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User:Jdbwillia/Every Nation

Every Nation Churches and Ministries
In 1994, Rice Broocks, Steve Murrell, and Phil Bonasso formed Morning Star International – now known as Every Nation Churches and Ministries. In a little over a decade, Every Nation churches and outreaches have been established in 50 nations and counting.

Every Nation is committed to combining the framework of historic orthodox Christianity and theology with the fire and power of the Holy Spirit‘s present day ministry. Their two-year Bible school, Every Nation Leadership Institute, is designed to help the local church accomplish its mission of making disciples, training leaders, planting churches and equipping believers to fulfill their calling in Christ.

The heartbeat of the ministry is found in its mission statement: “To honor God and advance His Kingdom through church planting, campus ministry and world missions.” Since its beginnings in Manila, Every Nation has been involved in ministry on six continents: from Istanbul, Turkey to South Africa, from the Amazon region of Peru to New Zealand; from Mumbai, India to Canada, from Innsbruck, Austria to the People’s Republic of China.

title: User:Jdbwillia/Every Nation


text:
Johns Creek (Chattahoochee River tributary)

Johns Creek is an 8.0 mi stream which begins in southern Forsyth County, Georgia and runs south-southwestward through the eastern part of northern Fulton County, Georgia (formerly the separate Milton County). It is a tributary of the Chattahoochee River and has no official stream gauges.

The name of Johns Creek, Georgia, incorporated in late 2006, is taken from this creek that runs through the center of the new city.

Name
The creek's name is believed to have originated with John Rogers, one of the earliest white settlers in the area. John Rogers was an ancestor of the noted writer Will Rogers.

Course
Johns Creek originates at Vaughn Lake, a reservoir in southern Forsyth County. From there, the stream flows south through the city of Johns Creek, passing through the Standard Club and under Abbotts Bridge Road. South of State Bridge Road, Johns Creek is joined by Cameron Creek. From there, stream passes through RiverPines Golf before emptying in the Chattahoochee River.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Hashimoto-san

Hashimoto-san is a fictional Japanese mouse created by the Japanese-born animator Bob Kuwahara and Eli Bauer for the Terrytoons animation company. Hashimoto is a jujutsu instructor living in Japan with his wife Hanako, son Saburo, and daughter Yuriko.

The first cartoon in the series, Hashimoto-san, was a seven-minute short released theatrically on September 6, 1959. Fourteen cartoons were produced, ending with Spooky-Yaki, which was released on November 13, 1963.

Hashimoto is an expert in jujutsu and the ninja arts, but never used his skills to harm anyone. He also frequently told stories about Japan to an American reporter named G.I. Joe aka Joey or Joey-San.

Hashimoto and the other characters in the series were voiced by John Myhers. All of the shorts were directed by Kuwahara. Bob Kuwahara had an intimate knowledge of Hashimoto's culture through his own family ties.

Between 1963 and 1965 the shorts were incorporated into The Hector Heathcote Show as part of NBC's Saturday morning cartoon lineup. During the mid-1960s Hashimoto had his own board game, and also appeared in a handful of comic books published by Gold Key Comics, always with other Terrytoon characters like Deputy Dawg or Hector Heathcote.

Some episodes contained scenes whose artwork reflected Japan's traditional ukiyo-e woodblock prints.

To date the Hashimoto-san series has not been released on DVD, though a bootleg DVD is available containing 12 of the 14 episodes.

Neil Young often had Hashimoto cartoons playing in the auditoriums where he was performing in concert to entertain the crowd before the show and during intermissions.

Filmography
Fourteen cartoons were produced between 1959 and 1963, directed by Bob Kuwahara, Dave Tendlar, Connie Rasinski, Mannie Davis and Art Bartsch.
 * Hashimoto-San (Sept 6, 1959) - Kuwahara & Tendlar
 * House of Hashimoto (Nov 30, 1960) - Rasinski
 * Night Life in Tokyo (Feb 1961) - Davis
 * So Sorry, Pussycat (March 1961) - Bartsch
 * Son of Hashimoto (April 12, 1961) - Rasinski
 * Strange Companion (May 12, 1961) - Davis
 * Honorable Cat Story (Nov 1961) - Rasinski
 * Honorable Family Problem (March 30, 1962) - Kuwahara
 * Loyal Royalty (May 18, 1962) - Kuwahara
 * Honorable Pain in the Neck (Aug 22, 1962) - Kuwahara
 * Tea House Mouse (Jan 1963) - Kuwahara
 * Pearl Crazy (May 1963) - Kuwahara
 * Cherry Blossom Festival (June 17, 1963) - Kuwahara
 * Spooky-Yaki (Nov 13, 1963) - Kuwahara

title: Hashimoto-san


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Talk:Latin Empire

Untitled
Well as far as I remember from the history of my country (Bulgaria) the Latin empire had the name "RomeLia" not Romania .. I know that in english the western people like to change the names of many counries and places but still

 * "Rumelia" was the Ottoman name for the Byzantine Empire, I think. Maybe that's what they called the Latin Empire too, I don't know. Adam Bishop 18:22, 25 July 2005 (UTC)

 * I'm not any good at history and this may sound foolish but..... Weren't the Crusades initiated when the Byzantine Empire petitioned for help and Pope Urban responded. If so, why did the Crusaders sack Constaninople?

 * Well it's a long story...see the Fourth Crusade article. Basically, the crusaders became overdependent on Venice, which had various disputes with the Byzantine Empire. The crusaders also got caught up in a complicated political dispute that they didn't really understand (the son of a deposed emperor wanted them to help him overthrow the current emperor), and that got out of control too. Plus, the Byzantines had never really been helpful during the crusades, at least according to the crusaders - they were always seen as scheming and backstabbing, and the crusaders thought they had been abanonded by them many times. Hopefully the Fourth Crusade article explains this more fully. Adam Bishop 23:26, 25 July 2005 (UTC)

The name Romelia is used in Bulgarian, I think it's fair enough to accept Romania as a name of Byzantium... What I dont see in this article is the story of the Latin Empire's wars with Bulgaria... this article is all but reliable as a source, as is most of Wikipedia anyway...

 * Perhaps you would like to add some information about that? Adam Bishop 04:20, 20 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Romania: According to this source "the Byzantine Empire, was in fact still the Roman Empire, known to Western Europeans, "Latins" or "Franks" at the time, as Romania, already the name of the Empire in Late Antiquity". Lots of references come up from the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica search engine too.
 * There are also old maps using this name for the region:
 * --KIDB 11:25, 25 January 2006 (UTC)

I think the Empire was referred to "Romania" (Land of the Romans) by the Pope in his speech to crusaders before the original crusade and therefore long before the Latin sack and capture of the city and the throne. Certainly, I'd be quite interested to know what the Latin Empire's proper name was (ie what it was called at the time, rather than the name later historians have given it to distinguish it from the Monarchy it supplanted). --Zagrebo 14:10, 28 April 2007 (UTC)

Meaning of "Romania"?
A question for scholars of Latin: Does the phrase "Imperium Romaniae", as used in 1204, most precisely translate into modern English as "Empire of the Roman People" (Eastern Romans, that is, i.e., medieval Greeks) or as "Empire of the Roman Lands"?

A question for anybody: Which of the two (regardless of how phrased) do you think would be most useful to a WP reader who might come across this page in a search? Jmacwiki (talk) 01:58, 8 June 2008 (UTC)

 * Well it literally means "Empire of Romania", so the land not the people (which would be Romanorum I suppose). To be honest I'm not sure what they really called it in Latin, but in French it was "Romanie", according to Geoffrey of Villehardouin (as opposed to Rome, the city). I imagine its Latin name would be easily found in some papal letter, though. I think to make it clear to readers, we should say that it was called "Romania", explain what that means, and note that it has no connection to the modern country. Adam Bishop (talk) 03:56, 8 June 2008 (UTC)

 * Not quite what I meant. (I meant to ask, "What is the most accurate English translation, or the most useful to WP readers?", not "What Latin words did they use?")  But your suggestion seems pretty sound to me. Jmacwiki (talk) 06:18, 16 June 2008 (UTC)

 * The Byzantines were nearly always referred to as "Greeks" by the Westerners, never as "Romans", and the Latin title should not be translated as such. "Empire of the Roman lands" would be a slightly more accurate translation, but would still suggest more "Romanness" than it expressed. If I remember R.L. Wolff's article well (I might not; it is in the reference section of Roman Empire), the term imperator / imperium Romaniae was expressly used by the Latins in their diplomatic exchanges to avoid any suggestion of "Roman" emperorship and therefore competition with the Holy Roman Emperor, who claimed that title (imperator Romanorum, i.e. "emperor of the Romans"). Besides being the Greek name for the Byzantine empire, "Romania" was also in use as a politically neutral, purely topographical name for parts of the Balkans and/or Asia Minor (cf. also "Romagna"). I think it would be best to leave "Romania" untranslated. Iblardi (talk) 18:56, 1 July 2008 (UTC)

 * A persuasive argument. Thanks.  (FWIW, if I were the Pope or the HR Emperor at the time, I wouldn't have wanted any suggestion of "Romanness" in Constantinople, either.  But that wouldn't mean I was right. ;-)  Jmacwiki (talk) 03:35, 7 July 2008 (UTC)

Palaiologoi?
Why is there any mention of the policies of the Paleologos family in an article on the Latin Empire? Surely these belong instead in articles on the BE (restored) or on the minor BE successor states like Nicea -- that is, states that the family actually controlled. Jmacwiki (talk) 02:34, 8 June 2008 (UTC)

Successor to which?
The statement, "The Empire was intended to supplant the Byzantine Empire as titular successor to the Eastern Roman Empire, with a Western Catholic emperor enthroned in place of the Orthodox Byzantine Greeks", has several problems. Successive edits appear to be making this worse, perhaps in the name of (false) precision.

