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Talk:Suburbs of Johannesburg

Sanctions leading to contraction and empty buildings in the 1980s ?
I don't think this is what happened having visited the place in the 1980s, could some reliable sources be quoted, were sanctions responsible for the empty buildings in the CBD in the 1980s? Please substantiate this strange claim. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.143.217.180 (talk) 17:15, 27 December 2009 (UTC)

Regions
I am very familiar with Johannesburg having lived there for a few years in the 1990s but this concept of Regions did not exist then and I find their use in this article confusing. The article does not introduce them or provide an overview of the whole regional system and numbering structure. Is it "official" or just some convenient nomenclature derived (and I must say elegantly too) by the article's author(s).

I suspect that it is "official" but some introduction would be wonderful.

(In true wikipedia fashion I decided to answer my own question and to post my findings here.)

Hillbrow
Minor minor nitpick. Hillbrow used to be one of the 'nicest' suburbs around? Is their a more...dictionary style word for this?

ManicParroT 04:23, 12 November 2006 (UTC)

Sentiment for Apartheid?
"A street in central Hillbrow. Under apartheid Hillbrow used to be one of the nicest suburbs in the city; however, it is now extremely dangerous." This image description reveals a thinly-veiled racist agenda. The wording should be changed. VarunRajendran

 * This comment is inappropriate. You could have asked for substantiation instead of implying that the editor in question supported the apartheid regime. For interest, although I cannot support the quote with peer reviewed facts, I can say that Hillbrow was (during apartheid) a safer, nicer area. This was for the simple reason that it was a "white" area and therefore had stricter movement laws and heavier policing. After the fall of apartheid, Hillbrow became what is found in most cities around the world... an inner city "slum". Because policing was now more dispersed, there were fewer police to control the area which is becoming over populated with immigrants and drug lords.

 * Regards

GetDownAdam 19:43, 30 January 2007 (UTC)

 * If you're so sensetive about race, then understand that many are sensetive about being called racists prejudicially. I do in fact agree that the wording needs to be changed because of the potential racial interpretation -- but note that a racial interpretation is not the only interpretation that could be made, and certainly your comment states matter-of-factly that the description reveals a thinly-veiled racist agenda -- when this is not for certain. Racism is a highly political issue in South Africa -- any non-Black/non-African person that critiques the government is usually branded a racist - which is both undemocratic and unfair -- even when the criticism is absolutely not racist or even racial. In the case of your statement, I can agree with what you were trying to say, but you said it in a conclusive and prejudicial way that is unfair. So I think we shall have to compromise both on your statement, and on the statement in the article. Rfwoolf 19:40, 1 March 2007 (UTC)

Definition of a "suburb"
The concept of a "suburb" is a bit weakly defined in the article for Johannesburg, and on Wikipedia, for South Africa, and reliable sources that cite legal definitions would be welcome.

Is a suburb a township (in the legal sense)? If so, what about "Extension" townships? Is, say Bryanston Extension 2 a seperate suburb to Bryanston?

Is a suburb in South Africa a postal code area? Some combination of a postal code area, and a township?

What does the City of Johannesburg municipality classify as a "suburb"? Park3r (talk) 13:31, 17 November 2011 (UTC)

I agree I looked but couldn't find any reliable sourceSassmouth (talk) 06:29, 15 September 2016 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 10:06, 16 March 2021 (UTC)
 * Sandtoncity2016.jpg

Map differs wildly from description
The map suggests that Rosebank, the Parks etc. Whereas the map shows it in the central region (which isn't even in the article...). The borders are also irrational. 196.24.216.2 (talk) 11:01, 10 February 2023 (UTC)

 * I think this claim is correct! This article has a few inaccuracies! GeographicAccountant (talk) 09:15, 3 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Suburbs of Johannesburg


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User talk:Camillafop

Thanks for particiapting in Wikipedia. However please be aware that we require all of our work conform to a neutral point of view - writing defamatory articles is not allowed. Please read over our basic policies, the five pillars. Thanks, -Willmcw 08:59, July 19, 2005 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Camillafop


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Wikipedia:Featured article candidates/Suburbs of Johannesburg/archive1

Suburbs of Johannesburg
Self-nom. I have worked extremely hard on this article and had great assistance from several other people. After User:NicholasTurnbull finished helping me slave away with the map, I feel comfortable nominating this article for FAC. It is an extremely comprehensive look at the suburbs of the city of Johannesburg, South Africa, itself already a featured article. I have tried to look at both the social and economic importance of all the different areas of the city. Thank you! Páll 08:59, 19 July 2005 (UTC)

Weak support Have added the numbered map Object none of my concerns have been dealt with Neutral: Its no doubt a good article but a few points: 1)Para 2: I don't like a place being compared with another, in size growth etc. A place should stand up on its own. 2) The term "suburb" used here is not clearly defined. I'm assuming that the word suburb in this case means an administrative sub-division of Jo'berg? 3) Terms are used such as ... Regions 2, 3, 4, and 7,.... Its hard to visualise or understand the same without a visual aid/map. The links are not helpful either. 4) A few differences would help. The suburbs are separated by a postal code is all that's mentioned. Is there an administrative head to the region? Are police jurisdictions the same throughout? Do they have an administrative headquarters? 5) A table would be nice to get an overview of the population, area, density, and if residential/commercial/industrial etc. =Nichalp   «Talk»=  18:34, July 19, 2005 (UTC)
 * Why not compare it to another? Most people have never heard of JOhannesburg, and it helps to give a reference to the sprawl of the city. No, suburb means exactly what I have defined it as, a neighbourhood. The only difference about it from the rest of the city is its character, and the fact that it has a seperate post code. And there are about 1700 suburbs in the city, probably more. A tableis impossibel to make. And the regions are mentioned when a sublink is provided, and they are also mentioned in the upper map. Páll 21:11, 19 July 2005 (UTC)
 * I find it absurd that Jo'berg is not heard of in the way you portray it. Its one of the most prominent African cities, not a small town. Even so, a line on Jo'burg's status would be helpful in the lead.
 * Absurd or not, most people do not know where Johannesburg is, or what it is. [[User:PZFUN| Páll  ( Die pienk olifant )]] 09:26, 20 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Johannesburg, much like the city of Los Angeles, .... I am not familiar with LA's growth, and I'm sure the same can be said of umpteen cities around the world. I firmly state again: no place/region should be compared to another. Its like saying "county A" of England is equal to the size of province "B in China". It doesn't help a third party sitting in Brazil does it?
 * Most people are familiar with the fact that Los Angeles is an extremely large and spread out city with no real centre, although I will change that. [[User:PZFUN| Páll  ( Die pienk olifant )]] 09:26, 20 July 2005 (UTC)
 * "Suburb" is a very loose term and I ask you to please refine it. From the article on neighbourhood ".. neighbourhood is a geographically localised community located within a larger city or suburb...". So a neighbourhood is a subset of a suburb, but in this case it is equal to a suburb. I understand what you mean, but on what basis are East, North South etc classified? I'm sure there must be some rationale for separating them into six regions. Is it for administrative, geographic or just arbitary reasons?
 * I have defined it exactly as what it is. It is a neighbourhood. There is no particular rationale apart from convenience and the tendency for the different areas to be different from each other due to socio-economic reasons. There is no oficial distinction. [[User:PZFUN| Páll  ( Die pienk olifant )]] 09:26, 20 July 2005 (UTC)
 * I'm asking you to refine it as, in my city suburbs have a different meaning. My city is made up of two districts, a city district and a suburban district. Together they make up the metropolis. Now the suburbs are clubbed under either the Western Suburbs or Central Suburbs, on the basis of the two railway lines that service the suburb's location. The term suburb is also used to all the townships/ stations which lie beyond the metropolis and are serviced by the city's rail network. And yes, the two have their own local flavours and post codes.
 * I was asking for the table for the six regions mentioned in the article, not the 1,700 locations. =Nichalp   «Talk»=  09:16, July 20, 2005 (UTC)
 * The problem with tables like that is that most of that information is not known. There are only gueses as to the population of Johannesburg, although I'll see what I can do to get better census information. [[User:PZFUN| Páll  ( Die pienk olifant )]] 09:26, 20 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Object. The image Image:Johannesburg1931.jpg is claimed to be GFDL.  I find this quite unlikely, as the image was taken in 1931. --Carnildo 20:02, 19 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Yes, you're right. I changed it to PD, which it is. Páll 21:11, 19 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Objecting again. The copyright status of Image:Pic-sandton.jpg needs to be resolved: is it a copyvio, or is it in the public domain? --Carnildo 03:38, 27 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Support. A very interesting and informative article, with plenty of educational content, and has a good balance of topical coverage. Definitely a well thought out and thorough summary of the Johannesburg suburbs. The quality of writing is very good, as is the style of presentation of the article and the overall appearance of the article as a whole. In summary, a very good article. --NicholasTurnbull 21:18, 19 July 2005 (UTC)

 * (conditional) Support, Ok I'm lazy. I just happen to know more of Palls articles :-P Make sure that any remaining niggles are solved first though! :-) Kim Bruning 00:44, 20 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Conditional opposition. First, the significance of the area mentioned is questioned. Second, the arrangement of images is quite messy and the distribution of images is quite uneven (some sections come with 3 to 4 pictures while some have none). Deryck C. 09:16, 20 July 2005 (UTC)
 * The significance of what? What area do you mean? The images work absolutely fine on every computer I've looked at this article in, and I do not have images to use in the sections that have no photographs. [[User:PZFUN| Páll  ( Die pienk olifant )]] 09:26, 20 July 2005 (UTC)

*Object- Nichalp raises some good points. What is a suburb? Can it just be defined as a "neighborhood"? What is a "neighborhood"? Such a term is extremely vague and unclear. In addition, shouldn't the article be moved to "Suburbs of Johannesburg, South Africa"? Otherwise a well-written article. Flcelloguy | A note? | Desk 19:32, 24 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Support A very thorough, well-written piece about the different suburbs/sections of Johannesburg. The article is very informative for those who do not live in the city or in South Africa in general. Nice work! Bumm13 07:49, 21 July 2005 (UTC)

