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Korean Wave

The Korean Wave or Hallyu is a cultural phenomenon in which the global popularity of South Korean popular culture has dramatically risen since the 1990s. Worldwide interest in Korean culture has been led primarily by the spread of K-pop, K-dramas and films, with keystone successes including boy band BTS, television series Squid Game (2021), and Oscar-winning film Parasite (2019). The Korean Wave has been recognized as a form of soft power and as an important economic asset for South Korea, generating revenue through both exports and tourism.

Following the 1997 Asian financial crisis and the end of military censorship over the South Korean entertainment industry, South Korea emerged as a major exporter of popular culture. The Korean Wave was first driven by the spread of K-dramas and Korean cinema into East Asia and parts of Southeast Asia, following the rise of satellite media in the late 1990s. Taiwanese journalists first coined the term "Korean Wave" in 1998, referring to the success of Korean popular culture in Taiwan. During the 2000s, Hallyu evolved into a global phenomenon, expanding rapidly into South Asia, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe. By 2008, the value of cultural exports from South Korea surpassed the value of cultural imports for the first time. This expansion was fueled by the advent of social media and the Internet, which played key roles in allowing the Korean entertainment industry reach overseas audiences, as well as the endorsement of the phenomenon by the South Korean government.

Etymology
The term Hallyu is a neologism composed of two root words: han  meaning "Korean" and ryu  meaning "flow", "wave", or "trend". On 19 November 1999, the Beijing Youth Daily published the first known use of the term "Korean wave" in an article describing the "zeal of Chinese audiences for Korean TV dramas and pop songs." Other terms used at the time included "Korean tide", "Korean heat", and "Korean wind". In China, the term "Han fever" was also used, comparing the phenomenon to the ongoing Avian flu pandemic in the country. The term entered common usage following the airing of the romance K-drama Winter Sonata, which was particularly successful in Japan.

Hallyu refers to the international diffusion of South Korean culture since the 1990s, following the end of military rule and the liberalization of the culture industry. The term primarily refers to the spread of Korean television, pop music, film, and fashion, but can also include animation, video games, technology, literature, cosmetics, and food. While the first generation of Hallyu in the late 1990s to early 2000s remained confined to Asia and referred to the popularity of Korean dramas and film on the continent, the second generation, or Hallyu 2.0, was driven primarily by the popularity of K-pop distributed on online platforms like YouTube. Both "Hallyu" and "Korean wave", were added to the Oxford English Dictionary in 2021.

Background
Under the military dictatorship of Park Chung Hee, South Korean mass media underwent a process of rapid expansion, despite facing increasing control and censorship from the government. As part of Park's development plans, the first commercial radio and television stations opened in the early 1960s and were subject to strict censorship under the Broadcasting Ethics Committee. This brief expansion ended in 1972, when Park enacted the Yushin Constitution which broadly expanded his powers and codified his de facto dictatorial rule. The enactment of the Yushin Constitution coincided with a broad crackdown on the South Korean culture industry against what Park alleged was the influence of "foreign decadent culture". Following Park's death and the 1979 coup d'état of December Twelfth, the military regime of Chun Doo-hwan enacted additional restrictions over the media. In 1980, Chun forced the merger of all 29 private broadcasters into the state-owned Korean Broadcasting System (KBS) and Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation (MBC), creating a state-led media monopoly.

As a part of the decolonization process in South Korea, imports of all Japanese media were banned in 1945. Despite this ban, Japanese media was still widely distributed and pirated in South Korea, with both state broadcasters and individual bootleggers being found guilty of illegal importation. The signing of the Japan–South Korea Joint Declaration of 1998 ended this ban, and it was gradually lifted across four stages between 1998 and 2004. To protect the South Korean culture industry, the South Korean Ministry of Culture received a substantial budget increase, allowing for the creation of hundreds of culture industry departments in universities nationwide. It has justified its financial support for Hallyu, estimated to be worth US$83.2 billion in 2012, by linking it to South Korea's export-driven economy.

First generation
The first generation of the Korean Wave, also called Hallyu 1.0, was the initial rise in popularity of Korean popular culture within nearby Asian countries. The first generation began in China during the late 1990s, and consisted primarily of the spread of Korean television programming.

Television in the first generation
In 1990, the National Assembly granted a broadcasting license to the regional Seoul Broadcasting System (SBS), becoming the first private television station since the forced nationalization of private broadcasters in 1980. In December 1991, the National Assembly passed the Cable Television Act which directed the Ministry of Information to provide permits to twenty prospective cable television program providers. The providers were selected in August 1993, and cable television services began in March, 1995. With the liberalization of the South Korean television market, a greater number of Korean programs started to be exported abroad. These media exports were first exported to China, after the two countries formally established diplomatic relations in 1992. Although Jealousy (1992) was the first K-drama broadcast on China Central Television (CCTV), the 1997 broadcasts of the K-drama First Love and Star in My Heart in China are generally considered the start of the Korean Wave. Compounding the foreign interest in Korean television programs, countries throughout East Asia began opening their television markets to foreign countries in the 1980s and 1990s. In the early 1970s, imported television programs made up less than 1 percent of all airtime on CCTV, while by the late 1990s, that number would rise to 20–30 percent. In Vietnam, Korean television made up more than half of all imported programming in 1988.

The 1997 Asian financial crisis led broadcasters throughout East Asia to seek cheaper programs as an alternative to the expensive, but popular broadcasts from Japan. In 2000, K-dramas were a quarter of the price of Japanese television programs and a tenth of the price of Hong Kong television programs. K-dramas first entered the Taiwanese market during the early 1990s, but the shift to Korean television programming following the financial crisis and the successful airing of Fireworks (2000) and Autumn in My Heart (2000) marked the start of the Korean Wave in the country.

The 2003 historical K-drama Jewel in the Palace has been credited for having the greatest impact on the popularity of Korean television programs in Chinese-speaking countries, including Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and China. In May 2005, the show's final episode became the highest-rated television episode in Hong Kong history at more than 40 percent. In the years following its release, the program was exported to over 80 countries around the world. At the same time, the 2003–2004 airing of the romance K-drama Winter Sonata in Japan marked the entrance of the Korean Wave to Japan. Winter Sonata achieved a cult following in Japan among women in their 30s, particularly around the show's lead actor Bae Young-joon. This would lead Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi to exclaim in 2004 that "Bae Yong-joon is more popular than I am in Japan." Following the broadcast, stereotypes of Korea in Japan changed dramatically and tourism from Japan to South Korea would spike, primarily among Japanese women.

In the Indian state of Manipur, Hindi-language movies and television channels were banned in 2000 by insurgents, leading broadcasters to use Korean programming as substitutes. Korean dramas and films were also commonly smuggled into the region in the form of CDs and DVDs.

By the late 2000s, K-dramas became part of the daily programming of local television channels across East Asia and in China, Korean programs made up more than all other foreign programming combined. During the period between 1997 and 2007, television exports from South Korea would increase from $8.3 million to $151 million, mostly to other Asian markets. As the volume of Korean cultural imports rapidly increased, China's State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television responded with a decision to restrict and limit the number of Korean TV dramas shown to Chinese audiences. In Taiwan, the National Communications Commission asked cable channels to reduce the number of prime time hours allocated to Korean programming. In addition, in response to the popularity of Jewel in the Palace, director Zhang Guoli and actor Jackie Chan both called on domestic audiences to "resist Korean Wave".

Film in the first generation
In 1966, military dictator Park Chung Hee established screen quotas that restricted the number of foreign films shown in cinemas, intended to protect the Korean film industry from Hollywood blockbusters. However, in 1986, the Motion Pictures Exporters Association of America filed a complaint to the United States Senate regarding the restrictions imposed by the South Korean government. Under US pressure and despite fierce opposition from the domestic film industry, in 1988, the Korean government lifted restrictions that required foreign films to be distributed by domestic companies. In 1988, 20th Century Fox became the first American film studio to set up a distribution office in South Korea, followed by Warner Brothers in 1989, Columbia in 1990, and Disney in 1993. By 1994, domestic films reached a record low market share of just 15.4 percent, with commentators predicting the demise of the Korean film industry in the near-future. As well, negotiations for the Uruguay Round Agreements Act concluded in 1994, requiring South Korea to liberalize its communications and culture markets.

