Instruction Program (FIP) for Air Force ROTC cadets, and the Initial Flight Screening (IFS) program previously operated at South Texas Regional Airport at Hondo, Texas for USAF officers commissioned via Officer Training School. Doss Aviation, under contract with the USAF, conducts flight training for between 1300 and 1700 USAF officer student pilot and student combat system officer trainees annually.

Facilities
Pueblo Memorial Airport covers 3,872 acres (1,567 ha) at an elevation of 4,729 feet (1,441 m). It has three runways:

 * 8R/26L, the primary runway, is 10,498 by 150 feet (3,200 x 46 m).
 * 17/35 is 8,310 by 150 feet (2,533 x 46 m).
 * 8L/26R is 4,690 by 75 feet (1,148 x 23 m).

Runways 8R/26L and 17/35 are asphalt with a porous friction course overlay to improve surface drainage and increase aircraft braking action. Runway 8L/26R has a 3-4 inch asphalt overlay on 7 in of Portland cement concrete.

In the year ending January 1, 2011 the airport had 182,119 aircraft operations, an average of 498 per day: 95% general aviation, 3% air taxi, <1% airline and 2% military. In March 2017, there were 128 aircraft based at this airport: 109 single-engine, 9 multi-engine, 8 jet, 1 helicopter and 1 glider.

Historical airline service
Pueblo was initially a hub and crossroads for commercial airline traffic from the late 1920s through the 1970s. The first carrier to serve Pueblo was Colorado Airways which operated a north–south route from Cheyenne, WY to Pueblo with stops in Denver and Colorado Springs from 1926 through 1927. Western Air Express (WAE) acquired the route in 1927 and in 1929 the route was extended southward to El Paso, TX with stops in Trinidad, Las Vegas (NM), Santa Fe, and Albuquerque. This southward extension was initially operated by Mid-Continent Air Express but acquired by WAE in 1931. WAE also operated a route from Pueblo to Amarillo, TX from 1929 through 1934. The first air carriers primarily focus was transporting mail and connecting with the transcontinental mainline routes of United Airlines at Cheyenne, with TWA at Albuquerque, and with American Airlines at El Paso. In 1934, the north–south route was divided between two new carriers, Wyoming Air Service, which operated the legs from Cheyenne to Pueblo, and Varney Speed Lines, which operated the legs from Pueblo to Albuquerque and El Paso. In 1937, Varney Speed Lines was changed to Continental Airlines and Continental then operated the route beginning in Denver and flying southward to El Paso. In 1939 Continental added an eastward extension from Pueblo to Wichita and later to Tulsa making stops in La Junta CO, Garden City, Dodge City, and Hutchinson, KS. Aircraft first used included the Lockheed Vega, Lockheed Model 12 Electra Junior, Lockheed Model 14 Super Electra, Lockheed Model 18 Lodestar, and the Douglas DC-3 by the mid-1940s. In the late 1940s Convair 240 aircraft were introduced followed by the Convair 340 and the Vickers Viscount in the 1950s. The eastbound route to Tulsa ended in 1961 and the north–south route ended in 1963 which ended all Continental service to Pueblo.

Braniff Airways began service in 1943 on a route from Denver to Brownsville, TX with stops in Colorado Springs, Pueblo, Amarillo, Wichita Falls, Fort Worth, Dallas, Houston, and Corpus Christi. At times some flights operated from Pueblo to Amarillo, Oklahoma City, Tulsa, Little Rock, and Memphis. Douglas DC-3 aircraft were used and Braniff's service to Pueblo continued through 1952.

Monarch Air Lines began service on November 27, 1946, with a route from Denver to Durango making stops in Colorado Springs, Pueblo, Canon City, and Monte Vista, CO using DC-3 aircraft. Monarch was merged with two other carriers to become Frontier Airlines on June 1, 1950.

Frontier Airlines continued serving Pueblo with DC-3s and extended the route from Durango westward to Phoenix with several more stops in New Mexico and Arizona. A new route from Denver to Grand Junction was also started with stops in Pueblo, Gunnison, and Montrose, CO. Convair 340 aircraft were introduced in the late 1950s and upgraded to the Convair 580 by the mid-1960s. Frontier acquired the original north–south route from Denver to El Paso in 1963 previously operated by Continental Airlines. The direct flights to Phoenix ended in 1971 and the southward legs from Pueblo to Albuquerque and El Paso ended in 1974. A route from Pueblo to Amarillo, Oklahoma City, and Tulsa was also operated from 1967 through 1977. These flights would then continue onto Kansas City or to Memphis. Boeing 727-200 and 737-200 jets were flown from Pueblo to Colorado Springs and Denver from 1971 through 1981. These flights typically continued onto Kansas City and St. Louis. 737 jets were also flown to Durango, CO briefly in the late 1970s. All Frontier service at Pueblo ended on March 14, 1982.