 * I've defined suburbs as best I can. Any discussion over the meaning of neighbourhood should be done on its separate page. why delve into huge explanations of what forms a neighbourhood in an article like this? There's no reason to. It should not be moved to Johannesburg, South Africa because wikipedia usually leaves major cities without top level designations, therefore New York City exists at New York City, not New York City, New York. The Johannesburg article itself does not use ", South Africa". User:PZFUN 03:34, 25 July 2005 (UTC)

 * OK, I see that the article should stay at its current name. Sorry... :-) Anyways, I still think the lead section/def. of "suburb" could be improved. The lead section is assuming that the reader knows information about neighborhood, suburbs, city, etc. The lead section neither defines the article nor does it tell what will be discussed in it. IMHO, it should start off with "The Suburbs of Johannesburg are the towns located within..." or something like that. Having the opening sentence saying that "The suburbs vary widely." is not a good start to the article, as the first sentence should define what the topic is about (see the Johannesburg article). Thus, I think the lead section could be rewritten. Flcelloguy | A note? | Desk 22:23, 25 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Hey there, I just rewrote the opening paragraph. What do you think?  Páll  (Die pienk olifant) 03:08, 27 July 2005 (UTC)
 * OK, that's better. Support. Flcelloguy | A note? | Desk 16:35, 27 July 2005 (UTC)


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Nonfinite verb

A nonfinite verb, in contrast to a finite verb, is a form of a verb that lacks inflection (conjugation) for number or person. In the English language, a nonfinite verb cannot perform action as the main verb of an independent clause. Nonfinite verbs include infinitives, participles and gerunds. Nonfinite verb forms in some other languages include converbs, gerundives and supines. The categories of mood, tense, and or voice may be absent from non-finite verb forms in some languages.

Because English lacks most inflectional morphology, the finite and the nonfinite forms of a verb may appear the same in a given context.

Examples
In the following sentences, the non-finite verbs are emphasized, while the finite verbs are underlined.
 * Verbs appear in almost all sentences.
 * This sentence is illustrating finite and non-finite verbs.
 * The dog will have to be trained well.
 * Tom promised to try to do the work.

 * The case has been intensively examined today.
 * What did they want to have done about that?
 * Someone tried to refuse to accept the offer.
 * Coming downstairs, she saw the man running away.
 * I am trying to get the tickets.

In the above sentences, been, examined and done are past participles, want, have, refuse, accept and get are infinitives, and coming, running and trying are present participles (for alternative terminology, see the sections below).

In languages like English that have little inflectional morphology, certain finite and nonfinite forms of a given verb are often identical, e.g.

 * a. They laugh a lot. - Finite verb (present tense) in bold
 * b. They will laugh a lot. - Nonfinite infinitive in bold

 * a. Tom tried to help. - Finite verb (past tense) in bold
 * b. Tom has tried to help. - Nonfinite participle in bold

Despite the fact that the verbs in bold have the same outward appearance, the first in each pair is finite and the second is nonfinite. To distinguish the finite and nonfinite uses, one has to consider the environments in which they appear. Finite verbs in English usually appear as the leftmost verb in a verb catena. For details of verb inflection in English, see English verbs.

English
In English, a nonfinite verb may constitute:
 * an infinitive verb, including the auxiliary verb have as it occurs within a verb phrase that is predicated by a modal verb.
 * a participle.
 * a gerund.

Each of the nonfinite forms appears in a variety of environments.

Infinitive
The infinitive form of a verb is considered the canonical form listed in dictionaries. English infinitives appear in verb catenae if they are introduced by an auxiliary verb or by a certain limited class of main verbs. They are also often introduced by a main verb followed by the particle to (as illustrated in the examples below). Further, infinitives introduced by to can function as noun phrases or even as modifiers of nouns. The following table illustrates such environments:

 * {| class="wikitable"

! Infinitive !! Introduced via auxiliary verb !! Introduced via causative verb !! Introduced via finite verb plus to !! Functioning as noun phrase !! Functioning as an adjective
 * laugh || Do not laugh! || That made me laugh. || I tried not to laugh. || To laugh would have been unwise. || the reason to laugh
 * leave || They may leave. || We let them leave. || They refused to leave. || To leave was not an option. || the thing to leave behind
 * expand || You should expand the explanation. || We had them expand the explanation. || We hope to expand the explanation. || Our goal is to expand. || the effort to expand
 * }
 * expand || You should expand the explanation. || We had them expand the explanation. || We hope to expand the explanation. || Our goal is to expand. || the effort to expand
 * }
 * }

Participle
English participles can be divided along two lines: according to aspect (progressive vs. perfect/perfective) and voice (active vs. passive). The following table illustrates the distinctions:

 * {| class="wikitable"

! Participle !! Progressive active participle !! Progressive passive participle !! Perfect active participle !! Perfect passive participle
 * fix || The guy is fixing my bike. || I saw the guy fixing my bike. || He has fixed my bike. || My bike was fixed.
 * open || The flower was opening up. || I saw the flower opening up. || The flower has opened up. || The flower has been opened up.
 * support || The news is supporting the point. || She watched the news supporting the point. || The news has supported the point. || I understood the point supported by the news
 * drive || She is driving our car. || I watched her driving our car. || She has driven our car. || Our car should be driven often.
 * }
 * support || The news is supporting the point. || She watched the news supporting the point. || The news has supported the point. || I understood the point supported by the news
 * drive || She is driving our car. || I watched her driving our car. || She has driven our car. || Our car should be driven often.
 * }
 * }

Participles appear in a variety of environments. They can appear in periphrastic verb catenae, when they help form the main predicate of a clause, as is illustrated with the trees below. Also, they can appear essentially as an adjective modifying a noun. The form of a given perfect or passive participle is strongly influenced by the status of the verb at hand. The perfect and the passive participles of strong verbs in Germanic languages are irregular (e.g. driven) and must be learned for each verb. The perfect and passive participles of weak verbs, in contrast, are regular and are formed with the suffix -ed (e.g. fixed, supported, opened).

Gerund
A gerund is a verb form that appears in positions that are usually reserved for nouns. In English, a gerund has the same form as a progressive active participle and so ends in -ing. Gerunds typically appear as subject or object noun phrases or even as the object of a preposition:

 * {| class="wikitable"

! Gerund !! Gerund as subject !! Gerund as object !! Gerund as object of a preposition
 * solve || Solving problems is satisfying. || I like solving problems. || No one is better at solving problems.
 * jog || Jogging is boring. || He has started jogging. || Before jogging, she stretches.
 * eat || Eating too much made me sick. || She avoids eating too much. || That prevents you from eating too much.
 * investigate || Investigating the facts won't hurt.|| We tried investigating the facts. || After investigating the facts, we made a decision.
 * }
 * eat || Eating too much made me sick. || She avoids eating too much. || That prevents you from eating too much.
 * investigate || Investigating the facts won't hurt.|| We tried investigating the facts. || After investigating the facts, we made a decision.
 * }
 * }

Often, distinguishing between a gerund and a progressive active participle is not easy in English, and there is no clear boundary between the two nonfinite verb forms.

Auxiliary verb
Auxiliary verbs typically occur as finite verbs, but they also can occur as a participle (e.g. been, being, got, gotten, or getting) or, in the case of have, in a nonfinite context as the complement to a modal verb relating to a perfect tense, e.g.:

 * {| class="wikitable"

! Modal verb + have!! stative participle !! Perfect active participle !! Perfect passive participle
 * could have || The guest could have been a bore. || The guest could have been boring us . || The guest could have been bored.
 * might have || The dog might have been a surprise. || The dog  might have been surprising everyone . || The dog  might have been surprised.
 * should have || Our bid should have been a win. || Our  bid should have been winning  support. || Our  bid should have been won.
 * would have || Their troops would have been a loss. || Their troops would have been losing ground. || Their troops would have been lost.
 * }
 * should have || Our bid should have been a win. || Our  bid should have been winning  support. || Our  bid should have been won.
 * would have || Their troops would have been a loss. || Their troops would have been losing ground. || Their troops would have been lost.
 * }
 * }

Native American languages
Some languages, including many Native American languages, form nonfinite constructions by using nominalized verbs. Others do not have any nonfinite verbs. Where most European and Asian languages use nonfinite verbs, Native American languages tend to use ordinary verb forms.

Modern Greek
The nonfinite verb forms in Modern Greek are identical to the third person of the dependent (or aorist subjunctive) and it is also called the aorist infinitive. It is used with the auxiliary verb έχω (to have) to form the perfect, the pluperfect and the future perfect tenses.

Theories of syntax
For an overview of dependency grammar structure in modern linguistic analysis, three example sentences are shown. The first sentence, The proposal has been intensively examined, is described as follows.

 * Non-finite tree 1+'.png

The three verbs together form a chain, or verb catena (in purple), which functions as the predicate of the sentence. The finite verb has is inflected for person and number, tense, and mood: third person singular, present tense, indicative. The nonfinite verbs been and examined are, except for tense, neutral across such categories and are not inflected otherwise. The subject, proposal, is a dependent of the finite verb has, which is the root (highest word) in the verb catena. The nonfinite verbs lack a subject dependent.

The second sentence shows the following dependency structure:

 * Non-finite tree 2+.png

The verb catena (in purple) contains four verbs (three of which are nonfinite) and the particle to, which introduces the infinitive have. Again, the one finite verb, did, is the root of the entire verb catena and the subject, they, is a dependent of the finite verb.

The third sentence has the following dependency structure:

 * Non-finite tree 3.png

Here the verb catena contains three main verbs so there are three separate predicates in the verb catena.

