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Zelig Kalmanovich

Zelig Hirsch Kalmanovich (Zēligs Hiršs Kalmanovičs) (1885–1944) was a Litvak Jewish philologist, translator, historian, and community archivist of the early 20th century. He was a renowned scholar of Yiddish. In 1929 he settled in Vilnius where he became an early director of YIVO.

He was incarcerated in the Vilna Ghetto where he became an observant Jew. During his time in the ghetto, Kalmanovich kept a secret diary which is one of the few primary sources recording day-to-day life. His diary stressed the efforts of the community to retain their humanity in the face of oppression. For example, on October 11, 1942, he wrote the following entry in his diary: "On Simhat Torah eve at the invitation of the rabbi, I went for services in a house that had formerly been a synagogue and was now a music school ... I said a few words: 'Our song and dance are a form of worship. Our rejoicing is due to Him who decrees life and death. Here in the midst of this small congregation, in the poor and ruined synagogue, we are united with the whole house of Israel, not only with those who are here today ... And you in your rejoicing, atone for the sins of a generation that is perishing. I know that the Jewish people will live ... And every day the Holy One, blessed be He, in His mercy gives us a gift which we accept with joy and give thanks to His holy name."

During the Nazi occupation, he was forced to work at the YIVO offices under Nazi supervision, sorting through the pillaged contents of Vilna's libraries and preparing selected volumes for shipment to Germany; these labourers, known as the Paper Brigade, managed to save a portion of these documents from destruction. He was sent to the Vaivara concentration camp in Estonia, where he died in 1944.

Translations

 * Simon Dubnow. Algemeyne Idishe geshikhte: fun di eltste tsaytn biz der nayer tsayt. Vilnius: Historisher farlag, 1920. (Translation from German of Weltgeschichte des Jüdischen Volkes)
 * Jaroslav Hašek. Der braver soldat Shveyk in der velt-milkhome, vols. 1–2. Riga: Bikher far alemen, 1921, 1928. (Translation from Czech to Yiddish of Osudy dobrého vojáka Švejka za světové války.)
 * Max Brod. Di froy fun undzer beynkshaft: roman. Riga: Bikher far alemen, 1928. (Translation from German to Yiddish of Die Frau, nach der man sich sehnt.)

title: Zelig Kalmanovich


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Talk:Eredivisie

Finances
Wow, three clubs have really dominated the last 50 years. Does anyone know what the payroll of the clubs is or some other gauge of the league's financial disparities? Ffda (talk) 20:31, 12 January 2008 (UTC)

Results
There is a site where I can find (nearly) every result from the season 1956-57 onwards. If someone can make the tables for the seasons,I can fill in all the results from the seasons 1961-62 to 2005-06. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.86.111.20 (talk) 22:00, 19 December 2008 (UTC)

 * What is the site ?
 * Aaron carass (talk) 22:08, 19 December 2008 (UTC)

The site is www.vi.nl (in Dutch) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.86.111.20 (talk) 05:44, 20 December 2008 (UTC)

Television
What is the extent of television coverage of Eredivisie? Especially, in the Netherlands, the remainder of Europe, & the remainder of the world. Ffda 17:29, 9 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Is there anywhere on the Internet for a person to watch games anymore?

Sponsorship
Holland Casino isn't the sponsor of the Eredivisie anymore.

Fixed :-) Aecis 17:13, 11 July 2005 (UTC)

That's right

Playoff Table
What happens to loser "c"? number_8-the user.

Their season is over and they're out of the running for European cup football. FC Utrecht were in fourth place up until three matches before the end of the regular season. They lost those three matches, and they dropped from fourth (Champions League playoffs) to sixth place (UEFA Cup playoffs). They lost to FC Twente, who clinched 9th place in the last minute of the last match of the season, in the first round of those playoffs, so Utrecht's season is now over. For more on this, see Eredivisie 2005-06. Aecis Mr.Mojorisin' 17:40, 28 April 2006 (UTC)

In the description of the playoffs it says "The KNVB introduced a playoff system in 2005-06 for the second to ninth placed clubs". However, from the table it would seem that only the 5th to 8th placed clubs (hense NOT the 2nd to 4th placed) enter a playoff competition. This seems contradictory. Someone who knows how the present Dutch playoff system for European qualification works should fix this. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Rdongart (talk • contribs) 22:19, 7 November 2009 (UTC)

Founded?
It says in the top right table that the eredivisie was founded in 1954. While the champions are listed from season 1897/98. Can Somebody explain?

Zwanneman 18:38, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

 * See RSSSF:

 * "In 1879 Pim Mulier took a (oval!) ball with him from a trip to England. He started to play football in Haarlem, where he founded HFC. In other cities teams were founded as well, and in 1888 a first class started with teams from Amsterdam, Den Haag, Haarlem and Rotterdam, which first crowned official champions in the 1890/91 season. In 1897 another first class started with teams from the eastern provinces. The winner of the play-off between the eastern and western first class became the official national champions. The western first class comprised the provinces of North and South Holland as well as Utrecht. In the early years occasionally teams from the south competed until the southern first class was founded."

 * And RSSSF(2):

 * "In 1954 professional football was introduced, and 1956/57 saw a national first division for the first time in history, called 'eredivisie'."

 * Hence, 1897/1898 was the first year a club could be proclaimed formal Dutch champions, while 1954 is the date professional football started. Perhaps a section should be written about the history of the Eredivisie to clarify things.

--Tsjipmanz 21:31, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

Contradiction
This page shows a play-off diagram for the teams who finish 9th and above, but the article for this season (Eredivisie 2006/2007) says that all teams down to 13th enter the play-offs. Which article is correct? - MTC 20:20, 20 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Eredivisie 2006/2007 is correct. The 10th ranked team faces the 13th, while the 11th faces no. 12 in the playoffs. Then both winners meet each other in the next round and finally challenge the loser of match G for a special situation spot. The special situation spot comes in hand when the KNVB Cup winner is among the top 7 ranked teams. In that case this team is already qualified for Europe and does not need to qualify through the playoffs, resulting in the special situation spot team to get an Intertoto ticket. SportsAddicted | discuss  05:45, 21 January 2007 (UTC)

FC Reade?
I looked on the Eredivisie website, and Yahooed FC Reade. Nada. All I got was a soccer player named Reade. So, is this vandalism? I don't want to remove it if it's not. --{{User:Coryma}} 18:50, 7 March 2007 (UTC)

Playoffs
The picture of the playoff schedual is wrong. Loser A and Loser B don't automaticly get an UEFACup spot, this only happens when the team who qualified for the UEFA Cup trough the Dutch cup ends in the top 5. There is also a third round when the loser from the match between Loser A and Loser B plays the winner from the match between Winner C and Winner D. the winner of this match gets the last UEFA Cup spot, the loser gets intertoto. For the complete schedual see Mr.Ecko 12:19, 28 August 2007 (UTC)

benelux league
is it true that their are plans to form a benelux football league ??? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 84.164.235.96 (talk) 16:10, 9 September 2008 (UTC)

Disambiguation page
"Eredivisie" needs a disambiguation page, so that I can find the Eredivises of other sports aside from football. Could somebody please make one if they know how? Galteglise (talk) 16:05, 31 March 2009 (UTC)

Actually, that was pretty easy. Does anybody know of other English wikipedia articles about Eredivisies in other sports, other than ice hockey? Galteglise (talk) 16:13, 31 March 2009 (UTC)

Changes
I changed the number of victories for Ajax back to 29. the old model said they only were champions 21 times. this is untrue as they were 1 point away from being 30 times champions last season so. NMN1488 (talk) 15:08, 1 February 2011 (UTC)
 * As is stated in the article, a distinction is made between national titles and Eredivisie titles (the last one being titles from 1956-57) Orange Firefly (talk) 19:37, 2 February 2011 (UTC)

Attendances
First of all, the attendance section lacks any references but I've noticed 2 other issues with this section: 1: It lists attendance figures for 2008-2009 and includes PEC Zwolle. Zwolle played in the Eerste Divisie (First Division) in 08-09. 2: Zwolle's attendance is listed as 12,500 average. Zwolle stadiums (both old and new) never held more than 10,500. Can anyone get a reliable source for attendance figures for a recent season? DragonFury (talk) 15:02, 19 March 2013 (UTC)

National champions
What do the yellow stars signify? It doesn't state anything on the list why the stars exist. 109.148.146.72 (talk) 17:38, 22 January 2017 (UTC)

A star represents 10 champions trophies.95.76.16.185 (talk) 17:45, 22 January 2017 (UTC)

Club section?
What is the purpose of the club section? It list teams that never played in the Eredivsie which started in 1956 as the article mentions. This also means the winning and runner-up results are incorrect.145.129.41.136 (talk) 19:36, 29 March 2019 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Eredivisie


text: User talk:82.131.22.158

title: User talk:82.131.22.158


text:
Talk:The Nordic Realm Party

Better translation
Wouldn't Nordic Reich Party be a better translation? --212.60.73.3 15:51, 11 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Yes, someone moved the article I think. // Liftarn

Cultural nationalists
I think it's misleading to compare nazis with cultural nationalists. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 62.95.94.40 (talk) 08:38, 27 April 2008 (UTC)

Translation?

 * Why on earth is this party's name partially translated into German in English Wikipedia??? See WP:ENG. Indeed, Swedish rike = German Reich, but as Sweden is a kingdom, the term often refers to national level organisations in general. Outside the construction tredje riket it would never refer to World War II or Adolf Hitler. Thus Riksskatteverket is the Swedish Tax Agency, rather than the "Reich Tax Agency" or anything such, Riksrevisionen is the Swedish National Audit Office, Riksidrottsförbundet is the Swedish Sports Confederation, and so on. Riksorganisationen or Riksförbundet is a common designation on the national secretariat of (fully democratic) Swedish parties. Thus, the word Rikspartiet does not at all have the connotations it's given in translation here. If the party's name is to be translated it would rather be as the Nordic National Party. Tomas e (talk) 15:08, 6 April 2009 (UTC)

 * I would agree. Nordic National Party or even Nordic State Party, although that would imply unionism.  Ganjha (talk) 11:09, 5 August 2009 (UTC)

 * There are claims in the discussion that "Reich" is a loan word in English. This is false. It only ONLY used in the term "Third Reich" and can't be called a loan word. It is used as a proper name, not a noun. The usage in this title is wrong, "Riksparti" only mean it is not a local party, but a party for all of the state. Hence, the correct translation is "The Nordic National Party".--83.29.174.142 (talk) 21:15, 10 May 2015 (UTC)

 * Why use a translated name as the page title? The organization did not have an official name in English, so there is no English name to use authoritatively.  The page should be renamed Nordiska Rikspartiet, quite simply.  Of course, an English explanation/translation should be provided in the article.  I don't like the current translation, "The Nordic Realm Party", but I understand the thinking behind it.  I agree with the preceding arguments, "Riksparti" simply means a political party with country-wide focus, and the most neutral translation of this is "National Party", that is "Nordic National Party" in this instance.  This also gives associations to "national socialism" (ref NSDAP) which was the basic principle for the party (NRP party presentation (in Swedish)) Kjetilho (talk) 13:22, 26 April 2021 (UTC)

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was not moved. Jafeluv (talk) 09:01, 4 September 2009 (UTC)

Nordic Reich Party → Nordic National Party — Correct translation from Swedish into English, rather than a mixture of German and English, as discussed above in. Tomas e (talk) 17:52, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

Survey

 * Feel free to state your position on the renaming proposal by beginning a new line in this section with  or  , then sign your comment with  . Since polling is not a substitute for discussion, please explain your reasons, taking into account Wikipedia's naming conventions.

