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Betsy DeVos

Elisabeth Dee DeVos (' Prince'''; born January 8, 1958) is an American politician, philanthropist, and former government official who served as the 11th United States secretary of education from 2017 to 2021. DeVos is known for her conservative political activism, and particularly her support for school choice, school voucher programs, and charter schools. She was Republican national committeewoman for Michigan from 1992 to 1997 and served as chair of the Michigan Republican Party from 1996 to 2000, and again from 2003 to 2005. She has advocated for the Detroit charter school system and she is a former member of the board of the Foundation for Excellence in Education. She has served as chair of the board of the Alliance for School Choice and the Acton Institute and headed the All Children Matter PAC.

DeVos is married to former Amway CEO Dick DeVos. Her brother, Erik Prince, a former U.S. Navy SEAL officer, is the founder of Blackwater USA. Their father is billionaire industrialist Edgar Prince, founder of the Prince Corporation. In 2016, the family was listed by Forbes as the 88th-richest in America, with an estimated net worth of $5.4 billion.

On November 23, 2016, then-President-elect Donald Trump announced that he would nominate DeVos to serve as Secretary of Education in his administration. On January 31, following strong opposition to the nomination from Democrats, the Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor and Pensions approved her nomination on a party-line vote, sending her nomination to the Senate floor. On February 7, 2017, she was confirmed by the Senate by a 51–50 margin, with Vice President Mike Pence breaking the tie in favor of her nomination. This was the first time in U.S. history that a Cabinet nominee's confirmation was decided by the vice president's tiebreaking vote.

On January 7, 2021, DeVos tendered her resignation as education secretary as a result of the January 6 United States Capitol attack, saying to President Trump in her resignation letter, "There is no mistaking the impact your rhetoric had on the situation." Her resignation took effect on January 8, 2021, twelve days before her term would have ended with the inauguration of Joe Biden as president.

Early life
DeVos was born Elisabeth Prince on January 8, 1958. She grew up in Holland, Michigan, the eldest of four children born to Elsa (Zwiep) Prince (later, Broekhuizen) and Edgar Prince, a billionaire industrialist. Edgar was the founder of Prince Corporation, an automobile parts supplier based in Holland, Michigan. She is of Dutch ancestry.

DeVos was educated at the Holland Christian High School, a private school located in her home town of Holland, Michigan. She graduated from Calvin College in Grand Rapids, Michigan, where she earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in business economics in 1979. During college, DeVos was involved with campus politics, volunteered for Gerald Ford's presidential campaign, and attended the 1976 Republican National Convention to participate in a program for young Republicans.

DeVos grew up as a member of the Christian Reformed Church in North America. She has been a member and elder of Mars Hill Bible Church in Grand Rapids. Former Fuller Seminary president Richard Mouw, with whom DeVos served on a committee, said she is influenced by Dutch neo-Calvinist theologian Abraham Kuyper, a founding figure in Christian Democracy political ideology.

Political activity
Since 1982, DeVos has participated in the Michigan Republican Party. She served as a local precinct delegate for the Michigan Republican Party, having been elected for 16 consecutive two-year terms since 1986. She was a Republican National Committeewoman for Michigan between 1992 and 1997, and served as chairwoman of the Michigan Republican Party from 1996 to 2000. In 2004, the Lansing State Journal described DeVos as "a political pit bull for most of (Democratic) Governor [Jennifer] Granholm's 16 months in office" and said that if DeVos was not Granholm's "worst nightmare", she was "certainly her most persistent".

Bill Ballenger, editor of the newsletter Inside Michigan Politics and a former Republican state senator, called DeVos "a good behind-the-scenes organizer and a good fund raiser" as well as "a true believer in core Republican issues that leave nobody in doubt on where she stands". DeVos resigned the position in 2000. She said in that same year, "It is clear I have never been a rubber stamp. ... I have been a fighter for the grassroots, and following is admittedly not my strong suit." In 2003, DeVos ran again for party chairman and was elected to the post without opposition.

Political fundraising
DeVos personally raised more than $150,000 for the 2004 Bush re-election campaign, and hosted a Republican fundraiser at her home in October 2008 that was headlined by President George W. Bush. During the Bush administration she spent two years as the finance chairperson for the National Republican Senatorial Committee and worked closely with the administration on "various projects". The DeVos family has been active in Republican politics for decades, particularly as donors to candidates and the party, giving more than $17 million to political candidates and committees since 1989.

Opposition to limits on political spending
Like other members of the DeVos family, Betsy strongly opposed government limits on political donations and spending. While popular with the American public as a way to prevent (perceived) unfair domination by the wealthy in politics, DeVos and many other conservatives argue it is an infringement on free speech. In a 1997 op-ed for Roll Call, defending unlimited donations of "soft money" in political spending, DeVos compared government limits to Big Brother of George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four. Betsy was a founding board member of the James Madison Center for Free Speech which the DeVos family funded and whose "sole goal was to end all legal restrictions on money in politics".

She also wrote (in Roll Call) that she expected results from her political contributions. "My family is the largest single contributor of soft money to the national Republican Party. I have decided to stop taking offense at the suggestion that we are buying influence," she wrote. "Now I simply concede the point. They are right." She also stated in the op-ed, "We expect to foster a conservative governing philosophy consisting of limited government and respect for traditional American virtues. … We expect a return on our investment; we expect a good and honest government. Furthermore, we expect the Republican Party to use the money to promote these policies and, yes, to win elections."

2016 U.S. presidential election
During the Republican Party presidential primaries for the 2016 election, DeVos initially donated to Jeb Bush and Carly Fiorina before eventually supporting Marco Rubio. In March 2016, DeVos described Donald Trump as an "interloper" and said that he "does not represent the Republican Party".

Business career
DeVos is chairwoman of the Windquest Group, a privately held operating group that invests in technology, manufacturing, and clean energy. DeVos and her husband founded it in 1989. With a commitment of $100 million, Betsy DeVos's family was one of the largest investors—and losers—in blood-testing company Theranos.

DeVos and her husband were producers for a Broadway run of the stage play Scandalous: The Life and Trials of Aimee Semple McPherson, in 2012, based on the life of the famous evangelist and featuring a book and lyrics written by Kathie Lee Gifford. The show ran for three weeks, closing in December 2012 after receiving negative reviews.

Neurocore
Betsy and her husband Dick are chief investors in and board members of Neurocore, a group of brain performance centers offering biofeedback therapy for disorders such as depression, attention deficit disorder, autism, and anxiety. The therapy consists of showing movies to patients and interrupting them when they become distracted, in an effort to retrain their brains. According to The New York Times, a review of Neurocore's claims and interviews with medical experts suggest that the company's conclusions are unproven and its methods questionable. Democratic senators raised concerns about a potential conflict of interest and questioned whether she and her family members would "benefit financially from actions" she could take as the U.S. Secretary of Education. DeVos announced that she would step down from the company's board but would retain her investment in the company, valued at $5 million to $25 million. In November 2019, Truth In Advertising filed complaints against Neurocore with the Food and Drug Administration for unapproved medical devices and the Federal Trade Commission for deceptive marketing.

Nomination
On November 23, 2016, Trump's transition team announced DeVos as the nominee to be the next secretary of education. Upon her nomination, DeVos said "I am honored to work with the President-elect on his vision to make American education great again. The status quo in ed is not acceptable." DeVos's nomination was generally criticized by teachers' unions and praised by supporters of school choice.

Detroit Free Press editor Stephen Henderson expressed concerns over DeVos's nomination, writing that "DeVos isn't an educator, or an education leader". Rebecca Mead of The New Yorker questioned the efficacy of Michigan's charter school system, which DeVos has supported. Randi Weingarten, president of the American Federation of Teachers, called DeVos "the most ideological, anti-public education nominee" since the position became a cabinet position. The Michigan chapter of the American Civil Liberties Union and the Michigan Democratic Party opposed DeVos's nomination.

Former presidential candidates Jeb Bush and Mitt Romney respectively called DeVos an "outstanding pick" and a "smart choice". Republican senator Ben Sasse said DeVos "has made a career out of standing up to powerful and connected special interests on behalf of poor kids who are too often forgotten by Washington". In an opinion editorial, the Chicago Tribune wrote that "DeVos has helped lead the national battle to expand education opportunities for children".

Confirmation hearing
The confirmation hearing for DeVos was initially scheduled for January 10, 2017, but was delayed for one week after the Office of Government Ethics requested more time to review her financial disclosures. On January 17, 2017, the Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor and Pensions held the hearing, which lasted three-and-one-half hours and "quickly became a heated and partisan debate". Democratic senators directed several questions toward her regarding her wealth, including questions about her family's political donations to the Republican Party and whether or not she had personal experience with financial aid or student loans. Several media outlets reported that DeVos appeared to have plagiarized quotes from an Obama administration official in written answers submitted to the Senate committee. DeVos drew widespread media attention during the confirmation hearings for suggesting that guns might have a place in some schools due to a threat from grizzly bears. DeVos's comment was later lampooned by television personalities Kate McKinnon on Saturday Night Live, Jimmy Kimmel, Stephen Colbert and James Corden.

Prior to DeVos's confirmation, numerous U.S. senators from both parties reported tens of thousands of their constituents having contacted their offices in opposition to the confirmation of DeVos. More than 300 state lawmakers from across the U.S., overwhelmingly Democrats, voiced their opposition to DeVos's appointment in a letter to the U.S. Senate sent the day before a scheduled vote on her nomination. DeVos's nomination was supported by 18 Republican governors, including John Kasich and Rick Snyder, along with the nine Republican members of Congress from Michigan.

Debate and final vote

On January 31, DeVos's nomination was approved by the committee on a 12–11 party-line vote and was due to be voted on by the Senate. Later on February 1, 2017, two Republican U.S. senators, Susan Collins from Maine and Lisa Murkowski from Alaska, came out against the confirmation (despite supporting DeVos in committee when both of them voted to move her nomination to the floor), bringing the predicted confirmation vote on DeVos to 50–50 if all Democrats and independents voted as expected, meaning Vice President Mike Pence would have to break the tie. During an unusually early 6:30 a.m. vote on February 3, 2017, cloture was invoked on DeVos's nomination in the Senate, requiring a final vote on the confirmation to happen after 30 hours of debate.