The three examples show distinctions between finite and nonfinite verbs and the roles of these distinctions in sentence structure. For example, nonfinite verbs can be auxiliary verbs or main verbs and they appear as infinitives, participles, gerunds etc.

title: Nonfinite verb


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Mirepoix (disambiguation)

Mirepoix is a traditional French culinary combination of onions, carrots and celery aromatics.

Mirepoix may also refer to:

 * Mirepoix, Ariège, a commune in France
 * Mirepoix Cathedral
 * Mirepoix, Gers, a commune in France
 * Mirepoix-sur-Tarn, a commune in the Haute-Garonne département

title: Mirepoix (disambiguation)


text:
Two Shoes

Two Shoes is the second studio album by Australian ska-jazz band the Cat Empire, which was issued on 19 April 2005. It is the follow-up to their successful self-titled debut album. It was recorded in November to December 2004 in Havana, Cuba. It débuted at the top of the ARIA Albums Chart and is the band's first number 1 album.

Background
Australian ska-jazz group, the Cat Empire, released their second album, Two Shoes, on 19 April 2005. It was recorded in Havana, Cuba, at Egrem Studios, late in the previous year, with production by the Cat Empire, Felix Riebl (percussion and vocals) and United Kingdom-based producer, Jerry Boys. It débuted at the top of the ARIA Albums Chart and is the band's first number 1 album, the second being Rising with the Sun. The tracks were more Latin in flavour, with a higher proportion written by Harry James Angus (trumpet and vocals) than on their self-titled debut album. The Australian version contains a hidden track, called "1001", which is coupled with the track, "The Night That Never End". Some later versions included songs that appeared on their debut album. The lead single, "Sly", was issued ahead of the album on 28 March, which reached the top 30. It appeared on EA Sports' FIFA 08 soundtrack. "The Car Song", written by Angus, was released as the second single in July, and peaked in the top 50.

Reception
AllMusic's Jeff Tamarkin wrote, "Skipping merrily from alt-rock crunch to hip-hop beats, landing on reggae/ska, Latin jazz, and points in between, Two Shoes is clever and brainy, danceable and absorbing". Faster Louder described it as "an album that captures the band’s contagious energy and party spirit", and "fun, sexy and moving at the same time".

John Metzger of the Music Box stated that, while the album "lyrically [...] falters as the Cat Empire attempt to straddle the line between lighthearted and serious concepts, [...] its youthful ruminations matter little as the Cat Empire’s exuberant energy and giddily resplendent music are enough to make Two Shoes a captivating endeavor that surely will defeat even the worst cases of the winter blues."

On Rolling Stone's 2022 and 2023 lists of the 200 Greatest Australian Albums of All Time, Two Shoes came in at No. 150. Britanny Jenke dubbed the album an "instant classic that felt representative of experiencing the group on the live stage" in her review, and stated that it proves "the Cat Empire hadn’t lucked out with their debut, they were just a music-making machine who had only begun to hit their stride".

Track listing
Special Edition Bonus DVD
 * 1) Documentary - "Estudio 101: The Making of Two Shoes"
 * 2) Live at The Forum - "Lullaby" and "The Car Song"
 * 3) Music Videos - "Sly", "The Car Song" and "Two Shoes"
 * 4) The Making of "Two Shoes" Music Video.

Indica Records Bonus DVD
 * 1) Live at The Forum - "Lullaby" and "The Car Song"
 * 2) Woodford Folk Festival - "Sly" and "How to Explain?"
 * 3) From On the Attack - "The Lost Song", "The Rhythm", and DVD 'encore' videos - "Dancers" and "L'Hotel de Californie".
 * 4) Music videos - "Hello", "The Chariot", "The Car Song" and "Two Shoes".

Personnel

 * The Cat Empire core members
 * Harry James Angus – vocals, trumpet, recorder, resonator
 * Will Hull-Brown – drums, shouts
 * Jamshid Khadiwhala – turntables, tambourine, clave, shouts
 * Ollie McGill – piano, keyboard, recorder, tubular bells, backing vocals
 * Ryan Monro – double bass, bass guitar, backing vocals
 * Felix Riebl – lead vocals, percussion

 * The Empire Horns (auxiliary members)
 * Kieran Conrau – trombone (track 6)
 * Ross Irwin – trumpet (track 6)

 * Additional musicians
 * Jesús "Aguaje" Ramos – trombone (tracks 1-5, 7-8)
 * Yaure Muniz – trumpet (tracks 1-5, 7)
 * Javier R Zalba Suarez – baritone saxophone (tracks 1-4, 7)
 * Georgina Cameron – violin (track 6)
 * Alyssa Conrau – violin (track 6)
 * Kristy Conrau – cello (track 6)
 * Max Riebl – soprano vocals (track 6), solo trumpet (track 6)
 * Jorge Yoandi Moline – congas (track 7)
 * Arnado Valdes Perez – timbales (track 7)
 * Maritza Montero – backing vocals (tracks 2, 6, 11)
 * Idania Valdes – backing vocals (tracks 2, 6)
 * Virgilio Valdes – backing vocals (track 6)

 * Recording details
 * Produced by – Jerry Boys, Felix Riebl, The Cat Empire
 * Recording – Jerry Boys, Adam Rhodes (strings and brass on Miserere, 1001 only)
 * Editing – John Mallison, Donald Clarke
 * Assistant engineering – John Mallison, Donald Clarke
 * Studio assistant – Isel Martinez
 * Mixing – Jerry Boys, Rafe McKenna, Adam Rhodes (Miserere, 1001 only)
 * Assistant mixer – Luke Postil, Leigh C Williams
 * Mastered by – Tom Leader

title: Two Shoes


text:
Australian Gold Nugget

The Australian Gold Nugget, also sometimes known as the Australian Gold Kangaroo, is a gold bullion coin minted by the Perth Mint. The coins have been minted in denominations of $1⁄20$ oz, $1⁄10$ oz, $1⁄4$ oz, $1⁄2$ oz, 1 oz, 2 oz, 10 oz, and 1 kg of 24 carat gold.

They have legal tender status in Australia and are one of few legal tender bullion gold coins to change their design every year, another being the Chinese Gold Panda. This may raise their numismatic value over the value of gold used, unlike many other bullion coins.

History
The Gold Nugget series was introduced in 1986 by Gold Corporation, a company wholly owned by the Government of Western Australia, more commonly known by its trading name The Perth Mint. This issue of coins had two unique features: a "two-tone" frosted design effect, and individual hard plastic encapsulation of each coin. These features were unusual for a standard bullion coin and gave the Nugget a unique market niche.

From 1986 to 1989, the reverse of these coins pictured various Australian gold nuggets. For example, the Welcome Stranger nugget was depicted on the 1987 1 oz Australian Nugget coin while the $1⁄2$ oz Australian Nugget coin of the same year showed the Hand of Faith nugget.

With the 1989 proof edition, the design was changed to feature different kangaroos, a more world-recognised symbol of Australia. The coins are today sometimes referred to as "gold kangaroos".

In 1991, 2 oz, 10 oz, and 1 kilogram sizes were introduced. These were created with the intention of using economies of scale to keep premiums low, and are some of the largest gold coins ever minted. In 1992, the face values on these large coins were lowered to keep them proportional to the 1 oz coin. The reverse of these coins does not change annually like the lower denominations; the same "red kangaroo" design is used every year.

In October 2011, the Perth Mint created a one tonne gold coin, breaking the record for the biggest and most valuable gold coin, previously held by the Royal Canadian Mint, the Big Maple Leaf. The coin is approximately 80 cm in diameter and 12 cm thick. It features a red kangaroo on the front of the coin and a portrait of Queen Elizabeth II on the reverse. The face value of the coin is A$1 million, but at the time of minting it was valued at over A$53 million.

The Australian Gold Nugget coins should not be mistaken for the Australian Lunar Gold Bullion coins. Both coins are minted by Perth Mint and have .9999 purity, but Lunar coins use images of different animals from the Chinese calendar instead of the kangaroo.

title: Australian Gold Nugget


text:
Carbon footprint

A carbon footprint (or greenhouse gas footprint) is a calculated value or index that makes it possible to compare the total amount of greenhouse gases that an activity, product, company or country adds to the atmosphere. Carbon footprints are usually reported in tonnes of emissions (CO2-equivalent) per unit of comparison. Such units can be for example tonnes CO2-eq per year, per kilogram of protein for consumption, per kilometer travelled, per piece of clothing and so forth. A product's carbon footprint includes the emissions for the entire life cycle. These run from the production along the supply chain to its final consumption and disposal.

Similarly, an organization's carbon footprint includes the direct as well as the indirect emissions that it causes. The Greenhouse Gas Protocol (for carbon accounting of organizations) calls these Scope 1, 2 and 3 emissions. There are several methodologies and online tools to calculate the carbon footprint. They depend on whether the focus is on a country, organization, product or individual person. For example, the carbon footprint of a product could help consumers decide which product to buy if they want to be climate aware. For climate change mitigation activities, the carbon footprint can help distinguish those economic activities with a high footprint from those with a low footprint. So the carbon footprint concept allows everyone to make comparisons between the climate impacts of individuals, products, companies and countries. It also helps people devise strategies and priorities for reducing the carbon footprint.

The carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2eq) emissions per unit of comparison is a suitable way to express a carbon footprint. This sums up all the greenhouse gas emissions. It includes all greenhouse gases, not just carbon dioxide. And it looks at emissions from economic activities, events, organizations and services. In some definitions, only the carbon dioxide emissions are taken into account. These do not include other greenhouse gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide.

Various methods to calculate the carbon footprint exist, and these may differ somewhat for different entities. For organizations it is common practice to use the Greenhouse Gas Protocol. It includes three carbon emission scopes. Scope 1 refers to direct carbon emissions. Scope 2 and 3 refer to indirect carbon emissions. Scope 3 emissions are those indirect emissions that result from the activities of an organization but come from sources which they do not own or control.