 * Oppose on the whole. Ajax Smack's search shows that they are called this; and for something that emerged from a league for "National Socialist Struggle", it seems a quite reasonable name. Septentrionalis PMAnderson 16:50, 26 August 2009 (UTC)

Discussion

 * Any additional comments:

 * Both "Nordic Reich Party" and "Nordic National Party" along with "Nordic Realm Party" and "Nordic Empire Party" are used by online sources. Some work needs to be done to determine which is preferable beyond users' personal predilections.  —   AjaxSmack   19:38, 25 August 2009 (UTC)
 * Agreed. Sources should be added to the article so that we can make an informed decision. — V = I * R  (talk) 22:21, 25 August 2009 (UTC)
 * Just to clarify, do you ask for any sources beyond a dictionary to tell you that "Reich" is neither an English nor a Swedish word? It's just a matter of applying "Use English". Tomas e (talk) 14:09, 26 August 2009 (UTC)
 * Reich is an English [loan-]word, and has been since before the Second World War; whether it is the proper or usual translation of Rik here - it would not be in other contexts - is another question. The OED 's first quotation is from 1921. Septentrionalis PMAnderson 16:46, 26 August 2009 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

title: Talk:The Nordic Realm Party


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Church architecture

Church architecture refers to the architecture of Christian buildings, such as churches, chapels, convents, seminaries, etc. It has evolved over the two thousand years of the Christian religion, partly by innovation and partly by borrowing other architectural styles as well as responding to changing beliefs, practices and local traditions. From the Early Christianity to the present, the most significant objects of transformation for Christian architecture and design were the great churches of Byzantium, the Romanesque abbey churches, Gothic cathedrals and Renaissance basilicas with its emphasis on harmony. These large, often ornate and architecturally prestigious buildings were dominant features of the towns and countryside in which they stood. However, far more numerous were the parish churches in Christendom, the focus of Christian devotion in every town and village. While a few are counted as sublime works of architecture to equal the great cathedrals and churches, the majority developed along simpler lines, showing great regional diversity and often demonstrating local vernacular technology and decoration.

Buildings were at first from those originally intended for other purposes but, with the rise of distinctively ecclesiastical architecture, church buildings came to influence secular ones which have often imitated religious architecture. In the 20th century, the use of new materials, such as steel and concrete, has had an effect upon the design of churches.

The history of church architecture divides itself into periods, and into countries or regions and by religious affiliation. The matter is complicated by the fact that buildings put up for one purpose may have been re-used for another, that new building techniques may permit changes in style and size, that changes in liturgical practice may result in the alteration of existing buildings and that a building built by one religious group may be used by a successor group with different purposes.

Origins and development of the church building
The simplest church building comprises a single meeting space, built of locally available material and using the same skills of construction as the local domestic buildings. Such churches are generally rectangular, but in African countries where circular dwellings are the norm, vernacular churches may be circular as well. A simple church may be built of mud brick, wattle and daub, split logs or rubble. It may be roofed with thatch, shingles, corrugated iron or banana leaves. However, church congregations, from the 4th century onwards, have sought to construct church buildings that were both permanent and aesthetically pleasing. This had led to a tradition in which congregations and local leaders have invested time, money and personal prestige into the building and decoration of churches.

Within any parish, the local church is often the oldest building and is larger than any pre-19th-century structure except perhaps a barn. The church is often built of the most durable material available, often dressed stone or brick. The requirements of liturgy have generally demanded that the church should extend beyond a single meeting room to two main spaces, one for the congregation and one in which the priest performs the rituals of the Mass. To the two-room structure is often added aisles, a tower, chapels, and vestries and sometimes transepts and mortuary chapels. The additional chambers may be part of the original plan, but in the case of a great many old churches, the building has been extended piecemeal, its various parts testifying to its long architectural history.

Beginnings
In the first three centuries of the Early Livia Christian Church, the practice of Christianity was illegal and few churches were constructed. In the beginning, Christians worshipped along with Jews in synagogues and in private houses. After the separation of Jews and Christians, the latter continued to worship in people's houses, known as house churches. These were often the homes of the wealthier members of the faith. Saint Paul, in his first letter to the Corinthians writes: "The churches of Asia send greetings. Aquila and Prisca, together with the church in their house, greet you warmly in the Lord."

Some domestic buildings were adapted to function as churches. One of the earliest of adapted residences is at Dura Europos church, built shortly after 200 AD, where two rooms were made into one, by removing a wall, and a dais was set up. To the right of the entrance a small room was made into a baptistry.

Some church buildings were specifically built as church assemblies, such as that opposite the emperor Diocletian's palace in Nicomedia. Its destruction was recorded thus: "When that day dawned, in the eighth consulship of Diocletian and seventh of Maximian, suddenly, while it was yet hardly light, the prefect, together with chief commanders, tribunes, and officers of the treasury, came to the church in Nicomedia, and the gates having been forced open, they searched everywhere for an idol of the Divinity. The books of the Holy Scriptures were found, and they were committed to the flames; the utensils and furniture of the church were abandoned to pillage: all was rapine, confusion, tumult. That church, situated on rising ground, was within view of the palace; and Diocletian and Galerius stood as if on a watchtower, disputing long whether it ought to be set on fire. The sentiment of Diocletian prevailed, who dreaded lest, so great a fire being once kindled, some part of the city might he burnt; for there were many and large buildings that surrounded the church. Then the Pretorian Guards came in battle array, with axes and other iron instruments, and having been let loose everywhere, they in a few hours leveled that very lofty edifice with the ground."

From house church to church
From the first to the early fourth centuries most Christian communities worshipped in private homes, often secretly. Some Roman churches, such as the Basilica of San Clemente in Rome, are built directly over the houses where early Christians worshipped. Other early Roman churches are built on the sites of Christian martyrdom or at the entrance to catacombs where Christians were buried.

With the victory of the Roman emperor Constantine at the Battle of Milvian Bridge in 312 AD, Christianity became a lawful and then the privileged religion of the Roman Empire. The faith, already spread around the Mediterranean, now expressed itself in buildings. Christian architecture was made to correspond to civic and imperial forms, and so the Basilica, a large rectangular meeting hall became general in east and west, as the model for churches, with a nave and aisles and sometimes galleries and clerestories. While civic basilicas had apses at either end, the Christian basilica usually had a single apse where the bishop and presbyters sat in a dais behind the altar. While pagan basilicas had as their focus a statue of the emperor, Christian basilicas focused on the Eucharist as the symbol of the eternal, loving and forgiving God.

The first very large Christian churches, notably Santa Maria Maggiore, San Giovanni in Laterano, and Santa Costanza, were built in Rome in the early 4th century.

Characteristics of the early Christian church building
The church building as we know it grew out of a number of features of the Ancient Roman period:
 * The house church
 * The atrium
 * The basilica
 * The bema
 * The mausoleum: centrally-planned building
 * The cruciform ground plan: Latin or Greek cross

Atrium
When early Christian communities began to build churches they drew on one particular feature of the houses that preceded them, the atrium, or courtyard with a colonnade surrounding it. Most of these atriums have disappeared. A fine example remains at the Basilica of San Clemente in Rome and another was built in the Romanesque period at Sant'Ambrogio, Milan. The descendants of these atria may be seen in the large square cloisters that can be found beside many cathedrals, and in the huge colonnaded squares or piazza at the Basilicas of St Peter's in Rome and St Mark's in Venice and the Camposanto (Holy Field) at the Cathedral of Pisa.

Basilica
Early church architecture did not draw its form from Roman temples, as they did not have large internal spaces where worshipping congregations could meet. It was the Roman basilica used for meetings, markets, and courts of law that provided a model for the large Christian church and that gave its name to the Christian basilica.

Both Roman basilicas and Roman bath houses had at their core a large vaulted building with a high roof, braced on either side by a series of lower chambers or a wide arcaded passage. An important feature of the Roman basilica was that at either end it had a projecting exedra, or apse, a semicircular space roofed with a half-dome. This was where the magistrates sat to hold court. It passed into the church architecture of the Roman world and was adapted in different ways as a feature of cathedral architecture.

The earliest large churches, such as the Cathedral of San Giovanni in Laterano in Rome, consisted of a single-ended basilica with one apsidal end and a courtyard, or atrium, at the other end. As Christian liturgy developed, processions became part of the proceedings. The processional door was that which led from the furthest end of the building, while the door most used by the public might be that central to one side of the building, as in a basilica of law. This is the case in many cathedrals and churches.

Bema
As numbers of clergy increased, the small apse which contained the altar, or table upon which the sacramental bread and wine were offered in the rite of Holy Communion, was not sufficient to accommodate them. A raised dais called a bema formed part of many large basilican churches. In the case of St. Peter's Basilica and San Paolo Fuori le Mura (St Paul's outside the Walls) in Rome, this bema extended laterally beyond the main meeting hall, forming two arms so that the building took on the shape of a T with a projecting apse. From this beginning, the plan of the church developed into the so-called Latin Cross which is the shape of most Western Cathedrals and large churches. The arms of the cross are called the transept.

Mausoleum
One of the influences on church architecture was the mausoleum. The mausoleum of a noble Roman was a square or circular domed structure which housed a sarcophagus. The Emperor Constantine built for his daughter Costanza a mausoleum which has a circular central space surrounded by a lower ambulatory or passageway separated by a colonnade. Santa Costanza's burial place became a place of worship as well as a tomb. It is one of the earliest church buildings that was central, rather than longitudinally planned. Constantine was also responsible for the building of the circular, mausoleum-like Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, which in turn influenced the plan of a number of buildings, including that constructed in Rome to house the remains of the proto-martyr Stephen, San Stefano Rotondo and the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna.