Ahead of the scheduled final vote at noon on February 7, 2017, the Democrats in the Senate continuously spoke on the floor against the confirmation of DeVos the entire night before leading up to the vote, in protest of their strong disapproval of the nominee. As expected, there was a 50–50 tie on the final vote, with all Democrats and independents, along with two Republicans (Susan Collins and Lisa Murkowski), voting in opposition to DeVos, while the other fifty Republican senators voted in support of the confirmation, including Senator Jeff Sessions, who himself had been nominated by the Trump administration for the post of United States attorney general. Republicans scheduled Sessions's confirmation vote after DeVos's so that he would be able to cast his vote in support of DeVos. Had his confirmation vote been earlier than hers, he would have been forced to resign from the Senate, therefore losing a vital vote for the Republicans on the confirmation. Since there was a tie, Vice President Mike Pence had to step in to decide the vote as the president of the Senate. He cast his tie-breaking vote in favor of DeVos to officially confirm her as education secretary. This was the first tie decided by a vice president on any vote in the Senate since the George W. Bush administration.

Staffing
DeVos said that on the basis of her first few days in the job, she had concerns that some Education Department employees were sympathetic to the Obama administration. "I . . . would not be surprised if there are also those that would try to subvert the mission of this organization and this department," she stated. Asked what she could do about that, she said, "Whatever can be done will be done, and it will be done swiftly and surely."

In April 2017, DeVos praised the president's nomination of Carlos G. Muñiz as the department's general counsel.

In April 2017, DeVos named Candice Jackson Deputy Assistant Secretary in the department's Office for Civil Rights, where she will be acting assistant secretary while that higher, Senate-confirmed appointment is vacant. DeVos named Jason Botel Deputy Assistant Secretary for Elementary and Secondary Education. Botel, a registered Democrat who supported President Obama and the Black Lives Matter movement, founded the KIPP Ujima Village Academy in Baltimore, after working for Teach For America.

In mid-May 2018, The New York Times reported that under DeVos, the size of the team investigating abuses and fraud by for-profit colleges was reduced from about twelve members under the Obama administration to three, with their task also being scaled back to "processing student loan forgiveness applications and looking at smaller compliance cases". DeVos also appointed Julian Schmoke as the team's new supervisor; Schmoke was a former dean of DeVry Education Group, which was one of the institutions the team had been investigating. The investigation into DeVry was not the only one stopped, others include those of Bridgepoint Education and Career Education Corporation. The Education Department has hired more ex-employees and people affiliated with those institutions, such as Robert S. Eitel, senior counselor to DeVos, Diane Auer Jones, an advisor to the department, and Carlos G. Muñiz, the department's general counsel.

In October 2018, it was announced that DeVos's chief of staff, Josh Venable, would be replaced by Nate Bailey, who at that time was DeVos's chief of communications. Two years later, Venable joined an anti-Trump group, the Republican Political Alliance for Integrity and Reform (REPAIR), which is led by former White House officials.

School choice and private schools
In February 2017, DeVos released a statement calling historically black colleges "real pioneers when it comes to school choice", causing controversy as some pointed out the schools originated after segregation laws prevented African Americans from attending others. DeVos later acknowledged racism as an important factor in the history of historically black colleges.

On March 24, 2017, during a visit to the Osceola County campus of Valencia College, DeVos said she was considering the extension of federal financial aid for students that were year-round and interested in placing more focus on community colleges.

DeVos delivered her first extended policy address on March 29, 2017, at the Brookings Institution which included the topic of school choice which has been her main advocacy issue for more than 30 years. She stated an interest in implementing choice policies directed toward children as individuals and criticizing the Obama administration's additional funding of $7 billion for the U.S.'s worst-performing schools as "throwing money at the problem" in an attempt to find a solution. On May 22, 2017, DeVos announced the Trump administration was offering "the most ambitious expansion" of school choice within American history. DeVos cited Indiana (which has the U.S.'s largest school voucher program) as a potential model for a nationwide policy but did not give specific proposals.

In a May 2017 House of Representatives committee hearing, Rep. Katherine Clark, said an Indiana private school which takes publicly funded vouchers maintains it is entitled to deny admission to LGBTQ students or those coming from families with "homosexual or bisexual activity." Clark asked if she would inform Indiana that it could not discriminate in that way if it accepted federal funding and asked her how she would respond in the event a voucher school rejected black students but a state "said it was okay." DeVos answered: "Well again, the Office of Civil Rights and our Title IX protections are broadly applicable across the board, but when it comes to parents making choices on behalf of their students..." Clark stopped her saying, "This isn't about parents making choices, this is about the use of federal dollars. Is there any situation? Would you say to Indiana, that school cannot discriminate against LGBT students if you want to receive federal dollars? Or would you say the state has the flexibility?" DeVos responded: "I believe states should continue to have flexibility in putting together programs ..." CBS reporter Lesley Stahl questioned DeVos, in a March 2018 60 Minutes interview, about the documented failure of the DeVos programs to demonstrate a positive result, in Michigan, her home state: "Your argument that if you take funds away that the schools will get better is not working in Michigan ... where you had a huge impact and influence over the direction of the school system." Stahl added, "The public schools here are doing worse than they did." DeVos was unable to provide any actual examples of improvement, but stated there were "pockets" where schools had done better than public schools.

On June 6, 2017, DeVos said states' rights would determine private schools being allocated funds by the federal government during an appearance before members of a House appropriations committee.

Student loans
On April 11, 2017, DeVos undid several Obama administration policy memos issued by John King Jr. and Ted Mitchell which were designed to protect student loan borrowers.

On July 6, 2017, Democratic attorneys-general in 18 states and Washington, D.C., led by Massachusetts attorney-general Maura Healey, filed a federal lawsuit against DeVos for suspending the implementation of rules that were meant to protect students attending for-profit colleges. The rules, developed during the Obama administration, were meant to take effect on July 1, 2017.

On September 12, 2018, DeVos lost the lawsuit brought by 19 states and the District of Columbia, which accused the Department of Education of improperly delaying implementation of regulations protecting student loan borrowers from predatory practices.

Coronavirus pandemic
During the coronavirus pandemic, DeVos directed millions of dollars of coronavirus relief funds from the Coronavirus Aid, Relief and Economic Security Act intended for public schools and colleges, to private and religious schools.

DeVos pushed for schools to re-open while coronavirus cases were still surging in large parts of the country. She said that the Trump administration was considering pulling funding from public schools unless they provided full-time in person learning during the pandemic. On July 12, 2020, she said "there's nothing in the data that suggests that kids being in school is in any way dangerous to them", an assertion that public health experts disputed. She also refused to say whether schools should follow guidelines laid out by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) on reopening schools.

Other
On June 2, 2017, DeVos announced her support of President Trump's decision to withdraw from the Paris Agreement the prior day.

On July 13, 2017, Candice Jackson, who is a sexual assault survivor, organized a meeting with DeVos, college sexual assault victims, accused assailants, and higher education officials, and said she would look at policies on sexual assault accusations on campuses from the Obama administration to see if accused students were treated within their rights. Asked by CBS 60 Minutes reporter Lesley Stahl about her repeal of Obama administration guidelines for colleges dealing with reports of sexual assaults, she said her concern was for men falsely accused of such assaults. "Survivors, victims of a lack of due process, and campus administrators have all told me that the current approach does a disservice to everyone involved," said DeVos. However, some survivors of sexual assault and harassment and organizations which advocate on their behalf oppose the changes and say they would make schools more dangerous.

In October 2017, DeVos revoked 72 guidance documents of the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services which outlined the rights of disabled students under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act and the Rehabilitation Act.

In a January 2018 speech, DeVos said that the American Federation of Teachers (AFT) found that "60 percent of its teachers reported having moderate to no influence over the content and skills taught in their own classrooms." In response, AFT noted that in the same survey of around 5,000 educators, 86% felt that DeVos had disrespected them.

In March 2018, DeVos announced a School Safety Commission, to provide meaningful and actionable recommendations. Members were four Cabinet members, including herself. The organization held a meeting on March 28 and a gathering of school shooting survivors and families on April 17.

In late May 2018, DeVos said that she believed it was "a school decision" on whether to report a student's family to the Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) if the student or their family are undocumented immigrants. However, under Plyler v. Doe, the American Supreme Court ruled under the US constitution, schools are obligated to provide schooling irrespective of immigration status. The American Civil Liberties Union has said that because of this, it would be unconstitutional for schools to report students or their families to ICE.

In 2019, DeVos unsuccessfully attempted to cut federal funding for the Special Olympics from her department's budget, which she had also attempted to cut in her previous two annual budgets.

Protests and security
DeVos has been a controversial figure throughout her tenure. In her first official appearance as Secretary on February 10, 2017, dozens of protesters showed up to prevent her appearance. The protesters physically blocked her from entering through the back entrance of Jefferson Academy, a D.C. public middle school in Southwest, Washington, D.C. DeVos was eventually able to enter the school through a side entrance.

Subsequent to the incident, the U.S. Marshals Service, rather than Education Department employees, began providing security for her. Education Department officials declined requests for information about the deployment of marshals or the current tasks of the Secretary's displaced security team normally assigned to her. Many of those security personnel are former Secret Service agents who have worked at the department for many years. Regarding the withdrawal of the department's team, former Education Secretary Arne Duncan said, "That's a waste of taxpayer money."

During her first visit to a public university on April 6, 2017, DeVos was confronted by around 30 protestors. She was touring an area designed to resemble a hospital ward at Florida International University. The following day, the U.S. Marshals Service said after a threat evaluation was conducted in February that DeVos would be given additional security, projecting a cost of $7.8 million between February and September 2017.

On May 10, 2017, DeVos gave a commencement speech at Bethune–Cookman University, a historically black college, and during her speech a majority of the students booed DeVos, with about half of them standing up and turning their backs to her. She also received an honorary doctorate from the university.

Legal issues
According to DeVos's 2018 financial disclosure form certified by the Office of Government Ethics on December 3, 2018, she had not divested from twenty-four assets required under her signed ethics agreement nearly 22 months after being confirmed in February 2017.