For countries it is common to use consumption-based emissions accounting to calculate their carbon footprint for a given year. Consumption-based accounting using input-output analysis backed by super-computing makes it possible to analyse global supply chains. Countries also prepare national GHG inventories for the UNFCCC. The GHG emissions listed in those national inventories are only from activities in the country itself. This approach is called territorial-based accounting or production-based accounting. It does not take into account production of goods and services imported on behalf of residents. Consumption-based accounting does reflect emissions from goods and services imported from other countries. Consumption-based accounting is therefore more comprehensive. This comprehensive carbon footprint reporting including Scope 3 emissions deals with gaps in current systems. Countries' GHG inventories for the UNFCCC do not include international transport. Comprehensive carbon footprint reporting looks at the final demand for emissions, to where the consumption of the goods and services takes place.

Definition
A formal definition of carbon footprint is as follows: "A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) emissions of a defined population, system or activity, considering all relevant sources, sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population, system or activity of interest. Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential (GWP100)."

Scientists report carbon footprints in terms of equivalents of tonnes of CO2 emissions (CO2-equivalent). They may report them per year, per person, per kilogram of protein, per kilometer travelled, and so on.

In the definition of carbon footprint, some scientists include only CO2. But more commonly they include several of the notable greenhouse gases. They can compare various greenhouse gases by using carbon dioxide equivalents over a relevant time scale, like 100 years. Some organizations use the term greenhouse gas footprint or climate footprint to emphasize that all greenhouse gases are included, not just carbon dioxide.

The Greenhouse Gas Protocol includes all of the most important greenhouse gases. "The standard covers the accounting and reporting of seven greenhouse gases covered by the Kyoto Protocol – carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PCFs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) and nitrogen trifluoride (NF3)."

In comparison, the IPCC definition of carbon footprint in 2022 covers only carbon dioxide. It defines the carbon footprint as the "measure of the exclusive total amount of emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) that is directly and indirectly caused by an activity or is accumulated over the lifecycle stages of a product." The IPCC report's authors adopted the same definition that had been proposed in 2007 in the UK. That publication included only carbon dioxide in the definition of carbon footprint. It justified this with the argument that other greenhouse gases were more difficult to quantify. This is because of their differing global warming potentials. They also stated that an inclusion of all greenhouse gases would make the carbon footprint indicator less practical. But there are disadvantages to this approach. One disadvantage of not including methane is that some products or sectors that have a high methane footprint such as livestock appear less harmful for the climate than they actually are.

Types of greenhouse gas emissions
The greenhouse gas protocol is a set of standards for tracking greenhouse gas emissions. The standards divide emissions into three scopes (Scope 1, 2 and 3) within the value chain. Greenhouse gas emissions caused directly by the organization such as by burning fossil fuels are referred to as Scope 1. Emissions caused indirectly by an organization, such as by purchasing secondary energy sources like electricity, heat, cooling or steam are called Scope 2. Lastly, indirect emissions associated with upstream or downstream processes are called Scope 3.

Direct carbon emissions (Scope 1)
Direct or Scope 1 carbon emissions come from sources on the site that is producing a product or delivering a service. An example for industry would be the emissions from burning a fuel on site. On the individual level, emissions from personal vehicles or gas-burning stoves are Scope 1.

Indirect carbon emissions (Scope 2)
Indirect carbon emissions are emissions from sources upstream or downstream from the process being studied. They are also known as Scope 2 or Scope 3 emissions.

Scope 2 emissions are the indirect emissions related to purchasing electricity, heat, or steam used on site. Examples of upstream carbon emissions include transportation of materials and fuels, any energy used outside of the production facility, and waste produced outside the production facility. Examples of downstream carbon emissions include any end-of-life process or treatments, product and waste transportation, and emissions associated with selling the product. The GHG Protocol says it is important to calculate upstream and downstream emissions. There could be some double counting. This is because upstream emissions of one person's consumption patterns could be someone else's downstream emissions

Other indirect carbon emissions (Scope 3)
Scope 3 emissions are all other indirect emissions derived from the activities of an organization. But they are from sources they do not own or control. The GHG Protocol's Corporate Value Chain (Scope 3) Accounting and Reporting Standard allows companies to assess their entire value chain emissions impact and identify where to focus reduction activities.

Scope 3 emission sources include emissions from suppliers and product users. These are also known as the value chain. Transportation of good, and other indirect emissions are also part of this scope. In 2022 about 30% of US companies reported Scope 3 emissions. The International Sustainability Standards Board is developing a recommendation to include Scope 3 emissions in all GHG reporting.

Purpose and strengths
The current rise in global average temperature is more rapid than previous changes. It is primarily caused by humans burning fossil fuels. The increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is also due to deforestation and agricultural and industrial practices. These include cement production. The two most notable greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide and methane. Greenhouse gas emissions, and hence humanity's carbon footprint, have been increasing during the 21st century. The Paris Agreement aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions enough to limit the rise in global temperature to no more than 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels.

The carbon footprint concept makes comparisons between the climate impacts of individuals, products, companies and countries. A carbon footprint label on products could enable consumers to choose products with a lower carbon footprint if they want to help limit climate change. For meat products for example, such a label could make it clear that beef has a higher carbon footprint than chicken.

Understanding the size of an organization's carbon footprint makes it possible to devise a strategy to reduce it. For most businesses the vast majority of  emissions do not come from activities on site, known as Scope 1, or from energy supplied to the organization, known as Scope 2. Instead they come from Scope 3 emissions. They come from the extended upstream and downstream supply chain. Therefore ignoring Scope 3 emissions makes it impossible to detect all emissions of importance. This will limit options for mitigation. Large companies in sectors such as clothing or automobiles would need to examine more than 100,000 supply chain pathways to fully report their carbon footprints.

The importance of displacement of carbon emissions has been known for some years. Scientists also call this carbon leakage. The idea of carbon footprint addresses concerns of carbon leakage which the Paris Agreement does not cover. Carbon leakage occurs when importing countries outsource production to exporting countries. The outsourcing countries are often rich countries while the exporters are often low-income countries. The displacement of impacts is typically from developed to developing countries. Countries can make it appear that their GHG emissions are falling by moving dirty industries abroad. But when you look at their emissions from a consumption perspective they could be increasing.

Carbon leakage and the related international trade have a range of environmental impacts. These include increased air pollution, water scarcity, biodiversity loss, raw material usage, and energy depletion.

Scholars have argued in favour of using both consumption-based and production-based accounting. This helps establish shared producer and consumer responsibility. Currently countries report on their annual GHG inventory to the UNFCCC based on their territorial emissions. This is known as the territorial-based approach or production-based approach. Including consumption-based calculations in the UNFCCC reporting requirements would help close loopholes by addressing the challenge of carbon leakage.

The Paris Agreement currently does not require countries to include in their national totals the GHG emissions associated with international transport. These emissions are reported separately. They are not subject to the limitation and reduction commitments of Annex 1 Parties under the Climate Convention and Kyoto Protocol. The carbon footprint methodology includes GHG emissions associated with international transport. This means it assigns emissions caused by international trade to the importing country.

Underlying concepts for calculations
The calculation of the carbon footprint of a product, service or sector requires expert knowledge and careful examination of what is to be included. Carbon footprints can be calculated at different scales. They can apply to whole countries, cities, neighborhoods and also sectors, companies and products. Several free online carbon footprint calculators exist to calculate personal carbon footprints.

Software such as the "Scope 3 Evaluator" can help companies report emissions throughout their value chain. The software tools can help consultants and researchers to model global sustainability footprints. In each situation there are a number of questions that need to be answered. These include which activities are linked to which emissions, and which proportion should be attributed to which company. Software is essential for company management. But there is a need for new ways of enterprise resource planning to improve corporate sustainability performance.

To achieve 95% carbon footprint coverage, it would be necessary to assess 12 million individual supply-chain contributions. This is based on analyzing 12 sectoral case studies. The Scope 3 calculations can be made easier using input-output analysis. This is a technique originally developed by Nobel Prize-winning economist Wassily Leontief.

Consumption-based emission accounting based on input-output analysis

Consumption-based emission accounting traces the impacts of demand for goods and services along the global supply chain to the end-consumer. It is also called consumption-based carbon accounting. In contrast, a production-based approach to calculating GHG emissions is not a carbon footprint analysis. This approach is also called a territorial-based approach. The production-based approach includes only impacts physically produced in the country in question. Consumption-based accounting redistributes the emissions from production-based accounting. It considers that emissions in another country are necessary for the home country's consumption bundle.

Consumer-based accounting is based on input-output analysis. It is used at the highest levels for any economic research question related to environmental or social impacts. Analysis of global supply chains is possible using consumption-based accounting with input-output analysis assisted by super-computing capacity.

Leontief created Input-output analysis (IO) to demonstrate the relationship between consumption and production in an economy. It incorporates the entire supply chain. It uses input-output tables from countries' national accounts. It also uses international data such as UN Comtrade and Eurostat. Input-output analysis has been extended globally to multi-regional input-output analysis (MRIO). Innovations and technology enabling the analysis of billions of supply chains made this possible. Standards set by the United Nations underpin this analysis. The analysis enables a Structural Path Analysis. This scans and ranks the top supply chain nodes and paths. It conveniently lists hotspots for urgent action. Input-output analysis has increased in popularity because of its ability to examine global value chains.

Combination with life cycle analysis (LCA)
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a methodology for assessing all environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of a commercial product, process, or service. It is not limited to the greenhouse gas emissions. It is also called life cycle analysis. It includes water pollution, air pollution, ecotoxicity and similar types of pollution. Some widely recognized procedures for LCA are included in the ISO 14000 series of environmental management standards. A standard called ISO 14040:2006 provides the framework for conducting an LCA study. ISO 14060 family of standards provides further sophisticated tools. These are used to quantify, monitor, report and validate or verify GHG emissions and removals.

Greenhouse gas product life cycle assessments can also comply with specifications such as Publicly Available Specification (PAS) 2050 and the GHG Protocol Life Cycle Accounting and Reporting Standard.

