text:
Talk:Morris Oxford

Wot no pics? Where is Arpingstone when you need him??? :)
 * Bless you for your most appreciated commendation. Sadly, although I have around 700 car pics that I've taken at car shows various, I've not got a Morris Oxford. Best Wishes from Adrian - Adrian Pingstone 20:47, 22 July 2005 (UTC)

Why no mention of the 1915-1917 Continental engined cars??? Serious omission. B
 * I could be wrong but weren't all the Continental engined cars actually Cowleys and not Oxfords? Malcolma 20:52, 27 October 2006 (UTC)

Morris models missing
Has anyone else noticed that there is a break in the flow of Morrises in 1935. They restart in 1948. The cars concerned are covered nowhere in Wikipedia except (some of them) by red links. Their names might be 12, 14, 16, 18, 21, 25 split into series I, II, and III I suspect. There are matching Wolseleys, in fact I think this might be exactly when Wolseleys ceased to be quite distinct and became badge engineered Morrises. Get an idea of what's involved from these links (the lists are certainly incomplete) Morrises and Wolseleys, Eddaido (talk) 11:27, 29 April 2013 (UTC)
 * There would seem to be plenty of scope for additional pages on Austin models from that era, although grouping the models logically would be a challenge. The Michael Sedgwick / Mark Gillies "A-Z of cars of the 1930s" would be a good place to start. GTHO (talk) 10:56, 30 April 2013 (UTC)
 * I thought there was little co-operation between Austin and Morris at this period. Eddaido (talk) 11:12, 30 April 2013 (UTC)
 * Sorry, I did mean to type "Morris", not "Austin". Silly mistake. GTHO (talk) 09:21, 1 May 2013 (UTC)

Split
Would it be better if this article was split up into:
 * Morris Oxford bullnose and flatnose
 * Morris Oxford 6 cylinders
 * Morris Oxford 1948-1971 (or series I to VI) (or post WWII)

or: Your thoughts please. Eddaido (talk) 23:39, 6 January 2015 (UTC)
 * Morris Oxford before 1945
 * Morris Oxford after 1945

or: Eddaido (talk) 20:55, 31 January 2015 (UTC)
 * Morris Oxford bullnose and flatnose
 * Morris Oxford six
 * Morris Oxford postwar
 * Morris Oxford Farina

better: Eddaido (talk) 04:59, 8 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Morris Oxford bullnose and flatnose
 * Morris Oxford six
 * Morris Oxford MO
 * Morris Oxford series 2
 * Morris Oxford series 3
 * Morris Oxford Farina

title: Talk:Morris Oxford


text:
DiMenna–Nyselius Library

DiMenna–Nyselius Library is located on the campus of Fairfield University in Fairfield, Connecticut, USA.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: DiMenna–Nyselius Library


text:
Terry Kavanagh

Terrence "Terry" Kavanagh is an American comic book editor and writer.

Career
Kavanagh was a Marvel Comics editor from 1985 to 1997. Titles he edited during that time included Marvel Comics Presents and Nick Fury, Agent of S.H.I.E.L.D. Writer/artist Alan Davis, who Kavanagh edited on Excalibur, said "Terry Kavanagh spoiled me, gave me near total freedom, and encouraged me to experiment."

In 1987, he began to write for Marvel with his first published story "Cry Vengeance!" appearing in Kickers, Inc. #4 (Feb. 1987). He later wrote such titles as Marc Spector: Moon Knight, Avengers: Timeslide, X-Man and X-Universe. In Web of Spider-Man #100 (May 1993), Kavanagh and artist Alex Saviuk gave the lead character "Spider-Armor". He wrote the Spider-Man/Punisher/Sabretooth: Designer Genes one-shot the following month. Kavanagh was one of the writers on the "Maximum Carnage" storyline which ran through the various Spider-Man titles in 1993. The first Black Cat limited series was co-written by Kavanagh and Joey Cavalieri in 1994. Kavanagh pitched a storyline involving the return of Spider-Man's clone, which then formed the basis of the "Clone Saga" which began in Web of Spider-Man #117 (Oct. 1994). Kavanagh's last new comics project was the Before the Fantastic Four: The Storms limited series in 2000–2001.

In 2011, Kavanagh co-founded the Internet startup company www.mybeanjar.com.

Marvel Comics

 * 2099 A.D. #1 (1995)
 * 2099 Unlimited #7–8 (1994–1995)
 * All New Exiles #∞, #1–3, 5 (1995–1996)
 * All New Exiles Vs. X-Men #0 (1995)
 * The Amazing Spider-Man #375 (1993)
 * The Amazing Spider-Man Super Special #1 (1995)
 * Avengers #396–399 (1996)
 * Avengers West Coast #64 (1990)
 * Before the Fantastic Four: The Storms #1–3 (2000–2001)
 * Blade: The Vampire-Hunter #9–10 (1995)
 * Cloak and Dagger #16–19 (1991)
 * Felicia Hardy: The Black Cat #1–4 (1994)
 * Fury/Agent 13 #1–2 (1998)
 * Hulk #½ (1999)
 * Iron Man #319–332 (1995–1996)
 * Iron Man: Age of Innocence #1 (1996)
 * Kickers, Inc. #4, 6–8, 12 (1987)
 * Marc Spector: Moon Knight #35–60 (1992–1994)
 * Marvel Comics Presents #5 (Daredevil) (1988)
 * Marvel Super-Heroes vol. 2 #2 (Daredevil) (1990)
 * Nightwatch #1–12 (1994–1995)
 * Rise of Apocalypse #1–4 (1996–1997)
 * The Spectacular Spider-Man #174 (1991)
 * The Spectacular Spider-Man Super Special #1 (1995)
 * Spider-Man #19–20, 25, 36, 41–43 (1992–1994)
 * Spider-Man Super Special #1 (1995)
 * Spider-Man Unlimited #1 (1993)
 * Spider-Man/Punisher/Sabretooth: Designer Genes #1 (1993)
 * Ultraforce/Avengers Prelude #1 (1995)
 * Uncanny X-Men #369–373, 375–380 (1999–2000)
 * Uncanny X-Men '95 #1 (1995)
 * Venom Super Special #1 (1995)
 * Web of Spider-Man #77–80, 97–120, 123–125, Annual #9–10 (1991–1995)
 * Web of Spider-Man Super Special #1 (1995)
 * What If...? #86 (1996)
 * X-Man #15–30, −1, 32–47, 49–62 (1996–2000)
 * X-Man '96 #1 (1997)
 * X-Man/Hulk '98 #1 (1998)
 * X-Men #89–94, 97–99 (1999–2000)
 * X-Men '99 Annual #1 (1999)
 * X-Men Spotlight on Starjammers #1–2 (1990)
 * X-Men Unlimited #11, 14, 17 (1996–1997)
 * X-Universe #1–2 (1995)

title: Terry Kavanagh


text:
Talk:Armando Dippet

I've started off this article but as you can see it is very basic and needs a lot of work. - Jamandell (d69)

This article should be merged with Minor Hogwarts teachers, Historical characters or Minor Harry Potter characters. Dippet is of little importance in the series, and his article is shorter than other merged characters like Dean Thomas, Andromeda Tonks or Pansy Parkinson. Lord Opeth 21:21, 27 July 2007 (UTC)
 * I agree? This is an incredibly minor character, and not worth their own article. 203.221.19.217 11:55, 28 July 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Armando Dippet


text:
Yew (disambiguation)

Yew is a common name for various coniferous trees, mostly in the genus Taxus.