1. It is apparently incorrect as it stands. At a minimum, we need a reference to the assertion that it was "intended" to be any such thing!

More plausibly, it was not intended to be a titular successor at all, it was intended (after the plundering of Constantinople was finished) to function as a self-supporting state that would be more compliant with the wishes of the Italian states than the BE had been. Answering to papal authority was helpful in that regard.

2. Asserting that it was (or was intended to be) a titular successor to the "Eastern Roman Empire" does not make sense. States do not have titles, they have names.

3. There was no state even with the name ERE. The BE was simply the Roman Empire: the one and only. Yet the LE did NOT keep that name, "Imperium Romanum". It was arguably a successor state to the BE/ERE/RE -- though I do not know if most other states of the time recognized it as such (the essential criterion for it to be a successor state). But it was in no other sense a "successor" at all. Jmacwiki (talk) 22:30, 30 August 2008 (UTC)

Colour blind compliant map
I have replaced the map with a colour-blind compliant version. One in eight white males are colour blind. Unfortunately, due to server problems, the thumbnail is not appearing correctly. This is a known problem and admins are dealing with it. Andrew Oakley (talk) 14:17, 14 October 2008 (UTC)

 * My revision has been reverted, as unfortunately being colour-blind myself, I messed up the colours during the conversion. Please can a colour-sighted person change this map so that it is distinguishable to colour-blind people. Thanks Andrew Oakley (talk) 14:11, 25 November 2008 (UTC)

 * I can't help with colour-blind compliance, I don't know how. Can you point me to a web site that gives guidance on colour-blind compliance, for future use? But I have corrected the aspect ration of the map, it was e-w stretched. Maproom (talk) 19:37, 1 March 2011 (UTC)

Fix
(Suggestions generated by an automatic JavaScript program, and might not be applicable for the article in question.) You may wish to browse through User:AndyZ/Suggestions for further ideas. -Josve05a (talk) 19:38, 1 January 2012 (UTC)
 * Please expand the lead to conform with guidelines at Lead. The article should have an appropriate number of paragraphs as is shown on WP:LEAD, and should adequately summarize the article.[?]
 * Watch for redundancies that make the article too wordy instead of being crisp and concise. (You may wish to try Tony1's redundancy exercises.)
 * Vague terms of size often are unnecessary and redundant - “some”, “a variety/number/majority of”, “several”, “a few”, “many”, “any”, and “all”. For example, “ All pigs are pink, so we thought of a number of ways to turn them green.”
 * Please ensure that the article has gone through a thorough copyediting so that it exemplifies some of Wikipedia's best work. See also User:Tony1/How to satisfy Criterion 1a.[?]

Greek name of empire
I think that the Greek name of empire must be added in the beginning of article. --195.24.37.106 (talk) 17:33, 8 January 2014 (UTC)

Title Use
I do not understand why this page's main title is Empire of Romania while the references to this page and indeed the page itself is the more popularly known Latin Empire as the name for this entity. This is going out of procedure here, seeing as the Byzantine Empire is called (the popularly known but historically inaccurate title) that instead of Eastern Roman Empire, or Romania, or Basileus Romaion. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.77.238.66 (talk) 14:50, 23 June 2014 (UTC)

Agreed, unless there are objections, this discrepancy comparative to the guidelines established at the Talk:Byzantine Empire page should be rectified. Sleath56 (talk) 02:21, 14 September 2019 (UTC)

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A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 20:53, 7 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Enrico Dandalo Tomb.jpg

title: Talk:Latin Empire


text:
User:Girum

Hi, my name is Girum.

title: User:Girum


text:
Sunday Love

Sunday Love is the second studio album by Canadian singer Fefe Dobson. The album was released independently on June 13, 2006, then released digitally on the iTunes Store on December 18, 2012.

Originally slated for release in 2005, the release date was pushed back a number of times by Island Records before its eventual cancellation on the label. The album was released promotionally, and received generally positive reviews from music critics. After the Island Records release of the album was cancelled, Dobson commented on her Myspace blog, "I always believe everything happens for a reason, and that change is a very good thing."

Background
Dobson began work on Sunday Love during the summer of 2004. The album's fourteen tracks were recorded over an eight-month period in California. Island Records set an initial US release date of September 20, 2005. Neither single released from the album—"Don't Let It Go to Your Head" or "This Is My Life" —charted. There is an official music video for "Don't Let It Go to Your Head".

Another song from the album, "Be Strong", appears on the It's a Boy Girl Thing soundtrack.

Track listing

 * 1) "As a Blonde" (Fefe Dobson, Greg Wells, Shelly Peiken) – 2:49
 * 2) "In the Kissah" (Pharrell Williams, Chad Hugo, Dobson) – 3:09
 * 3) "If I Was a Guy" (Matthew Wilder, Dobson) – 3:20
 * 4) "Don't Let It Go to Your Head" (Josh Alexander, Billy Steinberg, Dobson) – 4:01
 * 5) "Get You Off" (Dobson, Michelle Robin Lewis, Nina Gordon) – 3:50
 * 6) "This Is My Life" (Alexander, Dobson, Steinberg) – 3:49
 * 7) "Scar" (Wilder, Dobson) – 4:03
 * 8) "Miss Vicious" (Dobson, John Lowery aka John 5) – 3:07
 * 9) "Man Meets Boy" (Wilder, Dobson) – 3:28
 * 10) "Get Over Me" (Holly Knight, Dobson) – 3:09
 * 11) "Hole" (Kay Hanley, Lewis, Dobson) – 4:27
 * 12) "The Initiator" (Alexander, Steinberg, Dobson) – 3:39
 * 13) "Yeah Yeah Yeah" (Walton Steven "Wally" Gagel, Peiken, Dobson) – 3:39
 * 14) "Be Strong" (Dobson, Wilder) – 3:31

Covers
Dobson's "Don't Let It Go to Your Head" is covered by Lilyjets, a Norwegian girl group, as a single from their 2006 debut album 3rd Floor. They also produced an official music video.

The music of "This Is My Life" is used by the Taiwanese girl-group S.H.E in their song: "I Love Trouble" (我愛烦恼) on their 2008 album FM S.H.E which became quite popular in Asia.

The song "As a Blonde" is covered on Selena Gomez & The Scene's 2009 debut album Kiss & Tell. Jordin Sparks covered "Don't Let Go To Your Head" on her 2009 album Battlefield. Shortly after Sparks's album was released Dobson said, "Jordin Sparks just did [that song], which was on Sunday Love, which was very cool. She did kind of, like, a more R&B version of it, which I think is really nice, actually. It was really cool that she didn't try and do a rock version of it, and she did what she's more comfortable with, which I thought was awesome." Sparks's version was released as a single in the UK on January 4, 2010.