In May 2019, the Education Department inspector general released a report concluding that DeVos had used personal email accounts to conduct government business and that she did not properly preserve these emails.

In September 2020, it was reported that the Office of the Special Counsel had investigated DeVos over potential violations of the Hatch Act after she appeared on Fox News during the 2020 election campaign, where she attacked Democratic Party presidential nominee Joe Biden. After her television appearance, the Department of Education promoted her Fox News interview.

Resignation
On January 7, 2021, DeVos resigned from her position as Secretary of Education after the January 6 U.S. Capitol riots. She said in her letter to President Trump that the riots had overshadowed the accomplishments of his administration. She was the second cabinet member to resign following the insurrection, the first being Secretary of Transportation Elaine Chao. Hours after her resignation, Senator Elizabeth Warren later called her the worst Secretary of Education on Twitter, saying she never did anything to help students, and saying she would rather quit than invoke the 25th Amendment to remove Trump from office.

The Prince Foundation
DeVos was listed for many years on IRS form Form 990s as the foundation's vice president (hitherto called the Edgar and Elsa Prince Foundation). However, she testified under oath in the Senate Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions Committee hearing, in response to Senator Maggie Hassan's questions, that she had nothing to do with the contributions made by her mother's foundation to conservative advocacy groups including Focus on the Family and the Family Research Council.

Dick and Betsy DeVos Family Foundation
The Dick & Betsy DeVos Family Foundation was launched in 1989. The foundation's giving, according to its website, is motivated by faith, and "is centered in cultivating leadership, accelerating transformation and leveraging support in five areas", namely education, community, arts, justice, and leadership. In 2015, the DeVos Foundation made $11.6 million in charitable contributions, bringing the couple's lifetime charitable giving to $139 million. Forbes ranked the DeVos family No. 24 on its 2015 list of America's top givers.

The DeVos Foundation has donated to hospitals, health research, arts organizations, Christian schools, evangelical missions, and conservative, free-market think tanks. Of the $100 million the foundation donated between 1999 until 2014, half of it went to Christian organizations. Organizations funded by the foundation include: Michigan's Foundation for Traditional Values; Center for Individual Rights; Acton Institute; Institute for Justice; Center for Individual Rights; Michigan's Pregnancy Resource Center; Right to Life Michigan Educational Fund; and Baptists for Life.

With respect to educational-focused donations, the foundation from 1999 to 2014 supported private Christian schools (at least $8.6 million), charter schools ($5.2 million), and public schools ($59,750). Specific donations included $2.39 million to the Grand Rapids Christian High School Association, $652,000 to the Ada Christian School, and $458,000 to Holland Christian Schools.

In 2016, the foundation reported $14.3 million in donations to over 100 organizations including the X Prize Foundation, Mars Hill Bible Church, American Enterprise Institute.

When DeVos was appointed US Education Secretary, it was revealed that she was an elder at Mars Hill Bible Church. During her tenure, she reportedly donated $431,000 to the church between 2002 and 2004 and $453,349 to Flannel, producer of the NOOMA video series.

Acton Institute and All Children Matter
DeVos has served as chairperson, board member, and treasurer of the Acton Institute and headed the All Children Matter PAC.

Kennedy Center
DeVos was appointed by President George W. Bush to the board of directors of the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in 2004, and served until 2010. While she was on the board, she and her husband funded a center to teach arts managers and boards of directors how to fundraise and manage their cultural institutions. The couple donated $22.5 million in 2010 to continue the endeavor, which was given in the name of the DeVos Institute of Arts Management.

After the announcement of the DeVoses' gift to the Kennedy Center, DeVos explained that she had been persuaded by Kennedy Center official Michael Kaiser's observation that millions of dollars are invested "in the arts, and training artists", but not in "training the leaders who hire the artists and run the organizations". The DeVoses' gift was intended to remedy this oversight. "We want to help develop human capital and leverage that capital to the greatest extent possible", she said, describing Kaiser's "practice and approach" as "practical, realistic and creative". The DeVoses' gift, part of which would be spent on arts groups in Michigan that had been hit hard by the recession, was the largest private donation in the Kennedy Center's history.

ArtPrize
In 2009, Betsy DeVos's son Rick DeVos founded ArtPrize, an international art competition held in Grand Rapids, Michigan. approximately 16 percent of ArtPrize's $3.5 million annual budget was provided by various foundations run by the DeVos family, with the rest provided by other foundations and local and national businesses.

Education activism
Betsy and Dick DeVos provide an annual scholarship to students at Northwood University. DeVos is a former member of the board of the Foundation for Excellence in Education (ExcelinEd), an education think tank founded by Jeb Bush, the chairman since 2015 of which has been former US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice, and which has received donations from Bill Gates, Michael Bloomberg and Eli Broad.

Christian motivation
DeVos in 2001 listed education activism and reform efforts as a means to "advance God's Kingdom". In an interview that year, she also said that "changing the way we approach ... the system of education in the country ... really may have greater Kingdom gain in the long run".

School choice
DeVos believes education in the United States should encourage the proliferation of charter schools and open up private schools to more students via financial assistance programs, often called vouchers. She has stated that education is "a closed system, a closed industry, a closed market. It's a monopoly, a dead end." DeVos believes that opening up the education market will offer parents increased choice, a view that critics call a drive to privatize the American public education system.

School vouchers
DeVos is known as "a fierce proponent of school vouchers" that would allow students to attend private schools with public funding. According to The New York Times, it "is hard to find anyone more passionate about the idea of steering public dollars away from traditional public schools than Betsy DeVos".

DeVos served as chairwoman of the board of Alliance for School Choice. Until November 2016, she headed the All Children Matter PAC which she and her husband founded in 2003 to promote school vouchers, tax credits to businesses that give private school scholarships, and candidates who support these causes. DeVos and her husband gave millions of dollars to the organization. In 2008, All Children Matter was fined $5.2 million in Ohio for illegally laundering money into political campaign funds. DeVos was not named in the case. The fine remained unpaid, prompting calls by Democratic Party lawmakers for DeVos to settle the debt.

Her other activities on behalf of public-school reform have included membership on the boards of directors of the Advocates for School Choice, the American Education Reform Council, and the Education Freedom Fund. She has chaired the boards of Choices for Children, and Great Lakes Education Project (GLEP).

DeVos was chair of the American Federation for Children (AFC). Affiliated with the Alliance for School Choice, the AFC describes itself as "a leading national advocacy organization promoting school choice, with a specific focus on advocating for school vouchers and scholarship tax credit programs".

During the 1990s, she served on the boards of Children First America and the American Education Reform Council, which sought to expand school choice through vouchers and tax credits. She and her husband worked for the successful passage of Michigan's first charter-school bill in 1993, and for the unsuccessful effort in 2000 to amend Michigan's constitution to allow tax-credit scholarships or vouchers. In response to that defeat, DeVos started a PAC, the Great Lakes Education Project, which championed charter schools. DeVos's husband and John Walton then founded All Children Matter, a political organization, which she chaired.

Detroit charter school system
DeVos has been an advocate for the Detroit charter school system. Douglas N. Harris, professor of economics at Tulane University, wrote in a 2016 The New York Times op-ed that DeVos was partly responsible for "what even charter advocates acknowledge is the biggest school reform disaster in the country". In the National Assessment of Educational Progress, Detroit had the lowest reading and mathematics scores "by far" over any city participating in the evaluation. According to Harris, she designed a system with no oversight in which schools that do poorly can continue to enroll students.

Ramesh Ponnuru of National Review argued that Harris overstates the failure of charter schools in Detroit. According to Ponnuru, the study referenced by Harris, the National Assessment of Educational Progress, did "not sound nearly as helpful to Harris's case as he suggests". Ponnuru pointed out that the study says "some 47 percent of charter schools in Detroit significantly outperform[ed] traditional public schools in reading and 49 percent of charters significantly outperforming traditionals on math. Only one percent of charters were significantly outperformed by traditional public schools in reading and only 7 percent on math." Also defending DeVos's record in Michigan, Jay P. Greene, professor of education policy at the University of Arkansas, argued that Harris's The New York Times article misled readers on the evidence and "falsely claimed that Detroit has failed to close failing charter schools", noting that Detroit has closed more charters than Louisiana, a state Harris cites as a model for charter school legislation.

In a written response to a question about charter school performance posed during DeVos's confirmation hearing by Senator Patty Murray (D-WA), asking "why do you think their performance is so poor?", DeVos defended the charter school system using graduation rates that were significantly higher than those used for state and federal accountability purposes. DeVos provided examples of several charter schools that she said had 4-year graduation exceeding 90%. These examples were contested by Columbia University professor Aaron Pallas and Education Week reporter Ben Herold on the basis that the actual graduation rates were roughly only half as large as DeVos had stated.

Personal life
The DeVos family is one of Michigan's wealthiest. Betsy DeVos's husband, Richard Marvin "Dick" DeVos Jr., is a multi-billionaire heir to the Amway fortune who ran Amway's parent company, Alticor, from 1993 to 2002. Dick DeVos is a major donor to conservative political campaigns and social causes,  and was the 2006 Republican nominee for Governor of Michigan. Dick's father, Richard Marvin DeVos Sr., co-founded Amway and was the owner of the Orlando Magic NBA basketball team. Richard DeVos was listed by Forbes in 2016 as having a net worth of $5.1 billion, making him America's 88th wealthiest individual.

Dick and Betsy DeVos married in 1979, and have four grown children: Rick, Elissa, Andrea, and Ryan. Rick works for the Windquest Group as a consultant on urban development, and is the founder of Grand Rapids' ArtPrize festival.

Betsy DeVos's brother, Erik Prince, a former U.S. Navy SEAL officer, is the founder of Blackwater USA, a private military services contractor.

Cultural depictions
In February 2017, artist Glenn McCoy created a political cartoon called Trying to Trash Betsy DeVos, based on Norman Rockwell's The Problem We All Live With. In the same month, The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon parodied the Education Department's typos on Twitter, featuring Jo Firestone as DeVos.