Yew may also refer to:

People

 * John Fong Yew (born 1932), Trinidad and Tobago sports shooter
 * Tan Kok Yew, Malaysian politician
 * Lee Kuan Yew (1923–2015), founding father of Singapore and first prime minister
 * Lee Kim Yew (born 1955), Malaysian entrepreneur, businessman and philanthropist
 * Lim Chan Yew (born 1978), Malaysian footballer
 * Lim Kok Yew
 * Sebastian Ting Chiew Yew, Malaysian lawyer and politician
 * Si Yew Ming (born 1979), Malaysian tennis player
 * Yew Tian Hoe, Malaysian politician
 * Chay Weng Yew (1928–2004), Singaporean weightlifter
 * Wong Yew Tong (born 1971), Singaporean athlete
 * Phey Yew Kok (born 1934), former Singaporean politician

England

 * Yew Tree (Liverpool ward), Liverpool
 * Yew Tree Tarn, a Lakeland lake in Cumbria
 * Yew Tree, West Bromwich, West Midlands
 * Kenn Church, Kenn Pier & Yew Tree Farm SSSI, a geologic site in Somerset

Singapore

 * Yew Tee, Choa Chu Kang New Town
 * Yew Tee MRT station, Choa Chu Kang
 * Yew Lian Park, Bishan

United States

 * Yew Mountains, West Virginia

Fictional

 * Yew alley, a fictional walkway in Dartmoor in The Hound of the Baskervilles
 * Yew Dales, the mythical home of Norse winter god Ull

Others

 * Yokogawa Electric Works (YEW)
 * Operation Yewtree, British Police investigation
 * You (disambiguation)
 * Yew Tree (disambiguation)
 * Ewe (disambiguation)

title: Yew (disambiguation)


text:
Samuel Jones-Loyd, 1st Baron Overstone

Samuel Jones-Loyd, 1st Baron Overstone (25 September 1796 – 17 November 1883) was a British banker and politician.

Background and education
Loyd was the only son of the Rev. Lewis Loyd and Sarah, daughter of John Jones, a Manchester banker. He was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge.

Banking
Loyd's father had given up the ministry to take a partnership in his father-in-law's bank and became the founder of the London branch of Jones, Loyd & Co. Loyd joined his father's bank, and took control of the bank after his father retired in 1844. On his father's death in 1858 Loyd inherited an estate worth £ 2 million. In 1864 the bank became incorporated with the London and Westminster Bank.

Political career
Loyd sat in parliament as Whig member for Hythe from 1819 to 1826, and unsuccessfully contested Manchester in 1832. As early as 1832 he was recognized as one of the foremost authorities on banking, and he enjoyed much influence with successive ministries and chancellors of the exchequer. Loyd is considered one of the great figures in British monetary history, particularly with respect to the Bank Charter Act of 1844. He was also opposed to limited liability and the introduction of a decimal currency. In 1850 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Overstone, of Overstone and of Fotheringhay, both in the County of Northampton. Lord Overstone was a member of The Club (Literary Club) and the Political Economy Club and served as High Sheriff of Warwickshire in 1838 and as President of the Royal Statistical Society from 1851 to 1853. In 1847 and 1848, he served on the committee of the British Relief Association, which raised almost half a million pounds on behalf of the famine victims in Ireland. (see, Christine Kinealy, Charity and the Great Hunger. The Kindness of Strangers'. Bloomsbury, 2013)

Family
Lord Overstone married Harriet, daughter of Ichabod Wright, in 1829. They had one son, who died as an infant, and a daughter. His seat was Overstone House, Overstone, Northamptonshire built in 1862–4 to a design by William Milford Teulon, brother of the more eminent - and notorious 'Rogue' - Victorian architect Samuel Sanders Teulon. Lady Overstone died on 6 November 1864. Overstone remained a widower until his death on 17 November 1883, aged 87. The barony died with him as he had no surviving male issue. His will was proven on 31 December at £2,118,803 17s. 5d. (roughly equivalent to £0 in ).

The majority of Overstone's fortune was passed on to his daughter, Harriet. She was the wife of Robert Lindsay, who assumed the additional surname of Loyd and was created Baron Wantage in 1885. Overstone's relative Lewis Vivian Loyd, the son of his second cousin William Jones Loyd, inherited part of the estate, including the manor of Withybrook, Wolvey, Warwickshire.

title: Samuel Jones-Loyd, 1st Baron Overstone


text:
Flagami

Flagami is a neighborhood of Miami, Florida, United States, roughly defined as south and east of the Tamiami Canal, north of the Tamiami Trail (US 41/South Eighth Street), and west of Red Road (SR 959/West 57th Avenue), bisected by Flagler Street.

The name is a portmanteau of the names "Flagler" and "Tamiami." On a map of Miami proper, Flagami is the distinct "tail" that juts out of the west border of the city. 50,834 residents, mostly middle class Hispanics and some white Americans, populate the Flagami area. The residential market is a wide mix of moderately priced apartments, duplexes and single-family homes. The neighborhood is alive with many small shopping centers attracting residents, creating an atmosphere of bustling retail activity by day, while a variety of supper clubs and popular lounges attract people from all over Miami at night. It is characterized by small yet neatly kept and brightly painted single-family homes.

Geography
It is located at 25.762°N, -80.316°W, with an average elevation of 3 ft.

Alameda
Alameda is a subdivision of Flagami, located in the Flagami's western end along the Tamiami Canal. Its boundaries are roughly: north of SW 8th Street and Coral Gables, and south of NW 7th Street, roughly between 22nd and 57th Avenues. It is also sometimes referred to as West Flagler. Alameda is located at 25.763°N, -80.298°W, with an elevation 10 ft.

Fairlawn
Fairlawn is a sub-neighborhood, within Miami's Flagami neighborhood. Its unofficial boundaries are from NW 7th Street south to SW 24th Street and from Florida Blvd west to SW 57th Avenue. It includes a large portion of the western Flagami.

Education
The academic level of the Flagami area residents is as follows: 9,735 below the ninth grade level; 6,163 are non-high school graduates; 6,965 are high school graduates, and 4,802 have obtained some college education. Out of the number of citizens that have continued their studies, 1,981 have received associate degrees; 2,291 Bachelor's degrees, and 1,571 have Graduate Degrees.

Fairlawn Elementary School is located in the neighborhood.

Demographics
As of 2000, Flagami had a population of 38,691 and 59,474 residents, with 13,896 households, and 10,141 families residing in the neighborhood. The median household income was $26,641.30. The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 90.08% Hispanic or Latino of any race, 1.85% Black or African American, 7.68% White (non-Hispanic), and 0.36% Other races (non-Hispanic).

The zip codes for the Flagami include 33125, 33126, and 33144. The area covers 6.378 sqmi. As of 2000, there were 28,287 males and 31,188 females. The median age for males were 38.6 years old, while the median age for females were 44.2 years old. The average household size had 2.9 people, while the average family size had 3.2 members. The percentage of married-couple families (among all households) was 49.3%, while the percentage of married-couple families with children (among all households) was 18.6%, and the percentage of single-mother households (among all households) was 8.6%. The percentage of never-married males 15 years old and over was 13.3%, while the percentage of never-married females 15 years old and over was 10.0%.