Personnel
Confirmed by multiple sources  including Billboard.
 * Fefe Dobson – songwriting, vocals
 * Matthew Wilder – producer and co-writer (on "Scar", "Be Strong", "Man Meets Boy", and "If I Was a Guy")
 * John5 – co-writer, guitar
 * Brent Paschke – guitar
 * Tim Armstrong – co-writer
 * Joan Jett – co-writer
 * Pharrell Williams – co-writer
 * Cyndi Lauper – co-writer
 * Courtney Love – co-writer
 * Shelly Peiken – co-writer
 * Billy Steinberg – co-writer
 * Chad Hugo – co-writer
 * Nina Gordon – backing vocals
 * Howard Benson – producer (on "This Is My Life" and "Don't Let It Go to Your Head")
 * Ben Grosse – producer
 * Tom Lord-Alge – producer (on "This Is My Life")

Cover versions
Commercially released cover versions or other commercial usage of Sunday Love songs by other artists.

title: Sunday Love


text:
Francis Ona

Francis Ona (c. 1953 – 24 July 2005) was a Bougainville secessionist leader who led an uprising against the Government of Papua New Guinea as part of the Bougainville Civil War. He and his followers were concerned about the environmental and social effects of the operation of the Panguna mine by Bougainville Copper, a subsidiary of Rio Tinto Group. On 17 May 1990, Ona declared the independence of the Republic of Me'ekamui. It was not recognised internationally. In May 2004 Ona proclaimed himself "King of Me'ekamui." While resisting the peace process and 2005 elections, Ona mostly stayed in a safe haven, where his BRA forces controlled territory. He died of malaria in his village.

Secessionist leader
Ona was at one time employed by Bougainville Copper at the mine, but he became increasingly critical of its operations' adverse effect on the environment and what he claimed was the low level of royalties paid the landowners. Most of the profits left Bougainville Island, but its society was disrupted by thousands of workers from Papua New Guinea, as well as Australians. From the mid-1980s, Ona and others challenged the leadership of the Panguna Landowners Association (PLA), claiming that they were not representing the interests of all the traditional landowners.

By early 1988, Ona and his associates, including his cousin Pepetua Serero, had formed the New PLA, supported by both mineworkers and the traditional opponents of the Panguna mine, Damien Dameng's Me'ekamui Pontuku Onoring. The New PLA made a number of demands, including monetary compensation for the impacts of the mine, a 50 per cent share of mine revenue to the landholders, and a transfer of ownership to Bougainville. The PNG Government set up an independent inquiry which dismissed the claims about the environmental impact but was critical of other parts of the mine's operation. In response, Ona established the Bougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA), which conducted numerous acts of sabotage against the mine including the destruction of the mine's power supply. The mine was closed by Bougainville Copper in May 1989. Ona rejected an initial compromise deal by Bougainville Copper and the PNG government.

Ona became the acknowledged leader of the BRA after the death of Serero in 1989; Sam Kauona, a former soldier in the army, led military operations. The Papua New Guinea Government sent in the police and then the army under Jerry Singirok to quell the uprising, but they were unable to do so. The island was placed under a State of Emergency under the control of the PNG Police Commissioner. The number of complaints increased about human rights abuses by PNG forces, which initially strengthened support for the BRA.

In January 1990, Bougainville Copper announced that they were suspending operations at the mine. The PNG Government announced that they would withdraw troops and for international observers to verify the disarmament of the BRA. The police fled fearing for their lives in the absence of the army, and there was an attempted coup in Port Moresby over the deal.

In response to a blockade imposed by the PNG Government later in 1990, Ona said he was the head of the Bougainville Interim Government and declared independence for the island. The island descended into anarchy, as several armed factions and clans struggled for power; the PNG Government supported these militias. The BRA leaders fell out with Joseph Kabui, the Premier of Bougainville, who had previously been a supporter.

During Prime Minister Paias Wingti's term, the PNG Government renewed military efforts, and their troops captured Arawa, the provincial capital, in 1993 and recaptured the Panguna mine. Sir Julius Chan, Wingti's successor tried to broker a deal, but neither Ona and the BRA nor Kabui would sign a deal. Frustrated, Chan ordered a full-scale invasion in 1996 but neither Australia nor New Zealand would support it. Chan hired Sandline International mercenaries, but the military threatened to arrest them on their arrival. Chan resigned to forestall a coup.

Bougainville ceasefire
A ceasefire was arranged later in 1997 between new Prime Minister Bill Skate and Joseph Kabui, with a multi-national Peace Monitoring Group commencing operations on the island. Though Ona and the BRA controlled 90% of the island, his break with Kabui meant that the BRA representatives were not involved in the talks. Ona believed that the New Zealand-brokered peace talks were unwarranted outside interference with Bougainville governance, and did not participate.

During this period, Australian film maker Wayne Coles Janess made an acclaimed documentary film about the Bougainville Civil War. He was nearly assassinated by the PNG government.

When he interviewed Ona, the leader declared :
 * We have already had other forms of autonomy. The provincial government system in 1975 we were promised. Bougainvillians were promised that after 5 years or after a few years, the provincial government will be replaced by the independent nation of Bougainville. So with this in mind, with this past history, we don't trust Papua New Guinea any more....

''.... 90% of Bougainvillians are supporting me. And I want to summon Prime Minister of PNG and PNG government, if 90% is not supporting me, let them carry out a referendum and we'll see.''

Ona was subsequently ignored in the creation of the Autonomous Bougainville Government. At this time Ona agreed with Noah Musingku to establish a funding source for Bougainville that would allow true sovereignty. This system was developed as the U-Vistract system, which sought to use the untapped natural resources of Bougainville to finance reconstruction. Ona remained isolated in the Panguna region, which BRA controlled for the next 16 years.

The Bougainville conflict is estimated to have cost between 10,000 and 15,000 lives, mainly due to disease and starvation among the civilian residents. A tribal reconciliation process started in 2000 appears to have been successful. The PNG government promised in 2001 to hold a referendum on independence within the next ten to fifteen years. The referendum was held in 2019, and voters voted overwhelmingly (98.31%) for independence.

Ona was never captured and refused to participate in the peace process. His forces still controlled over a quarter of the island.

Kingship
On 17 May 2004, Ona declared himself "King of Bougainville" or Mekamui. He was crowned "King Francis Dominic Dateransy Domanaa, head of state of the Royal Kingdom of Me'ekamui". "Me'ekamui", meaning "holy" or "Holy Land", is an old tribal name for Bougainville. During elections for the Autonomous government in 2005, which he opposed, Ona came out of his safe haven into the public eye for the first time in 16 years. He declared that Bougainville was already independent and capable of running its own affairs.

Perhaps as a result of Ona's continued influence in Bougainville, only 3% of the eligible voters participated in the May 2005 elections of the New Zealand-brokered Autonomous Government.

 * His Royal Highness, told the people that the fact that only 3% of the eligible voters on Bougainville voted in the May Autonomous Government elections means that the remaining 97% support his government, and as such, it is the only government they can turn to, to advance their push for development regardless of various differences.

Members of the Lihir Island Mining Area Landowners Association in New Ireland, as well as other mining projects in Fiji and Solomon Islands, contacted Ona for assistance in dealing with foreign mining concerns. Ona died on 24 July 2005 of malaria in his village.

Honours
Ona was given a state funeral in the provincial capital of Buka.

title: Francis Ona


text:
The Westminster Review

The Westminster Review was a quarterly British publication. Established in 1823 as the official organ of the Philosophical Radicals, it was published from 1824 to 1914. James Mill was one of the driving forces behind the liberal journal until 1828.

Early years
In 1823, the paper was founded (and funded) by Jeremy Bentham, who had long pondered the possibility of establishing a journal for propagating Radical views. The first edition of the journal (January 1824) featured an article by James Mill (continued in the second by his son John Stuart Mill), which served as a provocative reprobation of a rival, more well-established journal, the Edinburgh Review, castigating it as an organ of the Whig party, and for sharing the latter's propensity for fence-sitting in the aristocratic interest. The controversy drew in a wide public response, much however critical: the Nuttall Encyclopædia, published in 1907, notes that the Breeches Review became a nickname for the journal because Francis Place, a breeches-maker, was a major shareholder in the enterprise. American critic and activist John Neal also published many articles in these early years while serving as Bentham's personal secretary.

The review quickly reached a circulation of three thousand, but, despite that, was not able to break even; and when by 1828 the original funding was exhausted it was sold to another proprietor and no longer functioned in the Radical interest.

In 1834 Sir William Molesworth funded a new Radical review, to be edited (informally) by J S Mill, and called the ‘’London Review’’. Shortly after, Molesworth bought the Westminster Review’’ and merged the two; and from April 1836 to March 1840 the journal resulting from the merger was published under the title London and Westminster Review. After March 1840 and for the following decade publication continued under the title Westminster Review, but with William Edward Hickson in place of Mill as editor. Though financial difficulties continued, Mill concluded of the period that “it is highly creditable to him [Hickson] that he was able to maintain, in some tolerable degree, the character of the Review as an organ of radicalism and progress”.

Later developments
In 1851 the journal was acquired by John Chapman based at 142 the Strand, London, a publisher who originally had medical training. The then unknown Mary Ann Evans, later better known by her pen name of George Eliot, had brought together his authors, including Francis Newman, W. R. Greg, Harriet Martineau and the young journalist Herbert Spencer who had been working and living cheaply in the offices of The Economist opposite Chapman's house. These authors met during that summer to give their support to this flagship of free thought and reform, joined by others including John Stuart Mill, the physiologist William Benjamin Carpenter, Robert Chambers and George J. Holyoake. They were later joined by Thomas Huxley, an ambitious young ship's surgeon determined to become a naturalist.