Ancient circular or polygonal churches are comparatively rare. A small number, such as the Temple Church, London were built during the Crusades in imitation of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre as isolated examples in England, France, and Spain. In Denmark such churches in the Romanesque style are much more numerous. In parts of Eastern Europe, there are also round tower-like churches of the Romanesque period but they are generally vernacular architecture and of small scale. Others, like St Martin's Rotunda at Visegrad, in the Czech Republic, are finely detailed.

The circular or polygonal form lent itself to those buildings within church complexes that perform a function in which it is desirable for people to stand, or sit around, with a centralized focus, rather than an axial one. In Italy, the circular or polygonal form was used throughout the medieval period for baptisteries, while in England it was adapted for chapter houses. In France, the aisled polygonal plan was adopted as the eastern terminal and in Spain, the same form is often used as a chapel.

Other than Santa Costanza and San Stefano, there was another significant place of worship in Rome that was also circular, the vast Ancient Roman Pantheon, with its numerous statue-filled niches. This too was to become a Christian church and lend its style to the development of Cathedral architecture.

Latin cross and Greek cross
Most cathedrals and great churches have a cruciform groundplan. In churches of Western European tradition, the plan is usually longitudinal, in the form of the so-called Latin Cross, with a long nave crossed by a transept. The transept may be as strongly projecting as at York Minster or not project beyond the aisles as at Amiens Cathedral.

Many of the earliest churches of Byzantium have a longitudinal plan. At Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, there is a central dome, the frame on one axis by two high semi-domes and on the other by low rectangular transept arms, the overall plan being square. This large church was to influence the building of many later churches, even into the 21st century. A square plan in which the nave, chancel and transept arms are of equal length forming a Greek cross, the crossing generally surmounted by a dome became the common form in the Eastern Orthodox Church, with many churches throughout Eastern Europe and Russia being built in this way. Churches of the Greek Cross form often have a narthex or vestibule which stretches across the front of the church. This type of plan was also to later play a part in the development of church architecture in Western Europe, most notably in Bramante's plan for St. Peter's Basilica.

Divergence of Eastern and Western church architecture
The division of the Roman Empire in the fourth century AD, resulted in Christian ritual evolving in distinctly different ways in the eastern and western parts of the empire. The final break was the Great Schism of 1054.

Eastern Orthodoxy and Byzantine architecture

Eastern Christianity and Western Christianity began to diverge from each other from an early date. Whereas the basilica was the most common form in the west, a more compact centralized style became predominant in the east. These churches were in origin martyria, constructed as mausoleums housing the tombs of the saints who had died during the persecutions which only fully ended with the conversion of Emperor Constantine. An important surviving example is the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, which has retained its mosaic decorations. Dating from the 5th century, it may have been briefly used as an oratory before it became a mausoleum.

These buildings copied pagan tombs and were square, cruciform with shallow projecting arms or polygonal. They were roofed by domes which came to symbolize heaven. The projecting arms were sometimes roofed with domes or semi-domes that were lower and abutted the central block of the building. Byzantine churches, although centrally planned around a domed space, generally maintained a definite axis towards the apsidal chancel which generally extended further than the other apses. This projection allowed for the erection of an iconostasis, a screen on which icons are hung and which conceals the altar from the worshippers except at those points in the liturgy when its doors are opened. The architecture of Constantinople (Istanbul) in the 6th century produced churches that effectively combined centralized and basilica plans, having semi-domes forming the axis, and arcaded galleries on either side. The church of Hagia Sophia (now a mosque) was the most significant example and had an enormous influence on both later Christian and Islamic architecture, such as the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Umayyad Great Mosque in Damascus. Many later Eastern Orthodox churches, particularly large ones, combine a centrally planned, domed eastern end with an aisled nave at the west.

A variant form of the centralized church was developed in Russia and came to prominence in the sixteenth century. Here the dome was replaced by a much thinner and taller hipped or conical roof which perhaps originated from the need to prevent snow from remaining on roofs. One of the finest examples of these tented churches is St. Basil's in Red Square in Moscow.

Medieval West

Participation in worship, which gave rise to the porch church, began to decline as the church became increasingly clericalized; with the rise of the monasteries church buildings changed as well. The 'two-room' church' became, in Europe, the norm. The first 'room', the nave, was used by the congregation; the second 'room', the sanctuary, was the preserve of the clergy and was where the Mass was celebrated. This could then only be seen from a distance by the congregation through the arch between the rooms (from late mediaeval times closed by a wooden partition, the Rood screen), and the elevation of the host, the bread of the communion, became the focus of the celebration: it was not at that time generally partaken of by the congregation. Given that the liturgy was said in Latin, the people contented themselves with their own private devotions until this point. Because of the difficulty of sight lines, some churches had holes, 'squints', cut strategically in walls and screens, through which the elevation could be seen from the nave. Again, from the twin principles that every priest must say his mass every day and that an altar could only be used once, in religious communities a number of altars were required for which space had to be found, at least within monastic churches.

Apart from changes in the liturgy, the other major influence on church architecture was in the use of new materials and the development of new techniques. In northern Europe, early churches were often built of wood, for which reason almost none survive. With the wider use of stone by the Benedictine monks, in the tenth and eleventh centuries, larger structures were erected.

The two-room church, particularly if it were an abbey or a cathedral, might acquire transepts. These were effectively arms of the cross which now made up the ground plan of the building. The buildings became more clearly symbolic of what they were intended for. Sometimes this crossing, now the central focus of the church, would be surmounted by its own tower, in addition to the west end towers, or instead of them. (Such precarious structures were known to collapse – as at Ely – and had to be rebuilt.) Sanctuaries, now providing for the singing of the offices by monks or canons, grew longer and became chancels, separated from the nave by a screen. Practical function and symbolism were both at work in the process of development.

Factors affecting the architecture of churches

Across Europe, the process by which church architecture developed and individual churches were designed and built was different in different regions, and sometimes differed from church to church in the same region and within the same historic period.

Among the factors that determined how a church was designed and built are the nature of the local community, the location in city, town or village, whether the church was an abbey church, whether the church was a collegiate church, whether the church had the patronage of a bishop, whether the church had the ongoing patronage of a wealthy family and whether the church contained relics of a saint or other holy objects that were likely to draw pilgrimage.

Collegiate churches and abbey churches, even those serving small religious communities, generally demonstrate a greater complexity of form than parochial churches in the same area and of a similar date.

Churches that have been built under the patronage of a bishop have generally employed a competent church architect and demonstrate in the design refinement of style unlike that of the parochial builder.

Many parochial churches have had the patronage of wealthy local families. The degree to which this has an effect on the architecture can differ greatly. It may entail the design and construction of the entire building having been financed and influenced by a particular patron. On the other hand, the evidence of patronage may be apparent only in accretion of chantry chapels, tombs, memorials, fittings, stained glass, and other decorations.

Churches that contain famous relics or objects of veneration and have thus become pilgrimage churches are often very large and have been elevated to the status of basilica. However, many other churches enshrine the bodies or are associated with the lives of particular saints without having attracted continuing pilgrimage and the financial benefit that it brought.

The popularity of saints, the veneration of their relics, and the size and importance of the church built to honor them are without consistency and can be dependent upon entirely different factors. Two virtually unknown warrior saints, San Giovanni and San Paolo, are honoured by one of the largest churches in Venice, built by the Dominican Friars in competition to the Franciscans who were building the Frari Church at the same time. The much smaller church that contained the body of Saint Lucy, a martyr venerated by Catholics and Protestants across the world and the titular saint of numerous locations, was demolished in the late 19th century to make way for Venice's railway station.

The first truly baroque façade was built in Rome between 1568 and 1584 for the Church of the Gesù, the mother church of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits). It introduced the baroque style into architecture. Corresponding with the Society's theological task as the spearhead of the Counter-Reformation, the new style soon became a triumphant feature in Catholic church architecture.

After the second world war, modern materials and techniques such as concrete and metal panels were introduced in Norwegian church construction. Bodø Cathedral for instance was built in reinforced concrete allowing a wide basilica to be built. During the 1960s there was a more pronounced break from tradition as in the Arctic Cathedral built in lightweight concrete and covered in aluminum sidings.

Wooden churches
In Norway, church architecture has been affected by wood as the preferred material, particularly in sparsely populated areas. Churches built until the second world war are about 90% wooden except medieval constructions. During the Middle Ages all wooden churches in Norway (about 1000 in total) were constructed in the stave church technique, but only 271 masonry constructions. After the Protestant reformation when the construction of new (or replacement of old) churches was resumed, wood was still the dominant material but the log technique became dominant. The log construction gave a lower more sturdy style of building compared to the light and often tall stave churches. Log construction became structurally unstable for long and tall walls, particularly if cut through by tall windows. Adding transepts improved the stability of the log technique and is one reason why the cruciform floor plan was widely used during 1600 and 1700s. For instance the Old Olden Church (1759) replaced a building damaged by hurricane, the 1759 church was then constructed in cruciform shape to make it withstand the strongest winds. The length of trees (logs) also determined the length of walls according to Sæther. In Samnanger church for instance, outside corners have been cut to avoid splicing logs, the result is an octagonal floor plan rather than rectangular. The cruciform constructions provided a more rigid structure and larger churches, but view to the pulpit and altar was obstructed by interior corners for seats in the transept. The octagonal floor plan offers good visibility as well as a rigid structure allowing a relatively wide nave to be constructed – Håkon Christie believes that this is a reason why the octagonal church design became popular during the 1700s. Vreim believes that the introduction of log technique after the reformation resulted in a multitude of church designs in Norway.

In Ukraine, wood church constructions originate from the introduction of Christianity and continued to be widespread, particularly in rural areas, when masonry churches dominated in cities and in Western Europe.

Regional styles
Church architecture varies depending on both the sect of the faith, as well as the geographical location and the influences acting upon it. Variances from the typical church architecture as well as unique characteristics can be seen in many areas around the globe.

England
The style of churches in England has gone through many changes under the influence of geographical, geological, climatic, religious, social and historical factors. One of the earliest style changes is shown in Westminster Abbey, which was built in a foreign style and was a cause for concern for many as it heralded change. A second example is the current St Paul's Cathedral in London. There are many other notable churches that have each had their own influence on the ever-changing style in England, such as Truro, Westminster Cathedral, Liverpool and Guildford. Between the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the style of church architecture could be called 'Early English' and 'Decorated'. This time is considered to be when England was in its prime in the category of a church building. It was after the Black Death that the style went through another change, the 'perpendicular style', where ornamentation became more extravagant.