Central Airlines began serving Pueblo in 1961 with routes from Denver to Kansas City and Oklahoma City stopping in Pueblo and Amarillo as well as several more points in Colorado, Kansas, and Oklahoma. Douglas DC-3 aircraft were first used and upgraded to Convair 600s by the mid-1960s. Central Airlines was merged into Frontier Airlines in 1967 and Frontier continued operating these routes through the 1970s.

Air Midwest operated a late night mail route from Pueblo to Garden City and Dodge City, KS from 1967 through 1977 in which they occasionally transported passengers. A Beechcraft 99 aircraft was used.

Trans Central Airlines, a commuter airline, provided service along the north–south route from Denver to Albuquerque in 1968 through 1970. Stops were made at Pueblo, Trinidad, Raton, and Las Vegas (NM) and Cessna 402 aircraft were flown.

Pioneer Airlines took over service from Pueblo to Denver from 1982 through 1983 following the termination of service by Frontier. Swearingen Metroliner aircraft were used and service was also provided to Santa Fe, NM.

Rocky Mountain Airways then provided service to Denver from 1983 through 1986 using de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter aircraft.

Mesa Airlines briefly served Pueblo in late 1987 with flights to Albuquerque using Beechcraft 99 and Beechcraft 1900C commuter aircraft.

America West Airlines operated Boeing 737-200 jet service from Pueblo to Phoenix and Las Vegas from 1985 through 1991. Many flights would stop in Colorado Springs.

Trans World Airlines (TWA) provided service to St. Louis with a stop in Colorado Springs from 1988 through 1992 using Boeing 727-200 and McDonnell Douglas MD-80 jets.

Continental Express, a feeder service for Continental Airlines reinstated Continental service to Pueblo in 1986 with flights to Denver. Rocky Mountain Airways first operated this service through 1991 then Britt Airways until 1994. In 1994 service was changed to Continental Connection operated by GP Express Airlines. GP Express also flew from Pueblo to Amarillo during this time. Most flights were flown with Beechcraft 1900C aircraft. All Continental service to Pueblo ended January 9, 1995.

United Express, a feeder service for United Airlines began serving Pueblo in 1990 with flights to Denver. Mesa Airlines operated the service through 1998 then Great Lakes Airlines from 1998 until 2002. Both carriers used Beechcraft 1900D aircraft.

Great Lakes Airlines then continued serving the Pueblo-Denver route under their own identity through 2004 then returned from 2006 through early 2014 using Beechcraft 1900D aircraft. Great Lakes returned once more from late 2015 through 2017 with flights to Denver using an Embraer EMB-120 Brasilia aircraft.

Mesa Airlines also returned to Pueblo and filled in the service to Denver from late 2004 through 2005 while Great Lakes stopped operating the route. Mesa also flew to Albuquerque during this time and continued to use Beechcraft 1900D aircraft.

Allegiant Air provided McDonnell Douglas MD-80 jet service to Las Vegas, Nevada from October, 2010 through April 8, 2012. Allegiant's flights operated twice per week.

United Express returned to service the Pueblo-Denver route in 2014. This service was operated by SkyWest Airlines using Embraer EMB-120 Brasilias and this service ended in mid-2015. United Express service returned in December 2017 and operated until January 2023 with CRJ-200 regional jets.

Southern Airways Express currently operates the Pueblo-Denver route using Beechcraft Super King Air 200 turboprop aircraft.

Up until the mid-1990s, Pueblo was served by multiple airlines and for much of the year 1991, four airlines were operating at Pueblo simultaneously: America West, TWA, Continental Express, and United Express. Pueblo has also seen mainline jet service (727s, 737s, and MD-80s) by four airlines. Since 1995, however, service has only been provided by one airline with commuter or regional jet flights to Denver with the exception of the Allegiant Air service in 2010–2012. Pueblo falls under the Essential Air Service program in which the U. S. Government subsidizes an airline to provide air service to a city. This subsidy comes up for bid every two years; therefore, Pueblo has seen its air service provider frequently change. There have also been times where there has been no commercial air service to Pueblo, such as in the spring of 2014 and the summer and fall of 2015.