John Oxenford's anonymous 1853 article, "Iconoclasm in German Philosophy", was translated and published in the Vossische Zeitung. This led to a new interest in Schopenhauer's writings.

Mary Ann Evans (George Eliot) became assistant editor and produced a four–page prospectus setting out their common beliefs in progress, ameliorating ills and rewards for talent, setting out a loosely defined evolutionism as "the fundamental principle" of what she and Chapman called the "Law of Progress". The group was divided over the work of Thomas Malthus, with Holyoake opposing it as the principle of the workhouse which blamed the poor for their poverty, while to Greg and Martineau this was a law of nature encouraging responsibility and self-improvement. Chapman asked Herbert Spencer to write about this divisive matter for the first issue, and Spencer's "A Theory of Population, deduced from the General Law of Animal Fertility" actually appeared in the second issue, supporting the painful Malthusian principle as both true and self-correcting.

After 1853 John Tyndall joined Huxley in running the science section of the Westminster Review and formed a group of evolutionists who helped pave the way for Charles Darwin's 1859 publication of On the Origin of Species and gave evolutionary ideas backing in the ensuing debate. The term "Darwinism" was first put in print by Huxley in his review of The Origin, in the April 1860 issue of the Westminster Review, which hailed the book as "a veritable Whitworth gun in the armoury of liberalism", promoting scientific naturalism over theology and praising the usefulness of Darwin's ideas while expressing professional reservations about Darwin's gradualism and doubting if it could be proved that natural selection could form new species. In 1886 the Review published an essay by Eleanor Marx, "The Woman Question: From A Socialist Point of View".

After a change of ownership in 1887, when it converted to a monthly, it ceased to function on the same progressive and intellectual level. John Chapman died in Paris on the 25th November 1894, as the result of being run over by a cab, and his wife Hannah took over the editorship of the Review.

Westminster and Foreign Quarterly Review
The Foreign Quarterly Review was an independent London-based quarterly that published from July 1827 to July 1846 (volume 37). In October 1846 the Foreign Quarterly Review merged with the Westminster Review. Until January 1847 the journal resulting from the merger was simultaneously published under two different titles: the Foreign Quarterly and Westminster Review and the Westminster and Foreign Quarterly Review; after January 1847, the journal was published under the title the Westminster and Foreign Quarterly Review. The last issue under the title Westminster and Foreign Quarterly Review was published in October 1851 (volume 56, no. 2); after that issue the journal was published under the title Westminster Review and continued thus until it ceased publication in 1914.

Notable contributors
• John Bowring

• Emilia Dilke

• George Eliot

• George Grote

• Thomas Huxley

• Anna Kingsford

• Harriet Martineau

• James Mill

• Harriet McIlquham

• John Stuart Mill

• John Neal

• Thomas Love Peacock

• Herman George Scheffauer

• Mary Shelley

• Herbert Spencer

• John Tyndall

• Caroline Cornwallis

• Julia Wedgwood

• Elizabeth Clarke Wolstenholme Elmy writing as Ignota

title: The Westminster Review


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Bondage stool

 This page is an archive of the proposed deletion of the article below. Further comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination). No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was article speedied for patent nonsense   — Gwalla | Talk 20:29, 25 July 2005 (UTC)

Bondage stool
One-word article, and it's not even a word. Speedy delete. Chatoyant 17:27, July 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * is the way to do this, I added the tag. humblefool® 17:30, 25 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Thanks. I was about to catch on... Chatoyant
 * No worries. The speedy deletion process can be confusing. humblefool® 17:38, 25 July 2005 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


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Stephen Blumberg

Stephen Carrie Blumberg (born 1948 in Saint Paul, Minnesota) is best known as a bibliomane who lived in Ottumwa, Iowa. After being arrested for stealing more than 23,600 books worth US$5.3 million in 1990 (equivalent to about $M in ), he became known as the Book Bandit and was recognized as the most successful book thief in the history of the United States.

Early life
Blumberg lived on a $72,000 annual family trust fund. His compulsion to collect books developed in childhood when he became interested in many of the beautiful, but run-down Victorian homes in St. Paul he walked past on his way to school. Blumberg began removing doorknobs and stained glass windows from the old houses that were slated for destruction as part of a revitalization project in St. Paul. Blumberg amassed hundreds of these items during the course of his collecting years in addition to the books. His initial interest in Victorian architecture brought him into the rare-books stacks at the University of Minnesota. Blumberg initially took items as a way to create a reference collection for his own use.

Arrest and trial
At 2:00 am on March 20, 1990, Stephen Blumberg was arrested for stealing more than 23,600 rare, valuable and assorted other books from 268 or more universities and museums in 45 states, two Canadian provinces, and Washington, D.C. Their value was placed at about US$20 million, but was later changed to $5.3 million, the largest book theft in US history. In 1991, Blumberg was found guilty and sentenced to 71 months in prison with a $200,000 fine. On December 29, 1995, he was released from prison. The collection has been referred to as the "Blumberg Collection." The Rare Books and Manuscripts division of the Association of College and Research Libraries as well as library security expert William Andrew Moffett helped the Federal Bureau of Investigation capture and convict Stephen Blumberg and identify the items he had stolen.

Blumberg's arrest came as a result of his friend, Kenneth J. Rhodes, turning him in for a $56,000 bounty he negotiated with the Justice Department. Rhodes and Blumberg had known each other since the mid-1970s. A known criminal, Rhodes accompanied Blumberg on several of his road trip collecting sprees.

During Blumberg's 1991 trial, Dr. William S. Logan, director of the Law and Psychiatry Department at the Menninger Clinic and a recognized authority on forensic psychiatry, revealed that Blumberg had undergone psychiatric treatment for schizophrenic delusions and tendencies. He was hospitalized numerous times during his adolescence where twelve psychiatrists diagnosed him variously as schizophrenic, delusional, paranoid, or compulsive. Dr. Logan also revealed that a history of psychiatric illness plagued Blumberg's family. Dr. Logan reported during the trial that Blumberg intended to preserve or rescue the materials he stole from what he believed was destruction. Blumberg believed that the government was plotting to keep the ordinary person from having access to rare books and unique materials, and so sought to liberate and release them in an attempt to thwart the government plot. Blumberg admitted that he saw himself as a custodian of the things he took. He said he would never sell them because he thought that would be dishonest. He envisioned the items would be returned to the rightful owners after his death, or at least to another repository that could care for them. Despite these claims, Blumberg was convicted in 1991 as guilty, without reason of insanity. After serving a $4 1/2$-year sentence, Blumberg was released and resumed his collecting and stealing habits.

Upon meeting Blumberg in the FBI's stacks after his arrest, John L. Sharpe III from Duke University's library commented about his brief conversation with Blumberg that, "'What I felt...was that we in libraries have to operate on a trust system every time we bring a book to someone's table. This is what I think is so sinister about the whole thing. This man chose to debase that, to debase that commodity that is so essential in gathering information in an open institution. And I think he betrayed everything that we try to represent in making information available as freely and as uninhibitedly as possible. And I think that's what really just enraged me, to think that this man took advantage of that kind of access.' (511)"

In 1997, Blumberg was convicted again of burglary of antiques. He was again arrested in July 2003 for burglary of a house in Keokuk, Iowa. He was subsequently convicted in early-2004. He was again arrested in June 2004 for burglary in Knoxville, Illinois. This violated his probation for the 2004 conviction in Keokuk, Iowa, for which he was again arrested.

Collection
Some of the more precious objects Blumberg stole include a first-edition copy of Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin; A Confession of Faith, the first book published in Connecticut; 25 boxes of rare materials outlining the early history of Oregon; and the Bishops' Bible, a 16th-century volume. Blumberg claimed he put together 100 incunabula in three years, including the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle bound in ivory calfskin. He also attempted to collect the full Zamorano 80, a list of rare books established in 1945 by a group of prominent book collectors in a Los Angeles book club named after Don Augustin Zamorano, California's first printer.

title: Stephen Blumberg


text:
Index of soil-related articles

This is an index of articles relating to soil.