An architectural element that appeared soon after the Black Death style change and is observed extensively in Medieval English styles is fan vaulting, seen in the Chapel of Henry VII and the King's College Chapel in Cambridge. After this, the prevalent style was Gothic for around 300 years but the style was clearly present for many years before that as well. In these late Gothic times, there was a specific way in which the foundations for the churches were built. First, a stone skeleton would be built, then the spaces between the vertical supports filled with large glass windows, then those windows supported by their own transoms and mullions. On the topic of church windows, the windows are somewhat controversial as some argue that the church should be flooded with light and some argue that they should be dim for an ideal praying environment. Most church plans in England have their roots in one of two styles, Basilican and Celtic and then we see the later emergence of a 'two-cell' plan, consisting of nave and sanctuary.

In the time before the last war, there was a movement towards a new style of architecture, one that was more functional than embellished. There was an increased use of steel and concrete and a rebellion against the romantic nature of the traditional style. This resulted in a 'battle of the styles' in which one side was leaning towards the modernist, functional way of design, and the other was following traditional Romanesque, Gothic, and Renaissance styles, as reflected in the architecture of all buildings, not just churches.

Wallachia
In the early Romanian territory of Wallachia, there were three major influences that can be seen. The first are the western influences of Gothic and Romanesque styles, before later falling to the greater influence of the Byzantine styles. The early western influences can be seen in two places, the first is a church in Câmpulung, that showcases distinctly Romanesque styles, and the second are the remnants of a church in Drobeta-Turnu Severin, which has features of the Gothic style. There are not many remaining examples of those two styles, but the Byzantine influence is much more prominent. A few prime examples of the direct Byzantine influence are the St. Nicoara and Domneasca in Curtea de Arges, and church at Nicopolis in Bulgaria. These all show the characteristic features such as sanctuaries, rectangular naves, circular interiors with non-circular exteriors, and small chapels. The Nicopolis church and the Domneasca both have Greek-inspired plans, but the Domneasca is far more developed than the Nicopolis church. Alongside these are also traces of Serbian, Georgian, and Armenian influences that found their way to Wallachia through Serbia.

United States
The split between Eastern and Western Church Architecture extended its influence into the churches we see in America today as well. America's churches are an amalgamation of the many styles and cultures that collided here, examples being St. Constantine, a Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church in Minneapolis, Polish Cathedral style churches, and Russian Orthodox churches, found all across the country. There are remnants of the Byzantine inspired architecture in many of the churches, such as the large domed ceilings, extensive stonework, and a maximizing of space to be used for religious iconography on walls and such. Churches classified as Ukrainian or Catholic also seem to follow the trend of being overall much more elaborately decorated and accentuated than their Protestant counterparts, in which decoration is simple.

Specifically in Texas, there are remnants of the Anglo-American colonization that are visible in the architecture itself. Texas in itself was a religious hotbed, and so ecclesiastical architecture developed at a faster pace than in other areas. Looking at the Antebellum period, (1835–1861) Church architecture shows the values and personal beliefs of the architects who created them, while also showcasing Texan cultural history. Both the Catholic and Protestant buildings showed things such as the architectural traditions, economic circumstances, religious ordinances, and aesthetic tastes of those involved. The movement to keep ethnicities segregated during this time was also present in the very foundations of this architecture. Their physical appearances vary wildly from area to area though, as each served its own local purpose, and as mentioned before, due to the multitude of religious groups, each held a different set of beliefs.

Similarly, many Catholic churches in the southwestern United States – especially in the coastal portions of California – are built with exterior elements in the Mission Revival architecture style, as a tribute to the Spanish missions in California, though often with stained glass windows added and more modern interior elements.

Ethiopia–Eritrea

Although having its roots in the traditions of Eastern Christianity – especially the Syrian church – as well as later being exposed to European influences – the traditional architectural style of Orthodox Tewahedo (Ethiopian Orthodox-Eritrean Orthodox) churches has followed a path all its own. The earliest known churches show the familiar basilican layout. For example, the church of Debre Damo is organized around a nave of four bays separated by re-used monolithic columns; at the western end is a low-roofed narthex, while on the eastern is the maqdas, or Holy of Holies, separated by the only arch in the building. The next period, beginning in the second half of the first millennium AD and lasting into the 16th century, includes both structures built of conventional materials, and those hewn from rock. Although most surviving examples of the first are now found in caves, Thomas Pakenham discovered an example in Wollo, protected inside the circular walls of later construction. An example of these built-up churches would be the church of Yemrehana Krestos, which has many resemblances to the church of Debre Damo both in plan and construction.

The other style of this period, perhaps the most famous architectural tradition of Ethiopia, are the numerous monolithic churches. This includes houses of worship carved out of the side of mountains, such as Abreha we Atsbeha, which although approximately square the nave and transepts combine to form a cruciform outline – leading experts to categorize Abreha we Atsbeha as an example of cross-in-square churches. Then there are the churches of Lalibela, which were created by excavating into "a hillside of soft, reddish tuff, variable in hardness and composition". Some of the churches, such as Biete Amanuel and the cross-shaped Bete Giyorgis, are entirely free-standing with the volcanic tuff removed from all sides, while other churches, such as Biete Gabriel-Rufael and Biete Abba Libanos, are only detached from the living rock on one or two sides. All of the churches are accessed through a labyrinth of tunnels.

The final period of Ethiopian church architecture, which extends to the present day, is characterized by round churches with conical roofs – quite similar to the ordinary houses the inhabitants of the Ethiopian highlands live in. Despite this resemblance, the interiors are quite different in how their rooms are laid out, based on a three-part division of:
 * 1) A maqdas where the tabot is kept, and only priests may enter;
 * 2) An inner ambulatory called the qiddist used by communicants at mass; and
 * 3) An outer ambulatory, the qene mehlet, used by the dabtaras and accessible to anyone.

East and Southeast Asia
Chinese, Vietnamese, Korean, and Japanese architectures have been integrated into church building design. Hundreds of timber-framed churches in Northern Vietnam are constructed with traditional methods, exhibiting great cultural and historical values.

During the first decades of the 20th century, a new Sino-Christian church architecture emerged.

Some churches across Southeast Asia have also incorporated traditional architecture, such as the Church of the Sacred Heart, Ganjuran, Java, Indonesia, and the Holy Redeemer Church, Bangkok, Thailand.

 * Taiwan

In East Asia, Taiwan is one of several countries famous for its church architecture. The Spanish Fort San Domingo in the 17th century had an adjacent church. The Dutch Fort Zeelandia in Tainan also included a chapel. In modern architecture several churches have been inspired to use traditional designs. These include the Church of the Good Shepherd in Shihlin (Taipei), which was designed by Su Hsi Tsung and built in the traditional siheyuan style. The chapel of Taiwan Theological College and Seminary includes a pagoda shape and traditional tile-style roof. Zhongshan and Jinan Presbyterian churches were built during the Japanese era (1895–1945) and reflect a Japanese aesthetic. Tunghai University's Luce Memorial Chapel, designed by IM Pei's firm, is often held up as an example of a modern, contextualized style.

 * The Philippines

Spanish, Austronesian, and Chinese construction ideas merged during the Spanish era of the Philippines (late 15th to late 19th century), which is the only Christian-majority nation in the Far East together with East Timor, specifically Catholic. These traditions had to adapt to the tropical climate and earthquake-prone environment, which resulted in a new types of arquitectura mestiza unique to the archipelago developed over three centuries.

Convents and monasteries were primarily built in the bahay na bato tradition, which had the architectural principle of native Austronesian framework, stone masonry introduced by Spaniards, and ornaments incorporated by both as well as from Chinese architects. Most early churches, though illiterate, with limited knowledge from the cooperation between Spanish friars and Chinese architects with native manpower, drew from Renaissance and Baroque traditions while complying with the tropical climate and earthquake-prone environment of the islands, resulting in an architectural style known as Filipino Baroque or Earthquake Baroque, characterized by fortress-like thick walls and contrafuetes (buttresses); squat cylindrical, rectangular or octagonal belfries also serving as watch towers; local motifs; and in some extent, Asian guardian lions as grotesques. Though still retaining its unique local characteristics, the styles became more literate as more architects arrived from the other parts of the Spanish Empire, and even started incorporating newer styles such as Neoclassical, Neo-Gothic and Neo-Romanesque.

Gothic era church architecture
Gothic-era architecture, originating in 12th-century France, is a style where curves, arches, and complex geometry are highly emphasized. These intricate structures, often of immense size, required great amounts of planning, effort and resources; involved large numbers of engineers and laborers; and often took hundreds of years to complete—all of which was considered a tribute to God.

Characteristics
The characteristics of a Gothic-style church are largely in congruence with the ideology that the more breathtaking a church is, the better it reflects the majesty of God. This was accomplished through clever math and engineering in a time period where complex shapes, especially in huge cathedrals, were not typically found in structures. Through this newly implemented skill of being able to design complex shapes churches consisted of namely pointed arches, curved lights and windows, and rib vaults. Since these newly popular designs were implemented with respect to the width of the church rather than height, width was much more desired rather than height.

Art
Gothic architecture in churches had a heavy emphasis on art. Just like the structure of the building, there was an emphasis on complex geometric shapes. An example of this is stained glass windows, which can still be found in modern churches. Stained glass windows were both artistic and functional in the way that they allowed colored light to enter the church and create a heavenly atmosphere. Other popular art styles in the Gothic era were sculptures. Creating lifelike depictions of figures, again with the use of complex curves and shapes. Artists would include a high level of detail to best preserve and represent their subject.

Time periods and styles
The Gothic era, first referred to by historiographer Giorgio Vasari, began in northeastern France and slowly spread throughout Europe. It was perhaps most characteristically expressed in the Rayonnant style, originating in the 13th century, known for its exaggerated geometrical features that made everything as astounding and eye-catching as possible. Gothic churches were often highly decorated, with geometrical features applied to already complex structural forms. By the time the Gothic period neared its close, its influence had spread to residences, guild halls, and public and government buildings.