DeVos has been played by Kate McKinnon on Saturday Night Live multiple times, including satirizing DeVos's 60 Minutes interview in March 2018. That same month, Randy Rainbow created a satirical "interview" with DeVos based on the 60 Minutes interview, with Out stating, "It goes about as well as you'd expect it to."

DeVos was depicted by drag queen Scarlet Envy on the March 21, 2019 episode of RuPaul's Drag Race season 11 titled "Trump: The Rusical." Scarlet Envy depicted DeVos as "silly" and "martini-swilling." In the series' fourteenth season, drag queen Jasmine Kennedie appeared as DeVos for the show's signature celebrity impersonation challenge, Snatch Game.

title: Betsy DeVos


text: Category:Car-related lists

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Category:Car-related lists


text: User talk:71.96.34.175

title: User talk:71.96.34.175


text:
P73

p73 is a protein related to the p53 tumor protein. Because of its structural resemblance to p53, it has also been considered a tumor suppressor. It is involved in cell cycle regulation, and induction of apoptosis. Like p53, p73 is characterized by the presence of different isoforms of the protein. This is explained by splice variants, and an alternative promoter in the DNA sequence.

p73, also known as tumor protein 73 (TP73), protein was the first identified homologue of the tumor suppressor gene, p53. Like p53, p73 has several variants. It is expressed as distinct forms differing at either at the C- or the N-terminus. Currently, six different C-terminus splicing variants have been found in normal cells. The p73 gene encodes a protein with a significant sequence homology and a functional similarity with the tumor suppressor p53. The over-expression of p73 in cultured cells promotes a growth arrest and/or apoptosis similarly to p53.

The p73 gene has been mapped to a chromosome region (1p36. 2-3) a locus commonly deleted in various tumor entities and human cancers. Similar to p53 the protein product of p73 induces cell cycle arrest or apoptosis, hence its classification as a tumor suppressor. However unlike its counterpart, p73 is infrequently mutated in cancers. Perhaps, even more shocking is the fact that p73 – deficient mice do not show a tumorigenic phenotype. A deficiency of p53 almost certainly leads to unchecked cell proliferation and is noted in 60% of cancers.

Analyses of many tumors typically found in humans including breast and ovarian cancer show a high expression of p73 when compared to normal tissues in corresponding areas. Adenoviruses that cause cellular transformations have also been found to result in increased p73 expression. Furthermore, recent finding are suggesting that over-expression of transcription factors involved in cell cycle regulation and synthesis of DNA in mammalian cells (e.g.: E2F-1) induces the expression of p73. Many researchers believe that these results imply that p73 may not be a tumor suppressor but rather an oncoprotein. Some suggest that the TP73 locus encodes both a tumor suppressor (TAp73) and a putative oncogene (ΔNp73). This is a strong theory and causes much confusion, as it is unknown which of the two p73 variants is over-expressed and ultimately plays a role in tumorigenesis.

Genes of the p53 family are known to be complex. The viral oncoproteins (e.g. Adenovirus E1B) that efficiently inhibit p53 function are unable to inactivate p73, and those that seem to inhibit p73 have no effect on p53.

Debate persists about the exact function of p73. Recently it has been reported that p73 is enriched in the nervous system and that the p73-deficient mice, which do not exhibit an increased susceptibility to spontaneous tumorigenesis, have neurological and immunological defects. These results have been expanded and it has also been shown that p73 is present in early stages of neurological development and neuronal apoptosis by blocking the proapoptotic function of p53. This strongly implicates p73 as playing a large role in cellular differentiation.

title: P73


text:
User talk:70.19.37.72

August 2023
Hello, I'm CurryTime7-24. I wanted to let you know that one or more of your recent contributions to Dimitri Tiomkin have been undone because they did not appear constructive. If you would like to experiment, please use the sandbox. If you have any questions, you can ask for assistance at the Teahouse or the Help desk. Thanks. CurryTime7-24 (talk) 00:32, 25 August 2023 (UTC)

title: User talk:70.19.37.72


text:
User talk:Sometimes

Talk about me!

Notability of Landmines (band)
A tag has been placed on Landmines (band) requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done because the article appears to be about a real person, organization (band, club, company, etc.), or web content, but it does not indicate how or why the subject is notable: that is, why an article about that subject should be included in an encyclopedia. Under the criteria for speedy deletion, articles that do not indicate the subject's importance or significance may be deleted at any time. Please see the guidelines for what is generally accepted as notable. If this is the first page that you have created, then you should read the guide to writing your first article.

If you think that you can assert the notability of the subject, you may contest the deletion by adding  to the top of the page (just below the existing speedy deletion or "db" tag), coupled with adding a note on the article's talk page explaining your position, but be aware that once tagged for speedy deletion, if the article meets the criterion it may be deleted without delay. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag yourself, but don't hesitate to add information to the article that would confirm the subject's notability under Wikipedia guidelines.

For guidelines on specific types of articles, you may want to check out our criteria for biographies, for web sites, for bands, or for companies. Feel free to leave a note on my talk page if you have any questions about this. Prashanthns (talk) 09:50, 29 April 2008 (UTC)

September 2010
Welcome to Wikipedia, and thank you for your contributions. One of the core policies of Wikipedia is that articles should always be written from a neutral point of view. A contribution you made to Senkaku Islands appears to carry a non-neutral point of view, and your edit may have been changed or reverted to correct the problem. Please remember to observe this important core policy. Thank you. ··· 日本穣 ? · 投稿  · Talk to Nihonjoe ·  Join WikiProject Japan ! 04:30, 23 September 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sometimes


text:
JEL classification codes

Articles in economics journals are usually classified according to JEL classification codes, which derive from the Journal of Economic Literature. The JEL is published quarterly by the American Economic Association (AEA) and contains survey articles and information on recently published books and dissertations. The AEA maintains EconLit, a searchable data base of citations for articles, books, reviews, dissertations, and working papers classified by JEL codes for the years from 1969. A recent addition to EconLit is indexing of economics journal articles from 1886 to 1968 parallel to the print series Index of Economic Articles.

Structure
There are 26 primary JEL categories:

Each JEL primary category has secondary and tertiary subcategories, for example, under JEL: D – Microeconomics:
 * JEL Subcategories:
 * JEL: D1 – Household Behavior and Family Economics
 * JEL: D11 – Consumer Economics: Theory

JEL code (sub)categories, including periodic updates, are referenced at Journal of Economic Literature (JEL) Classification System. Links to definitions of (sub)categories are at JEL Classification Codes Guide with corresponding examples of article titles linked to publication information, such as abstracts.

Purpose
Articles in economics journals also list JEL codes (for example JEL: B12), facilitating their use across search engines. Comprehensive uses of JEL (sub)classifications include:
 * • The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2008, v. 8, Appendix IV, pp. 854–69, and for the online version by drilling to the primary, secondary, or tertiary JEL code of interest here and pressing the Search button below it for article-preview links.
 * • National Bureau of Economic Research Working Papers abstracts by year via links
 * • Research Papers in Economics via links.

A. General Economics and Teaching
A1 	General Economics
 * A10 	General
 * A11 	Role of Economics • Role of Economists • Market for Economists
 * A12 	Relation of Economics to Other Disciplines
 * A13 	Relation of Economics to Social Values
 * A14 	Sociology of Economics
 * A19 	Other

A2 	Economic Education and Teaching of Economics
 * A20 	General
 * A21 	Pre-college
 * A22 	Undergraduate
 * A23 	Graduate
 * A29 	Other

A3 	Collective Works
 * A30 	General
 * A31 	Collected Writings of Individuals
 * A32 	Collective Volumes
 * A33 	Handbooks
 * A39 	Other

B. History of Economic Thought, Methodology, and Heterodox Approaches

 * B00 	General

B1 	History of Economic Thought through 1925
 * B10 	General
 * B11 	Preclassical (Ancient, Medieval, Mercantilist, Physiocratic)
 * B12 	Classical (includes Adam Smith)
 * B13 	Neoclassical through 1925 (Austrian, Marshallian, Walrasian, Wicksellian)
 * B14 	Socialist • Marxist
 * B15 	Historical • Institutional • Evolutionary
 * B16 	Quantitative and Mathematical
 * B17 	International Trade and Finance
 * B19 	Other

B2 	History of Economic Thought since 1925
 * B20 	General
 * B21 	Microeconomics
 * B22 	Macroeconomics
 * B23 	Econometrics • Quantitative and Mathematical Studies
 * B24 	Socialist • Marxist • Sraffian
 * B25 	Historical • Institutional • Evolutionary • Austrian • Stockholm School
 * B26 	Financial Economics
 * B27 	International Trade and Finance
 * B29 	Other

B3 	History of Economic Thought: Individuals
 * B30 	General
 * B31 	Individuals
 * B32 	Obituaries

B4 	Economic Methodology
 * B40 	General
 * B41 	Economic Methodology
 * B49 	Other

B5 	Current Heterodox Approaches
 * B50 	General
 * B51 	Socialist • Marxist • Sraffian
 * B52 	Historical • Institutional • Evolutionary
 * B53 	Austrian
 * B54 	Feminist Economics
 * B59 	Other

C. Mathematical and Quantitative Methods

 * C00 	General
 * C01 	Econometrics
 * C02 	Mathematical Methods

C1 	Econometric and Statistical Methods and Methodology: General
 * C10 	General
 * C11 	Bayesian Analysis: General
 * C12 	Hypothesis Testing: General
 * C13 	Estimation: General
 * C14 	Semiparametric and Nonparametric Methods: General
 * C15 	Statistical Simulation Methods: General
 * C18 	Methodological Issues: General
 * C19 	Other

C2 	Single Equation Models • Single Variables
 * C20 	General
 * C21  Cross-Sectional Models • Spatial Models • Treatment Effect Models • Quantile Regressions
 * C22 	Time-Series Models • Dynamic Quantile Regressions • Dynamic Treatment Effect Models • Diffusion Processes
 * C23 	Panel Data Models • Spatio-temporal Models
 * C24 	Truncated and Censored Models • Switching Regression Models • Threshold Regression Models
 * C25 	Discrete Regression and Qualitative Choice Models • Discrete Regressors • Proportions • Probabilities
 * C26 	Instrumental Variables (IV) Estimation
 * C29 	Other