An advantage of LCA is the high level of detail that can be obtained on-site or by liaising with suppliers. However, LCA has been hampered by the artificial construction of a boundary after which no further impacts of upstream suppliers are considered. This can introduce significant truncation errors. LCA has been combined with input-output analysis. This enables on-site detailed knowledge to be incorporated. IO connects to global economic databases to incorporate the entire supply chain.

Shifting responsibility from corporations to individuals
Critics argue that the original aim of promoting the personal carbon footprint concept was to shift responsibility away from corporations and institutions and on to personal lifestyle choices. The fossil fuel company BP ran a large advertising campaign for the personal carbon footprint in 2005 which helped popularize this concept. This strategy, employed by many major fossil fuel companies, has been criticized for trying to shift the blame for negative consequences of those industries on to individual choices.

Geoffrey Supran and Naomi Oreskes of Harvard University examined this question. They argued that concepts such as carbon footprints "hamstring us, and they put blinders on us, to the systemic nature of the climate crisis and the importance of taking collective action to address the problem".

Relationship with other environmental impacts
A focus on carbon footprints can lead people to ignore or even exacerbate other related environmental issues of concern. These include biodiversity loss, ecotoxicity and habitat destruction. It may not be easy to measure these other human impacts on the environment with a single indicator like the carbon footprint. Consumers may think that the carbon footprint is a proxy for environmental impact. In many cases this is not correct. There can even be trade-offs between reducing the carbon footprint and environmental protection goals. One example is the use of biofuel. Biofuel is a renewable energy source and can reduce the carbon footprint of energy supply. But it can also pose ecological challenges during its production. This is because it is often produced in monocultures with ample use of fertilizers and pesticides. Another example is offshore wind parks. These could have unintended impacts on marine ecosystems.

The carbon footprint analysis solely focuses on greenhouse gas emissions, unlike a life-cycle assessment which is much broader and looks at all environmental impacts. Therefore, it is useful to stress in communication activities that the carbon footprint is just one in a family of indicators (e.g. ecological footprint, water footprint, land footprints and material footprints), and should not be looked at in isolation. In fact, the carbon footprint can be treated as one component of the ecological footprint.

The "Sustainable Consumption and Production Hotspot Analysis Tool" (SCP-HAT) is a suitable tool to put carbon footprint analysis into a wider perspective. It includes a number of socio-economic and environmental indicators. It offers calculations that are either consumption-based, following the carbon footprint approach, or production-based. The database of the SCP-HAT tool is underpinned by input-output analysis. This means it includes Scope 3 emissions. The IO methodology is also governed by UN standards. It is based on input-output tables of countries' national accounts and international trade data such as UN Comtrade. Therefore it is comparable worldwide.

Differing boundaries for calculations
The term carbon footprint has been applied to limited calculations that do not include Scope 3 emissions or the entire supply chain. This can lead to claims of misleading customers with regards to the real carbon footprints of companies or products.

By products
The Carbon Trust has worked with UK manufacturers to produce "thousands of carbon footprint assessments". As of 2014 the Carbon Trust state they have measured 28,000 certifiable product carbon footprints.

Food
Plant-based foods tend to have a lower carbon footprint than meat and dairy. In many cases a much smaller footprint. This holds true when comparing the footprint of foods in terms of their weight, protein content or calories. The protein output of peas and beef provides an example. Producing 100 grams of protein from peas emits just 0.4 kilograms of carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2eq). To get the same amount of protein from beef, emissions would be nearly 90 times higher, at 35 kgCO2eq. Only a small fraction of the carbon footprint of food comes from transport and packaging. Most of it comes from processes on the farm, or from land use change. This means the choice of what to eat has a larger potential to reduce carbon footprint than how far the food has traveled, or how much packaging it is wrapped in.

By sector
The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report found that global GHG emissions have continued to rise across all sectors. Global consumption was the main cause. The most rapid growth was in transport and industry. A key driver of global carbon emissions is affluence. The IPCC noted that the wealthiest 10% in the world contribute between about one third to one half (36%–45%) of global GHG emissions. Researcheres have previously found that affluence is the key driver of carbon emissions. It has a bigger impact than population growth. And it counters the effects of technological developments. Continued economic growth mirrors the increasing trend in material extraction and GHG emissions. “Industrial emissions have been growing faster since 2000 than emissions in any other sector, driven by increased basic materials extraction and production,” the IPCC said.

Transport
There can be wide variations in emissions for transport of people. This is due to various factors. They include the length of the trip, the source of electricity in the local grid and the occupancy of public transport. In the case of driving the type of vehicle and number of passengers are factors. Over short to medium distances, walking or cycling are nearly always the lowest carbon way to travel. The carbon footprint of cycling one kilometer is usually in the range of 16 to 50 grams CO2eq per km. For moderate or long distances, trains nearly always have a lower carbon footprint than other options.

By country
CO2 emissions of countries are typically measured on the basis of production. This accounting method is sometimes referred to as territorial emissions. Countries use it when they report their emissions, and set domestic and international targets such as Nationally Determined Contributions. Consumption-based emissions on the other hand are adjusted for trade. To calculate consumption-based emissions analysts have to track which goods are traded across the world. Whenever a product is imported, all CO2 emissions that were emitted in the production of that product are included. Consumption-based emissions reflect the lifestyle choices of a country's citizens.

According to the World Bank, the global average carbon footprint in 2014 was about 5 tonnes of CO2 per person, measured on a production bas. is The EU average for 2007 was about 13.8 tonnes CO2e per person. For the USA, Luxembourg and Australia it was over 25 tonnes CO2e per person. In 2017, the average for the USA was about 20 metric tonnes CO2e per person. This is one of the highest per capita figures in the world.

The footprints per capita of countries in Africa and India were well below average. Per capita emissions in India are low for its huge population. But overall the country is the third largest emitter of CO2 and fifth largest economy by nominal GDP in the world. Assuming a global population of around 9–10 billion by 2050, a carbon footprint of about 2–2.5 tonnes CO2e per capita is needed to stay within a 2 °C target. These carbon footprint calculations are based on a consumption-based approach using a Multi-Regional Input-Output (MRIO) database. This database accounts for all greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the global supply chain and allocates them to the final consumer of the purchased commodities.

Climate change mitigation
Efforts to reduce the carbon footprint of products, services and organizations help limit climate change. Such activities are called climate change mitigation.

Reducing industry's carbon footprint

Carbon offsetting can reduce a company's overall carbon footprint by providing it with a carbon credit. This compensates the company for carbon dioxide emissions by recognizing an equivalent reduction of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Reforestation, or restocking existing forests that have previously been depleted, is an example of carbon offsetting.

A carbon footprint study can identify specific and critical areas for improvement. It uses input-output analysis and scrutinizes the entire supply chain. Such an analysis could be used to eliminate the supply chains with the highest greenhouse gas emissions.

History
The term carbon footprint was first used in a BBC vegetarian food magazine in 1999, though the broader concept of environmental footprint had been used since at least 1979.

In 2005, fossil fuel company BP hired the large advertising campaign Ogilvy to popularize the idea of a carbon footprint for individuals. The campaign instructed people to calculate their personal footprints and provided ways for people to "go on a low-carbon diet".

The carbon footprint is derived from the language of ecological footprinting. Unlike the ecological footprint, the carbon footprint is not expressed in area-based units. William Rees wrote the first academic publication about ecological footprints in 1992. Other related concepts from the 1990s are the "ecological backpack" and material input per unit of service (MIPS).

Trends and similar concepts
The International Sustainability Standards Board (ISSB) aims to bring global, rigorous oversight to carbon footprint reporting. It was formed out of the International Financial Reporting Standards. It will require companies to report on their Scope 3 emissions. The ISSB has taken on board criticisms of other initiatives in its aims for universality. It consolidates the Carbon Disclosure Standards Board, the Sustainability Accounting Standards Board and the Value Reporting Foundation. It complements the Global Reporting Initiative. It is influenced by the Task Force on Climate-Related Financial Disclosures. As of early 2023, Great Britain and Nigeria were preparing to adopt these standards.

The concept of total equivalent warming impact (TEWI) is the most used index for carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2) emissions calculation in air conditioning and refrigeration sectors by including both the direct and indirect contributions since it evaluates the emissions caused by the operating lifetime of systems. The Expanded Total Equivalent Warming Impact method has been used for an accurate evaluation of refrigerators emissions.

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Reformatory

A reformatory or reformatory school is a youth detention center or an adult correctional facility popular during the late 19th and early 20th centuries in Western countries. In the United Kingdom and United States, they came out of social concerns about cities, poverty, immigration, and gender following industrialization, as well as from a shift in penology to reforming instead of punishing the criminal. They were traditionally single-sex institutions that relied on education, vocational training, and removal from the city. Although their use declined throughout the 20th century, their impact can be seen in practices like the United States' continued implementation of parole and the indeterminate sentence.

Reformatories and industrial schools
Reformatory schools were penal facilities originating in the 19th century that provided for criminal children and were certified by the government starting in 1850. As society's values changed, the use of reformatories declined and they were coalesced by an Act of Parliament into a single structure known as approved schools. Although similar in some of their practice, industrial schools were intended to prevent vulnerable children becoming criminal.

There was a perceived rise in juvenile delinquency in the early 19th century; whereas in a rural economy very young children could gain paid employment doing tasks such as bird scaring and stone gathering. These opportunities were not available in the cities. Youngsters were very visible on the streets. In 1816, Parliament set up a ‘Committee for Investigating the Alarming Increase in Juvenile Crime in the Metropolis’, in 1837 the writer Charles Dickens published Oliver Twist, a story about a child involved in a street gang, and in 1847 it was recognised in the Juvenile Offences Act 1847, that children under 14 should be tried in a special court and not an adult court. Begging and vagrancy was rife, and it was these low level misdemeanours that caused the magistrates to send vulnerable youngsters to industrial schools to learn to be industrious, and learn skills that would make then more employable.