Notable examples

 * Chartres Cathedral
 * Santa Maria del Fiore
 * Cologne Cathedral
 * Notre Dame de Paris
 * Monastery of Batalha
 * Metz Cathedral

The Reformation and its influence on church architecture

In the early 16th century, the Reformation brought a period of radical change to church design. On Christmas Day 1521, Andreas Karlstadt performed the first reformed communion service. In early January 1522, the Wittenberg city council authorized the removal of imagery from churches and affirmed the changes introduced by Karlstadt on Christmas. According to the ideals of the Protestant Reformation, the spoken word, the sermon, should be central act in the church service. This implied that the pulpit became the focal point of the church interior and that churches should be designed to allow all to hear and see the minister. Pulpits had always been a feature of Western churches. The birth of Protestantism led to extensive changes in the way that Christianity was practiced (and hence the design of churches).

During the Reformation period, there was an emphasis on "full and active participation". The focus of Protestant churches was on the preaching of the Word, rather than a sacerdotal emphasis. Holy Communion tables became wood to emphasise that Christ's sacrifice was made once for all and were made more immediate to the congregation to emphasise man's direct access to God through Christ. Therefore, Catholic churches were redecorated when they became reformed: Paintings and statues of saints were removed and sometimes the altar table was placed in front of the pulpit, as in Strasbourg Cathedral in 1524. The pews were turned towards the pulpit. Wooden galleries were built to allow more worshippers to follow the sermon.

The first newly built Protestant church was the court chapel of Neuburg Castle in 1543, followed by the court chapel of Hartenfels Castle in Torgau, consecrated by Martin Luther on 5 October 1544.

Images and statues were sometimes removed in disorderly attacks and unofficial mob actions (in the Netherlands called the Beeldenstorm). Medieval churches were stripped of their decorations, such as the Grossmünster in Zürich in 1524, a stance enhanced by the Calvinist reformation, beginning with its main church, St. Pierre Cathedral in Geneva, in 1535. At the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, which ended a period of armed conflict between Roman Catholic and Protestant forces within the Holy Roman Empire, the rulers of the German-speaking states and Charles V, the Habsburg Emperor, agreed to accept the principle Cuius regio, eius religio, meaning that the religion of the ruler was to dictate the religion of those ruled.

In the Netherlands the Reformed church in Willemstad, North Brabant was built in 1607 as the first Protestant church building in the Netherlands, a domed church with an octagonal shape, according to Calvinism's focus on the sermon. The Westerkerk of Amsterdam was built between 1620 and 1631 in Renaissance style and remains the largest church in the Netherlands that was built for Protestants.

By the beginning of the 17th century, in spite of the cuius regio principle, the majority of the peoples in the Habsburg monarchy had become Protestant, sparking the Counter-Reformation by the Habsburg emperors which resulted in the Thirty Years' War in 1618. In the Peace of Westphalia treaties of 1648 which ended the war, the Habsburgs were obliged to tolerate three Protestant churches in their province of Silesia, where the counter-reformation had not been completely successful, as in Austria, Bohemia and Hungary, and about half of the population still remained Protestant. However, the government ordered these three churches to be located outside the towns, not to be recognisable as churches, they had to be wooden structures, to look like barns or residential houses, and they were not allowed to have towers or bells. The construction had to be accomplished within a year. Accordingly, the Protestants built their three Churches of Peace, huge enough to give space for more than 5,000 people each. Two of them are still existing and have been declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites. When Protestant troops under Swedish leadership again threatened to invade the Habsburg territories during the Great Northern War, the Habsburgs were forced to allow more Protestant churches within their empire with the Treaty of Altranstädt (1707), however limiting these with similar requirements, the so-called Gnadenkirchen (Churches of Grace). They were mostly smaller wooden structures like the one in Hronsek (Slovakia) of 1726.

In Britain during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, it became usual for Anglican churches to display the Royal Arms inside, either as a painting or as a relief, to symbolise the monarch's role as head of the church.

During the 17th and 18th centuries, Protestant churches were built in the baroque style that originated in Italy, however consciously more simply decorated. Some could still become fairly grand, for instance, the Katarina Church, Stockholm, St. Michael's Church, Hamburg or the Dresden Frauenkirche, built between 1726 and 1743 as a sign of the will of the citizen to remain Protestant after their ruler had converted to Catholicism.

Some churches were built with a new and genuinely Protestant alignment: the transept became the main church while the nave was omitted, for instance at the Ludwigskirche in Saarbrücken; this building scheme was also quite popular in Switzerland, with the largest being the churches of Wädenswil (1767) and Horgen (1782). A new Protestant interior design scheme was established in many German Lutheran churches during the 18th century, following the example of the court chapel of Wilhelmsburg Castle of 1590: The connection of altar with baptismal font, pulpit and organ in a vertical axis. The central painting above the altar was replaced with the pulpit.

Neo-Lutheranism in the early 19th century criticized this scheme as being too profane. The German Evangelical Church Conference, therefore, recommended the Gothic language of forms for church building in 1861. Gothic Revival architecture began its triumphal march. With regard to Protestant churches, it was not only an expression of historism, but also of a new theological programme which put the Lord's supper above the sermon again. Two decades later liberal Lutherans and Calvinists expressed their wish for a new genuinely Protestant church architecture, conceived on the basis of liturgical requirements. The spaces for altar and worshippers should no longer be separated from each other. Accordingly, churches should not only give space for service, but also for social activities of the parish. Churches were to be seen as meeting houses for the celebrating faithful. The Ringkirche in Wiesbaden was the first church realised according to this ideology in 1892–94. The unity of the parish was expressed by an architecture that united the pulpit and the altar in its circle, following early Calvinist tradition.

Modernism
The idea that worship was a corporate activity and that the congregation should be in no way excluded from sight or participation derives from the Liturgical Movement. Simple one-room plans are almost of the essence of modernity in architecture. In France and Germany between the first and second World Wars, some of the major developments took place. The church at Le Raincy near Paris by Auguste Perret is cited as the starting point of process, not only for its plan but also for the materials used, reinforced concrete. More central to the development of the process was Schloss Rothenfels-am-Main in Germany which was remodelled in 1928. Rudolf Schwartz, its architect, was hugely influential on later church building, not only on the continent of Europe but also in the United States of America. Schloss Rothenfels was a large rectangular space, with solid white walls, deep windows and a stone pavement. It had no decoration. The only furniture consisted of a hundred little black cuboid moveable stools. For worship, an altar was set up and the faithful surrounded it on three sides.

Corpus Christi in Aachen was Schwartz's first parish church and adheres to the same principles, very much reminiscent of the Bauhaus movement of art. Externally it is a plan cube; the interior has white walls and colourless windows, a langbau i.e. a narrow rectangle at the end of which is the altar. It was to be, said Schwartz not 'christocentric' but 'theocentric'. In front of the altar were simple benches. Behind the altar was a great white void of a back wall, signifying the region of the invisible Father. The influence of this simplicity spread to Switzerland with such architects as Fritz Metzger and Dominikus Böhm.

After the Second World War, Metzger continued to develop his ideas, notably with the church of St. Franscus at Basel-Richen. Another notable building is Notre Dame du Haut at Ronchamp by Le Corbusier (1954). Similar principles of simplicity and continuity of style throughout can be found in the United States, in particular at the Roman Catholic Abbey church of St. Procopius, in Lisle, near Chicago (1971).

A theological principle which resulted in change was the decree Sacrosanctum Concilium of the Second Vatican Council issued in December 1963. This encouraged 'active participation' (in Latin: participatio actuosa) by the faithful in the celebration of the liturgy by the people and required that new churches should be built with this in mind (para 124) Subsequently, rubrics and instructions encouraged the use of a freestanding altar allowing the priest to face the people. The effect of these changes can be seen in such churches as the Roman Catholic Metropolitan Cathedrals of Liverpool and the Brasília, both circular buildings with a free-standing altar.

Different principles and practical pressures produced other changes. Parish churches were inevitably built more modestly. Often shortage of finances, as well as a 'market place' theology suggested the building of multi-purpose churches, in which secular and sacred events might take place in the same space at different times. Again, the emphasis on the unity of the liturgical action, was countered by a return to the idea of movement. Three spaces, one for the baptism, one for the liturgy of the word and one for the celebration of the Eucharist with a congregation standing around an altar, were promoted by Richard Giles in England and the United States. The congregation were to process from one place to another. Such arrangements were less appropriate for large congregations than for small; for the former, proscenium arch arrangements with huge amphitheatres such as at Willow Creek Community Church in Chicago in the United States have been one answer.

Postmodernism
As with other Postmodern movements, the Postmodern movement in architecture formed in reaction to the ideals of modernism as a response to the perceived blandness, hostility, and utopianism of the Modern movement. While rare in designs of church architecture, there are nonetheless some notable for recover and renew historical styles and "cultural memory" of Christian architecture. Notable practitioners include Dr. Steven Schloeder, Duncan Stroik, and Thomas Gordon Smith.

The functional and formalized shapes and spaces of the modernist movement are replaced by unapologetically diverse aesthetics: styles collide, form is adopted for its own sake, and new ways of viewing familiar styles and space abound. Perhaps most obviously, architects rediscovered the expressive and symbolic value of architectural elements and forms that had evolved through centuries of building—often maintaining meaning in literature, poetry and art—but which had been abandoned by the modern movement. Church buildings in Nigeria evolved from its foreign monument look of old to the contemporary design which makes it look like a factory.

title: Church architecture


text:
Wikipedia talk:Articles for deletion/Log/2005 July 11

Why won't my Vfd take? SqueakBox 15:52, July 11, 2005 (UTC) Sorted, SqueakBox 15:56, July 11, 2005 (UTC)


text: User talk:24.252.38.14

title: User talk:24.252.38.14


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1928–29 in Scottish football

The 1928–29 season was the 56th season of competitive football in Scotland and the 39th season of the Scottish Football League.

Scottish League Division One
Champions: Rangers

Relegated: Third Lanark, Raith Rovers

Scottish League Division Two
NOTE: Arthurlie resigned – fixtures stand

Bathgate resigned – fixtures expunged

Promoted: Dundee United, Greenock Morton

Non-league honours
Highland League

East of Scotland League

Scotland national team
Scotland were winners of the 1928–29 British Home Championship. 1929 also saw Scotland compete against non-British teams for the first time.

Key:
 * (H) = Home match
 * (A) = Away match
 * BHC = British Home Championship

title: 1928–29 in Scottish football


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Progressive People's Party (Namibia)

The Progressive People's Party was a political party in Namibia. It was formed on 30 November, 1986. This was after a split in the Rehoboth Baster Association.

title: Progressive People's Party (Namibia)


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Langtoft, East Riding of Yorkshire

Langtoft is a small village and civil parish in the East Riding of Yorkshire, England. It is situated 6 mi north of Driffield town centre, and on the B1249 road between Driffield and Foxholes.