C3 	Multiple or Simultaneous Equation Models • Multiple Variables
 * C30 	General
 * C31 	Cross-Sectional Models • Spatial Models • Treatment Effect Models • Quantile Regressions • Social Interaction Models
 * C32 	Time-Series Models • Dynamic Quantile Regressions • Dynamic Treatment Effect Models • Diffusion Processes • State Space Models
 * C33 	Panel Data Models • Spatio-temporal Models
 * C34 	Truncated and Censored Models • Switching Regression Models
 * C35 	Discrete Regression and Qualitative Choice Models • Discrete Regressors • Proportions
 * C36 	Instrumental Variables (IV) Estimation
 * C38 	Classification Methods • Cluster Analysis • Principal Components • Factor Models
 * C39 	Other

C4 	Econometric and Statistical Methods: Special Topics
 * C40 	General
 * C41 	Duration Analysis • Optimal Timing Strategies
 * C43 	Index Numbers and Aggregation
 * C44 	Operations Research • Statistical Decision Theory
 * C45 	Neural Networks and Related Topics
 * C46 	Specific Distributions • Specific Statistics
 * C49 	Other

C5 	Econometric Modeling
 * C50 	General
 * C51 	Model Construction and Estimation
 * C52 	Model Evaluation, Validation, and Selection
 * C53 	Forecasting and Prediction Methods • Simulation Methods
 * C54 	Quantitative Policy Modeling
 * C55 	Large Data Sets: Modeling and Analysis
 * C57 	Econometrics of Games and Auctions
 * C58 	Financial Econometrics
 * C59 	Other

C6 	Mathematical Methods • Programming Models • Mathematical and Simulation Modeling
 * C60 	General
 * C61 	Optimization Techniques • Programming Models • Dynamic Analysis
 * C62 	Existence and Stability Conditions of Equilibrium
 * C63 	Computational Techniques • Simulation Modeling
 * C65 	Miscellaneous Mathematical Tools
 * C67 	Input–Output Models
 * C68 	Computable General Equilibrium Models
 * C69 	Other

C7 	Game Theory and Bargaining Theory
 * C70 	General
 * C71 	Cooperative Games
 * C72 	Noncooperative Games
 * C73 	Stochastic and Dynamic Games • Evolutionary Games • Repeated Games
 * C78 	Bargaining Theory • Matching Theory
 * C79 	Other

C8 	Data Collection and Data Estimation Methodology • Computer Programs
 * C80 	General
 * C81 	Methodology for Collecting, Estimating, and Organizing Microeconomic Data • Data Access
 * C82 	Methodology for Collecting, Estimating, and Organizing Macroeconomic Data • Data Access
 * C83 	Survey Methods • Sampling Methods
 * C87 	Econometric Software
 * C88 	Other Computer Software
 * C89 	Other

C9 	Design of Experiments
 * C90 	General
 * C91 	Laboratory, Individual Behavior
 * C92 	Laboratory, Group Behavior
 * C93 	Field Experiments
 * C99 	Other

D. Microeconomics

 * D00 	General
 * D01 	Microeconomic Behavior: Underlying Principles
 * D02 	Institutions: Design, Formation, Operations, and Impact
 * D03 	Behavioral Microeconomics: Underlying Principles
 * D04 	Microeconomic Policy: Formulation, Implementation, and Evaluation

D1 	Household Behavior and Family Economics
 * D10 	General
 * D11 	Consumer Economics: Theory
 * D12 	Consumer Economics: Empirical Analysis
 * D13 	Household Production and Intrahousehold Allocation
 * D14 	Household Saving • Personal Finance
 * D15	Intertemporal Household Choice • Life Cycle Models and Saving
 * D16	Collaborative Consumption
 * D18 	Consumer Protection
 * D19 	Other

D2 	Production and Organizations
 * D20 	General
 * D21 	Firm Behavior: Theory
 * D22 	Firm Behavior: Empirical Analysis
 * D23 	Organizational Behavior • Transaction Costs • Property Rights
 * D24 	Production • Cost • Capital • Capital, Total Factor, and Multifactor Productivity • Capacity
 * D25	Intertemporal Firm Choice: Investment, Capacity, and Financing
 * D29 	Other

D3 	Distribution
 * D30 	General
 * D31 	Personal Income, Wealth, and Their Distributions
 * D33 	Factor Income Distribution
 * D39 	Other

D4 	Market Structure, Pricing, and Design
 * D40 	General
 * D41 	Perfect Competition
 * D42 	Monopoly
 * D43 	Oligopoly and Other Forms of Market Imperfection
 * D44 	Auctions
 * D45 	Rationing • Licensing
 * D46 	Value Theory
 * D47 	Market Design
 * D49 	Other

D5 	General Equilibrium and Disequilibrium
 * D50 	General
 * D51 	Exchange and Production Economies
 * D52 	Incomplete Markets
 * D53 	Financial Markets
 * D57 	Input–Output Tables and Analysis
 * D58 	Computable and Other Applied General Equilibrium Models
 * D59 	Other

D6 	Welfare Economics
 * D60 	General
 * D61 	Allocative Efficiency • Cost–Benefit Analysis
 * D62 	Externalities
 * D63 	Equity, Justice, Inequality, and Other Normative Criteria and Measurement
 * D64 	Altruism • Philanthropy • Intergenerational Transfers
 * D69 	Other

D7 	Analysis of Collective Decision-Making
 * D70 	General
 * D71 	Social Choice • Clubs • Committees • Associations
 * D72 	Political Processes: Rent-Seeking, Lobbying, Elections, Legislatures, and Voting Behavior
 * D73 	Bureaucracy • Administrative Processes in Public Organizations • Corruption
 * D74 	Conflict • Conflict Resolution • Alliances • Revolutions
 * D78 	Positive Analysis of Policy Formulation and Implementation
 * D79 	Other

D8 	Information, Knowledge, and Uncertainty
 * D80 	General
 * D81 	Criteria for Decision-Making under Risk and Uncertainty
 * D82 	Asymmetric and Private Information • Mechanism Design
 * D83 	Search • Learning • Information and Knowledge • Communication • Belief • Unawareness
 * D84 	Expectations • Speculations
 * D85 	Network Formation and Analysis: Theory
 * D86 	Economics of Contract: Theory
 * D87 	Neuroeconomics
 * D89 	Other

D9 	Micro-Based Behavioral Economics
 * D90 	General
 * D91	Role and Effects of Psychological, Emotional, Social, and Cognitive Factors on Decision Making
 * D99 	Other

E. Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics

 * E00 	General
 * E01 	Measurement and Data on National Income and Product Accounts and Wealth • Environmental Accounts
 * E02 	Institutions and the Macroeconomy
 * E03 	Behavioral Macroeconomics

E1 	General Aggregative Models
 * E10 	General
 * E11 	Marxian • Sraffian • Kaleckian
 * E12 	Keynes • Keynesian • Post-Keynesian
 * E13 	Neoclassical
 * E14 	Austrian • Evolutionary • Institutional
 * E16 	Social Accounting Matrix
 * E17 	Forecasting and Simulation: Models and Applications
 * E19 	Other

E2 	Consumption, Saving, Production, Investment, Labor Markets, and Informal Economy
 * E20 	General
 * E21 	Consumption • Saving • Wealth
 * E22 	Investment • Capital • Intangible Capital • Capacity
 * E23 	Production
 * E24 	Employment • Unemployment • Wages • Intergenerational Income Distribution • Aggregate Human Capital • Aggregate Labor Productivity
 * E25 	Aggregate Factor Income Distribution
 * E26 	Informal Economy • Underground Economy
 * E27 	Forecasting and Simulation: Models and Applications
 * E29 	Other

E3 	Prices, Business Fluctuations, and Cycles
 * E30 	General
 * E31 	Price Level • Inflation • Deflation
 * E32 	Business Fluctuations • Cycles
 * E37 	Forecasting and Simulation: Models and Applications
 * E39 	Other

E4 	Money and Interest Rates
 * E40 	General
 * E41 	Demand for Money
 * E42 	Monetary Systems • Standards • Regimes • Government and the Monetary System • Payment Systems
 * E43 	Interest Rates: Determination, Term Structure, and Effects
 * E44 	Financial Markets and the Macroeconomy
 * E47 	Forecasting and Simulation: Models and Applications
 * E49 	Other

E5 	Monetary Policy, Central Banking, and the Supply of Money and Credit
 * E50 	General
 * E51 	Money Supply • Credit • Money Multipliers
 * E52 	Monetary Policy
 * E58 	Central Banks and Their Policies
 * E59 	Other

E6 	Macroeconomic Policy, Macroeconomic Aspects of Public Finance, and General Outlook
 * E60 	General
 * E61 	Policy Objectives • Policy Designs and Consistency • Policy Coordination
 * E62 	Fiscal Policy
 * E63 	Comparative or Joint Analysis of Fiscal and Monetary Policy • Stabilization • Treasury Policy
 * E64 	Incomes Policy • Price Policy
 * E65 	Studies of Particular Policy Episodes
 * E66 	General Outlook and Conditions
 * E69 	Other

F. International Economics

 * F00 	General
 * F01 	Global Outlook
 * F02 	International Economic Order and Integration

F1 	Trade
 * F10 	General
 * F11 	Neoclassical Models of Trade
 * F12 	Models of Trade with Imperfect Competition and Scale Economies • Fragmentation
 * F13 	Trade Policy • International Trade Organizations
 * F14 	Empirical Studies of Trade
 * F15 	Economic Integration
 * F16 	Trade and Labor Market Interactions
 * F17 	Trade Forecasting and Simulation
 * F18 	Trade and Environment
 * F19 	Other

F2 	International Factor Movements and International Business
 * F20 	General
 * F21 	International Investment • Long-Term Capital Movements
 * F22 	International Migration
 * F23 	Multinational Firms • International Business
 * F24 	Remittances
 * F29 	Other