A
Acid sulfate soil - Acrisol - Active layer - Agricultural soil science - Akadama - Albeluvisols - Alfisols - Alkali soil - Andisols - Angle of repose - Antigo (soil) - Anthrosol - Aridisols - Atriplex - Australian Society of Soil Science Incorporated -

B
Baer's law - Bama (soil) - Barren vegetation - Base-richness - Bay mud - Bearing capacity - Bentonite - Berkshire (soil) - Bevameter - Biochar - Biogeology - Blandford (soil) - Blue goo - Bog - Brickearth - Brown earth - Brown podzolic

C
Calcareous grassland - Calcareous - Calciorthid - Calcisols - Cambisols - Canada Land Inventory - Capacitance probe - Carbon cycle re-balancing - Casa Grande (soil) - Cation-exchange capacity - Cellular confinement - Cecil (soil) - Characterisation of pore space in soil - Charlottetown (soil series) - Chernozem - Clay - Claypan - Cob (material) - Cohesion (geology) - Compressed earth block - Consolidation (soil) - Contour ploughing - Critical state soil mechanics

D
Darcy (unit) - Darcy's law - Darcy–Weisbach equation - Dark earth - Dispersion (geology) - Downer (soil) - Downhill creep - Drainage research - Drilosphere - Drucker–Prager yield criterion - Drummer (soil) - Dry quicksand - Dryland salinity - Duricrust - Durisols - Dynamic compaction

E
Ecological land classification - Ecosystem ecology - Edaphic - Edaphology - Effective stress - Eluvium - Entisol - Environmental impact of irrigation - Erosion - European Soil Bureau Network - European Soil Database - Expansive clay

F
Factors affecting permeability of soils - Fech fech - Fen - Ferrallitisation - Fill dirt - Flatwood - Flownet - Fractal in soil mechanics - Frequency domain sensor - Fresno scraper - Frost heaving - Frost line - Fuller's earth

G
Gelisols - Geosmin - Geotechnical investigation - Gleysol - Gravitational erosion - Groundwater-related subsidence - Guelph soil - Gypcrust - Gypsisols

H
Hardpan - Headland (agriculture) - Hesco bastion - Hilo (soil) - History of soil science - Histosol - Houdek (soil) - Hume (soil) - Humin - Humus - Hydraulic conductivity - Hydric soil - Hydro axe mulching - Hydrological transport model - Hydropedology - Hydrophobic soil

I
Immobilization (soil science) - Inceptisols - Infiltration capacity - International Humic Substances Society - International Soil Reference and Information Centre - International Union of Soil Sciences

J
Jory (soil)

K
Kalkaska sand - Kerogen

L
Lahar - Laimosphere - Land improvement - Lateral earth pressure - Leaching (agriculture) - Leaching (pedology) - Leaching model (soil) - Leptosols - Lessivage - Liming (soil) - Linear aeration - Lixisols - Loam - Loess - Lunar soil

M
Martian soil - Miami (soil) - Multi-Scale Soil Information Systems - Mineralization (soil science) - Mollisols - Mud - Multiscale European Soil Information System - Muskeg - Myakka (soil)

N
Narragansett (soil) - Natchez silt loam - National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists - Natural organic matter - Newmark's influence chart - No-till farming

O
On-Grade Mat Foundation for Expansive Soils - OPAL Soil Centre - Orovada (soil) - Orthent - Overburden pressure - Oxisol

P
Paleosol - Particle size (grain size) - Paxton (soil) - Peat - Pedalfer - Pedocal - Pedodiversity - Pedology - Permeability (earth sciences) - Petrichor - Plaggen soil - Plainfield (soil) - Planosol - Plough pan - Podzol - Pore water pressure - Porosity - Port Silt Loam - Prime farmland - Psamment - Pygmy forest

Q
Quick clay - Quicksand

R
Rankers - Red Mediterranean soil - Regosols - Rendzina - Residual Sodium Carbonate Index - Reynolds' dilatancy - Rill - Rock flour

S
SahysMod - Saline seep - Salinity in Australia - Salt marsh - Salting the earth - SaltMod - San Joaquin (soil) - Sand - Sand boil - Sandbag - Scobey (soil) - Seitz (soil) - Serpentine soil - Shear strength (soil) - Shear strength test - Shrub swamp - Silt - Slope stability - Slump - Sodium adsorption ratio - Soil - Soil acidification - Soil amendment - Soil and water assessment tool - Soil Association - Soil biodiversity - Soil biology - Soil carbon - Soil cement - Soil chemistry - Soil classification - Soil compaction - Soil conditioner - Soil conservation - Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act - Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act of 1936 - Soil contamination - Soil crust - Soil depletion - Soil ecology - Soil erosion - Soil fertility - Soil food web - Soil functions - Soil gradation - Soil guideline value - Soil health - Soil horizon - Soil inoculant - Soil life - Soil liquefaction - Soil management - Soil mechanics - Soil moisture - Soil moisture sensors - Soil nailing - Soil organic matter - Soil pH - Soil physics - Soil policy (Victoria, Australia) - Soil profile - Soil resilience - Soil respiration - Soil salinity - Soil salinity control - Soil science - Soil Science Society of America - Soil series - Soil solarization - Soil steam sterilization - Soil structure - Soil survey - Soil test - Soil texture - Soil type - Soil water (retention) - Soils retrogression and degradation - Solonchak - Solonetz - Specific storage - Specific weight - Spodic soils - Stagnosol - Strip farming - Stuttgart (soil) - Subaqueous soil - Subsidence - Subsoil

T
Talik - Tanana (soil) - Technosols - Tepetate - Terrace (agriculture) - Terracette - Terramechanics - Terra preta - Terra rosa (soil) - Terzaghi's Principle - Thaw depth - Thixotropy - Threebear (soil) - Throughflow - Tifton (soil) - Tillage - Topsoil - Tropical peat

U
Umbric horizon - Ultisols - Umbrisols - Unified Soil Classification System - USDA soil taxonomy - Ustochrept

V
Vegetation and slope stability - Vertisol - Vibro stone column - Void ratio

W
Water content - Weathering - Windsor (soil) - World Congress of Soil Science

Y
Yedoma

title: Index of soil-related articles


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Louis Couty

Louis Couty (13 January 1854 in Nantiat, France – 22 November 1884 in Rio de Janeiro, Empire of Brazil) was a French physician and physiologist. He worked at the Laboratory of Experimental Physiology at the National Museum of Rio de Janeiro, the first of its kind in Brazil. He was a collaborator of João Baptista de Lacerda (1846-1915), a Brazilian physiologist who was the lab's founder.

Couty studied in France with Alfred Vulpian (1826–1887) and Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard (1817–1894). He came to Brazil to lecture on Industrial Biology at the Escola Politécnica do Rio de Janeiro. Disappointed with its local conditions, he asked to carry out his experimental research at the National Museum, where Lacerda was already active with a research line on snake venom and other toxins. Couty began to study curare, a plant poison, and his first published paper was on its physiological properties, in 1876. Hearing about his work, the Brazilian emperor Dom Pedro II visited the Laboratory and invited him to be its first director, providing also the necessary resources to support the research lines.

Couty also did experiments on other toxic plants and animals, the physiological effects of climate, on the pharmacology of mate, coffee, sugar cane alcohol, etc. He also studied brain physiology in monkeys and even adventured himself into sociology, writing in 1881 an important book, one of the earliest sociological analyses published about the country, "Slavery in Brazil". In this work, Couty proved that Brazil, on the basis of the census of 1872, had a very small organised middle class and that slave owners (only about 500,000 in 12 million total, in a land of 5 million square km) were the "real" economical and political elite. Hence, his famous boutade, "Brazil has no people".

He died unexpectedly at 30 years of age, after living less than 8 years in Rio, and his brilliant career, which could have been so important to the development of Brazilian physiology, was cut short. Couty's place in the history of biomedical science is preserved in a fresco painting at the entrance of the basic sciences building of the Federal University of São Paulo.

title: Louis Couty


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Talk:Maxim (musician)

Untitled
Maxim's albums need their own pages, and the release date for his 2005 album has already passed.

Maxim Reality isn't English
Can this be amended to 'British' please? He is not a member of the English Ethnicity but is a Citizen of the UK. Thank You. Brimrād Genga. 20.22 (UTC). 09/02/13. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Brimrād Genga (talk • contribs)

title: Talk:Maxim (musician)


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Talk:Districts of Suriname

Untitled
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Maps_of_Suriname CaribDigita 17:44, 23 November 2006 (UTC)

Indian reservations
Does Suriname has Indian reservations like this: Lands inhabited by indigenous peoples--Kaiyr (talk) 16:34, 17 September 2017 (UTC)

The Population and Land percent seem very off
Unless I am misunderstanding these numbers, they seem incredibly off. 240,924 people is 3.4% of the population, while 34,233 is 44.5% of the population. 5353 square kilometers is only 0.1% of the land, while 2353 is 2.4% of the land. Smoceany2 (talk) 17:43, 30 August 2023 (UTC)

 * I fixed it Smoceany2 (talk) 05:10, 31 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Districts of Suriname


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Born secret

"Born secret" and "born classified" are both terms which refer to a policy of information being classified from the moment of its inception, usually regardless of where it was created, and usually in reference to specific laws in the United States that are related to information that describes the operation of nuclear weapons.