In response to these crises, the National Assembly instituted the Cultural Industry Bureau within the Ministry of Culture and Sports and passed the Motion Picture Promotion Law in 1995, providing tax incentives for film production. These incentives were successful in attracting a number of chaebols to the film industry, but these ventures were financially unsuccessful, and most disbanded following the 1997 Asian financial crisis. In January 1999, the Samsung Entertainment Group announced its dissolution and released its final film Shiri in February of that year. But despite the withdrawal of Samsung from the industry, Shiri set box office records in South Korea and achieved commercial success in Hong Kong and Japan, a rare feat for the time. Shiri had been funded partly through venture capital, and the success of the film led to a 1999 revision of the Motion Picture Promotion Law to allow individuals to finance film productions. This influx of capital would fund hundreds of Korean films and dramatically increase their budgets, with average costs per production rising from 0.9 billion won in 1995 to 42 billion won in 2004. The 2001 film My Sassy Girl achieved box office success in Hong Kong and Japan, and was the subject of multiple foreign remakes.

Music in the first generation
Prior to the mid-1990s, South Korean music was largely devoid of foreign interest. While SK, Daewoo, and Samsung had expanded into the South Korean music industry during the mid-1990s, under similar circumstances to the South Korean film industry, the 1997 Asian financial crisis abruptly ended these ventures. This vacuum was filled by SM Entertainment (founded by Lee Soo-man in 1995), YG Entertainment (founded by Yang Hyun-seok of Seo Taiji and Boys in 1996), and JYP Entertainment (founded by R&B singer Park Jin-young in 1997). K-pop first gained popularity in China after the 1997 radio program Seoul Music Room began broadcasting in Beijing.

The debuts of BoA in 2000, Rain in 2002, TVXQ in 2003, Super Junior in 2005, BigBang in 2006, and Wonder Girls and Girls' Generation in 2007 were major breakthroughs for K-pop in Asia. BoA became the first South Korean pop star to break into the Japanese market with the release of her album Listen to My Heart (2002), following the fall of barriers that had restricted the import and export of entertainment between the countries since the end of World War II. During the 2008 fiscal year, 68 percent of all K-pop exports from South Korea were exported to Japan.

Second generation
Hallyu 2.0 or the New Korean Wave refers to the second generation of the Korean Wave, beginning in 2008. This generation is characterized by the spread of Korean popular culture through social media and the transition to K-pop as the primary South Korean cultural export. The period marked the rapid expansion of the South Korean music, animation, and online gaming industries and a shift in government policy, from indifference to enthusiastic support, under the Lee Myung-bak and Park Geun-hye administrations. The mid-2000s marked the expansion of the Korean Wave outside of East Asia into other parts of Asia, while the mid-2010s marked the Korean Wave's expansion outside of Asia into Europe, the Americas, and Africa. During this period, social media and platforms like YouTube, Netflix, and Webtoon played a key role in the dissemination of South Korean popular culture.

Since the mid-2010s, the rising success of K-pop groups abroad have become characteristic of the Korean Wave. These successes were led by the meteoric rise of the music video for Psy's "Gangnam Style". According to a poll conducted by the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism during the COVID-19 pandemic, Crash Landing on You, It's Okay to Not Be Okay, and The World of the Married were the three most popular television programs internationally. In the United States, the Korean Wave spread outwards from Korean-American communities, most notably in New York City and Los Angeles.

Since September 2022, the Victoria and Albert Museum has hosted the exhibition "Hallyu! The Korean Wave," showcasing the history of the Korean Wave in fashion, music, dance, and art. Min Jin Lee, the author of the novel Pachinko, credited the Korean Wave for her success.

Government policy
The success of South Korean cultural products in Asia has led some governments to pass measures to protect their own cultural industries. China made specific efforts to stem the flow of Korean films and dramas into their countries, hurting their sales. This motivated the South Korean cultural industry to break into markets outside of Asia.

Prior to the 1990s, the Korean government prioritized funding traditional forms of Korean culture over contemporary Korean pop culture. However in 1993, the government shifted to a policy of cultural commercialization, incorporating cultural products as economic exports. In 1999, the National Assembly passed the Basic Law for Promoting Cultural Industries which provided government support for Korean cultural products.

The Internet
Since the 2000s, the Korean Wave has transformed from a phenomenon driven primarily by satellite broadcasts to one driven by social media and the Internet. Foreign-language subtitles of K-dramas and real-time translations of K-pop performances on the Internet broadened the scope of Korean pop culture. YouTube has enabled fans to connect with K-pop through their own content, such as dance covers and reaction videos/channels. The creation of remakes on YouTube acted as consumer-generated advertising and helped propel the virality of "Gangnam Style."

Music in the second generation
YouTube and other online video platforms have been vital in the increasing international popularity of K-pop. Asia Today wrote that Korean music content began to receive attention in the global pop culture world starting with Wonder Girls in the late 2000s, with BigBang, 2NE1, Blackpink, and BTS later setting new records on Billboard "one after another". In 2012, Psy's music video for "Gangnam Style" went viral and became the first YouTube video to reach one billion views in December of that year. The release of "Gangnam Style" helped push K-pop into mainstream Indian culture.

BTS and other groups have sustained success globally, with world tours and appearances at US Billboard Music Awards and other foreign events. BTS won twelve Billboard Music Awards and eleven American Music Awards, and received five nominations at the Grammy Awards. BTS sold out four concerts at SoFi Stadium in Los Angeles in 2021. Since the 2010s, there have been a greater number of collaborations between K-pop and foreign artists, such as BTS with Steve Aoki and Psy with Snoop Dogg. For many Korean artists, domestic popularity no longer correlates to overall success abroad as South Korea is no longer the world's largest K-pop consumer.

Television in the second generation
Since the mid-2000s, the three major South Korean broadcast television networks, KBS, MBC, and SBS, have faced increasing competition from comprehensive television networks with integrated production teams. The second generation of the Korean Wave produced a number of innovative television programs, including the absurd romantic comedy My Love from the Star, the reality variety show Running Man, the live audition programs like Superstar K.

The 2006 historical K-drama Jumong was hugely successful in Turkey, Romania, and Iran, where it achieved nationwide ratings of 80 to 90 percent. The 2019 K-drama Kingdom was highly successful in India. During the COVID-19 pandemic in India, streaming services in India saw a dramatic rise in interest for Korean-language programming.

Film in the second generation
During the first generation of the Korean Wave, Korean films that were exported abroad were primarily consumed in other Asian countries. Through online streaming services like Netflix, the South Korean entertainment industry has been able to expand outside of East Asia. The 2019 black comedy thriller film Parasite won several awards at international film festivals, including four Academy Awards for Best Picture, Best Director, Best Original Screenplay, and Best International Film. Parasite also made history as the first non-English language film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture.

Manhwa
Manhwa, the Korean term for comics, first gained popularity outside of Korea during the early 2000s when manhwa were first became available on the Internet. The term "manhwa" is derived from the Korean words "manhwa" (만화), which can be translated to "comics" or "cartoons.  Manhwa is directly influenced by Japanese Manga comics. It encompasses a wide range of genres and styles, similar to its Japanese counterpart, manga. During the 2010s, the format would undergo a revitalization as a result of webtoons, which provided the medium a smartphone-optimized layout and room to skirt South Korea's censorship standards. Modern Manhwa has extended its reach to many other countries. Korean companies like Naver, Kakao, and Lezhin that host webtoons have expanded globally and have begun to offer their titles in different languages.  These comics have branched outside of Korea by access of Webtoons and have created an impact that has resulted in some movie and television show adaptations.