As of 2000, the percentage of people that speak English not well or not at all made up 44.4% of the population. The percentage of residents born in Florida was 17.3%, the percentage of people born in another U.S. state was 4.7%, and the percentage of native residents but born outside the U.S. was 1.6%, while the percentage of foreign-born residents was 76.4%.

title: Flagami


text:
Gush Etzion Convoy

From November 1947 the roads to the four kibbutzim of Gush Etzion ("The Etzion Bloc"), south of Jerusalem were blockaded by militias from neighbouring villages. The Haganah used a strategy of armed convoys to get supplies to the outposts. The initial convoys to the bloc used open pickup trucks ("tenders"), since the British claimed that armored vehicles would irritate the Arabs. The convoys were accompanied by official Mandate police "monitors" (notrim) in uniform.

11 December 1947
The Convoy of Ten was the first failed attempt using this method. Its four vehicles were ambushed on the main road north of King Solomon's pools on December 11, 1947. Ten of the convoy personnel were killed, four injured and only four escaped unhurt. On December 14 an additional person was killed in another attack on a convoy. The Haganah then decided that henceforth it would use armored "sandwich" vehicles in the convoys.

16 January 1948
As an alternative to the Jerusalem road the Palmach attempted to reach the settlements from the west. Thirty-five members of the platoon were killed when they were attacked by militiamen from Surif.

27 March 1948
The Nabi Daniel Convoy was a large group ambushed on their way back to Jerusalem on 27 March 1948. 15 were killed and 40 were injured. The Scotsman newspaper's correspondent Eric Downton described the incident:

"The first battle ended this evening when British troops rescued the survivors of the Jewish convoy which was trapped near Solomon's Pools, a mile or so from Bethlehem. Greatly outnumbered, the Jews had fought off constant attacks. They received supplies and assistance from the Jewish planes, which went into action for the first time, attacking and bombing the Arabs and dropping food, water and ammunition to the defenders. Throughout Saturday night Haganah relief forces from Jerusalem tried to break past the Arabs, but the steep, boulder-strewn hills gave cover to the attacking guerrillas, and the relief forces were forced back. A British task force was also compelled to return to Jerusalem on Saturday night after encountering roads heavily mined and obstructed by many blocks. The battle near Bethlehem began on Saturday morning after a convoy of forty trucks with a heavy guard of Haganah troops - men and women - had made a surprise dash from Jerusalem to the isolated Jewish colony Kfar and Zion [sic, Kfar Etzion] in the hills eight miles north of Hebron. They delivered their cargo of goods and munitions, but ran into a trap on the return journey. The Arabs had blocked the road with piles of rocks at short intervals, and also laid extensive minefields, while hundreds of guerrillas lay in wait on the steep hillsides. Half the convoy returned to Kfar and Zion [sic, Kfar Etzion], while the remainder tried to plough forward under heavy fire. The Jews made a stand in a large stone house in the valley near Solomon's Pools, ranging some of their trucks around the building to form a defence perimeter. Armoured cars of the Light Guards with two-pounder guns and troops of the Suffolk Regiment broke through Arab road blocks to the scene of the fighting. Some 200 British troops took up position a mile and a half from the besieged Jews, but did not intervene. The Arabs warned the British if they tried to help the Jews they would be attacked. Meanwhile, British HQ in Jerusalem arranged a truce with Arab leaders. By this means 100 Haganah men and 10 women were rescued from the stone house. The Jews armed with rifles and sten guns, appeared cautiously at the doorway when the British reached the house. The Arab fire stopped, but hundreds of riflemen came from the surrounding hills. They were kept off by the British and the Jews came out and were protected by the British troops. The Jews had been in radio contact with the Jewish Agency in Jerusalem. They were told that the terms of the truce were that arms must be surrendered. At first they refused to give up their arms, but eventually handed them over to the British. The Jews in the besieged house had suffered 50 per cent casualties. Forty-five wounded lay crowded on the floors. There were also the bodies of four dead. The Haganah leader in the house said : 'We had about ten women among us in the house, but none of them were hurt. Although bullets were whizzing all night long and causing mounting casualties. We had no food, as only seven or eight of our lorries managed to reach the house, and we formed them into a protective barrier. We started out with 35 lorries and 14 armoured cars, and now we are left with seven or eight lorries and about six armoured cars. The rest were wrecked by the Arabs.' When the rescued Jews were loaded on to army lorries and ambulances there were found to be 210, according to a senior police officer with the army convoy."

title: Gush Etzion Convoy


text:
Giovanni Domenico Perotti

Giovanni Domenico Perotti (January 20, 1761 – March 24, 1825) was an Italian composer.

title: Giovanni Domenico Perotti


text:
Talk:Terry Kavanagh

Untitled
Apparently there was once another entry here for an entirely different Terry Kavanagh. See Votes for deletion/Terry Kavanagh, or just hit the "what links here" button on the main page for more info. Hueysheridan 16:45, 22 July 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Terry Kavanagh


text:
User:Guettarda/NavTools

 * Category:Trinidad and Tobago

title: User:Guettarda/NavTools


text: User talk:84.67.194.15

title: User talk:84.67.194.15


text:
User:Josce~enwiki

I am French, grew up in Provence, have lived in Grenoble for 6 years, in Dublin for 1 year, and currently in Cambridge since 2004.

I am also a Wikipedian in French. --Josce 14:59, 17 August 2006 (UTC)

title: User:Josce~enwiki


text:
User:Dave Porter

Dave Porter (born February 17, 1987), is a Wikipedian. His legal name is David E. Porter. He is a graduate of Christopher Newport University, where he was a member of the Tau Delta Phi fraternity, as well as Alpha Phi Omega, Phi Alpha Theta, Phi Sigma Iota, Pinnacle Honor Society, National Residence Hall Honorary, the Order of Omega, and Gamma Sigma Alpha. He also earned a Master of Arts in Liberal Studies from the University of Richmond. He is the first two-time all-star in the history of Battle of the Brains. His favorite articles to write or edit are those themed around television and baseball. In high school, he was a member of the National Honor Society, National Beta Club, and German National Honor Society.

His favorite sports teams are the Chicago Cubs, Chicago Bears, Chicago Bulls, New York Islanders, and Norwich City F.C..

title: User:Dave Porter


text:
B5289 road

The B5289 is a road in the Lake District, England. It lies in the county of Cumbria, and is an important traffic artery in the Lake District.

Route
The road starts in Keswick and passes alongside Derwent Water. At the southern end of the lake it enters Borrowdale, passing the settlements of Grange, Rosthwaite and Seatoller. This stretch of road is notable for its views of the surrounding fells, including Catbells and Glaramara.

At Seatoller, the road starts its climb up to Honister Pass. This part of the route has many zig-zags, with gradients of 1 in 4 (25%) as it struggles up the 200 metres (600 feet) to the top. The top of the pass is an upland wilderness, with barren slopes and many erratic boulders, that is often covered in snow in the winter.

Coming down the other side the road passes the settlement of Gatesgarth and runs alongside the lake of Buttermere before reaching the village of Buttermere. It then runs alongside Crummock Water and through the valley of the River Cocker, passing the fells of Robinson and Grasmoor. It ends at the B5292 in High Lorton.