Other sources

 * Essential Air Service documents (Docket OST-1999-6589) from the U.S. Department of Transportation:
 * Order 2004-7-10 (July 15, 2004): selects Great Lakes Aviation, Ltd., to provide essential air service with 19-passenger B1900D aircraft at Alamosa and Cortez, Colorado, for two years for annual subsidy rates of $1,083,538 and $853,587, respectively, and Mesa Air Group, Inc., d/b/a Air Midwest to provide essential air service with 19-passenger B1900D aircraft at Pueblo, Colorado, for two years at a subsidy rate of $618,621 annually. Also authorizes Great Lakes Aviation to reduce its current Pueblo service to two round trips each weekday and each weekend, and set a final subsidy rate of $687,616 on an annual basis for that service until Air Midwest inaugurates its service at Pueblo.
 * Order 2005-11-26 (November 22, 2005): selecting Great Lakes Aviation, Ltd., to provide essential air service with 19-passenger B1900D aircraft at Pueblo, Colorado, for two years at a subsidy rate of $780,997 annually.
 * Order 2007-11-10 (November 15, 2007: selecting Great Lakes Aviation, Ltd. to provide subsidized essential air service (EAS) at Pueblo, Colorado, at an annual subsidy rate of $1,057,128, for two years, beginning February 1, 2008.
 * Order 2009-11-15 (November 23, 2009): selecting Great Lakes Aviation, Ltd. to continue to provide essential air service (EAS) at Pueblo, Colorado, at an annual subsidy rate of $1,299,821, for the two-year period from February 1, 2010, through January 31, 2012.
 * Order 2011-12-4 (December 13, 2011): re-selecting Great Lakes Aviation, Ltd. to continue to provide essential air service (EAS) at Pueblo, Colorado, at an annual subsidy rate of $1,592,276, for the two-year period from February 1, 2012, through January 31, 2014.
 * Order 2011-12-4 (December 13, 2011): re-selecting Great Lakes Aviation, Ltd. to continue to provide essential air service (EAS) at Pueblo, Colorado, at an annual subsidy rate of $1,592,276, for the two-year period from February 1, 2012, through January 31, 2014.

title: Pueblo Memorial Airport


text:
Camp Iguana

Camp Iguana is a small compound in the detention camp complex on the US Naval base at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba. Camp Iguana originally held three child detainees, who camp spokesmen then claimed were the only detainees under age 16 (the age at which DOD defined minors). It was closed in the winter of 2004 when the three were sent back to their native countries.

When the Department of Defense was forced in 2005 by US District Court Judge Jed Rakoff's court order to release the identities of all the detainees, DOD acknowledged it had detained up to twenty minors (under the age of 18, the international coming of age) in the adult portion of the prison.

In 2005 Camp Iguana was re-opened to hold some of the 38 detainees classified in Combatant Status Review Tribunals as "no longer enemy combatants." These included several Uyghurs, who could not return to China because of the high risk of persecution there. They were subject to delays in resettlement as diplomatic efforts tried to place them in countries other than their country of origin or the United States.

Used for juvenile detainees

Beginning in 2002, the US used Camp Iguana for juvenile detainees. Elaine Chao, then the U.S. Secretary of Labor has spoken about the responsibility to give child soldiers special treatment, to provide help for them to re-integrate into society.

If the Americans had applied the Geneva Conventions at the battlefield, its forces would have reviewed detainees more closely in Afghanistan and other areas of capture. The Geneva Conventions entitle persons captured during warfare to a "prompt, open tribunal" for a fair determination of their status—whether they should be considered civilians, POWs, or enemy combatants. Critics have said a more thorough review at the beginning would have meant the juveniles would never have been transported from Afghanistan.

The executive branch of the United States government claimed at the time that enemy combatants were beyond the jurisdiction of the US courts. The United States Supreme Court overruled executive efforts to keep the enemy combatants outside the US judicial system; in decisions in 2004, it ruled that both American and foreign detainees had the right to challenge their detentions before an impartial tribunal. The executive branch established Combatant Status Review Tribunals in 2004 to evaluate whether detainees were enemy combatants.

In a BBC interview in 2004, Naqibullah, a young Afghan teenager, described being treated humanely, and receiving an education, while in Camp Iguana.