The Korean Manhwa industry has undergone significant changes from 1910 to the present, facing various challenges along the way. In the early years, the impact of Japanese colonial rule and the aftermath of the Korean War led to heavy government intervention from the 1950s to the 1970s. This intervention, driven by concerns for political stability, resulted in censorship and negative societal views, limiting the industry's growth during that period. Fast forward to the 2000s-2010s, a notable shift occurred with the rise of webtoons and educational manhwa. Webtoons, thriving on digitization and online platforms, gained international acclaim. Educational manhwa also played a positive role in children's education, reducing business risks and reshaping the industry.

Globalization and digitization further boosted success, allowing Korean animation series and webtoons to capture diverse audiences worldwide. The need for a business-friendly environment with less government intervention, coupled with a shift in societal perceptions to recognize manhwa as a dynamic and creative industry was the key to this change. Recognizing historical challenges was crucial for crafting effective policies to propel the Korean manhwa industry into a vibrant and globally competitive landscape.

Manhwa vs. Manga in South Korea
The comparison between Korean manhwa and Japanese manga has been a longstanding topic of discussion within the realm of comics. Historically, Korean manhwa creators often emulated the drawing style, format, and narrative elements of Japanese manga, leading to challenges in differentiating the two art forms. While both Korean manhwa and Japanese manga share an Asian traditional way of drawing, the text emphasizes subtle but culturally significant differences. Mainstream Korean manhwa tends to prioritize drama and narrative, reflecting a cultural emphasis on societal and historical forces, whereas Japanese manga often focuses more on building individual characters and personalities. Despite regulatory efforts, manga continued to dominate the comics market in South Korea. Reasons for this preference included factors such as readability, superior graphics, superhero emphasis, and cost-effectiveness. Resistance efforts by cartoonists and associations aimed at promoting Korean comics, known as manhwa, focused on initiatives like Koreanization, crackdowns on Japanese comics dealers, and government interventions.

Sociocultural
Korean pop culture is very popular in Taiwan and more and more Taiwanese are learning Korean language. In Taiwan, where the drama Jewel in the Palace was extremely popular, some fans reportedly underwent cosmetic surgery to look like lead actress Lee Young-ae. The United States Modern Language Association reported that the number of university students learning Korean doubled between 2006 and 2016. In 2020, Korean became the fastest growing foreign language in Mexico and United States. The South Korean Ministry of Education attributed this rise in interest in the Korean language as a product of the Korean Wave. The Korean Wave has influenced a large number of British university students to pursue Korean language degrees.

In India, millennials and members of Generation Z are the most interested in the Korean Wave. On May 31, 2022, BTS visited US President Joe Biden at the White House to discuss the rise in anti-Asian hate crimes.

Economic
In 2004, KBS sold its K-drama Spring Waltz to eight Asian countries during its pre-production stage two years before its release.

The Korean Wave popularized Korean snacks in Kazakhstan, Pakistan, China, Vietnam, Russia, India, and the United States. The Korean Wave has resulted in the rise in popularity of Korean ramyeon overseas, with the noodles being prominently featured in K-dramas and films. Product placement, a common feature of K-dramas, has fueled interest in India into a variety of brands featured on these shows. Korean fashion, music, and television have been adopted by teenagers in Kashmir, despite concerns by older generations over the erasure of traditional Kashmiri culture.

Relations with North Korea
In North Korea, the Korean Wave is called the nam-Joseon baram. In June 2007, the film Hwang Jin Yi, adapted from a novel by a North Korean author, became the first South Korean production to be made available for public viewing in North Korea.

A 2010 survey of 33 North Korean defectors by the Korea Institute for National Unification found that shows like Winter Sonata played a significant role in shaping the decision of the defectors to flee to the South. The institute also stated that some North Koreans near the Korean Demilitarized Zone reportedly tampered with their televisions to receive signals from South Korean stations, while on the northern border, CDs and DVDs were commonly smuggled in from China. A 2012 survey by the institute of 100 North Korean defectors reported that South Korean media was prevalent among the North Korean elite. It also re-affirmed that North Koreans living near the northern border had the highest degree of access to South Korean entertainment. Notels, a type of Chinese portable media player introduced to North Korea in 2005, have been credited for proliferating Korean media in the North.

In October 2012, Supreme Leader Kim Jong Un gave a speech to the Korean People's Army in which he vowed to "extend the fight against the enemy's ideological and cultural infiltration." A US State Department-commissioned study earlier that year concluded that North Korea was "increasingly anxious" to restrict the flow of information, but were struggling to contain the "substantial demand" for South Korean movies and television programs and the "intensely entrepreneurial" smugglers on the Chinese side of the border.

On 15 May 2013, the NGO Human Rights Watch found that "entertainment shows from South Korea are particularly popular and have served to undermine the North Korean government's negative portrayals of South Korea".

In 2021, Kim Jong Un called K-pop a vicious cancer that serves to undermine the North Korean government. Kim further warned that South Korean entertainment was having a grave influence on young North Koreans and emphasized the necessity of stamping out "capitalist tendencies". In December 2020 the North Korean government extended the punishment for possessing illegal entertainment from five to fifteen years of hard labor. In a leaked document obtained by Asia Press, Kim Jong Un deemed North Korean women who call their date oppa or "yobo" instead of comrade "perverted". The documents warned that those who were caught using the language would be expelled from their city.

Tourism
The airing of Winter Sonata in Japan led to a rise in tourism to South Korea and dramatically shifted the demographics of Japanese tourism to South Korea, from primarily Japanese men on kisaeng tours to young Japanese women. South Korea's tourism industry has been greatly influenced by the increasing popularity of its media. According to the Korea Tourism Organization (KTO), monthly tourism figures have increased from 311,883 visitors in March 1996 to 1,389,399 visitors in March 2016.

The Korean Tourism Organization has recognized the Korean Wave as a significant pull factor for tourists, and launched a tourism campaign in 2014 entitled "Imagine your Korea" that highlighted Korean entertainment. Many fans of Korean television dramas are also motivated to travel to Korea, frequently visiting filming locations like Nami Island, featured in Winter Sonata, and Dae Jang Geum Theme Park. The majority of these tourists were women. According to the KTO, more than 100,000 Indians traveled to South Korea in 2018, with the number of Indian tourists rising steadily each year.

Impact of Hallyu on South Korean Tourism
The Korean Wave, or Hallyu, has significantly influenced the global popularity of South Korean culture, particularly through K-dramas and K-pop, driving increased tourism to South Korea. The strategic initiatives implemented by the South Korean government and tourism industry have capitalized on this trend to enhance South Korea's economic landscape and cultural diplomacy on the global stage.

Hallyu-related sectors such as cosmetics, fashion, tourism, and education have seen substantial economic contributions, with cultural exports contributing to a 0.2% increase in South Korea's GDP in 2004, escalating remarkably to $12.3 billion by 2019. These figures underscore the profound impact of the Korean Wave on the economy, largely driven by tourism. This growth is supported by a study showing a robust correlation coefficient of 0.89 for Hallyu products, significantly higher than 0.44 for non-Hallyu products, indicating the strong economic influence of cultural exports.

Recognizing the global appeal of Hallyu, the South Korean government launched the "Visit Korea Year 2023-2024." This initiative features a series of events and promotions to attract tourists, including K-pop concerts, cultural festivals, and significant discounts on travel and accommodations. The Korea Tourism Organization (KTO) also hosts international roadshows and eco-friendly activities to promote cultural and environmental awareness. More details are available on the VISITKOREA website, which provides updates on upcoming events and offers.