The road is also very popular with cyclists due to its scenic backdrop with many hills and mountains. Along the road, sheep are also a common sight. During the summer, the road is usually very busy with tourists.

title: B5289 road


text:
Talk:Basement Tape

Untitled
This needs accurate dates, a full list of all 105 tracks, and a sharper category. —Theo (Talk) 16:46, 22 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Or it could just be merged into The Basement Tapes Alcuin 18:30, 20 July 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Basement Tape


text:
User talk:Rallette

Welcome to the Wikipedia!
Welcome to the Wikipedia, Rallette! And thanks for your contribution to the Ombudsman article...

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And some odds and ends:

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You can sign your name on any page by typing 4 tildes: ~~~~.

Best of luck, Rallette, and have fun! Ombudsman 16:47, 22 July 2005 (UTC)

Ei hemmetti! Thanks for your heavy revision of the Unknown Soldier article. It much needed the improvements and your work was exemplary. --Kizor 01:14, 16 March 2006 (UTC)

Chermosese
Hi, Rallette, I just wanted to thank you for your quick and informative answer regarding Chermosese. Happy editing! —Lowellian (reply) 19:19, 15 July 2006 (UTC)

They had a son together?
Looking over someone's strange edit, I keeled over laughing, then fixed the unfortunate result of an edit you made awhile ago to Sulfonamide (medicine). I think you meant to make the text less awkward, but oops. You might want to take another go at it - I only put back the original awkwardness. ;-) Shenme 08:03, 24 February 2007 (UTC)

Distributism and the Third Position Template
You will be happy to know that I removed the mention of Distributism (and Corporatism) from Template:Third Position page. --Loremaster (talk) 05:45, 24 December 2010 (UTC)

Cars
I reverted your edit to the redirect, but I have opened a discussion at Talk:Cars (disambiguation) to see if there is a consensus to move Cars (disambiguation) to Cars. Cheers! bd2412 T 19:51, 29 May 2014 (UTC)
 * Oh, sorry about the hassle and thanks for your trouble! I've tried to explain my reasoning over there.--Rallette (talk) 07:29, 2 June 2014 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Rallette


text:
Peter Kostis

Peter Kostis (born December 23, 1947, in Sanford, Maine) is an American golf analyst and instructor.

Among his many students are Paul Casey, Chez Reavie, Bernhard Langer, Steve Elkington, Dan Marino, Maury Povich, and Mike Schmidt. He has the Peter Kostis Learning Academy at Grayhawk Golf Club in Scottsdale, Arizona. Kostis also was the instructor who coached Kevin Costner in the film Tin Cup, also appearing as himself in a speaking role.

In 1992, Kostis joined CBS Sports as an on-course reporter and golf analyst. In addition to his CBS duties, he was the lead golf analyst for the USA Network from 1989 to 2004. Kostis, alongside Gary McCord, was not brought back for the 2020 golf broadcast team for CBS.

Kostis attended The University of New Hampshire on a football scholarship.

title: Peter Kostis


text:
User:Guettarda/to do

 * Earwig's Copyvio Detector
 * User:Zhaofeng Li/reFill

Template messages/Redirect pages

Redirects checked for
 * List of botanists by author abbreviation
 * Aaron Aaronsohn
 * Erik Acharius
 * Johann Friedrich Adam
 * Michel Adanson
 * Adam Afzelius
 * Carl Adolph Agardh
 * Jacob Georg Agardh
 * Herbert Kenneth Airy Shaw
 * William Townsend Aiton } problems!
 * William Aiton         }
 * Frédéric-Louis Allamand
 * Carlo Allioni
 * Prospero Alpino
 * Oakes Ames
 * Edgar Shannon Anderson
 * Henry Charles Andrews
 * George Arnott Walker Arnott
 * David Arora
 * Joseph Charles Arthur
 * Paul Friedrich August Ascherson
 * Jean Baptiste Christophore Fusée Aublet
 * Daniel I. Axelrod

 * Domesticated plants of Mesoamerica
 * Denialism: Hoofnagle, Chris Jay, "The Denialists' Deck of Cards: An Illustrated Taxonomy of Rhetoric Used to Frustrate Consumer Protection Efforts" (February 9, 2007). Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=962462

 * Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Tree_of_Life

Special:Confirmemail
 * ca
 * de???
 * es

 * Toona
 * Cedrela
 * Meliaceae

 * Coolie

 * Pearl Primus
 * Michael Manley
 * Deforestation
 * Howard Odum
 * Habitat fragmentation
 * Reforestation
 * SLOSS Debate
 * Theoretical ecology
 * Eugene Odum - wikify
 * Ramsar list of wetlands of international importance
 * Dougla
 * List of universities in Trinidad and Tobago
 * Alphonso Theodore Roberts
 * Ria Ramnarine
 * Gus Logie
 * Marc Burns
 * Major cleanup in Category:Saint Lucian people
 * Social unrest in Trinidad and Tobago
 * Culture of Trinidad and Tobago
 * Cuisine of Trinidad and Tobago
 * Ecology of Trinidad and Tobago
 * List of calypso musicians
 * History of the Caribbean
 * Category:Trinidad and Tobago football
 * Trees of the Caribbean Basin
 * Check link (see if it gets fixed)

 * List of birds of Trinidad and Tobago - up to Great Blue Heron

Things to do

 * Fazal Mohammed
 * Magnesium in biological systems
 * Image:finger.gif
 * J'can leadership
 * roti
 * Image:Refugia.png
 * Anthroposystem
 * List of ethnic slurs
 * Template:Usercat
 * Template:Usercat-1

Not yet ready for prime time

 * User:Guettarda/snakes
 * List of mammals of Trinidad and Tobago - temp
 * Petroleum industry in Trinidad and Tobago - temp
 * Trinidad Labour Party - temp
 * Fyzul Hassanali - temp
 * POS
 * Template:Local Government in Trinidad and Tobago
 * Counties of Trinidad and Tobago
 * /beat
 * User:Guettarda/Sandbox 2
 * User:Guettarda/Sandbox 3
 * Amazon Rainforest
 * User:Guettarda/FACE
 * User:Guettarda/Immigration
 * Fauna of Trinidad and Tobago - temp
 * Flora of Trinidad and Tobago - temp

Stage II

 * Eric Williams
 * Patrick Manning
 * United National Congress
 * People's National Movement
 * George Maxwell Richards
 * National Alliance for Reconstruction
 * United Labour Front
 * Organisation for National Reconstruction
 * Rudranath Capildeo

Needs attention

 * Callaloo
 * Spiritual Baptist
 * Dansam Dhansook
 * West Indian Federation Labour Party & related pages
 * Raffique Shah
 * Taíno
 * Transportation in Trinidad and Tobago

Interwiki

 * http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Mendes
 * http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Hubert_Mendes
 * http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Mendes
 * http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Mendes

Links

 * http://www.guardian.co.tt/archives/2005-09-27/news5.html
 * http://www.guardian.co.tt/archives/2005-09-17/news1.html
 * http://www.guardian.co.tt/archives/2005-09-18/news1.html
 * http://www.guardian.co.tt/archives/2005-09-18/news8.html
 * http://www.guardian.co.tt/archives/2005-09-19/news6.html
 * http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4292760.stm
 * http://www.trinidadexpress.com/index.pl/article_business?id=104408408
 * http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4292760.stm

-
 * http://fifaworldcup.yahoo.com/06/en/051117/1/5a71.html

-
 * http://www.nalis.gov.tt/AdministrationGov/Regional_Corporations.html

Looks interesting

 * Wikipediology
 * WikiProject Cricket/List of Test cricketers

title: User:Guettarda/to do


text:
Talk:Dog (Half-Life 2)/Archive 1

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the . Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

move. --  tariq abjotu  (joturner) 22:19, 1 August 2006 (UTC)