According to the 2011 UK census, Langtoft parish had a population of 492, an increase on the 2001 UK census figure of 457.

Toponymy
The name Langtoft is derived from Old Norse langr or Old English lang 'long' and Old Norse topt 'site of a house'. It has etymological homonymy with Langtoft, Lincolnshire and Lanquetot (Normandy, Languetot 12th century).

History
In 1823 Langtoft was a civil parish in the Wapentake of Dickering and the Liberty of St Peter's. Population at the time was 416. Occupations included thirteen farmers, two butchers, three shoemakers, two tailors, two grocers, a blacksmith, a corn miller, a stonemason, and the landlords of the George & Dragon and Nelson public houses. Carriers operated between the village and Driffield once a week.

The chronicler Peter Langtoft took his name from the village. Also resident in the village during the same era was Margaret De Langtoft, who later became one of the five nuns that formed the Sisterhood of Rosedale Priory in North Yorkshire.

In the centre of the village is the village green which was a pond, and is still referred to as such by some.

There is a monument to the villagers who died in the two World Wars.

The village was flooded in 1657 and 1892. A plaque on the corner of Back Street and Front Street commemorates the floods with the words: "In commemoration of the great flood of Langtoft April 10th 1657 Height of flood unknown. Also the great flood of Langtoft July 3rd 1892 Height of flood 7½ feet."

Front Street floods to a minor extent during heavy rain. In 2007 the 'pond' flooded causing closure of the road.

Amenities
The church dedicated to St Peter was designated a Grade I listed building in 1968 and is now recorded in the National Heritage List for England, maintained by Historic England.

The village public house is The Ship Inn which is open and trades 6 days a week. Offers home cooked food & sunday lunch.The village shop closed in 2007, and the post office in 2004. Some small businesses are present in the village.

Broadband is available through a scheme to connect all Yorkshire villages by Yorkshire Forward. Broadband is also available over WiFi using Wireless mesh network in a project started before ADSL was made available.

There used to be a primary school, which closed in July 2013. There is a school-bus service to nearby schools. The village has grown over the past few years with new houses being built. An estate development, however, has currently halted as the site is for sale. The previous developer ran out of money.

title: Langtoft, East Riding of Yorkshire


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PSR B0950+08

PSR B0950+08 is a young pulsar that may have come from a supernova that occurred in Leo 1.8 million years ago. The large and old remnant of this supernova, located in the constellation of Antlia, may be the nearest besides the Local Bubble, and the supernova would have been as bright as the moon. Off-pulse emissions from the young pulsar were detected by the Expanded Long Wavelength Array, suggesting the presence of a pulsar wind nebula around it.

PSR B0950+08 was fourth among the initial radio pulsars discovered in 1968.

title: PSR B0950+08


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The Fugitive (The Twilight Zone)

"The Fugitive" is episode 90 of the American television anthology series The Twilight Zone.

Opening narration
It's been said that science fiction and fantasy are two different things: science fiction, the improbable made possible; fantasy, the impossible made probable. What would you have if you put these two different things together? Well, you'd have an old man named Ben who knows a lot of tricks most people don't know and a little girl named Jenny who loves him — and a journey into the heart - of the Twilight Zone.

Plot
At a public park, a group of children are playing softball with Old Ben, an elderly but playful gentleman. When it is Old Ben's turn at bat, he hits the ball over the fence and out of sight. When they play "Spaceman", Old Ben takes on the form of a shelled monster. The kids are accustomed to Old Ben's supernatural abilities, referring to them as his "magic".

Old Ben's favorite of the children is Jenny, who walks with a leg brace. Old Ben carries her to her home, where she lives with her shrewish and unsympathetic aunt, Agnes Gann. As they approach the row house, Ben causes his roller skates to dematerialize. This phenomenon is observed by two men who are watching the house from across the street. They enter the apartment building, identify themselves as police, and question Agnes about Ben. Jenny overhears the conversation and limps upstairs to Old Ben's apartment to warn him. Old Ben takes on the form of a mouse, fooling the men into thinking he has left his apartment.

Jenny takes the "mouse" back to her room. Old Ben tells Jenny that he is an alien from another planet, and that his appearance is only a disguise, as he is a fugitive from justice. Old Ben says he must flee to another planet, but before departing he uses a device to heal Jenny's leg. The two strangers run into Jenny walking down the stairs without her brace. They recognize Old Ben's handiwork, but Jenny refuses to tell them anything. One of the men uses a device to make Jenny deathly ill, using her as bait for Ben.

Old Ben comes back to Jenny's room and makes her well again. The two men approach and address Old Ben as "Your Majesty". Old Ben admits to Jenny he is not a criminal, but the king of his planet; Ben fled because he was fed up with most of his authority and control being overridden by "the Council". The strangers tell Jenny that Old Ben's people love him as much as she does; they want him to return and continue his 5,000-year reign. Jenny insists that if Old Ben cannot stay with her, she will go with him. The two men say this is forbidden, but allow Old Ben a moment alone with Jenny to say goodbye after he promises not to run away. Following a plan whispered to him by Jenny, Ben transforms into her exact duplicate, forcing the men to take both of them along since they cannot tell one from the other.

Rod Serling holds up a photograph of a handsome young man, noting that the photo shows Old Ben's true appearance and that when Jenny grows up, she will become his queen.

Closing narration
Mrs. Gann will be in for a big surprise when she finds this under Jenny's pillow, because Mrs. Gann has more temper than imagination. She'll never dream that this is a picture of Old Ben, as he really looks, and it will never occur to her that eventually her niece will grow up to be an honest-to-goodness queen — somewhere in The Twilight Zone.

title: The Fugitive (The Twilight Zone)


text:
Talk:Valparaiso (disambiguation)

Named After Spanish towns
Considering I'm citizen of the first Valparaíso, one the most Pacific ports of the 19th century (mentioned many times by Jules Verne) i'm in the obligation to ask whether the US Valparaiso are named after the Spanish towns (where presumably Juan de Saavedra - Valparaíso's bay discoveror was born) or after the Chilean seaport (obligated stop to any ship that wanted to cross the Southern passages).

Baloo rch 15:56, 11 July 2005 (UTC)

Chris Light (talk) 22:26, 4 July 2015 (UTC)
 * Valparaiso, Indiana is named for the Battle of Valparaiso, which occurred off the coast of Valparaiso, Chile on March 28, 1814. Here, Capt. David Porter was defeated by a British ship of war, thus ending his cruise around South America destroying the British Whaling fleet.  This very successful cruise had begun in July of 1812.  Valparaiso is the county seat of Porter County, Indiana, named for Capt. David Porter.

title: Talk:Valparaiso (disambiguation)


text:
Sun City Center, Florida

Sun City Center is an unincorporated census-designated place (CDP) in southern Hillsborough County, Florida, United States. It is located south of Tampa and north of Sarasota on I-75. As of the 2020 census, the population was 30,952. The ZIP Code serving the community is 33573.

Description
Sun City Center is an age-restricted community, which consists of single-family dwellings, duplexes, townhouses, and apartment buildings. It has its own hospital and several nursing home facilities. It is legal to drive golf carts on the wide, palm-lined streets during daylight hours, and most shopping has special parking slots for same. There are about seven golf courses, various hobby shops, and an outdoor and two indoor pools in the main clubhouse area. There are clubs for almost any interest or hobby, including ham radio, computers, art, woodworking, photography, sewing, cards, investments, and dancing.

Geography
Sun City Center is located in southern Hillsborough County at 27.71333°N, -82.35972°W (27.713353, -82.359659). It is bordered to the northwest by Apollo Beach, to the northeast by Balm, to the east by Wimauma, and to the west by Ruskin. Interstate 75 forms the northwestern edge of the CDP, with access from Exit 240, Sun City Center Boulevard (State Road 674). U.S. Route 301 forms the eastern edge of the CDP, and the southern edge follows the Little Manatee River. Tampa is 24 mi to the north, and Bradenton is 21 mi to the southwest via I-75, or 25 mi via US-301.

According to the United States Census Bureau, Sun City Center has a total area of 43.0 km2, of which 40.8 km2 are land and 2.2 km2, or 5.20%, are water.

2010 and 2020 census
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 30,952 people, 14,424 households, and 8,037 families residing in the CDP.

As of the 2010 United States census, there were 19,258 people, 11,197 households, and 6,325 families residing in the CDP.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 16,321 people, 9,149 households, and 5,434 families residing in the community. The population density was 1,303.0 PD/sqmi. There were 10,500 housing units at an average density of 838.3 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the community was 98.96% White, 0.13% African American, 0.08% Native American, 0.40% Asian, 0.07% Pacific Islander, 0.14% from other races, and 0.21% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.19% of the population.

As of 2000, there were 9,149 households, out of which 0.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.1% were married couples living together, 1.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.6% were non-families. 38.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 34.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.65 and the average family size was 2.05.

In 2000, in the community the population was skewed toward the elderly with 0.4% under the age of 18, 0.2% from 18 to 24, 1.3% from 25 to 44, 15.1% from 45 to 64, and 83.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 75 years. For every 100 females, there were 74.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 74.2 males.

In 2000, the median income for a household in the community was $38,101, and the median income for a family was $47,570. Males had a median income of $36,786 versus $27,963 for females. The per capita income for the community was $28,222. About 2.2% of families and 4.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 37.3% of those under age 18 and 3.9% of those age 65 or over.

Transportation
Sun City Center is served primarily by two Hillsborough Area Regional Transit bus lines:
 * Line 571 - South County Flex
 * Line 75LX - South County Shopper

Notable people

 * Bud Sagendorf, cartoonist of the Thimble Theater comic strip and the Popeye comic books

title: Sun City Center, Florida


text: User talk:86.132.212.198

title: User talk:86.132.212.198


text:
Glycogenin

Glycogenin is an enzyme involved in converting glucose to glycogen. It acts as a primer, by polymerizing the first few glucose molecules, after which other enzymes take over. It is a homodimer of 37-kDa subunits and is classified as a glycosyltransferase.

It catalyzes the chemical reactions:

 * UDP-alpha-D-glucose + glycogenin UDP + alpha-D-glucosylglycogenin
 * UDP-alpha-D-glucose + a glucosyl-glycogenin (1,4-alpha-D-glucosyl)n-glucosyl glucogenin + UDP + H+

Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are UDP-alpha-D-glucose and glycogenin, whereas its two products are UDP and alpha-D-glucosylglycogenin.