Digital technologies also play a crucial role in tourism strategies. Live streaming, for example, has emerged as a strategic tool, significantly influencing viewer engagement through parasocial interactions, where viewers feel a sense of friendship and trust with streamers. This enhances viewer loyalty and encourages more visits, illustrating the shift towards digital engagement in tourism marketing.

Foreign relations
The Korean Wave has been acknowledged by various heads of state and government, including Chinese paramount leader Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao, US President Barack Obama, Indian President Ram Nath Kovind, and Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard. The phenomenon has also been acknowledged by UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, US Secretary of State John Kerry, Afghan Deputy Foreign Minister Meerwais Nab, New Zealand Deputy Secretary of Foreign Affairs and Trade Andrea Smith, the French Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs, the German Federal Foreign Office, and UK Foreign Office Minister Hugo Swire. A 2018–2019 survey conducted by the Korean Culture and Information Service found that the Korean Wave was a key factor in global perceptions of South Korea.

Taiwan
The Korean Wave positively impacted perceptions of South Korea in Taiwan. Taiwanese people's favorable impression of South Korea continues to increase significantly, which also makes the relationship between South Korea and Taiwan very close.

India
Korean culture has become increasingly popular in India, particularly in the northeast, where people feel somewhat alienated from the rest of India and have some similarities to Koreans. India and Korea have hosted cultural events at each other's embassies, with their leaders looking to increase cultural ties.

Japan
The Korean Wave, began to gain traction in Japan around the late 1990s and early 2000s. This initial surge was largely due to efforts by Japanese Prime Minister Obuchi Keizo and Korean President Kim Dae-jung, who aimed to foster a "future-oriented relationship" between the two countries. As part of this initiative, South Korea lifted its unilateral restrictions on the import of Japanese cultural products in 1998, leading to increased cultural exchanges between the two nations. A relevant policies, which was the Open Door Policy implemented by South Korea from 1998 to 2004 played a significant role in facilitating the spread of hallyu in Japan. This policy aimed to liberalize South Korea's cultural industry and promote cultural exports. In November 2, 2021, data released by KOCCA, underscores a remarkable surge in the export of Korean video content to Japan. In 2021, the export value soared to $1.81 billion (approximately 2.46 trillion won), representing a substantial 50 percent increase from the previous year's figure of $1.21 billion (approximately 1.64 trillion won). This significant growth reflects the escalating popularity and demand for Korean video content within the Japanese market.

China
Throughout 2016 and 2017, China implemented various restrictions on Korean cultural and economic imports as retaliation for the installation of the THAAD missile defense system, which it considers a risk to its national security. During this time, many Chinese-Korean television productions were paused and Korean television programs, the streaming of K-pop videos, and imports of various Korean cosmetics were restricted by the government. A number of Korean artists had their visas denied and appearances canceled, although the Chinese government officially stated that their visa policy had not changed. In March 2017, the China National Tourism Administration issued a ban on group tours to South Korea by Chinese travel agencies. These bans resulted in significant financial losses for the South Korean entertainment industry with share prices of SM Entertainment falling 18 percent, a loss of $150 million, and share prices of YG Entertainment falling 32 percent, a loss of $230 million. On 31 October 2017, the two governments announced a settlement regarding the THAAD dispute. Following the agreement, many large Chinese online video platforms began importing Korean dramas again, Chinese travel agencies restarted group tours to South Korea, and Korean bands made appearances Chinese TV shows.

Middle East and North Africa
Since the mid-2000s, Iran, Morocco and Egypt and Algeria have emerged as major consumers of Korean culture. Following the success of Korean dramas in the Middle East & North Africa, the Korean Overseas Information Service made Winter Sonata available with Arabic subtitles and the program was broadcast on several state-run Egyptian television networks. The Korean government's support for the Korean cultural exports in the Middle East are part of greater efforts to improve the country's image in the region.

The Middle East Broadcasting Channel (MBC4) played a major role in increasing the Korean Wave's popularity in the Middle East and North Africa. Beginning in 2012, MBC4 hosted a series of Korean dramas, including Boys Over Flowers, You're Beautiful, Dream High and Coffee Prince. The imports of these programs were sometimes criticized out of the fear they would lead to Islamic youth to abandon traditional values.

Egypt
Autumn in My Heart, one of the earliest Korean dramas brought over to the Middle East, was broadcast after five months of "persistent negotiations" between the South Korean embassy and an Egyptian state-run broadcasting company. Perceptions of South Korea in Egypt, which were undermined by the country's involvement in the Iraq War, were positively impacted following the screening of Autumn in My Heart in the country.

Iran

A number of K-dramas have been aired by Iran's state broadcaster, Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB) in prime-time slots. Unlike Western productions, South Korean programs tend to satisfy the conservative criteria set by the Iranian Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance. In October 2012, representatives for the IRIB visited South Korea to visit filming locations in an effort to strengthen "cultural affinities" between the two countries and to seek avenues for further cooperation between KBS and IRIB.

Israel and Palestine
Some commentators have hoped that the popularity of Korean culture across Israel and Palestine may serve as a bridge over the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem reported that some Israeli and Palestinian K-pop fans see themselves as "cultural missionaries" and actively introduce K-pop to their friends and relatives, further spreading the Korean Wave within their communities.

Criticism
In parts of China and Japan, the Korean Wave has been met with backlash and comparisons to cultural imperialism. In China and Japan, the Korean Wave has frequently been described as a "cultural invasion" and restrictions have limited the number of Korean TV dramas shown to Chinese audiences. At the Tai Ke Rock Concert in August 2005, Taiwanese musician Chang Chen-yue performed the racist and misogynistic rap "The Invasion of the Korean Wave" attacking actor Bae Yong-joon, female Taiwanese musicians, and the Korean Wave. In addition, backlash to K-pop is common on the internet, where it is criticized for superficiality, heteronomy, or vulgarity.

Backlash against the Korean Wave can be rooted in nationalism or historical conflicts. The K-pop industry has been criticized for its promotion of sexualized Asian stereotypes.

Mistreatment of artists
The South Korean entertainment industry has faced repeated claims of mistreatment towards its musical artists. A series of high-profile suicides by Korean actors and idols highlighted the industry's harsh working conditions.

Historical accuracy
Korean historical dramas have been increasingly scrutinized by Korean viewers for historical negationism and otherwise inaccurate portrayals of Korean history, leading to boycotts and cancellation of shows such as Snowdrop being boycotted and Joseon Exorcist.

Cultural and moral opposition
K-pop boy bands and their fans have been the targets of a variety of racist, misogynistic, and homophobic attacks purporting that the bands promote homosexuality and feminine men. In February 2021, Matthias Matuschik, a radio presenter for the German radio station Bayern 3, came under attack for declaring BTS were "some crappy virus that hopefully there will be a vaccine for soon." On 1 September 2021, a billboard of Jungkook from BTS was taken down in Pakistan after the billboard purportedly received complaints for promoting homosexuality and using the word ARMY, in conflict with the Pakistan Army. In November 2021, group calling themselves "Team Copyright" based in Bangladesh took down a number of Twitter accounts associated with the BTS fandom through false copyright claims over allegations that the band promotes "atheism and homosexuality."

K-pop and K-pop idols have been criticized for promoting unhealthy attitudes around weight in Indian adolescents.