Requested move
D0g → Dog (Half-Life 2) – The character name is written Dog (not D0g) in the game subtitles and official material such as the strategy guide and Half Life 2: Raising the Bar; this is therefore the "right" spelling. -- Jordi· ✆ 07:15, 25 July 2006 (UTC)

Survey

 * Add *Support or *Oppose followed by an optional one-sentence explanation, then sign your opinion with  ~

 * Support for reasons given. -- Jordi· ✆ 07:15, 25 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Support per above reason. MarphyBlack 21:46, 25 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Support per Jordi. We'll have to remember to change all the articles. Userpie 21:53, 25 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Support per nom. Simpler better. --Dhartung | Talk 08:19, 26 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Support as per reasons listed - obviously we can refer to the alternate "spellings" at the head of the article just like in other articles with less popular/canonical alternate titles. --Plumbago 09:08, 26 July 2006 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Discussion

 * Add any additional comments

 * I was wondering, if this move is successful, would there be an easy way to fix all other articles which will still be using the "D0g" spelling? Because although it will redirect properly, the name is still spelled wrong elsewhere. Aside from doing it all manually, is it possible to somehow automatically search and correct it? MarphyBlack 21:46, 25 July 2006 (UTC)
 * There are bots which could do this. But this would require tracking down a licensed Wikibot operator. -- Jordi· ✆ 07:15, 26 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Users can download the AutoWikiBrowser and do tasks like this logged in as themselves. --Dhartung | Talk 08:18, 26 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Which requires MSIE and is therefore a security risk. -- Jordi· ✆ 08:55, 26 July 2006 (UTC)

Older talk
Dog can't get hurt, hmm? I'm thinking of adding a comment similar to the one in G-Man (Half-Life) (since like Dog, he's invincible), which mentions that "It is unknown if this 'immortality' is part of the character, or was simply a way to prevent players from killing the character accidentally." --Yar Kramer 16:49, 22 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Well I heard that the Gman could be killed.

 * I've tried using various means (in Half-Life 1, at least), i.e. using cheats to give myself wepaons in the Endgame and blasting him at point blank range, and no he can't. Where did you hear this? (And would you please sign yourself in talk pages? You do that by putting four tildas, i.e. ~) --Yar Kramer 06:01, 17 August 2005 (UTC)

 * In Garry's Mod, it IS possible to kill Dog, thought, just as in HL2, when hit he doesn't seem to react at all to the bullets (you just hear the sound of metal being hit). So, he's not "invincible".

 * The G-Man and Dog are both killable with Man Hacks. 82.117.101.124 20:17, 26 April 2007 (UTC)

 * In source SDK I threw D0g in with some soldiers and since he didn't happen to have a van nearby he he he, they killed him and he ragdolled. Since Valve went throug the trouble to add a ragdoll to D0g he/it must be killable in the normal single player with extreme effort.

I might haev a picture of it somewhere but then I'd have to upload it and put it on Wiki and all that.

The name actually appears as "DØg"
The name actually appears as "DØg" at the ending of the Episode One teaser trailer four. I was wondering if we should actually replace "Dog" with "DØg"?

 * This has been something that I have mused over lately. Even before the Episode One teaser was released, Valve was selling a t-shirt with the scanner/D0g/Dog/whatever faceplate on it with the caption "Good D0g" (see here.) If no one raises any objections, I will move the article over in a few hours to D0g. Linuxbeak (AAAA!) 18:11, 20 June 2006 (UTC)
 * Done. Article has been moved and all links that pointed to Dog (Half-Life 2) now point to D0g. Linuxbeak (AAAA!) 20:04, 20 June 2006 (UTC)
 * Well, that's strange. His name is only ever referred to as "Dog" in the subtitles, and I wouldn't see any reason why they would have avoided the spelling of "D0g" there if that's what they wanted his name to be. Oh well, odd choice by Valve I guess. MarphyBlack 21:40, 20 June 2006 (UTC)

I...don't think that's actually his name. I can't explain the teaser trailer, but the shirt just seems to be a simple robot joke or something.72.231.145.5 04:54, 10 July 2006 (UTC)
 * The more I think about this, and the more I actually see it, and the more I believe his name wasn't ever really intended to be spelled this way. He is simply referred to as "Dog" in the Half-Life 2 subtitles, Episode One's subtitles, Raising the Bar, and the Half-Life 2 Official Prima Game Guide. He is named as "DØg" on a shirt and in one Episode One trailer.
 * However, now that I've taken a closer look at his skin texture, he appears to have the name "DØg" written on him by his head. This is including his original texture from HL2, not just Episode One, so it wouldn't be a recent occurrence of the name. That would make a handful appearances of the "DØg" spelling compared to the many dozen uses "Dog". However, those are quite significant, if only few, appearances. It really bugs me to see it spelled with the zero, but the name is spelled this way on both his skin texture and in an official trailer (In quite big, bold letters at that). But, I would still argue that this is just a fancy "cool" way of writing his name; not how it's really supposed to be spelled. If nothing else, I suggest that someone emails a Valve person for confirmation about this. MarphyBlack 13:56, 10 July 2006 (UTC)

It or He?
As far as the story is concerned, Dog is a sentient character like any other. I don't agree with the use of 'it' as the pronoun in this article. --Tom Edwards 06:01, 9 June 2006 (UTC)
 * Do robot's have genders?
 * Of course, though it needn't be anything phyiscal. Dog is frequently referred to as 'boy' by Alyx. --Tom Edwards 11:04, 11 June 2006 (UTC)
 * Everyone calls dogs "boy", even when they're female. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 128.175.235.141 (talk • contribs) 21:10, June 22, 2006 (UTC).
 * Says who? Linuxbeak (AAAA!) 11:39, 23 June 2006 (UTC)
 * Alyx also calls D0g "him"; thus, he's most likely a male. Delta 23:21, 1 July 2006 (UTC)
 * I don't call female dogs "boys". I say "good girl". However, 'everyone' has often excluded me...--RabidZombie 22:53, 8 April 2007 (UTC)

Move back to Dog (Half-Life 2)
Valve calls Dog Dog, not D0g or Døg:, , , HL2 and EP1 captions. I can find only two references to D0g: the alt text for an image here, and the trailer mentioned above. In the light of this I suggest moving the article back to Dog (Half-Life 2) or Dog (Half-Life). -- Jordi· ✆ 08:21, 11 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Okay, this is becoming somewhat confusing. To clarify (At least for myself), I'm going to list known occurrences of each spelling:
 * Dog
 * All subtitles/closed captions in both HL2 and Episode One.
 * The official Episode One and HL2 sites.
 * Raising the Bar and the HL2 Official Prima Game Guide.
 * Most other sources, and general common usage of his name.
 * D0g (DØg)
 * An image alt tag on the Episode One site.
 * The fourth Episode One Launch Teaser released on Steam.
 * A t-shirt released on Valve's online store.
 * His in-game body texture in both HL2 and Episode One.
 * Make of that what you will. Personally, I would be in favor of moving the article back to Dog (Half-Life 2), but this recent influx of the spelling of his name with the zero in it has me a bit intrigued. MarphyBlack 20:53, 11 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Well, to me it seems like the confusion is spreading here and in other articles where Do/Øg's name is mentioned. I am for an article move back to Dog (Half-Life 2) in the very not too distant future, if not sooner. MarphyBlack 02:03, 13 July 2006 (UTC)