More serious crimes, required an element of punishment in an environment away from older prisoners, who would have a further negative effect on the youngster, before the task of reforming their ways. The power to set up such an establishment was given in the Youthful Offenders Act 1854 (the Reformatory Schools Act). This provided financial assistance and support for reformatory schools for convicted young offenders as an alternative to prison. Industrial schools were regularised three years later by the Industrial Schools Act 1857.

Early reformatories
The first juvenile prison was the 1838 Parkhurst prison on the Isle of Wight. Separation of youngsters had been proposed earlier by Peel's Gaol Act of 1823, but implementation had generally failed. From 1824 to 1826 some boys were housed on the prison hulk, Captivity (the former Bellerophon). Even earlier in 1817, Samuel Hoare the Quaker banker and philanthropist and the architect James Bevan, had proposed a new suitable prison: there was no consensus as to whether a prison should be for deterrence, retribution, punishment, removing a cause of nuisance or reforming the prisoner. Parkhurst aimed to reform the prisoner, provide some education and prepare the youngster to be transported as a free man to the colonies in Australia.

By 1866 there were 51 certified reform schools in England and 14 in Scotland, but this had declined to 43 in 1913, while certified industrial schools had become more popular moving from 50 in 1866 to 132 (residential) and 21 (dayschools) in 1913.

Earlier initiatives began in 1756 with the founding of the Marine Society "for the purpose of clothing landsman and boys for the use of the king's ship, and as an expedient to provide for poor boys who might become a nuisance." In 1788, the Philanthropic Society was set up and opened an institution at St. George's Fields, Southwark, "for the protection of poor children, and the offspring of convicted felons; and for the reformation of those who have themselves been engaged in criminal practices."

Conditions
The regime was strict but fair and humane within the context of the times. Good behaviour was rewarded and poor behaviour punished. Punishment followed rule-breaking and rewards followed compliance. The rules were clear and transparent. The morality was simple and this would provide some security as children.

Similarly, normal living conditions for the urban poor involved overcrowded multiple occupancy in buildings with no mains drainage where diseases were rife. With no health care available- or affordable there was a high death rate amongst the malnourished children. In the reformatory there was simple regular food, the conditions were clean and medical care was available. In addition they were given free education and some training in a skill that would be marketable when they had finished their time. The success rate was high.

Discipline
The differences between a 'certified reformatory' and a 'certified industrial school' lay in the intake and the philosophy. Industrial schools took students that needed protection, while the reformatory took students that had been already convicted of a serious offence. When students were sent to a reformatory, they first served a two-week spell in a full prison. Liberals thought this was pointless and conservatives still thought this would act as a 'deterrent' and was meaningful 'retribution'. Some reformatories trained for the a future in agriculture and hoped the graduates would choose to emigrate, other trained the miscreants for a life at sea either in the military or the merchant navy. To this end ten training hulks were purchased.

The Akbar, (purchased in 1862) was a reform training ship moored off Birkenhead on the River Mersey. It accommodated 200 boys aged 14–16 from all over the country who had been sentenced to detention of at least 5 years. It was run by the Liverpool Juvenile Reform Society Boys were occupied in continually scrubbing the decks and until 1862 in picking oakum (teasing apart old rope so the fibres could be reused). They learned tailoring and shoemaking. Recreation was limitid to reading suitable magazines, bagatelle and playing draughts.

On 27 September 1887, ('Akbar Mutiny') while the captain was ashore the boys mutinied, they armed themselves with sticks, broke into the stores and entered the captains cabin, and stole valuables. Seventeen boys escaped on a stolen boat. There were recaptured after a few days and sent for trial. Two were sentenced to hard labour, but the rest were sent back to the ship and punished with the birch, solitary confinement and a diet of biscuit and water. The inspectors blamed the incident on the staff not being firm enough with the boys.

In July 1899, another of the Merseyside training ships, the Clarence, was destroyed by a fire on a day when the ship was to have received a visit from the Bishop of Shrewsbury. An official inquiry reached no firm conclusions as to the cause, noting however that "There remains the theory that the ship was deliberately fired".

On shore the Mount St Bernard's RC Reformatory opened in 1856. In the same year there was a mutiny, then in 1864 a riot. In 1870 a boy died. Again in 1875 there was a mutiny where 60 out of 200 boys escaped. Three years later in 1878 there was another mutiny, with a break out and an officer was stabbed.

The Akbar was retired in 1910 and the boys moved on shore to the 'Akbar Nautical Training School' at Heswall. The magazine John Bull published a report on the Akbar Scandal, detailing cruel treatment that had apparently led to a number of deaths. It detailed that boys were tortured and there were several deaths. Boys were gagged with blankets before being secured to a birching horse, their trousers removed and then birched with hawthorn branches. The ill boys were considered malingerers and caned. Minor offences were punished with drenching and being forced to stand upright throughout the night; several boys died as a result. The Home Office internal report exonerated the Akbar staff, but this led to a Departmental Committee in 1913 inquiring into punishment practices used, and the welfare of the children with reformatory and industrial schools.

Consolidation
The Akbar Scandal triggered a change in the management of Reformatories and Industrial Schools. They lost their autonomy and became subject of increased inspection. Charles Russell was appointed that year as Chief Inspector of the Reformatory and Industrial Schools shaped new ideas about the boys' welfare. The ethos returned to the one of care found in the 1830s away from the one of punishment that it had become. Numbers on roll declined as magistrates started to prefer the probation system. The schools accepted the common name of Approved schools in 1927 and this was formalised by the 1933 Children and Young Person's Act, which would effectively ended the Victorian Industrial and Reformatory School System. The remaining schools were re-constituted as Approved Schools with objectives more appropriate for youngsters in the 20th century.

United States
Similar to the United Kingdom, reformatories in the United States were an alternative to traditional prisons for youth and young adults that came out of social and prison reform movements of the 19th century and early 20th centuries, also known at the Progressive Era. Manual labor colleges, which emerged at the same time, were closely related institutions that primarily took in vagrant youth.

Origins and Practice
Social reformers were concerned about the urban poor, especially the growing presence of white immigrants like those from Ireland, slum conditions, and their perceived connection to rising crime rates in cities. At the same time, prison reformers were investigating and examining the terrible conditions at traditional prisons and their perceived failure to rehabilitate prisoners. Reformatories emerged as penal practice shifted toward "treat[ing] rather than punish[ing]" inmates and attempting to prevent the creation of future criminals, which was marked by the first meeting of the National Congress on Penitentiary and Reformatory Discipline in 1870 in Cincinnati, Ohio. Penologists from around the world gathered to consider new visions for imprisonment and collectively endorsed a general aim for reforming prisoners with their Declaration of Principles.

Women's Reformatories in New York State
Reformatories were mostly single-sex institutions that offered gendered "educational, vocational, and recreational" activities and opportunities. Reformatories for women aimed to legislate morality through criminalizing female sexuality, contributing to the creation of the category of "delinquent girl." White middle and upper-class women spearheaded the reformatory movement for women, criticizing the condition of women in traditional correctional facilities, and advocating for separate institutions. At New York's Auburn Prison (1818 – ), for example, female prisoners did not fit into the ascetic penology the facility pioneered. Segregated from the male population in a crowded, unventilated attic above the guard's barracks, not only did they defy the Silent System Auburn enforced, but were also unsupervised, and vulnerable to the predations of male guards. Further, women were not allowed to contribute through manual labor, and were left to languish, locked inside most of the time. Part of the issue was that before the Civil War, women were an extreme minority in United States' prisons: in the mid-1840s, Dorothea Dix recorded a grand total of 167 women in prisons from Maine through Virginia. As Beaumont and De Tocqueville observed in their survey of American Prisons ("On the Penitentiary System in The United States..."): "It is because they occupy little space in the prison, that they have been neglected. It is the same with most evils of society, a remedy for which is ardently sought if they are important; if they are not alarming they are overlooked."But when a female inmate, secretly five months pregnant, was flogged to death in the early 1830s, progressive activists were livid, and pushed the New York State Legislature to found Mount Pleasant Prison, in Ossining NY, in 1835, the first female prison created by an act of law in the United States. Mount Pleasant and other women's facilities like it aimed to make inmates embody Victorian standards of womanhood, through training in domestic services, and education regarding sexual standards and women's role in society. Prisons like Bedford Hills (1901 – ) went so far as to adopt a "cottage plan," each housing unit with 28 single rooms (which could be decorated), a kitchen, and a flower garden. Even well into the 1920s – and supported by the social science of the era, as codified in law by the 1908 Muller v. Oregon ruling – labor in women's prisons would be limited to sewing, cleaning, and other chores.

Exclusions
Black youth were traditionally excluded from reformatory institutions, like reformatories and industrial schools, unless separate ones were created exclusively for them, like Philadelphia's "Colored House of Refuge." These institutions did not offer similar types of education and training to those for white youth and, instead, often prepared Black youth for gendered menial labor (ex: physical labor and domestic work) that would reinforce their social position.

Canada
The term "reformatory" also has considerable constitutional significance in Canada, as s.92 (6) of the British North America Act, 1867 exclusively reserves powers over reformatories and prisons to provincial jurisdiction, as well as pre-trial incarceration for those judged unsuitable for bail. In contrast, s. 91 (28) exclusively reserves powers over penitentiaries and criminal legislation to federal jurisdiction creating an intricately overlapping burden of responsibility In some provinces, particularly British Columbia, pre-trial detainees greatly suffer relatively to convicted provincial inmates (or even many federal inmates) . Under current law, most juveniles and anyone sentenced to a term of imprisonment up to and including two years less a day will serve time in a provincial prison or reformatory (although they may be released far earlier due to overcrowding or a determination that further incarceration is unjustified). Controversially, the use of "two years less a day" sentences has been used by some judges to avoid mandatory sentences such as deportation, weapons prohibitions, prohibitions to entry to the US, or harsh pardon ineligibility barriers.