Japan
Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan has sparked a number of far-right nationalist street protests demonstrating against the import of South Korean entertainment products. The anti-Korean comic, Manga Kenkanryu ("Hating the Korean Wave") was published on 26 July 2005 and was widely sold in Japan. According to a Korea Times article posted in February 2014, "Experts and observers in Korea and Japan say while attendance at the rallies is still small and such extreme actions are far from entering the mainstream of Japanese politics, the hostile demonstrations have grown in size and frequency in recent months."

title: Korean Wave


text:
Talk:Cold War (1953–1962)/Archive 2

172, did you not notice, I moved the section on American foreign policy formation to its own article in Operation Solarium. It is good information, but too much detail for a general overview. - SimonP 02:52, Apr 11, 2004 (UTC)
 * I agree that the coverage of Operation Solarium is too long relative to the length of the rest of the content on 1953-1962, but I disagree with the removal, at least at this point, for a couple of reasons. One, the narrative history in this section is strongly tied into a general overview of the period, so the rest of the article is built on the grounds of having a lot of the content presented in that Operation Solarium section already presented. Second, and most importantly, the problem isn't that section per se, but the rest of the grossly unfinished article. We ought to come up a list of topics that need to be expanded/added on the talk page. BTW, I redirected this article to '53-'62 since there are many "heights" of the Cold War. 172 23:00, 11 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * "Problem A" I have fixed. I've rewritten the narrative throughout the article. As to Problem B if we give everything as much attention as you give to this and Iran we will have a thousand page text on the Cold War, not an encyclopedia article.  Brevity is essential in an encyclopedia and your versions of both these things go into more detail than most of the standard texts.  - SimonP 04:56, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)

Other issues:

 * If as you say other sections are too short, why do you keep cutting the McCarthyism section down to one sentence? - SimonP 00:17, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * My intentions were to deal with McCarthyism not as a subtopic in itself, but address it when it had an effect on U.S. diplomacy and foreign policy-making. But don't worry. My changes are not final in a very unfinished article, and my mind's very open to discussion. 172 00:37, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * The Cold War was about far more than diplomacy and international relations. It also had important domestic politcal, cultural, and economics impacts that should be addressed and McCarthyism is one of the most important of these. - SimonP 03:12, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)

 * Why do the pictures need such long, wordy, and opinionated captions? - SimonP 00:17, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * Hum, that's begging the question a bit. Pictures and captions can be good supplements. We can discuss them later, and perhaps talk about ideas for better photo and caption topics. 172 00:37, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Why shouldn't the article have links to the relevant period in American and Soviet history? - SimonP 00:17, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * I added those previous and subsequent page functions, figuring that that negated the function of the relevant links section on the first two articles in the series. But I'm not sure about what's standard when it comes to these matters, so you can go ahead and restore them. 172 00:37, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Why does Iran, which has far more to do with the politics of oil than the Cold War, deserve such a long section? - SimonP 00:17, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * I'd ask why do the others only warrant such small sections. I'm running really short on time now, so I'll get back to this question and the rest in greater detail soon. 172 00:37, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Why did you move the article by cutting and pasting it? - SimonP 00:17, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * I don't understand what you mean by this. 172 00:37, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * Well the history of the article has disspeared. - SimonP 03:12, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)

 * Why do you insist on having only a discussion of American policy formulation, and cut every discussion of Soviet thinking? - SimonP 00:17, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * That's begging the question a bit as well. I don't. If I removed anything, it might've been a mistake, or a question of placement. My comments in the talk page of the other article in the series apply to this one. We have a grossly unfinished work in progress here, so we ought not to consider a change made by either of us as as statement of what either of us view as a final product. 172 00:37, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)

BTW, the moving and countermoving has screwed up article history; the full history is still at Height of the Cold War (1953-1962). I'm half-inclined to try creating a new single article from scratch, with lots of free links so it can expand hypertextually instead of linearly. Stan 05:25, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * We should have a short history, and do somewhat, at the Cold War article but having more indepth multi page history for such a major topic is not a bad idea. - SimonP 17:51, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)

Questionable assertions that keep being reinserted
 * I removed the use of headings and subheadings from the talk page. More often than not, they create a confrontational mood that does not serve collaboration.

 * In the meantime, however, American attention was being diverted elsewhere in Asia, especially due to domestic influence on foreign policy. The continuing pressure from the "China lobby" or "Asia firsters," who had insisted on active efforts to restore Chiang Kai-shek

 * Not really Eisenhower paid far less attention to Asia than Truman did. - SimonP 15:52, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * The way you're framing point once again has the effect of begging the question. The article doesn't state that the Eisenhower administration was more concerned with Asia than Truman's, but rather notes the influence of the "China lobby" on U.S. foreign policy and the complications that this posed for the admin. This generalization is way too broad to have much meaning, and is best left avoided either way you want to argue it. When the "Asia firsters" are brought up in the article, it's in reference to, say, Taft wing of the GOP rather than Ike himself. This loose grouping warrants mentioning nonetheless. So instead of scrapping the existing coverage, if it's unclear it ought to be expanded and/or clarified. 172 17:08, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Where Harry Truman viewed the atomic bomb as an instrument of terror and a weapon of last resort, Dwight Eisenhower viewed it as an integral part of American defense, and, in effect, a weapon of first resort.

 * Only for about five minutes before they, like the Truman administration, realized nuclear blackmail was unworkable and thus didn't use it. - SimonP 15:52, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * I agree with your statement above. However, it's not a contradiction of the passage that you've cited above it. So, this is begging the question once again. The dimplomacy of regaining the initiative while reducing costs, in other words reserving the prospects of first usage, was what really mattered in hindsight. Your own section on MADD strongly supplemented this. 172 17:08, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * The American offensive in the Third World was very effective in the short-run.

 * No it wasn't. - SimonP 15:52, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * And sometimes it was, depending on the context. I'll make sure to see if this sentence is used in a proper context. Perhaps it got thrown in a new section by mistake in the recent edits. 172 17:08, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * President John F. Kennedy inherited a growing nuclear superiority from the Eisenhower era of "massive retaliation."

 * You say this twice, but around 1960 was when the two sides were closest to being equal and when the Americans believed there was a "missile gap". - SimonP 15:52, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * I'll take another look at the sentence. The sentence is probably vague more than anything else. Depending on how one's using some of these terms the answer will differ. 172 17:08, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * The speech stripped Khrushchev's remaining Stalinist rivals of their legitimacy in a single shot

 * not really Krushchev was already quite secure. - SimonP 15:52, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * Note that it says "remaining." Also note his consolidation of power had not reached its height even in the aftermath of the 20th Congress. Yes, he'd dealt with Beria as early as 6/53 and the Virgin Lands campaign marked a major defeat of Malenkov. However, he continued to expand his influence, although he still faced opposition. The attempt by the "Anti-Party Group" of Malenkov, Molotov, Kaganovich to oust Khrushchev, e.g., was still in the waiting. Instead, we ought to be concerned with getting around to covering the ensuing groundswell of reform-oriented movements among Soviet bloc nations, e.g., the workers uprising in Poland in June 1956, Wladislaw Gomulka, Imre Nagy, etc.  172 17:08, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 *  Ironically, the U.S. would begin heating up tensions as Khrushchev abandoned Stalin's foreign policies

 * Where was the US heating up tensions? How is it ironic in the face of Krushchev's somewhat more aggressive foreign policy? - SimonP 15:52, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * Please clarify the context of the time. 172 17:08, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * Exactly my point, the picture captions do not have room for extra infomration like time frames and clarifications and they should thus be kept as brief descriptions saying only what the picture is of without the editorializing. - SimonP 17:51, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * Above we were talking about the lack of content in what I reiterate is an unfinished work in progress concerning Khrushchev. This is something that we ought to get around to clearing up in the text. I'm running short of time now, but I'll look at this sentence later today. 172 18:06, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Intractable problems The main issue we are not making any progress towards reaching consensus on is the long discussion of Eisenhower policy formulation and the section on Iran. I think both are too much detail for an encyclopedia article and would be better in free standing articles on their own. - SimonP 15:52, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * You yourself noted the need for coverage of the politcal, cultural, and economics impact of the Cold War. If you don't see how the coverage of Iran is important when it comes to long running consequences on the region in question, peraphs you want to reconsider the premise of your earlier statement. 172 17:08, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * I am not saying Iran isn't important, but it is not very important to the studies of the Cold War. - SimonP 17:51, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * So, I guess that you're retracting the premise of your earlier statement. But I agreed with it at the time, and still do. I guess that this is still open for discussion. 172 18:06, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Iran The focus on Iran is a somewhat outdated revisionist one, that today is widely regarded as orientalist. It is not a central event in the Cold War and does not need more than a sentence, unless we plan on giving four pages to every American overseas intervention. - SimonP 15:52, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * So, Third World nations are irrelevant and anyone who thinks otherwise is an anachronistic "revisionist," right? Let's agree to disagree on that one. 172 17:08, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * No but the old view that it only takes a few plucky Americans to reshape an entire non-western society is. - SimonP 17:51, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * That isn't my view either. Nor is this view expressed in the article.172 18:06, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Operation Solarium