It has been extensively used in reference to a clause in the Atomic Energy Act of 1946, which specified that all information about nuclear weapons and nuclear energy was to be considered "Restricted Data" (RD) until it had been officially declassified.

In the 1954 revision of the Act, the United States Atomic Energy Commission was given the power to declassify entire categories of information.

The "born secret" policy was created under the assumption that nuclear information could be so important to national security that it would need classification before it could be formally evaluated. The wording of the 1954 act specified as secret:

"All data concerning (1) design, manufacture, or utilization of atomic weapons; (2) the production of special nuclear material; or (3) the use of special nuclear material in the production of energy, but shall not include data declassified or removed from the Restricted Data category pursuant to section 2162 of this title."

The constitutionality of declaring entire categories of information preemptively classified has not been definitively tested in the courts.

The legality of the "born secret" doctrine was directly challenged in a freedom of the press case in 1979 (United States v. The Progressive). In that case, a magazine attempted to publish an account of the so-called "secret of the hydrogen bomb" (the Teller–Ulam design), which was apparently created without recourse to classified information. Many analysts predicted that the US Supreme Court would, if it heard the case, reject the "born secret" clause as being an unconstitutional restraint on speech. However, the government dropped the case as moot before it was resolved.

title: Born secret


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Swimming at the World Aquatics Championships

The aquatics discipline of swimming is considered the flagship event at every edition of the World Aquatics Championships since its introduction in 1973. While open water swimming events were added to the program in 1991, it is considered a separate discipline to swimming.

Championships
Member federations referred to as winners, second, and third, in the table below, are the top three nation's listed on the medal tally based on the standard method of ranking (being total gold medals, followed by total silver medals, and then total bronze medals).

Events
The number of events competed for at each edition of the championships has grown steadily through the years. In 1973, 29 events were swum: 15 for men and 14 for women, all in the pool. Since 2015, the combined number of events for men and women including pool and open water events has been 49, a drastic increase compared to the first edition. Historically, 50 different events have been held across the 17 editions of the championships.

Long course
Long course events have been competed since the inaugural edition of the championships in 1973. The youngest male swimmer to participate in the World Swimming Championships was Ahnt Khaung Htut from Myanmar, who was 12 years old in 2015. He took part at the 100m backstroke and 100m breaststroke events. The youngest female swimmer to participate in the World Swimming Championships was 10-year-old Alzain Tareq from Bahrain in 2015. She participated at the 50m butterfly and 50m freestyle events.

Open water
Open water swimming events have been competed since the sixth edition of the championships in 1991. From 2000 to 2010, FINA organized in even years specific championships for open water swimming events, being the FINA World Open Water Swimming Championships.

Medalists
A select number of athletes have won medals at both long course and open water events, including Oussama Mellouli from Tunisia, Hayley Lewis from Australia, Gregorio Paltrinieri from Italy, Florian Wellbrock from Germany, and Sharon van Rouwendaal from the Netherlands. For a full list of medalists covering all editions of the championships see List of World Aquatics Championships medalists in swimming (men) and List of World Aquatics Championships medalists in swimming (women). For a complete list of medal winners in open water swimming see List of World Aquatics Championships medalists in open water swimming.

All-time medal table 1973–2024
Updated after the 2024 World Aquatics Championships.

Multiple medalists
Boldface denotes active swimmers and highest medal count among all swimmers (including these who not included in these tables) per type.

All events
* including one medal in the relay event in which this swimmer participated in the heats only  ** including two medals in the relay events in which this swimmer participated in the heats only

World records
The World Championships have often been the occasion at which elite swimmers reach the peak of their season, and hence numerous world records are often broken.

Championship Records

 * List of World Championships records in swimming


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User talk:Surfmachine

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikipedia. It is considered vandalism. If you were just trying to experiment, then use the sandbox instead. Thank you.

title: User talk:Surfmachine


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General of the Army (United States)

General of the Army (abbreviated as GA) is a five-star general officer rank in the United States Army. It is generally equivalent to the rank of Field Marshal in other countries. In the United States, a General of the Army ranks above generals and is equivalent to a fleet admiral and a general of the Air Force. The General of the Army insignia consisted of five 3/8 inch stars in a pentagonal pattern, with touching points. The insignia was paired with the gold and enameled United States coat of arms on service coat shoulder loops. The silver colored five-star chain has major insignia alone would be worn for use as a collar insignia of grade and on the garrison cap. Soft shoulder epaulets with five 7/16 inch stars in silver thread and gold-threaded United States coat of arms on green cloth were worn with shirts and sweaters.

The rank of "General of the Army" (the highest rank in the army) has had two incarnations. The first was introduced in 1866, following the American Civil War. While it was nominally a four-star rank, structurally it had authority over the entire Army, it was reserved for the Commanding General of the United States Army, and was held by three different men in succession from 1866 to 1888: Ulysses S. Grant, William Tecumseh Sherman, and Philip Sheridan. When it was created by Congress for Grant, Grant had already reached the highest rank historically used in the United States, the three star lieutenant general. The "General of the Army" rank was revived during World War II as the modern five-star rank. The rank does not imply command of the entire Army and may be awarded to more than one officer at a time. It has been held by five different men since 1944, four promoted to the rank in December 1944 (George C. Marshall, Douglas MacArthur, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Henry H. Arnold), and one promoted in September 1950 (Omar Bradley).

A special rank of General of the Armies, which ranks above the second incarnation of General of the Army, exists but has been conferred only three times — to World War I's John J. Pershing in 1919, and posthumously to George Washington in 1976. In December 2022, the James M. Inhofe National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2023 authorized Ulysses S. Grant to be posthumously promoted to the rank, 137 years after his death. President Biden signed the Act into federal law on December 23, 2022.

Post–American Civil War era
Toward the end of the American Civil War, Ulysses S. Grant achieved the first fixed promotion to lieutenant general in the U.S., since George Washington. On 25 July 1866, the U.S. Congress further established the rank of "General of the Army of the United States" for General Grant. His pay was "four hundred dollars per month, and his allowance for fuel and quarters", except "when his headquarters are in Washington, shall be at the rate of three hundred dollars per month." (His combined monthly pay and allowance of seven hundred dollars in 1866 is ). When appointed General of the Army, Grant wore the rank insignia of four stars and coat buttons arranged in three groups of four.

Unlike the World War II rank with a similar title, the 1866 rank of General of the Army was nominally a four-star rank, but this rank held all the authority and power of a 1799 proposal for a rank of "General of the Armies", even though Grant was never called by this title. Despite being titled General of the Army instead of General of the Armies, the Comptroller General of the United States would rule in 1924 that the grade revived in 1866 for Grant (and later William T. Sherman and Philip H. Sheridan) was the same grade that had been proposed for Washington in 1799 and revived for Pershing in 1919.

In contrast to the modern four-star rank of general, only one officer at a time could hold the 1866–1888 rank of General of the Army. For a few months in 1885, as he was dying, Grant was accorded a special honor and his rank was restored by Congressional legislation.

After Grant became U.S. president, he was succeeded as General of the Army by William T. Sherman, effective 4 March 1869. In 1872, Sherman ordered the insignia changed to two stars, with the coat of arms of the United States in between.

By an Act of Congress on 1 June 1888, the grade was conferred upon Philip Sheridan, who by then was in failing health. The rank of General of the Army ceased to exist with Sheridan's death on 5 August 1888.

World War II and Korean War era
As the logistics and military leadership requirements of World War II escalated after the June 1944 Normandy landings, the United States government created a new version of General of the Army. The government had considered creating a rank of field marshal, however George C. Marshall, the first officer to be nominated for the rank, objected to the proposed title as he did not want to be known as "Marshal Marshall". A Marshal is, in the United States, traditionally a law enforcement or fire department official. The five-star rank and authority of General of the Army and equivalent naval Fleet Admiral were created by an Act of Congress on a temporary basis when was passed on 14 December 1944, which provided only 75% of pay and allowances to the grade for those on the retired list. The rank was temporary, subject to reversion to permanent rank six months after the end of the war. The temporary rank was then declared permanent on 23 March 1946 by, which also awarded full pay and allowances in the grade to those on the retired list. It was created to give the most senior American commanders parity of rank with their British counterparts holding the ranks of field marshal and admiral of the fleet. This second General of the Army rank is not the same as the post-Civil War era version because of its purpose and five stars.