The name "DØg" is not correct either
I just realized something from looking at the sources that list his name using the zero spelling: they always write his name with a lowercase 'd' (The only reason the 'd' is ever captalized, as with the shirt and his ingame body texture, is when the entire name is capitalized). This would make the correct spelling "dØg", not "DØg". Consequently, this would mean that every page currently with the spelling as "D0g" should be altered yet again to have it changed to "d0g". :(

However, rather than doing this, I'm still very much in favor of moving the page back to Dog (Half-Life 2) and simply calling him "Dog" from now on. As I mentioned before, I strongly believe that "d0g" is only an alternate way of writing' his name, not the actual way it is spelled. Does anyone disagree? MarphyBlack 01:45, 24 July 2006 (UTC)

Personally, I think that ithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Dog_%28Half-Life_2%29&action=edit&section=8 should either be spelled "(D/d)Øg", or "Dog". "D0g" and "d0g" shouldn't even be considered, as "0" has never been used, only "Ø". 67.172.204.135 01:24, 13 August 2006 (UTC)

 * The "0" was used in an image caption on the Episode One site. MarphyBlack 01:42, 13 August 2006 (UTC)

 * And the online description for the "D0G vs STRIDER POSTER" at the online store. Still think it's Dog, though.66.100.255.7 03:03, 16 August 2006 (UTC)

Removed "hidden spoiler"
Yeah, just thought I'd let you guys know I removed a hidden "spoiler" from the bottom of the page. It was made up, and had no evidence to back it up. It was also placed at the very bottem of the page, probobly because it would be hard to remove. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Mr. Someguy (talk • contribs) 05:33, 29 September 2007 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:HalfLife2 Dog.jpg
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BetacommandBot (talk) 23:37, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:D0g which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 04:00, 25 October 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dog (Half-Life 2)/Archive 1


text:
Late Middle Ages

[[File:Europe in the 14th Century.jpg|thumb|right|420px|Europe and the Mediterranean region, c. 1354.]] The late Middle Ages or late medieval period was the period of European history lasting from AD 1300 to 1500. The late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern period (and in much of Europe, the Renaissance).

Around 1350, centuries of prosperity and growth in Europe came to a halt. A series of famines and plagues, including the Great Famine of 1315–1317 and the Black Death, reduced the population to around half of what it had been before the calamities. Along with depopulation came social unrest and endemic warfare. France and England experienced serious peasant uprisings, such as the Jacquerie and the Peasants' Revolt, as well as over a century of intermittent conflict, the Hundred Years' War. To add to the many problems of the period, the unity of the Catholic Church was temporarily shattered by the Western Schism. Collectively, those events are sometimes called the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages.

Despite the crises, the 14th century was also a time of great progress in the arts and sciences. Following a renewed interest in ancient Greek and Roman texts that took root in the High Middle Ages, the Italian Renaissance began. The absorption of Latin texts had started before the Renaissance of the 12th century through contact with Arabs during the Crusades, but the availability of important Greek texts accelerated with the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks, when many Byzantine scholars had to seek refuge in the West, particularly Italy.

Combined with this influx of classical ideas was the invention of printing, which facilitated the dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. Those two things would later lead to the Reformation. Toward the end of the period, the Age of Discovery began. The expansion of the Ottoman Empire cut off trading possibilities with the East. Europeans were forced to seek new trading routes, leading to the Spanish expedition under Christopher Columbus to the Americas in 1492 and Vasco da Gama's voyage to Africa and India in 1498. Their discoveries strengthened the economy and power of European nations.

The changes brought about by these developments have led many scholars to view this period as the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of modern history and of early modern Europe. However, the division is somewhat artificial, since ancient learning was never entirely absent from European society. As a result, there was developmental continuity between the ancient age (via classical antiquity) and the modern age. Some historians, particularly in Italy, prefer not to speak of the late Middle Ages at all but rather see the high period of the Middle Ages transitioning to the Renaissance and the modern era.

Historiography and periodization
The term "late Middle Ages" refers to one of the three periods of the Middle Ages, along with the early Middle Ages and the High Middle Ages. Leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodization in his History of the Florentine People (1442). Flavio Biondo used a similar framework in Decades of History from the Deterioration of the Roman Empire (1439–1453). Tripartite periodization became standard after the German historian Christoph Cellarius published Universal History Divided into an Ancient, Medieval, and New Period (1683).

For 18th-century historians studying the 14th and 15th centuries, the central theme was the Renaissance, with its rediscovery of ancient learning and the emergence of an individual spirit. The heart of this rediscovery lies in Italy, where, in the words of Jacob Burckhardt, "Man became a spiritual individual and recognized himself as such." This proposition was later challenged, and it was argued that the 12th century was a period of greater cultural achievement.

As economic and demographic methods were applied to the study of history, the trend was increasingly to see the late Middle Ages as a period of recession and crisis. Belgian historian Henri Pirenne continued the subdivision of Early, High, and late Middle Ages in the years around World War I. Yet it was his Dutch colleague, Johan Huizinga, who was primarily responsible for popularising the pessimistic view of the late Middle Ages, with his book The Autumn of the Middle Ages (1919). To Huizinga, whose research focused on France and the Low Countries rather than Italy, despair and decline were the main themes, not rebirth.

Modern historiography on the period has reached a consensus between the two extremes of innovation and crisis. It is now generally acknowledged that conditions were vastly different north and south of the Alps, and the term "late Middle Ages" is often avoided entirely within Italian historiography. The term "Renaissance" is still considered useful for describing certain intellectual, cultural, or artistic developments but not as the defining feature of an entire European historical epoch. The period from the early 14th century up until – and sometimes including – the 16th century is rather seen as characterized by other trends: demographic and economic decline followed by recovery, the end of Western religious unity and the subsequent emergence of the nation-state, and the expansion of European influence onto the rest of the world.

History
The limits of Christian Europe were still being defined in the 14th and 15th centuries. While the Grand Duchy of Moscow was beginning to repel the Mongols, and the Iberian kingdoms completed the Reconquista of the peninsula and turned their attention outwards, the Balkans fell under the dominance of the Ottoman Empire. Meanwhile, the remaining nations of the continent were locked in almost constant international or internal conflict.

The situation gradually led to the consolidation of central authority and the emergence of the nation state. The financial demands of war necessitated higher levels of taxation, resulting in the emergence of representative bodies – most notably the English Parliament. The growth of secular authority was further aided by the decline of the papacy with the Western Schism and the coming of the Protestant Reformation.

Northern Europe
After the failed union of Sweden and Norway of 1319–1365, the pan-Scandinavian Kalmar Union was instituted in 1397. The Swedes were reluctant members of the Danish-dominated union from the start. In an attempt to subdue the Swedes, King Christian II of Denmark had large numbers of the Swedish aristocracy killed in the Stockholm Bloodbath of 1520. Yet this measure only led to further hostilities, and Sweden broke away for good in 1523. Norway, on the other hand, became an inferior party of the union and remained united with Denmark until 1814.

Iceland benefited from its relative isolation and was the last Scandinavian country to be struck by the Black Death. Meanwhile, the Norse colony in Greenland died out, probably under extreme weather conditions in the 15th century. These conditions might have been the effect of the Little Ice Age.