Currently duplicates what already exists at the Operation Solarium article. How is it very important foreign policy mostly remains the same between Truman and Eisenhower, and the two largest changes, the adoption of MAD and greater reliance on covert actions, are better addressed in their own sections. Both of these things developed far more from external factors than from west wing theorizing. - SimonP 15:52, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * Re: "Both of these things developed far more from external factors than from west wing theorizing." I don't disagree with this either. The coverage of Operation Solarium makes this clear too. I'll redirect the new entry on Operation Solarium to this article to fix the other problem you've mentioned. 172 17:08, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * I think that is the worst possible solution. These general articles should not go into such detail.  We would not want to dump the entire article on McCarthyism or the Bay of Pigs into this article and we should not dump all of the at best marginaly important Operation Solarium section into this page. - SimonP 17:51, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * This is not just a section on Operation Solarium. It weaves a number of the conflicting objectives and interests in the Eiserhower-era foreign policy together. The section in question's really one on the "New Look" and "Brinsksmanship," which is covered in all good general overviews. 172 18:06, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * Redirection was the wrong thing to do here. If I want to know what "Operation Solarium" was, it's borderline sadistic to make me wade through thousands of words to hoping to happen upon the one mention. BTW, I notice that LaFeber's 150,000-odd words doesn't mention this at all... Stan 20:55, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * Yes, that wasn't a section on "Operation Solarium," but one on "brinksmanship," "massive retaliation," the "new look," etc. in general. BTW, he does bring up Operation Solarium in the 9th edition. 172 22:42, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * That's the edition I have, and I see it now. But why didn't you just prune the new article to the salient material? Couldn't have taken more than five minutes. Stan 22:53, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * In the Cold War article or the Operation Solarium article? If you mean this article, there isn't much to prune, since it's the only overview of the Eisenhower-Dulles approach to containment in the article. 172 22:58, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * I meant the Solarium article. If I as a reader have five minutes to read about Eisenhower policymaking, I don't have time to hear about some stupid solarium, but if I have ten minutes, give me a link to click to read about more of the details. (Why does this seem to be a difficult concept to understand?) Stan 00:28, 13 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * Oh okay, that was my reasoning. That's why I didn't want that content moved to that article. I guess Operation Solarium is now one of countless articles on which we ought to start work. 172 16:58, 13 Apr 2004 (UTC)

More intractable issues between 172 and myself:

A:The photo captions. I see no reason to have long captions that still leave out all context and tend to seem like their editorializing. Instead of ''Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán (1951-1954) was the democratically-elected, reformist president of Guatemala. Overthrown in a CIA-led coup, he was replaced by a brutal dictatorship - one of the bloodiest in the region. which is clearly tryin to make a point, just say Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán President of Guatemala 1951-1954'', the article explains what actually happened in enough detail. - - SimonP 23:17, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)

B:Why do you insist on not linking the word "rollback", where the article is all about the terms use in a Cold War context? - SimonP 23:17, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * Gee, that's begging the question again. I don't. Perhaps no one hasn't gotten to it yet. That's why there's a reason to work on a work in progress. 172 23:33, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * But you have twice reverted my linking the term. - SimonP 00:07, Apr 13, 2004 (UTC)

This article is getting too long and we should start to think of how to divide it. Another chronological division would not work, perhaps we should spin off an article on the Cold War in the Third World. - SimonP 23:17, Apr 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * That's horribly impractical, and arbitrary from the standpoint of the history. Adding more pages, and perhaps an Origins of the American Civil War-style division, would work far better. 172 23:31, 12 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * That's the way this article is already divided, so why not. If your arguing it would be impractical and arbitrary, the Civil War type division is unequestionalby more of both. - SimonP 00:07, Apr 13, 2004 (UTC)
 * The article is too long because it's a book chapter, not an encyclopedia article. I started sketching a topdown organization that would give an overview of the whole Cold War in about 4,000 words, then link to a bunch of ancillary articles for details of specific episodes. Of course this would only work if we exercised discipline and agreed not to reflexively accrete onto the overview once it met its length target. And before anybody says anything about Wikipedia and paper, the purpose of the length limit is for to keep readers' eyes from glazing over (which I know they are, because obvious typos have gone unnoticed for months). Stan 00:28, 13 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * I would agree to try this scheme. - SimonP 00:48, Apr 13, 2004 (UTC)

I'm not ready to try this. This scheme is a New Imperialism-style series, right? If that's the case, I hope you both know what you may be getting into. Just to give you both the heads up, embarking on an article series has in the past opened up the floodgates to, say, the "Fox News crowd," the "red faction," and Lir's multiple incarnations. Although we're concerned with the relevant academic literature on the subject, we cannot assume that the users who will be controlling the process of creating the series will be.

Before the two of you start acting on Stan's idea, you both ought to take a look at recent talk about creating a NI-style series on Talk:Fascism (starting at the heading to which this link takes you down to the bottom of the article). My stress on structure first and content second in Talk:Fascism applies probably here. Also, about half a year ago, we did not start making process on the NI series until we started following Graculus' proposals to agree on structure before focusing the writing.

Before starting work on Stan's scheme, we should correspond by e-mail and discuss our ideas for the organization of the series (i.e. the organization and contents of the series box and the table of contents of each daughter article). As the user who has had perhaps the most experience creating article series, I want to warn you both that this is a really big deal. Even discussing about a comparatively very easy break-up like Origins of the American Civil War took far more time for me than writing the entire article in the first place. 172 16:24, 13 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * This is already an article series, just divided chronologically rather than logically. In a way, I'm just talking about moving the deck chairs around a bit so I can understand the big picture better, and hopefully other people too. :-) As a software architect, it comes pretty naturally to me to think about moving blocks of stuff around, so it doesn't really seem that daunting - the GNU code I handle in my day job is literally a thousand times larger and more complex than WP's Cold War content. I'm not keen on email for this, it'll just get lost in my overstuffed mbox (600/day, almost none of it spam) - what'll I'll do is create a temp page with an outline, we can hack and slash and discuss until it seems logical, then glue text in according to outline. I'm thinking about post-completion stability strategy too, there are some possibilities. One of the useful aspects of multiple smaller articles is that 10 edits of 10 one-page articles are easier to review than a big edit of a 10-page article - that's one of the problems that one sees in NI for instance, monster edits embodying dozens of individual changes, some better, some worse. Stan 20:34, 13 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * I know that this article article series (along with a quarter million other articles) is a grossly unfinished work in progress. Please propose what kind of organization you favor. Perhaps you'd want to draft a template, which was how I went about proposing a NI-style series on Fascism. Here's the link again in case you haven't taken a look yet. 172 20:46, 13 Apr 2004 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Cold War (1953–1962)/Archive 2


text:
Alliance High School (Kenya)

The Alliance High School (or AHS) popularly known among students as "Bush", is a public national high school for boys located in Kikuyu, Kenya.