The insignia for the 1944 General of the Army rank consists of five stars in a pentagonal pattern, with points touching. The five officers who have held the 1944 version of General of the Army and the date of each's appointment are as follows:

Generals of the Army (WWII)
The timing of the first four of these appointments was coordinated with the first three of the following appointments of the U.S. Navy's first five-star Fleet Admirals:

This was to establish both an order of seniority among the generals and a near-equivalence between the services.

Although briefly considered, the U.S. Army did not introduce a rank of Field Marshal. In the United States, the term "Marshal" has traditionally been used for civilian law enforcement officers, particularly the U.S. Marshals, as well as formerly for state and local police chiefs. In addition, giving the rank the name "marshal" would have resulted in George Marshall being designated as "Field Marshal Marshall", which was considered undignified.

Eisenhower resigned his army commission on 31 May 1952 to run for the U.S. presidency. After Eisenhower was elected and served two terms, President John F. Kennedy on 22 March 1961 signed, which authorized reappointing Eisenhower "to the active list of the Regular Army in his former grade, of General of the Army with his former date of rank in such grade". This rank is today commemorated on the signs denoting Interstate Highways as part of the Eisenhower Interstate System, which display five silver stars on a light blue background.

Arnold, a general in the Army, was the Commanding General of the Army Air Forces throughout World War II, when he was promoted. After his United States Air Force became a separate service on 18 September 1947, Arnold's rank was carried over to the Air Force, just as all Army Air Forces airmen's rank carried over. Arnold was the first and, to date, only General of the Air Force. He is also the only person to have ever held a five-star rank in two branches of the U.S. Armed Forces.

Bradley received the 5-star rank upon being made the first Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (serving from 1949 to 1953). This was to make him superior in rank to General MacArthur, who was still serving at the time.

These officers who held the rank of General of the Army remained officers of the United States Army for life, with an annual $20,000 in pay and allowances,. They were entitled to an office maintained by the Army along with an aide (of the rank of colonel), a secretary, and an orderly.

Modern usage
No officers have been promoted to the rank of General of the Army since Omar Bradley (who was also the last living officer of such rank when he died in 1981). The rank is still maintained in the Army's structure, and could be awarded by the president with the consent of the United States Senate.

Although the first Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS), Omar Bradley, was eventually awarded a fifth star, such a promotion does not come with that office; Bradley's elevation ensured that he would not be outranked by his subordinate, Douglas MacArthur.

In the 1990s, there were proposals in Department of Defense academic circles to bestow a five-star rank on the office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

After the conclusion of the Persian Gulf War, but before his tenure as Secretary of State, there was talk of awarding a fifth star to General Colin Powell, who had served as CJCS during the conflict. But even in the face of public and Congressional pressure to do so, Clinton presidential transition team staffers decided against it for political reasons, fearing that a fifth star may have assisted Powell (a Republican) had he decided to run for office. An effort was also made to promote General Norman Schwarzkopf Jr. to General of the Army, although it was not carried out.

As recently as the late 2000s, some commentators proposed that the military leader in the Global War on Terrorism be promoted to a five-star rank. In January 2011, the founders of the Vets for Freedom political advocacy group published an op-ed in The Wall Street Journal calling for David Petraeus to be awarded a fifth star in recognition of his work and the importance of his mission. Earlier, in July 2010, David W. Brown wrote an article in The Atlantic supporting the same promotion.

Ranks senior to General of the Army
The rank of General of the Armies is senior to General of the Army, and the rank by this name has been bestowed on only three officers in U.S. history. In 1919, John J. Pershing was promoted to General of the Armies for his services in World War I. In 1976, during the United States Bicentennial, George Washington was posthumously promoted to this rank for his service as the first commanding general of the United States Army. In 2022, Ulysses S. Grant was posthumously promoted to the rank of General of the Armies to celebrate 200 years since his birth. In 1903, retroactive to 1899, George Dewey was promoted to Admiral of the Navy, a rank equated to that of a five-star admiral. The promotion of Admiral Dewey is the only time an Admiral of the Navy has been named and the rank ceased to exist after his death.

Section 7 of Public Law 78-482 read: "Nothing in this Act shall affect the provisions of the Act of September 3, 1919 (41 Stat. 283: 10 U.S.C. 671a), or any other law relating to the office of General of the Armies of the United States."

George Washington was posthumously promoted to the rank of General of the Armies on 15 March 1978 by Secretary of the Army Clifford Alexander. In relation to America's bicentennial celebration, Congress passed legislation on 19 January 1976 urging Washington's promotion and President Gerald Ford approved it in October 1976, but historians found that Congressional and Presidential actions were not enough, and that the Army had to issue orders to make the promotion official. According to Public Law 94-479, General of the Armies of the United States is established as having "rank and precedence over all other grades of the Army, past or present." Thus, Washington will always be the most senior general of the United States. During his lifetime, Washington was appointed a general in the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War, and a three-star lieutenant general in the Regular Army during the Quasi-War with France.

title: General of the Army (United States)


text:
Index of solar energy articles

This is a list of solar energy topics.

A

 * Air mass coefficient
 * Artificial photosynthesis

B

 * BP Solar
 * BrightSource Energy
 * Building-integrated photovoltaics

C

 * Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics
 * Central solar heating plant
 * Community solar farm
 * Compact linear Fresnel reflector
 * Concentrating photovoltaics
 * Concentrating solar power
 * Crookes radiometer

D

 * Daylighting
 * Horace de Saussure
 * Desertec
 * Drake Landing Solar Community
 * Duck curve
 * Dye-sensitized solar cell

E

 * Effect of sun angle on climate
 * Energy tower (downdraft)
 * EURO-SOLAR Programme
 * European Photovoltaic Industry Association

F

 * Feed-in tariff
 * First Solar
 * Flip Flap
 * Floating Solar (Floatovoltaics)
 * Fresnel reflector
 * Charles Fritts
 * Calvin Fuller

G

 * Geomagnetic storm
 * Global dimming
 * Greenhouse
 * Growth of photovoltaics

H

 * Halo (optical phenomenon)
 * Helioseismology
 * Heliostat
 * Home Energy Storage

I

 * Indosolar
 * Insolation
 * Installed solar power capacity
 * Abram Ioffe
 * ISE (Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems)
 * Ivanpah Solar Power Facility

J

 * Jinko Solar

L

 * Light tube
 * List of photovoltaic power stations
 * List of solar thermal power stations
 * Loanpal

M

 * Magnetic sail
 * Auguste Mouchout
 * Moura photovoltaic power station

N

 * Nanocrystal solar cell
 * Net metering
 * Nevada Solar One

P

 * Parabolic reflector
 * Parabolic trough
 * Passive solar
 * Passive solar building design
 * Photoelectric effect
 * Photovoltaic array
 * Photovoltaic system
 * Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector
 * Photovoltaics
 * Photovoltaics in transport
 * Polymer solar cell
 * Polytunnel
 * PV financial incentives

R

 * Row cover

S

 * Salt evaporation pond
 * Sandia National Laboratories
 * Wolfgang Scheffler
 * SEGS
 * Seasonal thermal energy storage (STES)
 * Soil solarization
 * Solar air conditioning
 * Solar and Heliospheric Observatory
 * Solar azimuth angle
 * Solar balloon
 * Solar bowl
 * Solar box cooker
 * Solar car
 * Solar car racing
 * Solar cell
 * Solar cell efficiency
 * Solar cell research
 * Solar-charged vehicle
 * Solar chemical
 * Solar chimney
 * Solar collector
 * Solar combisystem
 * Solar constant
 * Solar cooker
 * Solar cooling
 * Solar cycle
 * Solar Decathlon
 * Solar desalination
 * Solar easement
 * solar eclipse
 * Solar Energy Generating Systems
 * Solar flare
 * Solar fuel
 * Solar furnace
 * Solar greenhouse (technical)
 * Solar heating
 * Solar hot water in Australia
 * Solar hydrogen panel
 * Solar lamp
 * Solar map
 * Solar maximum
 * Solar minimum
 * Solar mirror
 * Solar nebula
 * Solar neon
 * Solar Orbiter
 * Solar oven
 * Solar pond
 * Solar power
 * Solar power by country
 * Solar power in Australia
 * Solar power in Canada
 * Solar power in China
 * Solar power in the European Union
 * Solar power in Germany
 * Solar power in India
 * Solar power in Israel
 * Solar power in Japan
 * Solar power in Pakistan
 * Solar power in Portugal
 * Solar power in Romania
 * Solar power in Spain
 * Solar power in Turkey
 * Solar power in the United Kingdom
 * Solar power in the United States
 * Solar power plants in the Mojave Desert
 * Solar power satellite
 * Solar power tower
 * Solar-powered desalination unit
 * Solar-powered pump
 * Solar-powered watch
 * The Solar Project
 * Solar prominence
 * Solar proton event
 * Solar-pumped laser
 * Solar radiation
 * Solar radiation pressure
 * Solar sail
 * Solar savings fraction
 * Solar shingles
 * Solar still
 * Solar thermal collector
 * Solar thermal energy
 * Solar thermal rocket
 * Solar Total Energy Project
 * Solar tracker
 * Solar updraft tower
 * Solar variation
 * Solar variation theory
 * Solar vehicle
 * Solar water disinfection
 * Solar water heating
 * Solar wind
 * Solarium
 * SolarPACES
 * Sopogy
 * Space-based solar power
 * Sun
 * Sun tanning
 * Sunburn
 * Sunscreen
 * Sunshade