Northwest Europe

The death of Alexander III of Scotland in 1286 threw the country into a succession crisis, and the English king, Edward I, was brought in to arbitrate. Edward claimed overlordship over Scotland, leading to the Wars of Scottish Independence. The English were eventually defeated, and the Scots were able to develop a stronger state under the Stewarts.

From 1337, England's attention was largely directed towards France in the Hundred Years' War. Henry V's victory at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 briefly paved the way for a unification of the two kingdoms, but his son Henry VI soon squandered all previous gains. The loss of France led to discontent at home. Soon after the end of the war in 1453, the dynastic struggles of the Wars of the Roses (c. 1455–1485) began, involving the rival dynasties of the House of Lancaster and House of York.

The war ended in the accession of Henry VII of the House of Tudor, who continued the work started by the Yorkist kings of building a strong, centralized monarchy. While England's attention was thus directed elsewhere, the Hiberno-Norman lords in Ireland were becoming gradually more assimilated into Irish society, and the island was allowed to develop virtual independence under English overlordship.

Western Europe

The French House of Valois, which followed the House of Capet in 1328, was at its outset marginalized in its own country, first by the English invading forces of the Hundred Years' War and later by the powerful Duchy of Burgundy. The emergence of Joan of Arc as a military leader changed the course of war in favour of the French, and the initiative was carried further by King Louis XI.

Meanwhile, Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, met resistance in his attempts to consolidate his possessions, particularly from the Swiss Confederation formed in 1291. When Charles was killed in the Burgundian Wars at the Battle of Nancy in 1477, the Duchy of Burgundy was reclaimed by France. At the same time, the County of Burgundy and the wealthy Burgundian Netherlands came into the Holy Roman Empire under Habsburg control, setting up conflict for centuries to come.

Central Europe

Bohemia prospered in the 14th century, and the Golden Bull of 1356 made the king of Bohemia first among the imperial electors, but the Hussite revolution threw the country into crisis. The Holy Roman Empire passed to the House of Habsburg in 1438, where it remained until its dissolution in 1806. Yet in spite of the extensive territories held by the Habsburgs, the Empire itself remained fragmented, and much real power and influence lay with the individual principalities. In addition, financial institutions, such as the Hanseatic League and the Fugger family, held great power, on both economic and political levels.

The Kingdom of Hungary experienced a golden age during the 14th century. In particular the reigns of the Angevin kings Charles Robert (1308–42) and his son Louis the Great (1342–82) were marked by success. The country grew wealthy as the main European supplier of gold and silver. Louis the Great led successful campaigns from Lithuania to Southern Italy, and from Poland to Northern Greece.

He had the greatest military potential of the 14th century with his enormous armies (often over 100,000 men). Meanwhile, Poland's attention was turned eastwards, as the Commonwealth with Lithuania created an enormous entity in the region. The union, and the conversion of Lithuania, also marked the end of paganism in Europe.

Louis did not leave a son as heir after his death in 1382. Instead, he named as his heir the young prince Sigismund of Luxemburg. The Hungarian nobility did not accept his claim, and the result was an internal war. Sigismund eventually achieved total control of Hungary and established his court in Buda and Visegrád. Both palaces were rebuilt and improved, and were considered the richest of the time in Europe. Inheriting the throne of Bohemia and the Holy Roman Empire, Sigismund continued conducting his politics from Hungary, but he was kept busy fighting the Hussites and the Ottoman Empire, which was becoming a menace to Europe in the beginning of the 15th century.

King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary led the largest army of mercenaries of the time, the Black Army of Hungary, which he used to conquer Bohemia and Austria and to fight the Ottoman Empire. After Italy, Hungary was the first European country where the Renaissance appeared. However, the glory of the Kingdom ended in the early 16th century, when the King Louis II of Hungary was killed in the Battle of Mohács in 1526 against the Ottoman Empire. Hungary then fell into a serious crisis and was invaded, ending its significance in central Europe during the medieval era.

Eastern Europe

The state of Kievan Rus' fell during the 13th century in the Mongol invasion. The Grand Duchy of Moscow rose in power thereafter, winning a great victory against the Golden Horde at the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. The victory did not end Tartar rule in the region, however, and its immediate beneficiary was the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which extended its influence eastwards.

Under the reign of Ivan the Great (1462–1505), Moscow became a major regional power, and the annexation of the vast Republic of Novgorod in 1478 laid the foundations for a Russian national state. After the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Russian princes started to see themselves as the heirs of the Byzantine Empire. They eventually took on the imperial title of Tzar, and Moscow was described as the Third Rome.

Southeast Europe

The Byzantine Empire had for a long time dominated the eastern Mediterranean in politics and culture. By the 14th century, however, it had almost entirely collapsed into a tributary state of the Ottoman Empire, centered on the city of Constantinople and a few enclaves in Greece. With the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Byzantine Empire was permanently extinguished.

The Bulgarian Empire was in decline by the 14th century, and the ascendancy of Serbia was marked by the Serbian victory over the Bulgarians in the Battle of Velbazhd in 1330. By 1346, the Serbian king Stefan Dušan had been proclaimed emperor. Yet Serbian dominance was short-lived; the Serbian army led by the Lazar Hrebeljanovic was defeated by the Ottoman Army at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, where most of the Serbian nobility was killed and the south of the country came under Ottoman occupation, as much of southern Bulgaria had become Ottoman territory in the Battle of Maritsa 1371. Northern remnants of Bulgaria were finally conquered by 1396, Serbia fell in 1459, Bosnia in 1463, and Albania was finally subordinated in 1479 only a few years after the death of Skanderbeg. Belgrade, a Hungarian domain at the time, was the last large Balkan city to fall under Ottoman rule, in the siege of Belgrade of 1521. By the end of the medieval period, the entire Balkan peninsula was annexed by, or became vassal to, the Ottomans.

Southwest Europe

Avignon was the seat of the papacy from 1309 to 1376. With the return of the Pope to Rome in 1378, the Papal State developed into a major secular power, culminating in the morally corrupt papacy of Alexander VI. Florence grew to prominence amongst the Italian city-states through financial business, and the dominant Medici family became important promoters of the Renaissance through their patronage of the arts. Other city-states in northern Italy also expanded their territories and consolidated their power, primarily Milan, Venice, and Genoa. The War of the Sicilian Vespers had by the early 14th century divided southern Italy into an Aragon Kingdom of Sicily and an Anjou Kingdom of Naples. In 1442, the two kingdoms were effectively united under Aragonese control.

The 1469 marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon and the 1479 death of John II of Aragon led to the creation of modern-day Spain. In 1492, Granada was captured from the Moors, thereby completing the Reconquista. Portugal had during the 15th century – particularly under Henry the Navigator – gradually explored the coast of Africa, and in 1498, Vasco da Gama found the sea route to India. The Spanish monarchs met the Portuguese challenge by financing the expedition of Christopher Columbus to find a western sea route to India, leading to the discovery of the Americas in 1492.

Late medieval European society

Around 1300–1350, the Medieval Warm Period gave way to the Little Ice Age. The colder climate resulted in agricultural crises, the first of which is known as the Great Famine of 1315–1317. The demographic consequences of this famine, however, were not as severe as the plagues that occurred later in the century, particularly the Black Death. Estimates of the death rate caused by this epidemic range from one third to as much as sixty percent. By around 1420, the accumulated effect of recurring plagues and famines had reduced the population of Europe to perhaps no more than a third of what it was a century earlier. The effects of natural disasters were exacerbated by armed conflicts; this was particularly the case in France during the Hundred Years' War. It took 150 years for the European population to regain similar levels of 1300.