Established on 1 March 1926 by the Alliance of Protestant Churches - The Church of Scotland Mission (later known as the Presbyterian Church of East Africa or PCEA), Church of the Province of Kenya (CPK) (later known as the Anglican Church of Kenya), African Inland Church (AIC), the Friends Church (Quakers) and the Methodist Church the school was later named The Alliance High School from the coming together of the churches to form a school to educate African natives beyond the education standard that was offered at the time, the school was one of the first schools in Kenya to offer secondary school education to Africans. The school is located approximately 22 km from Nairobi's central business district. The school is a 10-minute walk from the Alliance Girls' High School, its sister school.

Alliance High School ranked within the top ten best schools in each year's National Examinations. It was ranked first in the country from 1960 to 1985. In 1986 it lost its top ranking for the first time in 25 years, slipping to third. It was ranked first in the country in 2005 based on the results of the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE). In 2006, it was ranked third. In 2009 and 2010, the school emerged top in the KCSE results posting sterling performance. In 2011, the school dropped one place to second. In 2013 the school was on top again with a mean grade of A− beating other famous schools like Starehe Boys' Centre and School

The school motto is "Strong to Serve". The Old Boys Association has a website and a Yahoo group known as Bushfire.

Founding
In the early days of the colonial era in Kenya, the colonialists believed that Africans should not be allowed an education beyond the basic level as they would not benefit from any higher education. The rationale was that Africans were only useful as a source of cheap labour. Missionaries who had been arriving in the country from the beginning of the 20th century strongly opposed this idea. The missionaries had been trying to set up primary schools to provide basic education to Africans, but they faced challenges due to a lack of funding. Dr. John Arthur, who was in charge of the Kikuyu mission arranged for a conference with other Protestant missions to address these problems. The first meeting took place in 1913 in Kikuyu. Later in the year 1918, the Alliance of Protestant Missions was formed comprising the Church of Scotland Mission, the Church of the Province of Kenya, the African Inland Mission, the Friends Church (Quakers) and the Methodist Church.

Dr. Arthur pushed the British government to open education to Kenyans and all Africans in all colonies. He believed that Kenyans should be given access to primary, secondary and tertiary level education as a matter of right. His efforts bore fruit when the Devonshire White Paper was written in 1923. This meant that Africans were also entitled to quality education. Dr. Arthur realised the need to have new institutions set up. He worked tirelessly, without the government's backing to establish a high school for Africans in Kikuyu. The school was finally established on 1 March 1926 under the auspices of the Alliance of Protestant Missions. Thus, the Alliance High School was born.

Admission
Every year, over 430 students are chosen based on academic merit and quotas in accordance with the education policy. The performance in the K.C.P.E exams determines academic merit. Its quota system ensures that the school admits boys from every county in the country, with a preference for students from public schools, as required by current education policy.

Students are admitted on a need-blind basis. At any given time, there are needy students whose tuition and boarding fees are paid by parties other than their parents or guardians. This is thanks to the school's strong alumni network (the Old Boys Club) as well as the large number of friends the school has around the world.

Performance and ranking
The school is the highest performing high school in the country academically, always being ranked among the top 10 positions every year. The school holds the country record for most consecutive years holding the pole position in the national exams (1960-1985). In the K.C.S.E results announced in 2011, the school emerged top in the country. In that same year, the school had more than 100 students scoring a mean grade of A in the national exams. In 2009 and 2010, the school emerged top in the K.C.S.E results posting sterling performance. In 2011, the school was ranked second.

Every year, over 98% of the school's graduates get admission to Kenyan universities. Some Alliance High alumni have proceeded to join various universities around the world including Australia, China, Japan, Malaysia, South Africa, the United Kingdom,France and United States.

Faith

Having been founded by Christian missionaries, the school holds Christian values in high esteem. For instance, the school's badge is embodied with the cross, students say grace before partaking in any meal and there is a daily Chapel Service (except on Saturdays) which is compulsory for all Christian students.

However, being a national school that draws students from all over the country, Alliance High School has a small population of non-Christian students, mostly Muslims. These students have the liberty to practise their faith. When the Christian students attend the daily morning chapel service, Muslim students congregate separately to carry out a religious service of their own. Although there is no permanent mosque in the school, there is always a room set aside that serves as a mosque. Due to Islamic Sharia dietary requirements, Muslim students have separate tables in the dining hall.

The school has an anthem which is sung to mark the end of special occasions such as the Founders day, Speech Day or the closing parade of the term. The anthem can also be sung when there is an occasion to celebrate, such as when the K.C.S.E results are released. The anthem is a rendition of hymn 578 of the Lutheran Hymnal, Lord, While for All Mankind We Pray

Sports

The school is a participant in the national sports festival. The following games are offered at the school: athletics, badminton, basketball, baseball, football (soccer), handball, hockey, lawn tennis, rugby football, swimming and table tennis.

The school has three basketball courts, two football pitches, two hockey pitches, a swimming pool, a handball field, an athletics track and a gymnasium with table tennis table.

The school's routine includes a games period every weekday from 16:30 to 17:40. On Tuesdays the program is suspended for clubs' and societies' meetings. There are inter-house sports competitions spread across the three school terms.

During the second school term, a mini Olympics is held in the school. During this event, the thirteen houses compete against each other in track and field events. The winning house receives the Standards Trophy and gets to feast on a bull during the end of term school dinner.

There is also a compulsory cross-country jog on the first weekend of the school term. This event is popular yet unpopular among the students; many approach it with zeal while many A.H.S students approach the game's master with an excuse to avoid the jog.

Clubs and societies

There are over 20 clubs and societies including the Research Club, The World Scholars Cup, The Dramatic Society, the law and debate club, the MIT launch X, the social welfare society, the Scouts Movement, the International Information Exchange Program Club, the school choir, the Men-in-Brass(School Band), the Science and Robotics Club, the Integrity Club, the Writers’ Club, the Poetry Society, Kiswahili Club, the Model United Nations, the Seventh Day Adventists (SDA) Society, the Young Catholic Society (YCS), the Christian Union, Muslim Association among many others. These clubs usually meet on Tuesdays from 16:00 to 17:40, while the religious societies meet every evening. The Alliance High School Scouts is one of the first troops of African scouts in the continent.

Exchange program
The school has several exchange programs but the longest running ones are the Brooks Exchange Program and the Sir John Leeman Exchange Program. There is also the Governor's Exchange Program.

Every year, two form 3 students of outstanding character both inside and outside the classroom are chosen to participate in the Brooks Exchange Program. The two students usually serve as hosts to two other students from Brooks School. Unlike the Brooks Exchange Program, the Sir John Leeman Exchange Program takes place once every 2 years. In addition, there are the Barack Obama Leadership Program and others to various countries such as France, Germany and South Africa. Students also participate in contests such as the International Mathematical Olympiad.

School dormitories
The school has thirteen dormitories, four of which were built in 2017, and accommodate almost 1,800 students. The houses are, in order of age, and with the reason for the name:

Many activities within the school are based on the house system. This includes the arrangement at the parade ground where assemblies are conducted every morning and roll call parades are conducted. Inter house competitions include music and elocution, drama, math contest, Swahili contest, essay writing contest, battle of the blocks writing challenge, cleanliness competitions, and sports such as soccer, rugby, racquet games, swimming, etc.
 * Livingstone House: Scottish explorer Dr. David Livingstone
 * Aggrey House: Dr Aggrey of Achimota
 * Wilberforce House: Scottish abolitionist Sir William Wilberforce
 * Grieve House: first principal of the school George Arthur Grieve
 * Arthur House: Scottish medical missionary John Arthur
 * Francis House: school's second principal Edward Carey Francis
 * Smith House: longest serving member of the teaching staff James Stephen Smith
 * Sellwood House: Major Sellwood.
 * Campbell House: school's third principal, L. J. Campbell
 * Sanders House: the school's fourth principal, A. C. E. Sanders
 * Githaiga House: the school's fifth principal, J. Githaiga
 * Wangai House: the school's sixth principal, E. Wangai
 * Maneno House: the school's seventh principal, S. S. Maneno

At the end of every term, during the school dinner, awarding sessions are held where the winning house in every category receives a carton of biscuits. The first and second runners up receive half and quarter a carton respectively. The winning house in standards and athletics, K.C.S.E. and cross country is awarded a bull which is slaughtered and offered for a party.