F3 	International Finance
 * F30 	General
 * F31 	Foreign Exchange
 * F32 	Current Account Adjustment • Short-Term Capital Movements
 * F33 	International Monetary Arrangements and Institutions
 * F34 	International Lending and Debt Problems
 * F35 	Foreign Aid
 * F36 	Financial Aspects of Economic Integration
 * F37 	International Finance Forecasting and Simulation: Models and Applications
 * F38 	International Financial Policy: Financial Transactions Tax; Capital Controls
 * F39 	Other

F4 	Macroeconomic Aspects of International Trade and Finance
 * F40 	General
 * F41 	Open Economy Macroeconomics
 * F42 	International Policy Coordination and Transmission
 * F43 	Economic Growth of Open Economies
 * F44 	International Business Cycles
 * F45 	Macroeconomic Issues of Monetary Unions
 * F47 	Forecasting and Simulation: Models and Applications
 * F49 	Other

F5 	International Relations, National Security, and International Political Economy
 * F50 	General
 * F51 	International Conflicts • Negotiations • Sanctions
 * F52 	National Security • Economic Nationalism
 * F53 	International Agreements and Observance • International Organizations
 * F54 	Colonialism • Imperialism • Postcolonialism
 * F55 	International Institutional Arrangements
 * F59 	Other

F6 	Economic Impacts of Globalization
 * F60 	General
 * F61 	Microeconomic Impacts
 * F62 	Macroeconomic Impacts
 * F63 	Economic Development
 * F64 	Environment
 * F65 	Finance
 * F66 	Labor
 * F68 	Policy
 * F69 	Other

G. Financial Economics

 * G00 	General
 * G01 	Financial Crises
 * G02 	Behavioral Finance: Underlying Principles

G1 	General Financial Markets
 * G10 	General
 * G11 	Portfolio Choice • Investment Decisions
 * G12 	Asset Pricing • Trading Volume • Bond Interest Rates
 * G13 	Contingent Pricing • Futures Pricing
 * G14 	Information and Market Efficiency • Event Studies • Insider Trading
 * G15 	International Financial Markets
 * G17 	Financial Forecasting and Simulation
 * G18 	Government Policy and Regulation
 * G19 	Other

G2 	Financial Institutions and Services
 * G20 	General
 * G21 	Banks • Depository Institutions • Micro Finance Institutions • Mortgages
 * G22 	Insurance • Insurance Companies • Actuarial Studies
 * G23 	Non-bank Financial Institutions • Financial Instruments • Institutional Investors
 * G24 	Investment Banking • Venture Capital • Brokerage • Ratings and Ratings Agencies
 * G28 	Government Policy and Regulation
 * G29 	Other

G3 	Corporate Finance and Governance
 * G30 	General
 * G31 	Capital Budgeting • Fixed Investment and Inventory Studies • Capacity
 * G32 	Financing Policy • Financial Risk and Risk Management • Capital and Ownership Structure • Value of Firms • Goodwill
 * G33 	Bankruptcy • Liquidation
 * G34 	Mergers • Acquisitions • Restructuring • Corporate Governance
 * G35 	Payout Policy
 * G38 	Government Policy and Regulation
 * G39 	Other

H. Public Economics

 * H00 	General

H1 	Structure and Scope of Government
 * H10 	General
 * H11 	Structure, Scope, and Performance of Government
 * H12 	Crisis Management
 * H13 	Economics of Eminent Domain • Expropriation • Nationalization
 * H19 	Other

H2 	Taxation, Subsidies, and Revenue
 * H20 	General
 * H21 	Efficiency • Optimal Taxation
 * H22 	Incidence
 * H23 	Externalities • Redistributive Effects • Environmental Taxes and Subsidies
 * H24 	Personal Income and Other Nonbusiness Taxes and Subsidies
 * H25 	Business Taxes and Subsidies
 * H26 	Tax Evasion and Avoidance
 * H27 	Other Sources of Revenue
 * H29 	Other

H3 	Fiscal Policies and Behavior of Economic Agents
 * H30 	General
 * H31 	Household
 * H32 	Firm
 * H39 	Other

H4 	Publicly Provided Goods
 * H40 	General
 * H41 	Public Goods
 * H42 	Publicly Provided Private Goods
 * H43 	Project Evaluation • Social Discount Rate
 * H44 	Publicly Provided Goods: Mixed Markets
 * H49 	Other

H5 	National Government Expenditures and Related Policies
 * H50 	General
 * H51 	Government Expenditures and Health
 * H52 	Government Expenditures and Education
 * H53 	Government Expenditures and Welfare Programs
 * H54 	Infrastructures • Other Public Investment and Capital Stock
 * H55 	Social Security and Public Pensions
 * H56 	National Security and War
 * H57 	Procurement
 * H59 	Other

H6 	National Budget, Deficit, and Debt
 * H60 	General
 * H61 	Budget • Budget Systems
 * H62 	Deficit • Surplus
 * H63 	Debt • Debt Management • Sovereign Debt
 * H68 	Forecasts of Budgets, Deficits, and Debt
 * H69 	Other

H7 	State and Local Government • Intergovernmental Relations
 * H70 	General
 * H71 	State and Local Taxation, Subsidies, and Revenue
 * H72 	State and Local Budget and Expenditures
 * H73 	Interjurisdictional Differentials and Their Effects
 * H74 	State and Local Borrowing
 * H75 	State and Local Government: Health • Education • Welfare • Public Pensions
 * H76 	State and Local Government: Other Expenditure Categories
 * H77 	Intergovernmental Relations • Federalism • Secession
 * H79 	Other

H8 	Miscellaneous Issues
 * H80 	General
 * H81 	Governmental Loans • Loan Guarantees • Credits • Grants • Bailouts
 * H82 	Governmental Property
 * H83 	Public Administration • Public Sector Accounting and Audits
 * H84 	Disaster Aid
 * H87 	International Fiscal Issues • International Public Goods
 * H89 	Other

I. Health, Education, and Welfare

 * I00 	General

I1 	Health
 * I10 	General
 * I11 	Analysis of Health Care Markets
 * I12 	Health Behavior
 * I13 	Health Insurance, Public and Private
 * I14 	Health and Inequality
 * I15 	Health and Economic Development
 * I18 	Government Policy • Regulation • Public Health
 * I19 	Other

I2 	Education and Research Institutions
 * I20 	General
 * I21 	Analysis of Education
 * I22 	Educational Finance • Financial Aid
 * I23 	Higher Education • Research Institutions
 * I24 	Education and Inequality
 * I25 	Education and Economic Development
 * I26 	Returns to Education
 * I28 	Government Policy
 * I29 	Other

I3 	Welfare, Well-Being, and Poverty
 * I30 	General
 * I31 	General Welfare, Well-Being
 * I32 	Measurement and Analysis of Poverty
 * I38 	Government Policy • Provision and Effects of Welfare Programs
 * I39 	Other

J. Labor and Demographic Economics

 * J00 	General
 * J01 	Labor Economics: General
 * J08 	Labor Economics: Policies

J1 	Demographic Economics
 * J10 	General
 * J11 	Demographic Trends, Macroeconomic Effects, and Forecasts
 * J12 	Marriage • Marital Dissolution • Family Structure • Domestic Abuse
 * J13 	Fertility • Family Planning • Child Care • Children • Youth
 * J14 	Economics of the Elderly • Economics of the Handicapped • Non-Labor Market Discrimination
 * J15 	Economics of Minorities, Races, Indigenous Peoples, and Immigrants • Non-labor Discrimination
 * J16 	Economics of Gender • Non-labor Discrimination
 * J17 	Value of Life • Forgone Income
 * J18 	Public Policy
 * J19 	Other

J2 	Demand and Supply of Labor
 * J20 	General
 * J21 	Labor Force and Employment, Size, and Structure
 * J22 	Time Allocation and Labor Supply
 * J23 	Labor Demand
 * J24 	Human Capital • Skills • Occupational Choice • Labor Productivity
 * J26 	Retirement • Retirement Policies
 * J28 	Safety • Job Satisfaction • Related Public Policy
 * J29 	Other

J3 	Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs
 * J30 	General
 * J31 	Wage Level and Structure • Wage Differentials
 * J32 	Nonwage Labor Costs and Benefits • Retirement Plans • Private Pensions
 * J33 	Compensation Packages • Payment Methods
 * J38 	Public Policy
 * J39 	Other

J4 	Particular Labor Markets
 * J40 	General
 * J41 	Labor Contracts
 * J42 	Monopsony • Segmented Labor Markets
 * J43 	Agricultural Labor Markets
 * J44 	Professional Labor Markets • Occupational Licensing
 * J45 	Public Sector Labor Markets
 * J46 	Informal Labor Markets
 * J47 	Coercive Labor Markets
 * J48 	Public Policy
 * J49 	Other

J5 	Labor–Management Relations, Trade Unions, and Collective Bargaining
 * J50 	General
 * J51 	Trade Unions: Objectives, Structure, and Effects
 * J52 	Dispute Resolution: Strikes, Arbitration, and Mediation • Collective Bargaining
 * J53 	Labor–Management Relations • Industrial Jurisprudence
 * J54 	Producer Cooperatives • Labor Managed Firms • Employee Ownership
 * J58 	Public Policy
 * J59 	Other

J6 	Mobility, Unemployment, Vacancies, and Immigrant Workers
 * J60 	General
 * J61 	Geographic Labor Mobility • Immigrant Workers
 * J62 	Job, Occupational, and Intergenerational Mobility
 * J63 	Turnover • Vacancies • Layoffs
 * J64 	Unemployment: Models, Duration, Incidence, and Job Search
 * J65 	Unemployment Insurance • Severance Pay • Plant Closings
 * J68 	Public Policy
 * J69 	Other

J7 	Labor Discrimination
 * J70 	General
 * J71 	Discrimination
 * J78 	Public Policy
 * J79 	Other

J8 	Labor Standards: National and International
 * J80 	General
 * J81 	Working Conditions
 * J82 	Labor Force Composition
 * J83 	Workers' Rights
 * J88 	Public Policy
 * J89 	Other

K. Law and Economics

 * K00 	General

K1 	Basic Areas of Law
 * K10 	General
 * K11 	Property Law
 * K12 	Contract Law
 * K13 	Tort Law and Product Liability • Forensic Economics
 * K14 	Criminal Law
 * K15 	Civil Law • Common Law
 * K16 	Election Law
 * K19 	Other