The use of the terms "prison", "correctional centre", and "reformatory" vary by province and category of offender. In contrast, federal penitentiaries are mostly referred to simply as "institutions". In addition, a person who would face a provincial sentence of incarceration for an offence would face criminal proceedings more directly administered by the province. For example, judges in such proceedings are appointed by the province, rather than superior court justices who are appointed by the federal government (despite most prosecutors, superior court justices, and court costs being paid by the provinces in such cases). Provincial governments also have more leeway to create diversion programs in such cases. Such offences are often prosecuted (if at all) by summary charge and result in relatively minor sentences.

Reformatories in Ontario, Canada
Until 1972, the term reformatory referred to an Ontario provincial prison for either juveniles (16 and 17 years of age) or adults (18 years of age or older). Very often, one reformatory facility would house both. Offenders under the age of 16 were held in Training Schools. After 1972, when Ontario's Department of Correctional Services (having been renamed in 1968 from the Department of Reform Institutions) became the Ministry of Correctional Services, these facilities were officially redesignated as correctional centres.

Examples:
 * Ontario Reformatory-Guelph became Guelph Correctional Centre
 * Ontario Reformatory-Mimico became Mimico Correctional Centre
 * Andrew Mercer Reformatory for Women was, for a time, renamed The Mercer Complex

title: Reformatory


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Medenine

Medenine (مدنين ) is the major town in south-eastern Tunisia, 77 km south of the port of Gabès and the Island of Djerba, on the main route to Libya. It is the capital of Medenine Governorate.

Overview
In pre-colonial times, Medenine was already the most important trading centre in the south, attracting merchants from all over North Africa and even from Bornu, to the south of the Sahara. The Ksar housed the central granaries of the various nomadic Berber tribes of the region.

The area was the scene of an unsuccessful German counter-attack by General Erwin Rommel as part of Operation Capri during March 1943 against British Eighth Army forces. The Battle of Medenine was Rommel's last engagement in Africa before he was replaced by General Hans-Jürgen von Arnim as commander of the Afrika Korps.

In popular culture

 * Part of the town was used as a location for the 1999 US science fiction film Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace.

title: Medenine


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Musical language

Musical languages are constructed languages based on musical sounds, which tend to incorporate articulation. Whistled languages are dependent on an underlying spoken languages and are used in various cultures as a means for communication over distance, or as secret codes. The mystical concept of a language of the birds tries to connect the two categories, since some authors of musical a priori languages have speculated about a mystical or primeval origin of the whistled languages.

Constructed musical languages
There are only a few language families as of now such as the Solresol language family, Moss language family, and Nibuzigu language family.

The Solresol family is a family of a posteriori languages (usually English) where a sequence of 7 notes of the western C-Major scale or the 12 tone chromatic scale are used as phonemes.
 * Domila
 * Eaiea
 * Sarus
 * Solresol

 * Moss (language) is a pidgin built out of melodic shapes.

 * The Nıbuzıgu family

Kobaïan is a language constructed by Christian Vander of the band Magma, which uses elements of Slavic and Germanic languages, but is based primarily on 'sonorities, not on applied meanings'.

Musically influenced languages

 * Hymmnos

In fiction

 * Voyage to Faremido

In Film and other Media

 * Close Encounters of the Third Kind

title: Musical language


text:
Talk:Musical language

former content at Talk:S'olresol solmis'olre redor'emi. dab (ᛏ) 10:59, 19 July 2005 (UTC)

Moss is a pidgin?
How can Moss be a pidgin if it's constructed? Maybe this should be changed to "modeled on pidgin" or "designed to have similar grammar to pidgin languages." Awelotta (talk) 16:10, 27 December 2019 (UTC)

 * Very true, but conpidgins/constructed pidgins as a type are established already - see Viossa.  Frzzl  talk  · contribs   23:25, 1 July 2023 (UTC)

To do
Article really needs rewriting tbh - look at De Visme Pasilogie (1806). Available here.  Frzzl  talk · contribs   23:26, 1 July 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Musical language


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Alan M. Hantman

 This page is an archive of the proposed deletion of the article below. Further comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination). No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was keep. --Tony Sidaway Talk 04:25, 3 August 2005 (UTC)

Alan M. Hantman
Tagged for speedy, but not a candidate. To me "Architect of the Capitol" seems like a notable title and that any architect holding it would be a notable one. Keep. Sjakkalle (Check!)  09:16, 19 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep — not non-notable — RJH 18:35, 19 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep, notability established. --PrologFan {Talk} 18:44, 19 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep since Architect of the Capitol is a real position. They are the main people who oversee the Capitol building grounds in Washington D.C. and also the people who administer the flag program the US Capitol runs. Zscout370 (Sound Off) 18:51, 19 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. The notability of this American architect is well established. Hall Monitor 23:22, 19 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Comment: shoudn't the middle name be spelled full in article name? Pavel Vozenilek 00:16, 20 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Comment: Sorry for the speedy tag I placed. I mistakenly thought somebody wanted to advertise his resume. Resumes are uploaded here sometimes.--Jondel 04:09, 20 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Notable government official. JuntungWu 12:36, 1 August 2005 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


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Christian Rudolph Wilhelm Wiedemann

Christian Rudolph Wilhelm Wiedemann (7 December 1770 in Brunswick – 31 December 1840 in Kiel) was a German physician, historian, naturalist and entomologist. He is best known for his studies of world Diptera, but he also studied Hymenoptera and Coleoptera, although far less expertly.

Biography
Wiedemann’s father, Conrad Eberhard Wiedemann (1722–1804) was an art dealer and his mother, Dorothea Frederike (née Raspe) (1741–1804) was the daughter of an accountant in the Royal Mining Service and also interested in the arts.

After his education in Brunswick, he matriculated in 1790 to the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Jena where he was a contemporary of the poet Friedrich von Hardenberg.

While attending university, Wiedemann, was one of the many pupils of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, and travelled to Saxony and Bohemia. He obtained his doctoral degree in 1792 with a thesis entitled Dissertatio inauguralis sistens vitia gennus humanum debilitantia. He then went to England to increase his knowledge of mineralogy.

Appointed Professor of Anatomy at Brunswick’s Collegium Carolinum in 1794, his inaugural address was about a medical condition observed in a boy at Llandeilo, Wales. It was titled Über das fehlende Brustbein, English “On the missing breastbone”.

In 1796, he married Luise Michaelis, the daughter of Johann David Michaelis, an Orientalist. They would raise the two sons of Luise's brother, who died in a cholera epidemic. The couple had nine children of their own, two dying in infancy.

He was later appointed Lecturer in his specialist field obstetrics

In the late 17th century, there was a movement, based in Brunswick, to establish German as a scientific language. Able to read Latin, English, French and Italian, Wiedemann found remunerative work as a translator.

In 1801, he received a scholarship for study in Paris from the Duke of Brunswick. Here he studied obstetrics and natural history and met Georges Cuvier, amongst other zoologists.

In 1802, he was, in addition to his other medical appointments, made Professor of Obstetrics at the College of Anatomy and Surgery and was nominated Privy Councillor at the court of the Duchy of Brunswick and Lüneburg.

In 1804, he contracted syphilis which had serious effects in later years.

In 1805, he became Professor of Medicine in Kiel (then in Denmark and part of the Duchy of Holstein) with the title Counsellor of Justice and, later Counsellor of State. These were difficult years for Denmark which had sided with France in the Napoleonic Wars against England (and her allies) to preserve her maritime empire. Money was a problem and Wiedemann used his own resources to set up the midwifery clinic proposed as one of his duties as professor.

In 1811, he travelled south to Italy for his health.

From around 1814, Wiedemann devoted much of his time to taxonomic entomology and in 1815, on a visit to Bonn to stay with his daughter Emma who had married Carl Theodor Welcker later a radical embroiled in the turbulent politics of the 1840s he travelled to Stolberg to meet Johann Wilhelm Meigen a, by then, well known entomologist through his important work on Diptera. Perhaps, not able to attend properly to his medical duties through ill health- he visited the spa town of Bad Aachen in 1817. Wiedemann changed employment (to Pharmacology) and had several semi-honorary positions. With more time and sedentary, he prepared and studied insects and went on collecting trips for his health. He also gave lectures on entomology and natural history.

Wiedemann’s most productive work on insects was accomplished in the 1820s. But when he attended a scientific meeting in Hamburg in 1830 this too was drawing to a close. His eyesight was very poor and he had a succession of strokes.

Wiedemann main natural history interest remained entomology but he was also interested in mineralogy and conchology. In 1827, his collections included 5,000 minerals and over 3,500 species of Diptera.

He is known to have visited Hamburg, Copenhagen and Berlin in these years but nothing is so far known of these trips although they may well have been to further his insect studies.

Achievements
Wiedemann published the first monographs on “exotic” (non-European) Diptera. He was the creator of the transitory review Archiv für Zoologie und Zootomie 1800-1806 (five volumes) 2,356 pages. Berlin and Brunswick and the Zoologisches Magazin (volumes 1-2) 1817-1823 749 pages. Kiel and Altona.

Although he worked mainly on Diptera he also published descriptions of Coleoptera and (at least one) Hymenopteran.

He was the successor to Johan Christian Fabricius as the author of descriptions of “exotic” that is non-European Diptera. Meigen worked only on the European species.

His descriptions show clear advances, both over Fabricius and many of his contemporaries. A brief Latin diagnosis, a fuller detailed description in German, the sex of the specimen, locality details, a reference to the collection in which the specimen was to be found and, sometimes, the name of the collector.

In Brunswick, then an important centre for entomology Wiedemann worked with Johann Christian Ludwig Hellwig and Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger setting new standards for descriptions (uniform terminology for structures and colour) and for nomenclature, especially in regard to the avoidance of synonyms by proper research of pre-existing literature. He was critical of Fabricius in this respect, although honouring him as a great entomologist.