The houses have a committee of form 3 students who run the house's day-to-day activities. The committee is usually chosen by the house prefects and the housemaster. It is composed of the chairman, vice chairman, secretary, organizing secretary, activities coordinator and resource manager and two members of the house's choice. However, houses may have additional positions which vary depending on their need. In most cases, these committee members end up as house prefects. However, this trend is changing to incorporate students with impeccable leadership qualities who did not make it to the house committees into the prefecture body.

Students in these houses are housed in hostels. The hostels are structured into cubicles where four students share one cubicle. The hostels have washroom facilities with hot showers, laundry areas, ironing bays, a common room and open lawns. Due to the current high population old houses have been renovated to house the rapidly growing population.

Prefects
Prefects at the school are usually Form 4 students who have shown outstanding leadership abilities at the house level. Most of them are chosen from the house committees. During the second term of the academic year, they are appointed to be prefects by the principal after being nominated and vetted by the housemasters and current house prefects. They are then put through a rigorous training session by their fourth form counterparts in preparation for running the school the following year.

The prefects are key to the running of the school. It is they who see that the school routine and school rules are adhered to. They have the authority to punish culprits via the prefect's punishment department. Punishments include washing corridors and rooms, slashing fields and in some extreme cases, working in the school farm or uprooting tree stumps.

A total of about 90 prefects are chosen each year and among the 90, 28 of the most outstanding prefects are given the top honour of becoming Senior Prefects or Captains. These Captains are allocated to various major departments in the school. The school's departments include: Dining Hall, Entertainment, Games, Compound, Library, Chapel, IT and Links, Medical, Sponsorship, and Academic.

Each department has its department members which vary with the demands of the department. Each house similarly produces a House Captain to be assisted by his Dorm Prefects.

The top five captains were formerly referred to as the pentagon after the change by the current principal Kamau David Chomba; they are now referred to as the Trigon. They are the School Captain, the Deputy School Captain, the Dining Hall Captain, the Entertainment Captain, and the Games Captain. The prefects' body is given a name each year, e.g. Martinets (2014), Autocrats (2015), Acculturates (2016), Despotians (2017), Relictans (2018), Nomandians(2019), Luminaries(2020/21),Stalwarts (2021/22) and is governed by the School Captain (The Governor General) and the Deputy School Captain (The President).

Alliance Girls High School
The Alliance High School maintains strong ties with its sister school, Alliance Girls High School, ever since the latter was founded as the African Girls High School in 1948. Each of the thirteen houses at the Alliance High School has sister houses at Alliance Girls High School. The houses usually participate in an event called Socials that takes place at the end of the first and second terms. There is also a joint Christmas Carol service held in the school chapel towards the end of the third term. On Sunday mornings, Muslim students from the girls’ school usually congregate with their male counterparts at the Alliance High School's Carey Francis Memorial Lecture Theater. Mail correspondence between the two schools takes place on a daily basis and is free of charge.

Culture

The Alliance High School community is rich in culture. The form ones take the unpopular tie test before they can be issued with the school's blue tie. This test serves to educate the freshmen on the school's history and current affairs at the school. Upon arrival, every form 1 student is assigned a ‘guardian’ who is a form 2 student that helps the new student find his way around the school in the first few weeks.

The art of 'lifting' is a common practice ,especially among form two and three students. Lifting is the process of one showing their leadership qualities in various ways so as to be considered for various leadership positions ,especially as prefects.

Over the years, the school has opened and closed its term calendar on Thursdays. The first Saturday is often marked with a cross-country race. Closing days are characterized by a school dinner on the closing eve, where students are treated to a sumptuous meal and an award ceremony held. The school is then closed early the next morning through a final assembly where the students sing the dismissal hymn, "Lord dismiss us with thy blessing ."

Thursday is a special day at the Alliance High School. On Thursdays, students conduct hymn practice in the chapel, students speak Swahili, fish is served during dinner, among other activities.

The most popular form of entertainment in the school is the Saturday movies. Every Saturday the entertainment committee which consists of form 2s and 3s and the entertainment department which has about 5 prefects organizes and prepares the Saturday movies. School movies held in the school hall were previously charged sh 20 but are now free to all and sundry. However, the most popular movies are the joint movies that are usually held termly with the Alliance Girls’ School. These used to be held at night but have since been changed to afternoons.

High school life is fun and exciting. Various platforms like the drama and music competitions provide students with a chance to showcase their talents. The Dramatic Society organizes the biggest Comic Show of the entire year called "Span One" where students simulate the Monday morning School Assembly and try to imitate their teachers. The School Choir also organizes the Music Night which features presentations not only from the choir but also dances from all the communities in the country.

Official uniform
Official uniform includes a green sweater, white shirts, khaki shorts, grey stockings with two blue stripes on either side of a red stripe; black or brown shoes; jungle green pullovers and a blue tie. Grey trousers are worn on Weekends, Wednesdays and school events such as Founders Day Celebrations. For commoners this is the normal attire while senior commoners and captains wear special ties and trousers with the school captain having a distinct golden green sweater and his assistant a dark green sweater. Junior prefects wear ties with red stripes rather than the conventional blue ones while their senior counterparts' ties are black with red stripes. Senior commoners wear navy blue ties.

Notable alumni
Source:

 * John Gachora - Managing Director of NIC Bank and former vice president, Bank of America
 * James Gichuru - founding member of the Kenya African National Union (KANU) party
 * Johnson Gicheru - former Chief Justice of Kenya
 * John Keen - activist for multiparty democracy in Kenya
 * Margaret Kenyatta - first woman mayor of Nairobi and first girl to enrol at Alliance High School
 * Maina Kiai - former Chairman of the Kenya National Human Rights Commission
 * Mugo Kibati - CEO, Telkom Kenya
 * Mbiyu Koinange - first Kenyan African to hold a degree, and Minister for Foreign Affairs
 * Danson Mungatana- politician and a lawyer
 * Bernard Mate - one of the first group of Africans to be elected to the Kenya Legislative Council
 * Eliud Mathu - first African member of the Legislative Council
 * Kenneth Matiba - first African Permanent Secretary in Kenya and prominent opposition figure in the 1980s and 1990s
 * John Mbiti - Kenyan Christian philosopher and writer, considered to be the "father of modern African theology"
 * Njoroge Mungai - member of the first Kenyan cabinet; recipient of the Commander of the National Order of Merit of France
 * Kiraitu Murungi - former Minister for Energy and prominent politician
 * Makau W. Mutua - SUNY distinguished Professor of Law
 * David Mwiraria - former Finance Minister
 * James Mworia - Managing Director of Centum Investment Company
 * Duncan Ndegwa - first African and longest-serving governor of the Central Bank of Kenya
 * Ronald Ngala - first and only president of the first opposition party in Kenya the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU)
 * Philip Ndegwa - former Central Bank Governor and entrepreneur
 * Paul Ngei - Kenyan freedom fighter, a member of the Kapenguria 6 and former cabinet minister
 * Charles Njonjo - first Attorney General of Kenya
 * Jeremiah J.M. Nyagah - Kenyan freedom fighter who later served in several key cabinet positions
 * Peter Anyang' Nyong'o - Kenyan politician and prominent multi-party activist in 1980s and 1990s Kenya
 * James Ole Kiyiapi - presidential election candidate, Kenyan presidential elections 2013
 * James Orengo - prominent politician, activist and lawyer
 * Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o - author, novelist and playwright. Prominent figure in African literature
 * Amos Wako - second Attorney General of Kenya
 * David Wasawo - first East African to receive a degree in science; zoologist and educationist

title: Alliance High School (Kenya)