A 2 February 2004 memo summarized a meeting between General Geoffrey Miller, commander of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, and his staff and Vincent Cassard of the ICRC. Geoffrey Miller said:

"Also, CDR Timby is in the process of finishing the report from the arrival and departure of the juveniles, they showed exceptional progress. 2 of the 3 came here with psychological problems and left here with none. They are looking forward to starting a life again. They were very excited to return home and were in good spirits.'"

In the spring of 2005, the media reported that other detainees were held at Guantanamo who had first been detained at ages lower than 18 (the international definition of a minor.) A New York Times article published on 13 June 2005, said there were at least six other teenagers, who were kept within the general population and treated as adults. Military officials explained this as saying they had to estimate detainee ages. :"They don't come with birth certificates," said Col. Brad K. Blackner, the chief public affairs officer at the detention camp. Col. David McWilliams, the chief spokesman for the United States Southern Command in Miami, which runs the prison operation, said that the authorities were fairly confident of their estimates. "We used bone scans in some cases and age was determined by medical evidence as best we could," he said." Military officials explained this as saying they had to estimate detainee ages.

Omar Khadr was 15 when captured. United States intelligence officers were reported to know his age and identity because of the prominence of his father, Ahmed Khadr and because his older brother Abdurahman cooperated with the CIA as an undercover agent at Guantanamo. A Washington Post article from 29 October 2002 reported:

"One particularly talkative prisoner there is Omar Khadr, who at sixteen is one of the youngest prisoners in U.S. custody. U.S. officials allege that on 27 July he killed a U.S. Special Forces medic, Sgt. Christopher Speer, during a four-hour, house-to-house battle in the village of Ayub Kheyl. The wounded youth was captured, taken to Bagram, treated for his wounds and interrogated."

Abdul Salam Mureef Ghaithan Al Shehri, a Saudi citizen who was fifteen when he was captured, celebrated his eighteenth birthday in Guantanamo Bay, in late April 2005.

In an interview broadcast on the BBC on 9 September 2005, Clive Stafford Smith reported that the continued incarceration of juveniles between 16 and 18 at Guantanamo Bay was a catalyst for the protests of the hunger strikes, which took place during the summer of 2005. The United Nations determined that to forcefeed the strikers amounts to torture. At the time, Smith said that as many as twenty teenagers remained imprisoned at Guantanamo, some of whom were being kept in long-term, solitary confinement. The legal director of Reprieve and a prominent British human rights lawyer, he represents 37 Guantanamo detainees.

In May 2009 Afghan human rights workers challenged the American bone-scan estimate for the age of Mohammed Jawad, a former detainee. They assert he had been as young as 12 or 13 when he was captured in December 2002.

Former detainees waiting for resettlement
On 25 August 2005, the Associated Press reported that Camp Iguana was being reopened to hold detainees whose CSRTs had concluded that they were not "enemy combatants".

Others who were declassified as enemy combatants, including Sami Al Laithi, continued to be detained in Camp Delta.

On 5 May 2006 five Uighurs, who had been held in Camp Iguana, were transported to a refugee center in Albania prior to a review of their writs of habeas corpus. This was scheduled for the Monday after the weekend. These five were among a total of 15 Uighurs who were reported to have been determined not to have been "enemy combatants." They were kept at Guantanamo as the US tried to place them; they feared return to China because of persecution.

In a telephone interview, Abu Baker Qassim, one of the Uighurs sent to Albania, said Camp Iguana had held nine innocent men before their departure. The other four innocent men had been a Russian, an Algerian, a Libyan, and a man who had been born in Saudi Arabia to Uighur exiles.

On 30 September 2008, Assistant Attorney General Gregory Katsas filed a "notice of status" on the seventeen remaining Uyghur detainees. He said they were no longer to be treated as enemy combatants. Their attorneys pointed out that several of their clients remained in solitary confinement, which is considered severe punishment. The DOD said that all the Uyghurs would be transferred to Camp Iguana for better conditions.

title: Camp Iguana


text: User talk:84.9.145.246

title: User talk:84.9.145.246


text:
User:Stillborn

Stillborn is a Geek from Richmond, British Columbia who spends far more time lurking through Wiki then actually contributing. His Favorite number is 42, while he is probably partialy colour blind his favorite colour is still Red, and his favorite species is Lepidosiren paradoxa.

title: User:Stillborn