K2 	Regulation and Business Law
 * K20 	General
 * K21 	Antitrust Law
 * K22 	Business and Securities Law
 * K23 	Regulated Industries and Administrative Law
 * K24 	Cyber Law
 * K25 	Real Estate Law
 * K29 	Other

K3 	Other Substantive Areas of Law
 * K30 	General
 * K31 	Labor Law
 * K32 	Energy, Environmental, Health, and Safety Law
 * K33 	International Law
 * K34 	Tax Law
 * K35 	Personal Bankruptcy Law
 * K36 	Family and Personal Law
 * K37 	Immigration Law
 * K38 	Human Rights Law • Gender Law
 * K39 	Other

K4 	Legal Procedure, the Legal System, and Illegal Behavior
 * K40 	General
 * K41 	Litigation Process
 * K42 	Illegal Behavior and the Enforcement of Law
 * K49 	Other

L. Industrial Organization

 * L00 	General

L1 	Market Structure, Firm Strategy, and Market Performance
 * L10 	General
 * L11 	Production, Pricing, and Market Structure • Size Distribution of Firms
 * L12 	Monopoly • Monopolization Strategies
 * L13 	Oligopoly and Other Imperfect Markets
 * L14 	Transactional Relationships • Contracts and Reputation • Networks
 * L15 	Information and Product Quality • Standardization and Compatibility
 * L16 	Industrial Organization and Macroeconomics: Industrial Structure and Structural Change • Industrial Price Indices
 * L17 	Open Source Products and Markets
 * L19 	Other

L2 	Firm Objectives, Organization, and Behavior
 * L20 	General
 * L21 	Business Objectives of the Firm
 * L22 	Firm Organization and Market Structure
 * L23 	Organization of Production
 * L24 	Contracting Out • Joint Ventures • Technology Licensing
 * L25 	Firm Performance: Size, Diversification, and Scope
 * L26 	Entrepreneurship
 * L29 	Other

L3 	Nonprofit Organizations and Public Enterprise
 * L30 	General
 * L31 	Nonprofit Institutions • NGOs • Social Entrepreneurship
 * L32 	Public Enterprises • Public-Private Enterprises
 * L33 	Comparison of Public and Private Enterprises and Nonprofit Institutions • Privatization • Contracting Out
 * L38 	Public Policy
 * L39 	Other

L4 	Antitrust Issues and Policies
 * L40 	General
 * L41 	Monopolization • Horizontal Anticompetitive Practices
 * L42 	Vertical Restraints • Resale Price Maintenance • Quantity Discounts
 * L43 	Legal Monopolies and Regulation or Deregulation
 * L44 	Antitrust Policy and Public Enterprises, Nonprofit Institutions, and Professional Organizations
 * L49 	Other

L5 	Regulation and Industrial Policy
 * L50 	General
 * L51 	Economics of Regulation
 * L52 	Industrial Policy • Sectoral Planning Methods
 * L53 	Enterprise Policy
 * L59 	Other

L6 	Industry Studies: Manufacturing
 * L60 	General
 * L61 	Metals and Metal Products • Cement • Glass • Ceramics
 * L62 	Automobiles • Other Transportation Equipment • Related Parts and Equipment
 * L63 	Microelectronics • Computers • Communications Equipment
 * L64 	Other Machinery • Business Equipment • Armaments
 * L65 	Chemicals • Rubber • Drugs • Biotechnology • Plastics
 * L66 	Food • Beverages • Cosmetics • Tobacco • Wine and Spirits
 * L67 	Other Consumer Nondurables: Clothing, Textiles, Shoes, and Leather Goods; Household Goods; Sports Equipment
 * L68 	Appliances • Furniture • Other Consumer Durables
 * L69 	Other

L7 	Industry Studies: Primary Products and Construction
 * L70 	General
 * L71 	Mining, Extraction, and Refining: Hydrocarbon Fuels
 * L72 	Mining, Extraction, and Refining: Other Nonrenewable Resources
 * L73 	Forest Products
 * L74 	Construction
 * L78 	Government Policy
 * L79 	Other

L8 	Industry Studies: Services
 * L80 	General
 * L81 	Retail and Wholesale Trade • e-Commerce
 * L82 	Entertainment • Media
 * L83 	Sports • Gambling • Restaurants • Recreation • Tourism
 * L84 	Personal, Professional, and Business Services
 * L85 	Real Estate Services
 * L86 	Information and Internet Services • Computer Software
 * L87 	Postal and Delivery Services
 * L88 	Government Policy
 * L89 	Other

L9 	Industry Studies: Transportation and Utilities
 * L90 	General
 * L91 	Transportation: General
 * L92 	Railroads and Other Surface Transportation
 * L93 	Air Transportation
 * L94 	Electric Utilities
 * L95 	Gas Utilities • Pipelines • Water Utilities
 * L96 	Telecommunications
 * L97 	Utilities: General
 * L98 	Government Policy
 * L99 	Other

M. Business Administration and Business Economics • Marketing • Accounting • Personnel Economics

 * M00 	General

M1 	Business Administration
 * M10 	General
 * M11 	Production Management
 * M12 	Personnel Management • Executives; Executive Compensation
 * M13 	New Firms • Startups
 * M14 	Corporate Culture • Diversity • Social Responsibility
 * M15 	IT Management
 * M16 	International Business Administration
 * M19 	Other

M2 	Business Economics
 * M20 	General
 * M21 	Business Economics
 * M29 	Other

M3 	Marketing and Advertising
 * M30 	General
 * M31 	Marketing
 * M37 	Advertising
 * M38 	Government Policy and Regulation
 * M39 	Other

M4 	Accounting and Auditing
 * M40 	General
 * M41 	Accounting
 * M42 	Auditing
 * M48 	Government Policy and Regulation
 * M49 	Other

M5 	Personnel Economics
 * M50 	General
 * M51 	Firm Employment Decisions • Promotions
 * M52 	Compensation and Compensation Methods and Their Effects
 * M53 	Training
 * M54 	Labor Management
 * M55 	Labor Contracting Devices
 * M59 	Other

N. Economic History

 * N00 	General
 * N01 	Development of the Discipline: Historiographical; Sources and Methods

N1 	Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics • Industrial Structure • Growth • Fluctuations
 * N10 	General, International, or Comparative
 * N11 	U.S. • Canada: Pre-1913
 * N12 	U.S. • Canada: 1913–
 * N13 	Europe: Pre-1913
 * N14 	Europe: 1913–
 * N15 	Asia including Middle East
 * N16 	Latin America • Caribbean
 * N17 	Africa • Oceania

N2 	Financial Markets and Institutions
 * N20 	General, International, or Comparative
 * N21 	U.S. • Canada: Pre-1913
 * N22 	U.S. • Canada: 1913–
 * N23 	Europe: Pre-1913
 * N24 	Europe: 1913–
 * N25 	Asia including Middle East
 * N26 	Latin America • Caribbean
 * N27 	Africa • Oceania

N3 	Labor and Consumers, Demography, Education, Health, Welfare, Income, Wealth, Religion, and Philanthropy
 * N30 	General, International, or Comparative
 * N31 	U.S. • Canada: Pre-1913
 * N32 	U.S. • Canada: 1913-
 * N33 	Europe: Pre-1913
 * N34 	Europe: 1913-
 * N35 	Asia including Middle East
 * N36 	Latin America • Caribbean
 * N37 	Africa • Oceania

N4 	Government, War, Law, International Relations, and Regulation
 * N40 	General, International, or Comparative
 * N41 	U.S. • Canada: Pre-1913
 * N42 	U.S. • Canada: 1913–
 * N43 	Europe: Pre-1913
 * N44 	Europe: 1913–
 * N45 	Asia including Middle East
 * N46 	Latin America • Caribbean
 * N47 	Africa • Oceania

N5 	Agriculture, Natural Resources, Environment, and Extractive Industries
 * N50 	General, International, or Comparative
 * N51 	U.S. • Canada: Pre-1913
 * N52 	U.S. • Canada: 1913–
 * N53 	Europe: Pre-1913
 * N54 	Europe: 1913–
 * N55 	Asia including Middle East
 * N56 	Latin America • Caribbean
 * N57 	Africa • Oceania

N6 	Manufacturing and Construction
 * N60 	General, International, or Comparative
 * N61 	U.S. • Canada: Pre-1913
 * N62 	U.S. • Canada: 1913–
 * N63 	Europe: Pre-1913
 * N64 	Europe: 1913–
 * N65 	Asia including Middle East
 * N66 	Latin America • Caribbean
 * N67 	Africa • Oceania

N7 	Transport, Trade, Energy, Technology, and Other Services
 * N70 	General, International, or Comparative
 * N71 	U.S. • Canada: Pre-1913
 * N72 	U.S. • Canada: 1913–
 * N73 	Europe: Pre-1913
 * N74 	Europe: 1913–
 * N75 	Asia including Middle East
 * N76 	Latin America • Caribbean
 * N77 	Africa • Oceania

N8 	Micro-Business History
 * N80 	General, International, or Comparative
 * N81 	U.S. • Canada: Pre-1913
 * N82 	U.S. • Canada: 1913–
 * N83 	Europe: Pre-1913
 * N84 	Europe: 1913–
 * N85 	Asia including Middle East
 * N86 	Latin America • Caribbean
 * N87 	Africa • Oceania

N9 	Regional and Urban History
 * N90 	General, International, or Comparative
 * N91 	U.S. • Canada: Pre-1913
 * N92 	U.S. • Canada: 1913–
 * N93 	Europe: Pre-1913
 * N94 	Europe: 1913–
 * N95 	Asia including Middle East
 * N96 	Latin America • Caribbean
 * N97 	Africa • Oceania