In Aussereuropäische Zweiflügelige Insekten he described 1000 new and redescribed 500 old (mainly Fabrician) species. This work, supplemental to Meigen followed Meigen in introducing many new genera. He could have gone further than he did with “exotic” genera. He introduced too few of these but the full extent of diversity of world Diptera was not then apparent. The work includes descriptions of Diptera collected by Ferdinand Deppe in Mexico.

Wiedemann, in his studies of the Fabrician) species was careful to consider only Fabricius specimens identified by their labels in Fabricius’ hand. This is at the core of the modern concept of type specimens.

He made his studies as comprehensive as possible, studying the collections of Wilhelm Von Winthem and Bernt Wilhelm Westermann and studied the collections in Copenhagen, Berlin, Frankfurt, Kiel, Leiden and Vienna. He also studied Thomas Say’s borrowing these from the Philadelphia museum. He was unable to study the Linnean and the Fabricius types (both in London) or visit Paris.

Wiedemann's published work on entomology was almost entirely descriptive and notable for its accuracy.

Works

 * Georges Cuvier, 1798 Tableau Élémentaire as Cüviers elemantarischer Entwurf der Naturgeschichte der Thiere, aus dem Französischen übersetz ind mit Anmmerkungen versehen von C.R.W. Wiedemann. Brunswick, 1800. The entomological part of this was translated and revised by Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger.Translation.
 * Über Pariser Gebäranstalten und Geburtshelfer, den letzen Schamfugenschnitt und einige andere zu Paris beobachtete Geburtsfälle. Brunswick 1803. Medical.
 * Unterricht für Hebammen. Brunswick, 1802. Medical – A Manual for Midwives. A Danish edition, Undervissung for Giordemødre was published in 1805. Expanded it was published as Lesebuch für Hebammen, Primer for midwives in 1814.
 * Anweisung zur Rettung der Ertrunkenen, Ersticken, Ehrängten, vom Blitze Erschlagenen, Erfrornen und Vergiftaten; nach den neuesten Beobachtungen entworfen. Brunswick, 1796 (Second edition 1804). Medical- treatment of accident victims.
 * With Karl Gustav Himly and T. G. A. Roose- Über das Impfen der Kuhpocken für besorgte Mütter. Brunswick, 1800. Medical. Advice on Smallpox vaccination.
 * J. Stuve Lehrbuch der Kenntniss des menschlichen Körpers und der Gesundheitslehren. Brunswick, 1805. Medical. Second revised edition of a standard textbook.
 * B. Harwood’s System der vergleichenden Anatomie ud Physiologie. Aus dem Englischen übersetzt und mit Anmerkungen und Zusätzen versehen von C.R.W. Wiedemann.Berlin, 1790.Translation.
 * J. Méhée. Über die Schusswunden. Brunswick, 1801).Translation.
 * Antoine-François de Fourcroy System der chemischen Kenntnisse. 1801.Translation.
 * Handbuch der Anatomie English Handbook of Anatomy.1796 (second editions 1802 and 1812)
 * Übersicht der mineralogischen einfachen fossilien.1800.
 * Tabulae animalium invertebratorum. 1810
 * Diptera exotica: sectio I. Kiliae: [s.n.], 1820.
 * Munus rectoris in Academia Christiana Albertina aditurus Analecta entomologica ex Museo Regio Havniensi... Kilisae: el regio typographeo scholarum, 1824.
 * Aussereuropäische Zweiflügelige Insekten. Hamm 1828-1830

Collections
Wiedemann's collection of Diptera and Hymenoptera was taken over by Wilhelm von Winthem who presented part to the Natural History Museum, Vienna (Naturhistorisches Museum, Wien) the rest to the Senckenberg Museum in Frankfurt, The Zoological Museum, University of Copenhagen (Zoologisk Museum, Københavns Universitet).

Honors
The Wiedemann Range in Greenland was named after him.

title: Christian Rudolph Wilhelm Wiedemann


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User:Drcharlie

Hi, I am Charles Tang.

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Bouveault–Blanc reduction

The Bouveault–Blanc reduction is a chemical reaction in which an ester is reduced to primary alcohols using absolute ethanol and sodium metal. It was first reported by Louis Bouveault and Gustave Louis Blanc in 1903. Bouveault and Blanc demonstrated the reduction of ethyl oleate and n-butyl oleate to oleyl alcohol. Modified versions of which were subsequently refined and published in Organic Syntheses.

 * [[Image:Bouveault-Blanc Reduction Scheme.png|350px|The Bouveault-Blanc reduction]]

This reaction is used commercially although for laboratory scale reactions it was made obsolete by the introduction of lithium aluminium hydride.

Reaction mechanism
Sodium metal is a one-electron reducing agent. Four equivalents of sodium are required to fully reduce each ester, although two more equivalents are typically consumed in deprotonating the product alcohols to alkoxides. Ethanol serves as a proton source. The reaction produces sodium alkoxides, according to the following stoichiometry:
 * +  6 Na   +   4    →      +      +   4

In practice, considerable sodium is consumed by the formation of hydrogen. For this reason, an excess of sodium is often required. Because the hydrolysis of sodium is rapid, not to mention dangerous, the Bouveault-Blanc reaction requires anhydrous ethanol and can give low yields with insufficiently dry ethanol. The mechanism of the reaction follows:

 * [[Image:Bouveault-Blanc Reduction Mechanism.png|500px|The mechanism of the Bouveault-Blanc reduction]]

Consistent with this mechanism, sodium-ethanol mixtures will also reduce ketones to alcohols.

This approach to reducing esters was widely used prior to the availability of hydride reducing agents such as lithium aluminium hydride and related reagents. It requires vigorous reaction conditions and has a significant risk of fires, explaining its relative unpopularity. One modification involves encapsulating the alkali metal into a silica gel, which has a safety and yield profile similar to that of hydride reagents. Another modification uses a sodium dispersion.

title: Bouveault–Blanc reduction


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Mirepoix, Ariège

Mirepoix (Mirapeis, supposedly from mira peis, meaning see the fish) is a commune in the Ariège department in southwestern France.

Geography
Mirepoix is situated in the Hers valley between Carcassonne and Pamiers.

History
Mirepoix was captured in 1209 by Simon V de Montfort and given to one of his lieutenants, Guy de Lévis. The town, originally on the right bank of the Hers-Vif, was destroyed by a violent flood in 1289. It was rebuilt by Jean de Lévis in 1290, on an elevated natural terrace on the other side of the river. The layout of the town center has not changed since the 13th century.

Mirepoix Cathedral (Cathédrale Saint-Maurice de Mirepoix), a former Roman Catholic cathedral and national monument of France, was the seat of a bishopric until 1801.

Politics and administration
Mirepoix is twinned with Palafrugell (Spain).

Population
The inhabitants are called Mirapiciens in French.

Sights
At the heart of Mirepoix is one of the finest surviving arcaded market squares - Les Couverts- in France. The square is bordered by houses dating from the thirteenth to the fifteenth centuries.

The mediaeval Maison des Consuls (council house) has rafter-ends carved with dozens of images of animals and monsters, and caricatures of mediaeval professions and social groups.

The cathedral of St-Maurice has the second widest Gothic arch in Europe (after Girona in Catalonia, Spain). The foundation stone was laid by Jean de Lévis on 6 May 1298. Construction continued, with interruptions, over the next six centuries. The cathedral was restored in 1858 and 1859 by Prosper Mérimée, and Eugène Viollet-le-Duc.

La Porte d'Aval dates from 1372.

Mirepoix's bridge is 206 meters long and has seven arches. It is the work of architect Jean-Rodolphe Perronet (1708–1794), whose best known works are the Pont de la Concorde in Paris (1787–1791) and the bridge of Nantes. Work on its construction was started in 1776. Near the bridge and closer to town a much smaller bridge passes over a canal; near this layer bridge is the 'chêne vert', an ancient oak tree about 800 years old.

The first mention of the ancient Château de Terride dates from 960. It was captured (together with Mirepoix as a whole) by Simon de Montfort on 22 September 1209. The castle took the name of 'Terride' in the 16th century.

Notable inhabitants

 * Jacques Fournier (c. 1280 – 1342) was Bishop of Mirepoix from 1326, and became Pope in 1334, taking the name Benedict XII. He was the third Avignon Pope.
 * Pierre-Paul Riquet (1609–1680) was the engineer responsible for the construction of the Canal du Midi. He lived in Mirepoix from 1634 to 1646.
 * Marie de Calages (1630–1661), born in Mirepoix, was a poet. She was crowned many times by l’Académie des Jeux Floraux.
 * Jean-Joseph Vidal (1747–1819) was an astronomer, particularly noted for his study of the planet Mercury.
 * Bertrand Clausel (1772–1842) was a marshal of France.
 * Frédéric Soulié (1800–1847), novelist, dramatist, critic and journalist. Born in Foix, Soulié lived in Mirepoix as a young boy.
 * Marie-Louise Escholier (1876–1956, née Marie-Louise Pons-Tandy), born in Mirepoix, was a writer. She was the co-author, with her husband Raymond Escholier, of the novel Cantegril. Marie-Louise Escholier and her husband are buried in the town cemetery.
 * Marcel Pagnol (1895–1974), the novelist, playwright and filmmaker, taught at the École Supérieure in Mirepoix.
 * Pierre Daboval (1918–2015) was an artist. He lived in Mirepoix from 1998 until his death.
 * Terence Macartney-Filgate (born 1924) is a British-Canadian film director. He has directed, written, produced or shot more than 100 films in a career spanning over 50 years.

Cultural Life
MiMa is an international festival of the art of marionettes held every summer. Each year the event is built around a central theme. The line-up showcases a variety of techniques including object theatre, glove puppets, string puppets and marionettes portées (puppets carried by a handle on the back of the head).

Mirepoix Musique promotes concerts of classical music (particularly French and English) and readings throughout the year in and around Mirepoix.

Salon du Livre d’Histoire Locale de Mirepoix

The festival Swing à Mirepoix is held each year over the Easter weekend.

title: Mirepoix, Ariège


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