Nomenclature
This enzyme belongs to the family of glycosyltransferases, specifically the hexosyltransferases. The systematic name of this enzyme class is UDP-alpha-D-glucose:glycogenin alpha-D-glucosyltransferase. Other names in common use include: One may also notice that the naming of glycogenin hints at its function, with the glyco prefix referring to a carbohydrate and the genin suffix derived from the Latin genesis meaning novel, source, or beginning. This hints at the role of glycogenin to simply start glycogen synthesis before glycogen synthase takes over.
 * glycogenin,
 * priming glucosyltransferase, and
 * UDP-glucose:glycogenin glucosyltransferase.

Discovery
Glycogenin was discovered in 1984 by Dr. William J. Whelan, a fellow of the Royal Society of London and former professor of Biochemistry at the University of Miami.

Function
The main enzyme involved in glycogen polymerisation, glycogen synthase in the liver and in the muscle glycogen synthesis is initiated by UDP-Glucose, can only add to an existing chain of at least 3 glucose residues. Glycogenin acts as the primer, to which further glucose monomers may be added. It achieves this by catalyzing the addition of glucose to itself (autocatalysis) by first binding glucose from UDP-glucose to the hydroxyl group of Tyr-194. Seven more glucoses can be added, each derived from UDP-glucose, by glycogenin's glucosyltransferase activity. Once sufficient residues have been added, glycogen synthase takes over extending the chain. Glycogenin remains covalently attached to the reducing end of the glycogen molecule.

Evidence accumulates that a priming protein may be a fundamental property of polysaccharide synthesis in general; the molecular details of mammalian glycogen biogenesis may serve as a useful model for other systems.

Glycogenin is able to use the other two pyrimidine nucleotides as well, namely CDP-glucose and TDP-glucose, in addition to its native substrate, UDP-glucose.

Isozymes
In humans, there are two isoforms of glycogenin — glycogenin-1, encoded by GYG1, and expressed in muscle; and glycogenin-2, encoded by GYG2, and expressed in the liver and cardiac muscle, but not skeletal muscle. Patients have been found with defective GYG1, resulting in muscle cells with the inability to store glycogen, and consequential weakness and heart disease.

title: Glycogenin


text: Category:French Army

title: Category:French Army


text:
Talk:Saelred of Essex

Biography assessment rating comment
WikiProject Biography Assessment

The article may be improved by following the WikiProject Biography 11 easy steps to producing at least a B article. -- Yamara 04:00, 24 May 2007 (UTC)

When a Stub is as complete as it gets
I have removed the biostub as there is very little known about Selered - almost all of it is here!--Silver149 15:58, 11 July 2005 (UTC)
 * True, there's not a lot recorded about Saxon kings. But I'm listing it as a Start: References should be listed, some kind of illustration, even if its just the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle itself, could be added. -- Yamara 04:00, 24 May 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Saelred of Essex


text:
Talk:Slavery and Islam

How did we go from making Islam abolish slavery to Islam completely sanction it? Why no mention of the Prophet freeing his own slaves? What's going on here?

This article is redundant with Islam and slavery
This article is redundant with the pre-existing article on Islam and slavery. I recommend a merge of all verifiable, non-POV information, and a redirect. -- BD2412 talk 17:05, July 11, 2005 (UTC)

All verifiable/authentic information should be added to Islam and slavery & this should be deleted. Farhansher 18:26, 11 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Okay, what is factual/NPOV/worth merging on this page? Any votes? BrandonYusufToropov 18:29, 11 July 2005 (UTC)

I don't think any of it relates to Islam. It singles out countries and regions that have large Muslim majorities, but does not make mention of what the Qu'ran says about slavery. That's like saying that because the Western world had millions of slaves at one time, Christianity is a religion that endorses slavery. Also, i'm guessing whoever wrote this had absolutely no idea how Islam or any other religions treat slavery (not saying that i do either). 'Islam means submission or slavery. The prophet Mohammad, often referred to himself in the Qu'ran as the slave of Allah.' Don't Christians (and for that matter, any god-fearing person) have to submit to their God? This article makes a point of saying that Islam means slavery. Very POV. Don't use any of it. Xunflash 20:18, 12 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Agreed -- this is one of the reasons we nominated it for a VfD. Couldn't find an objective syllable in the thing. BrandonYusufToropov 20:45, 12 July 2005 (UTC)

 * This article clearly came into being for all the wrong reasons. I am not a muslim, but this article stinks! Delete it! --itpastorn 21:12, 15 July 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Slavery and Islam


text:
The Byrds (box set)

The Byrds is a four-CD box set by the American rock band the Byrds. It features music that had previously been released between the mid-1960s and early 1970s, along with a number of previously unreleased tracks and some new recordings from 1990. The box set was issued on October 19, 1990, by Columbia/Legacy and reached number 151 on the Billboard albums chart.

Contents and history
The Byrds comprises 90 tracks and covers the band's career from 1965 to 1971 (a period when they were signed to Columbia Records) in roughly chronological order, but excludes material from their 1973 reunion album Byrds, which was released on Asylum Records. The Byrds' lead guitarist, Roger McGuinn, served as "musical consultant" during preparation of the set and also had a hand in deciding the final track listing. At the time of its release, The Byrds was the first box set by a defunct rock act to be issued by Columbia Records.

The compilation includes a number of rare and previously unreleased songs, many of which were later included as bonus tracks on the remastered editions of the band's individual albums. Of special interest to fans of both the Byrds and country rock pioneer Gram Parsons, was the inclusion of six previously unreleased tracks from the recording sessions of the Byrds' 1968 album, Sweetheart of the Rodeo. Of these unreleased tracks, the versions of "The Christian Life", "You Don't Miss Your Water", and "One Hundred Years from Now" featured their original Parsons' lead vocals, which had been removed and replaced by McGuinn and Hillman prior to the release of the album. Author Johnny Rogan has remarked that in the years since Sweetheart of the Rodeo was issued, these "lost" Parsons' vocals had become near-legendary among fans of the band and their inclusion on The Byrds provided a major selling point for the box set.

The set also includes six songs performed by a reunited line-up of the Byrds, featuring McGuinn and other original members David Crosby and Chris Hillman. Of these six songs, two were recorded live at the Roy Orbison Tribute Concert on February 24, 1990, and four are new studio recordings dating from August 1990. The two other original members of the Byrds, Gene Clark and Michael Clarke, who were both still living in 1990, did not participate in the reunion.

Release and reception
While The Byrds does provide a detailed overview of the band's music, there has been some criticism from fans and critics concerning the absence of songs written by Clark, who was the band's principal songwriter in its early years. In particular, the exclusion of popular and highly regarded Clark-penned songs such as "Set You Free This Time" and "Here Without You" was interpreted by many fans as an attempt on McGuinn's part to downplay Clark's importance in the group. The additional failure of McGuinn to mention Clark in the box set's booklet, while at the same time praising Crosby and Hillman, served to reinforce the notion that Clark was being intentionally slighted.

Upon release, the box set reached number 151 on the Billboard Top Pop Albums chart in the U.S., during a chart stay of four weeks, but failed to reach the UK Albums Chart. A single disc selection from the box set, titled 20 Essential Tracks from the Boxed Set: 1965–1990, was also released in January 1992. The first 16 tracks on this single disc collection date from the Byrds' 1965 to 1971 period, while the final 4 tracks are from the 1990 reunion.

The Byrds is currently out of print, but a later revised box set, titled There Is a Season, was released on September 26, 2006, by Columbia/Legacy. While this second box set is meant to replace The Byrds, each set contains some tracks that the other does not.

Track listing
NOTES:
 * Tracks marked ‡ are previously unreleased.
 * Tracks marked ø are previously unreleased alternate versions of songs that appeared on the band's albums.
 * Tracks marked # are previously unreleased remixes.
 * Tracks marked † are outtakes, remixes or alternate versions that had previously only appeared on the Never Before compilation.

Disc one (We Have Ignition)

 * 1) "Mr. Tambourine Man" (Bob Dylan) – 2:29 †
 * 2) "I'll Feel a Whole Lot Better" (Gene Clark) – 2:31
 * 3) "Chimes of Freedom" (Bob Dylan) – 3:50
 * 4) "She Has a Way" (Gene Clark) – 2:30 †
 * 5) "All I Really Want to Do" [LP version] (Bob Dylan) – 2:03
 * 6) "Spanish Harlem Incident" (Bob Dylan) – 1:57
 * 7) "The Bells of Rhymney" (Idris Davies, Pete Seeger) – 3:31
 * 8) "It's All Over Now, Baby Blue" (Bob Dylan) – 2:56 †
 * 9) "She Don't Care About Time" (Gene Clark) – 2:31 ø
 * 10) "Turn! Turn! Turn! (to Everything There Is a Season)" (Book of Ecclesiastes/Pete Seeger) – 3:54 #
 * 11) "It Won't Be Wrong" (Roger McGuinn, Harvey Gerst) – 1:57  #
 * 12) "Lay Down Your Weary Tune" (Bob Dylan) – 3:30 #
 * 13) "He Was a Friend of Mine" (traditional, new words and arrangement Roger McGuinn) – 2:10
 * 14) "The World Turns All Around Her" (Gene Clark) – 2:14 #
 * 15) "The Day Walk (Never Before)" (Gene Clark) – 3:00 †
 * 16) "The Times They Are a-Changin'" (Bob Dylan) – 2:18 #
 * 17) "5D (Fifth Dimension)" (Roger McGuinn) – 2:34 #
 * 18) "I Know My Rider" (traditional, arranged Roger McGuinn, Gene Clark, David Crosby) – 2:44 †
 * 19) "Eight Miles High" (Gene Clark, David Crosby, Roger McGuinn) – 3:34
 * 20) "Why" (David Crosby, Roger McGuinn) – 2:58 †
 * 21) "Psychodrama City" (David Crosby) – 3:24 †
 * 22) "I See You" (David Crosby, Roger McGuinn) – 2:37 #
 * 23) "Hey Joe" (Billy Roberts) – 2:25 #

Disc two (Cruising Altitude)