O. Economic Development, Innovation, Technological Change, and Growth
O1 	Economic Development
 * O10 	General
 * O11 	Macroeconomic Analyses of Economic Development
 * O12 	Microeconomic Analyses of Economic Development
 * O13 	Agriculture • Natural Resources • Energy • Environment • Other Primary Products
 * O14 	Industrialization • Manufacturing and Service Industries • Choice of Technology
 * O15 	Human Resources • Human Development • Income Distribution • Migration
 * O16 	Financial Markets • Saving and Capital Investment • Corporate Finance and Governance
 * O17 	Formal and Informal Sectors • Shadow Economy • Institutional Arrangements
 * O18 	Urban, Rural, Regional, and Transportation Analysis • Housing • Infrastructure
 * O19 	International Linkages to Development • Role of International Organizations

O2 	Development Planning and Policy
 * O20 	General
 * O21 	Planning Models • Planning Policy
 * O22 	Project Analysis
 * O23 	Fiscal and Monetary Policy in Development
 * O24 	Trade Policy • Factor Movement Policy • Foreign Exchange Policy
 * O25 	Industrial Policy
 * O29 	Other

O3 	Innovation • Research and Development • Technological Change • Intellectual Property Rights
 * O30 	General
 * O31 	Innovation and Invention: Processes and Incentives
 * O32 	Management of Technological Innovation and R&D
 * O33 	Technological Change: Choices and Consequences • Diffusion Processes
 * O34 	Intellectual Property and Intellectual Capital
 * O35 	Social Innovation
 * O38 	Government Policy
 * O39 	Other

O4 	Economic Growth and Aggregate Productivity
 * O40 	General
 * O41 	One, Two, and Multisector Growth Models
 * O42 	Monetary Growth Models
 * O43 	Institutions and Growth
 * O44 	Environment and Growth
 * O47 	Empirical Studies of Economic Growth • Aggregate Productivity • Cross-Country Output Convergence
 * O49 	Other

O5 	Economywide Country Studies
 * O50 	General
 * O51 	U.S. • Canada
 * O52 	Europe
 * O53 	Asia including Middle East
 * O54 	Latin America • Caribbean
 * O55 	Africa
 * O56 	Oceania
 * O57 	Comparative Studies of Countries

P. Economic Systems

 * P00 	General

P1 	Capitalist Systems
 * P10 	General
 * P11 	Planning, Coordination, and Reform
 * P12 	Capitalist Enterprises
 * P13 	Cooperative Enterprises
 * P14 	Property Rights
 * P16 	Political Economy
 * P17 	Performance and Prospects
 * P18 	Energy • Environment
 * P19 	Other

P2 	Socialist Systems and Transitional Economies
 * P20 	General
 * P21 	Planning, Coordination, and Reform
 * P22 	Prices
 * P23 	Factor and Product Markets • Industry Studies • Population
 * P24 	National Income, Product, and Expenditure • Money • Inflation
 * P25 	Urban, Rural, and Regional Economics
 * P26 	Political Economy • Property Rights
 * P27 	Performance and Prospects
 * P28 	Natural Resources • Energy • Environment
 * P29 	Other

P3 	Socialist Institutions and Their Transitions
 * P30 	General
 * P31 	Socialist Enterprises and Their Transitions
 * P32 	Collectives • Communes • Agriculture
 * P33 	International Trade, Finance, Investment, Relations, and Aid
 * P34 	Financial Economics
 * P35 	Public Economics
 * P36 	Consumer Economics • Health • Education and Training • Welfare, Income, Wealth, and Poverty
 * P37 	Legal Institutions • Illegal Behavior
 * P39 	Other

P4 	Other Economic Systems
 * P40 	General
 * P41 	Planning, Coordination, and Reform
 * P42 	Productive Enterprises • Factor and Product Markets • Prices • Population
 * P43 	Public Economics • Financial Economics
 * P44 	National Income, Product, and Expenditure • Money • Inflation
 * P45 	International Trade, Finance, Investment, and Aid
 * P46 	Consumer Economics • Health • Education and Training • Welfare, Income, Wealth, and Poverty
 * P47 	Performance and Prospects
 * P48 	Political Economy • Legal Institutions • Property Rights • Natural Resources • Energy • Environment • Regional Studies
 * P49 	Other

P5 	 Comparative Economic Systems
 * P50 	General
 * P51 	Comparative Analysis of Economic Systems
 * P52 	Comparative Studies of Particular Economies
 * P59 	Other

Q. Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics • Environmental and Ecological Economics

 * Q00 	General
 * Q01 	Sustainable Development
 * Q02 	Commodity Markets

Q1 	Agriculture
 * Q10 	General
 * Q11 	Aggregate Supply and Demand Analysis • Prices
 * Q12 	Micro Analysis of Farm Firms, Farm Households, and Farm Input Markets
 * Q13 	Agricultural Markets and Marketing • Cooperatives • Agribusiness
 * Q14 	Agricultural Finance
 * Q15 	Land Ownership and Tenure • Land Reform • Land Use • Irrigation • Agriculture and Environment
 * Q16 	R&D • Agricultural Technology • Biofuels • Agricultural Extension Services
 * Q17 	Agriculture in International Trade
 * Q18 	Agricultural Policy • Food Policy
 * Q19 	Other

Q2 	Renewable Resources and Conservation
 * Q20 	General
 * Q21 	Demand and Supply • Prices
 * Q22 	Fishery • Aquaculture
 * Q23 	Forestry
 * Q24 	Land
 * Q25 	Water
 * Q26 	Recreational Aspects of Natural Resources
 * Q27 	Issues in International Trade
 * Q28 	Government Policy
 * Q29 	Other

Q3 	Nonrenewable Resources and Conservation
 * Q30 	General
 * Q31 	Demand and Supply • Prices
 * Q32 	Exhaustible Resources and Economic Development
 * Q33 	Resource Booms
 * Q34 	Natural Resources and Domestic and International Conflicts
 * Q35 	Hydrocarbon Resources
 * Q37 	Issues in International Trade
 * Q38 	Government Policy
 * Q39 	Other

Q4 	Energy
 * Q40 	General
 * Q41 	Demand and Supply • Prices
 * Q42 	Alternative Energy Sources
 * Q43 	Energy and the Macroeconomy
 * Q47 	Energy Forecasting
 * Q48 	Government Policy
 * Q49 	Other

Q5 	Environmental Economics
 * Q50 	General
 * Q51 	Valuation of Environmental Effects
 * Q52 	Pollution Control Adoption and Costs • Distributional Effects • Employment Effects
 * Q53 	Air Pollution • Water Pollution • Noise • Hazardous Waste • Solid Waste • Recycling
 * Q54 	Climate • Natural Disasters and Their Management • Global Warming
 * Q55 	Technological Innovation
 * Q56 	Environment and Development • Environment and Trade • Sustainability • Environmental Accounts and Accounting • Environmental Equity • Population Growth
 * Q57 	Ecological Economics: Ecosystem Services • Biodiversity Conservation • Bioeconomics • Industrial Ecology
 * Q58 	Government Policy
 * Q59 	Other

R. Urban, Rural, Regional, Real Estate, and Transportation Economics

 * R00 	General

R1 	General Regional Economics
 * R10 	General
 * R11 	Regional Economic Activity: Growth, Development, Environmental Issues, and Changes
 * R12 	Size and Spatial Distributions of Regional Economic Activity
 * R13 	General Equilibrium and Welfare Economic Analysis of Regional Economies
 * R14 	Land Use Patterns
 * R15 	Econometric and Input–Output Models • Other Models
 * R19 	Other

R2 	Household Analysis
 * R20 	General
 * R21 	Housing Demand
 * R22 	Other Demand
 * R23 	Regional Migration • Regional Labor Markets • Population • Neighborhood Characteristics
 * R28 	Government Policy
 * R29 	Other

R3 	Real Estate Markets, Spatial Production Analysis, and Firm Location
 * R30 	General
 * R31 	Housing Supply and Markets
 * R32 	Other Spatial Production and Pricing Analysis
 * R33 	Nonagricultural and Nonresidential Real Estate Markets
 * R38 	Government Policy
 * R39 	Other

R4 	Transportation Economics
 * R40 	General
 * R41 	Transportation: Demand, Supply, and Congestion • Travel Time • Safety and Accidents • Transportation Noise
 * R42 	Government and Private Investment Analysis • Road Maintenance • Transportation Planning
 * R48 	Government Pricing and Policy
 * R49 	Other

R5 	Regional Government Analysis
 * R50 	General
 * R51 	Finance in Urban and Rural Economies
 * R52 	Land Use and Other Regulations
 * R53 	Public Facility Location Analysis • Public Investment and Capital Stock
 * R58 	Regional Development Planning and Policy
 * R59 	Other

Y. Miscellaneous Categories
Y1 	Data: Tables and Charts
 * Y10 	Data: Tables and Charts

Y2 	Introductory Material
 * Y20 	Introductory Material

Y3 	Book Reviews (unclassified)
 * Y30 	Book Reviews (unclassified)

Y4 	Dissertations (unclassified)
 * Y40 	Dissertations (unclassified)

Y5 	Further Reading (unclassified)
 * Y50 	Further Reading (unclassified)

Y6 	Excerpts
 * Y60 	Excerpts

Y7 	No Author General Discussions
 * Y70 	No Author General Discussions

Y8 	Related Disciplines
 * Y80 	Related Disciplines

Y9 	Other
 * Y90 	Other
 * Y91 	Pictures and Maps
 * Y92 	Novels, Self-Help Books, etc.

Z. Other Special Topics

 * Z00 	General

Z1 	Cultural Economics • Economic Sociology • Economic Anthropology
 * Z10 	General
 * Z11 	Economics of the Arts and Literature
 * Z12 	Religion
 * Z13 	Economic Sociology • Economic Anthropology • Language • Social and Economic Stratification
 * Z18 	Public Policy
 * Z19 	Other

Z2 	Sports Economics
 * Z20 	General
 * Z21 	Industry Studies
 * Z22 	Labor Issues
 * Z23 	Finance
 * Z28 	Policy
 * Z29 	Other

Z3 	Tourism Economics
 * Z30 	General
 * Z31 	Industry Studies
 * Z32 	Tourism and Development
 * Z33 	Marketing and Finance
 * Z38 	Policy
 * Z39 	Other

title: JEL classification codes


text: Category:Design-related lists

title: Category:Design-related lists