T

 * Mária Telkes
 * Thin-film
 * Timeline of solar cells
 * Topaz Solar Farm
 * Total spectrum solar concentrator
 * Trombe wall

U

 * Ubiquitous Energy

W

 * World Solar Challenge

title: Index of solar energy articles


text:
Talk:Abdul-Halim Sadulayev

Succession box
User:Apoivre, why have you removed the succession box for Chechen presidents? —thames 17:36, 25 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Two reasons. 1. Redundancy: the box doesn't contain any info that's not in the article(s) 2. AFAIK, infoboxes like these are used for legitimate governments. If you put an infobox for "presidents" of Ichkeria, why don't put one for the Dominion of Melchizedek, etc? There are lots of wannabe governments out there --apoivre 12:00, 26 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Well, unlike the Dominion of Melchizedek, the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria did exist as a fully sovereign state from 1991 to 1998, when Russia invaded. It had government agencies, documents, passports, currency, et cetera.

 * According to Wikipedia, sovereignty "is the exclusive right to exercise supreme authority over a geographic region, group of people, or oneself". Of the three, only the latter may be true of the CRI for most of the period you're referring to.--apoivre 17:57, 26 July 2005 (UTC)

 * This is similar to other sovereign if unrecognized nations, like Transnistria, Abkhazia, Nagorno-Karabakh, and even Taiwan - the world doesn't consider it to exist, even if it is obviously there.

 * I'm not so sure the ex-Soviet breakaway territories should have it either but anyway - Transnistria, Abkhazia, Nagorno Karabakh and Taiwan have one thing Ichkeria doesn't - territory (the "geographic region" part in the Britannica/Wikipedia definition of sovereignty above). Although I'm not so sure about, say, "exclusivity" in the case of NK (vis-à-vis Armenia). --apoivre 17:57, 26 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Now, since 1998, the Russians have toppled the government, but it still exists in a manner similar to the Palestinian Authority - it has control over people, resources, et cetera. It may not be a country, but it is a political entity, and it does have a president.
 * It doesn't have control over people, resources, et cetera - unless you know something nobody else does.--apoivre 17:57, 26 July 2005 (UTC)

 * As for the redundancy: most articles on Wikipedia using succession boxes could be deemed redundant. However, in case you do not want to read all the text involved, you can skip down to the bottom and continue along. This is particularly useful with Presidents of the United States and Prime Ministers of Canada and such. I don't have time to read all of that stuff, which undoubtably would mention the successor and predecessor. So: I go to the succession box. Woohoo. - Gavin 12:18, 26 July 2005 (UTC)

 * If you click on the "President of the United States" in the relevant infobox you get this page with a lot of useful info (requirements to hold office, elections, presidential powers, order of succession, etc), facts, trivia and links. If you click on "Pres. of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria" in the infobox I removed, you get back to the "Ichkeria" page. (Same with Transnistria - I'm too lazy to check others). If you can start a page on "President of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria" with as much useful content as that on the POTUS (not amusing trivia like the office of the President of Ichkeria was instituted by a hardcore Communist colonel and Cold War hero who staged a coup d'état in his native land and now a separatist propaganda website tells us the President is this guy nobody has ever heard of) and add something like "unrecognized" in the infobox header and remove the second infobox with the same info - then go for it. --apoivre 17:57, 26 July 2005 (UTC)

 * I mostly agree with Gavin. Even though Ichkeria may not have been recognized as a state in the international community, it was still allowed to have an autonomous political system within the Russian Federation for several years.  The President of a substate entity can still legitimately have a succession box in wikipedia.  Governors of U.S. states can have succession boxes, I don't see why the Chechen Republic's government (or government-in-exile as it stands now) couldn't have a succession box of its own.   —thames 13:58, 26 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Ichkeria is not a substate entity within the Russian Federation. Chechen Republic is. Ichkeria was only allowed to have an autonomous political system from 1996 to 1999. It is no longer. If someone sets up a website claiming that a certain Wikipedia user apoivre is the rightful King of Aragon - do I get a page in Wikipedia and an infobox? Like, you know, preceded by Philip V of Spain and whatnot? Or do I have to kill and kidnap and blow things up to merit the honor? --apoivre 17:57, 26 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Ichkeria was permitted by the Russian government to have an autonomous government from 1996 to 1999, it is true. However, Ichkeria had been "autonomous" since 1991 - I would go so far as to say it was sovereign. Because, y'see, whether Russia "allowed" it to or not, Ichkeria was, in fact, autonomous. This is because it did, in fact, have the exclusive right to supreme authority over its people, territory, resources, et cetera.

 * It neither exercised this authority -- for most of the time only the teips did, each within its traditional territory, -- nor did it have the right (it's your wording, not mine) to it, exclusive or otherwise.--apoivre 12:48, 27 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Russia had no actual power within the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria's borders. Even if it claimed to have such power, this was not truly the case. If, in some random and extreme example, South Africa claimed to have the exclusive right to all of Canada, this would not be the case. It does not control Canada until it has toppled the government and exercised its force on that nation. From 1991 to 1999, Russia did not exercise any force on Chechnya. It had no right to that nation.

 * From 1996 to 1999, yes. From 1991? - are you kidding or what? --apoivre 12:48, 27 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Also, since 1999, I will admit that Russia has since managed to take control of the Ichkerian territories, and that the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria is no longer a sovereign nation. However, like the Palestinian Authority, it remains as a political and military organization. The Beslan incident was believed to have been organized by Aslan Maskhadov through the Ichkerian forces. They have people - many Chechnyan people proclaiming continued loyalty to the Chechen Republic, just as some Palestinians might proclaim loyalty to the Palestinian Authority.

 * Like how many? What are your sources? (oh, and its Chechen, not Chechnyan) --apoivre 12:48, 27 July

2005 (UTC)

 * No, NOT Aslan Maskhadov. Shamil Basayev. Geez. --Kocoum 09:23, 23 June 2006 (UTC)

 * They have resources. They have a command structure. (Aslan Maskhadov died fighting as a general for his forces, and he had several other forces under his control.) It is, in effect, a government-in-exile. Governments-in-exile, like other governments, can have leaders. And! If you want to travel quickly through such leaders... you have sucession boxes. - Gavin 18:50 26 July 2005 (UTC)

 * May I be allowed to quote His Majesty King of Aragon Apoivre I? - "If you can start a page on "President of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria" with as much useful content as that on the POTUS (not amusing trivia like the office of the President of Ichkeria was instituted by a hardcore Communist colonel and Cold War hero who staged a coup d'état in his native land and now a separatist propaganda website tells us the President is this guy nobody has ever heard of) and add something like "unrecognized" in the infobox header and remove the second infobox with the same info - then go for it. " If not, not, as we say in Aragon :) --apoivre 12:48, 27 July 2005 (UTC)

 * First of all, general not colonel (colonel was elected). Two, not a communist - it happened during the communist coup(against Gorbachev) and Dudayev's supporters actually stormed the local Soviet and killed the Communist Party leader in Grozny. (Before that, he supported the Estionian independence movement against Soviet Union - his base was in Estonia and he ordered the Estionian flags to replace the Soviet ones). He then changed the former Soviet building into his Presidential Palace. --Kocoum 09:23, 23 June 2006 (UTC)

Apoivre, if you direct your attention to the Yasser Arafat and Władysław Raczkiewicz articles, down at the bottom you will see succession boxes. Neither of these people were actual leaders of states. But they were leaders of political organizations, and there was a distinct line of succession. The same applies to the so-called Presidents of Ichkeria--they are leaders of a political organization, and there is a distinct line of succession. I am putting the succession boxes back, without further delay. —thames 14:09, 27 July 2005 (UTC)

Is this guy linked with bin laden --->No. At least he denies any links. Him and his predecessors are against bin laden.

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title: Talk:Abdul-Halim Sadulayev