 * 1) "Mr. Spaceman" (Roger McGuinn) – 2:10 #
 * 2) "John Riley" (Bob Gibson, Ricky Neff) – 2:59 #
 * 3) "Roll Over Beethoven" [Live] (Chuck Berry) – 2:11 ‡
 * 4) "So You Want to Be a Rock 'n' Roll Star" (Chris Hillman, Roger McGuinn) – 2:05
 * 5) "Have You Seen Her Face" (Chris Hillman) – 2:43 #
 * 6) "My Back Pages" (Bob Dylan) – 3:08
 * 7) "Time Between" (Chris Hillman) – 1:54 #
 * 8) "It Happens Each Day" (David Crosby) – 2:44 †
 * 9) "Renaissance Fair" (David Crosby, Roger McGuinn) – 1:51 #
 * 10) "Everybody's Been Burned" (David Crosby) – 3:06 #
 * 11) "The Girl With No Name" (Chris Hillman) – 1:49 #
 * 12) "Triad" (David Crosby) – 3:29 †
 * 13) "Lady Friend" (David Crosby) – 2:35 #
 * 14) "Old John Robertson" [Single version] (Chris Hillman, Roger McGuinn) – 1:49
 * 15) "Goin' Back" [LP version] (Gerry Goffin, Carole King) – 3:27
 * 16) "Draft Morning" (David Crosby, Chris Hillman, Roger McGuinn) – 2:38
 * 17) "Wasn't Born to Follow" (Gerry Goffin, Carole King) – 2:02
 * 18) "Dolphin's Smile" (David Crosby, Chris Hillman, Roger McGuinn) – 1:59
 * 19) "Reputation" (Tim Hardin) – 3:08 ‡
 * 20) "You Ain't Goin' Nowhere" (Bob Dylan) – 2:33
 * 21) "The Christian Life" (Charlie Louvin, Ira Louvin) – 2:28 ø
 * 22) "I Am a Pilgrim" (traditional, arranged Roger McGuinn, Chris Hillman) – 3:37
 * 23) "Pretty Boy Floyd" (Woody Guthrie) – 2:34
 * 24) "You Don't Miss Your Water" (William Bell) – 3:49 ø

Disc three (Full Throttle)

 * 1) "Hickory Wind" (Gram Parsons, Bob Buchanan) – 3:29
 * 2) "Nothing Was Delivered" (Bob Dylan) – 3:22
 * 3) "One Hundred Years from Now" (Gram Parsons) – 2:56 ø
 * 4) "Pretty Polly" (traditional, arranged Chris Hillman, Roger McGuinn) – 2:53 ‡
 * 5) "Lazy Days" (Gram Parsons) – 3:27 ‡
 * 6) "This Wheel's on Fire" (Bob Dylan, Rick Danko) – 4:40 #
 * 7) "Nashville West" (Gene Parsons, Clarence White) – 2:28
 * 8) "Old Blue" (traditional, arranged Roger McGuinn) – 3:21
 * 9) "Drug Store Truck Drivin' Man" (Roger McGuinn, Gram Parsons) – 3:53
 * 10) "Bad Night at the Whiskey" (Roger McGuinn, Joseph Richards) – 3:20
 * 11) "Lay Lady Lay" (Bob Dylan) – 3:16 ø
 * 12) "Mae Jean Goes to Hollywood" (Jackson Browne) – 2:43 ‡
 * 13) "Ballad of Easy Rider" (Roger McGuinn, Bob Dylan) – 2:02
 * 14) *NOTE: Bob Dylan is not officially credited as a songwriter on "Ballad of Easy Rider".
 * 15) "Oil in My Lamp" (traditional, arranged Gene Parsons, Clarence White) – 2:02 ø
 * 16) "Jesus Is Just Alright" (Arthur Reynolds) – 2:08
 * 17) "Way Beyond the Sun" (traditional, arranged Roger McGuinn) – 2:56 ‡
 * 18) "Tulsa County" [aka "Tulsa County Blue"] (Pamela Polland) – 2:46
 * 19) "Deportee (Plane Wreck at Los Gatos)" (Woody Guthrie, Martin Hoffman) – 3:50
 * 20) "Lover of the Bayou" [Live] (Roger McGuinn, Jacques Levy) – 4:24 ø
 * 21) "Willin'" [Live] (Lowell George) – 3:13 ‡
 * 22) "Black Mountain Rag" [Live] (Byron Berline/arranged Clarence White, Roger McGuinn) – 1:12 ‡
 * 23) "Positively 4th Street" [Live] (Bob Dylan) – 3:04

Disc four (Final Approach)

 * 1) "Chestnut Mare" (Roger McGuinn, Jacques Levy) – 5:07
 * 2) "Just a Season" (Roger McGuinn, Jacques Levy) – 3:49 #
 * 3) "Kathleen's Song" (Roger McGuinn, Jacques Levy) – 2:35 ø
 * 4) "Truck Stop Girl" (Lowell George, Bill Payne) – 3:20
 * 5) "Just Like a Woman" (Bob Dylan) – 3:58 ‡
 * 6) "Stanley's Song" (Roger McGuinn, Robert J. Hippard) – 3:11 ‡
 * 7) "Glory, Glory" (Arthur Reynolds) – 4:00
 * 8) "I Trust" (Roger McGuinn) – 3:17
 * 9) "I Wanna Grow Up to Be a Politician" (Roger McGuinn, Jacques Levy) – 2:01
 * 10) "Green Apple Quick Step" (Gene Parsons, Clarence White) – 1:47
 * 11) "Tiffany Queen" (Roger McGuinn) – 2:41
 * 12) "Bugler" (Larry Murray) – 3:05
 * 13) "Lazy Waters" (Bob Rafkin) – 3:32
 * 14) "Farther Along" (traditional, arranged Clarence White) – 2:57
 * 15) "White's Lightning" (Roger McGuinn, Clarence White) – 2:36 ‡
 * 16) "Turn! Turn! Turn! (to Everything There Is a Season)" [Live] (Book of Ecclesiastes/Pete Seeger) – 3:51 ø
 * 17) * Recorded live at the Roy Orbison Tribute Concert on February 24, 1990.
 * 18) "Mr. Tambourine Man" [Live] (Bob Dylan) – 5:26 ø
 * 19) * Recorded live at the Roy Orbison Tribute Concert on February 24, 1990.
 * 20) "He Was a Friend of Mine" (traditional, new words and arrangement Roger McGuinn) – 2:26 ø
 * 21) "Paths of Victory" (Bob Dylan) – 3:09 ‡
 * 22) "From a Distance" (Julie Gold) – 3:14 ‡
 * 23) "Love That Never Dies" (Roger McGuinn, Stan Lynch) – 3:54 ‡
 * 24) * The above four tracks were recorded by a reunited line-up of the Byrds at Treasure Isle Recorders, Nashville, Tennessee, between August 6 and August 8, 1990.

20 Essential Tracks from the Boxed Set: 1965-1990 track listing

 * 1) "Mr. Tambourine Man" (Bob Dylan) – 2:29
 * 2) *NOTE: New wide stereo remix from the 8-track session tape. The box set used the Never Before remix.
 * 3) "I'll Feel a Whole Lot Better" (Gene Clark) – 2:32
 * 4) "All I Really Want to Do" (Bob Dylan) – 2:04
 * 5) "Turn! Turn! Turn! (To Everything There Is A Season)" (Book of Ecclesiastes/Pete Seeger) – 3:49
 * 6) "5D (Fifth Dimension)" (Roger McGuinn) – 2:33
 * 7) "Eight Miles High" (Gene Clark, Roger McGuinn, David Crosby) – 3:34
 * 8) "Mr. Spaceman" (Roger McGuinn) – 2:09
 * 9) "So You Want to Be a Rock 'n' Roll Star" (Roger McGuinn, Chris Hillman) – 1:50
 * 10) "Have You Seen Her Face" (Chris Hillman) – 2:42
 * 11) "Lady Friend" (David Crosby) – 2:35
 * 12) "My Back Pages" (Bob Dylan) – 3:08
 * 13) "Goin' Back" (Carole King, Gerry Goffin) – 3:26
 * 14) "Ballad of Easy Rider" (Roger McGuinn, Bob Dylan) – 2:02
 * 15) *NOTE: Bob Dylan is not officially credited as a songwriter on "Ballad of Easy Rider".
 * 16) "Jesus Is Just Alright" (Arthur Reynolds) – 2:09
 * 17) "Chestnut Mare" (Roger McGuinn, Jacques Levy) – 5:06
 * 18) "I Wanna Grow up to Be a Politician" (Roger McGuinn, Jacques Levy) – 2:02
 * 19) "He Was a Friend of Mine" (traditional, new words and arrangement Roger McGuinn) – 2:26
 * 20) "Paths of Victory" (Bob Dylan) – 3:10
 * 21) "From a Distance" (Julie Gold) – 3:14
 * 22) "Love That Never Dies" (Roger McGuinn, Stan Lynch) – 3:55

title: The Byrds (box set)


text:
Robert Foulis (inventor)

Robert Foulis (1796– January 28, 1866) was a Canadian inventor, civil engineer and artist noted for his invention of the steam-powered foghorn.

Early life
Robert Foulis was born May 5, 1796, in Glasgow, Scotland. After training in engineering, he moved to Belfast, where he met his first wife, Elizabeth Leatham. After Elizabeth's death in childbirth in 1817, Foulis determined to move to the United States. Leaving his newborn daughter with a great-aunt (who would later join him), he set sail for the US. Due to a storm, his ship had to put in to Halifax, Nova Scotia, where Scottish friends convinced him to stay. Sources vary on his date of arrival in Halifax, with both 1818 and 1819 possible. In Halifax he taught drawing classes and painted portraits in oil.

Life in Saint John
In 1820 settled in Saint John, New Brunswick, where he was appointed deputy land surveyor in 1822. After he surveyed the upper Saint John River for the feasibility of steamshipping, he became involved with the buildings of several early steamboats and the first Saint John harbour ferry.

In 1825, Foulis founded the Saint John Foundry, the province's second iron foundry. He continued his interest in art, founding a School of Arts in 1838.

In 1852, Foulis invented an apparatus to produce coal gas from the distillation of albertite; his intention as that the gas could be used instead of whale oil when illuminating lighthouses. Foulis installed the system in the Partridge island lighthouse in 1853.

The invention that would bring Foulis his greatest recognition was the steam-powered foghorn. In 1853, as he was walking towards his house on a foggy night, he heard his daughter playing her piano. Noticing he could only hear the very low notes of the piano, he realized that a device that emitted low frequency sound could be used to warn ships approaching the Saint harbour in the dense fog. He spent the next six years trying to convince the New Brunswick lighthouse commissioners to allow him to install his foghorn design on the nearby Partridge Island. In 1859 permission for the foghorn to be installed on Partridge Island was granted to the engineer T. T. Vernon Smith, who had obtained Foulis' plans. The foghorn went into service on Partridge island, and a patent dispute between the two men followed. He ultimately failed to obtain any patent rights to his foghorn design, although the provincial legislature recognized him as the rightful inventor.

Following business ventures of varying success, Foulis died in poverty.

title: Robert Foulis (inventor)