As the European population was severely reduced, land became more plentiful for the survivors, and labour was consequently more expensive. Attempts by landowners to forcibly reduce wages, such as the English 1351 Statute of Laborers, were doomed to fail. These efforts resulted in nothing more than fostering resentment among the peasantry, leading to rebellions such as the French Jacquerie in 1358 and the English Peasants' Revolt in 1381. The long-term effect was the virtual end of serfdom in Western Europe. In Eastern Europe, on the other hand, landowners were able to exploit the situation to force the peasantry into even more repressive bondage.

The upheavals caused by the Black Death left certain minority groups particularly vulnerable, especially the Jews, who were often blamed for the calamities. Anti-Jewish pogroms were carried out all over Europe; in February 1349, 2,000 Jews were murdered in Strasbourg. States were also guilty of discrimination against the Jews. Monarchs gave in to the demands of the people, and the Jews were expelled from England in 1290, from France in 1306, from Spain in 1492, and from Portugal in 1497.

While the Jews were suffering persecution, one group that probably experienced increased empowerment in the late Middle Ages was women. The great social changes of the period opened up new possibilities for women in the fields of commerce, learning, and religion. Yet at the same time, women were also vulnerable to incrimination and persecution, as belief in witchcraft increased.

The accumulation of social, environmental, and health-related problems also led to an increase in interpersonal violence in most parts of Europe. Population increase, religious intolerance, famine, and disease led to an increase in violent acts in vast parts of medieval society. One exception to this was North-Eastern Europe, whose population managed to maintain low levels of violence due to a more organized society resulting from extensive and successful trade.

Up until the mid-14th century, Europe had experienced steadily increasing urbanization. Cities were also decimated by the Black Death, but the role of urban areas as centres of learning, commerce, and government ensured continued growth. By 1500, Venice, Milan, Naples, Paris, and Constantinople each probably had more than 100,000 inhabitants. Twenty-two other cities were larger than 40,000; most of these were in Italy and the Iberian peninsula, but there were also some in France, the Empire, and the Low Countries, as well as London in England.

Military history
Through battles such as Courtrai (1302), Bannockburn (1314), and Morgarten (1315), it became clear to the great territorial princes of Europe that the military advantage of the feudal cavalry was lost and that a well equipped infantry was preferable. Through the Welsh Wars, the English became acquainted with, and adopted, the highly efficient longbow. Once properly managed, this weapon gave them a great advantage over the French in the Hundred Years' War.

The introduction of gunpowder affected the conduct of war significantly. Though employed by the English as early as the Battle of Crécy in 1346, firearms initially had little effect in the field of battle. It was through the use of cannons as siege weapons that major change was brought about; the new methods would eventually change the architectural structure of fortifications.

Changes also took place within the recruitment and composition of armies. The use of the national or feudal levy was gradually replaced by paid troops of domestic retinues or foreign mercenaries. The practice was associated with Edward III of England and the condottieri of the Italian city-states. All over Europe, Swiss mercenaries were in particularly high demand. At the same time, the period also saw the emergence of the first permanent armies. It was in Valois France, under the heavy demands of the Hundred Years' War, that the armed forces gradually assumed a permanent nature.

Parallel to the military developments emerged also a constantly more elaborate chivalric code of conduct for the warrior class. This newfound ethos can be seen as a response to the diminishing military role of the aristocracy, and it gradually became almost entirely detached from its military origin. The spirit of chivalry was given expression through the new (secular) type of chivalric orders; the first of these was the Order of St. George, founded by Charles I of Hungary in 1325, while the best known was probably the English Order of the Garter, founded by Edward III in 1348.

The Papal Schism
The French crown's increasing dominance over the Papacy culminated in the transference of the Holy See to Avignon in 1309. When the Pope returned to Rome in 1377, this led to the election of different popes in Avignon and Rome, resulting in the Western Schism (1378–1417). The Schism divided Europe along political lines; while France, her ally Scotland, and the Spanish kingdoms supported the Avignon Papacy, France's enemy England stood behind the pope in Rome, together with Portugal, Scandinavia, and most of the German princes.

At the Council of Constance (1414–1418), the Papacy was once more united in Rome. Even though the unity of the Western Church was to last for another hundred years, and though the Papacy was to experience greater material prosperity than ever before, the Great Schism had done irreparable damage. The internal struggles within the Church had impaired her claim to universal rule and promoted anti-clericalism among the people and their rulers, paving the way for reform movements.

Protestant Reformation

Though many of the events were outside the traditional time period of the Middle Ages, the end of the unity of the Western Church (the Protestant Reformation) was one of the distinguishing characteristics of the medieval period. The Catholic Church had long fought against heretic movements, but during the late Middle Ages, it started to experience demands for reform from within. The first of these came from Oxford professor John Wycliffe in England. Wycliffe held that the Bible should be the only authority in religious questions, and he spoke out against transubstantiation, celibacy, and indulgences. In spite of influential supporters among the English aristocracy, such as John of Gaunt, the movement was not allowed to survive. Though Wycliffe himself was left unmolested, his supporters, the Lollards, were eventually suppressed in England.

The marriage of Richard II of England to Anne of Bohemia established contacts between the two nations and brought Lollard ideas to her homeland. The teachings of the Czech priest Jan Hus were based on those of John Wycliffe, yet his followers, the Hussites, were to have a much greater political impact than the Lollards. Hus gained a great following in Bohemia, and in 1414, he was requested to appear at the Council of Constance to defend his cause. When he was burned as a heretic in 1415, it caused a popular uprising in the Czech lands. The subsequent Hussite Wars fell apart due to internal quarrels and did not result in religious or national independence for the Czechs, but both the Catholic Church and the German element within the country were weakened.

Martin Luther, a German monk, started the German Reformation by posting 95 theses on the castle church of Wittenberg on October 31, 1517. The immediate provocation spurring this act was Pope Leo X's renewal of the indulgence for the building of the new St. Peter's Basilica in 1514. Luther was challenged to recant his heresy at the Diet of Worms in 1521. When he refused, he was placed under the ban of the Empire by Charles V. Receiving the protection of Frederick the Wise, he was then able to translate the Bible into German.

To many secular rulers, the Protestant Reformation was a welcome opportunity to expand their wealth and influence. The Catholic Church met the challenges of the reforming movements with what has been called the Catholic Reformation, or Counter-Reformation. Europe became split into northern Protestant and southern Catholic parts, resulting in the Religious Wars of the 16th and 17th centuries.

Trade and commerce
The increasingly dominant position of the Ottoman Empire in the eastern Mediterranean presented an impediment to trade for the Christian nations of the west, who in turn started looking for alternatives. Portuguese and Spanish explorers found new trade routes – south of Africa to India, as well as across the Atlantic Ocean to America. As Genoese and Venetian merchants opened up direct sea routes with Flanders, the Champagne fairs lost much of their importance.

At the same time, English wool export shifted from raw wool to processed cloth, resulting in losses for the cloth manufacturers of the Low Countries. In the Baltic and North Sea, the Hanseatic League reached the peak of their power in the 14th century but started going into decline in the fifteenth.

In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, a process took place – primarily in Italy but partly also in the Empire – that historians have termed a "commercial revolution". Among the innovations of the period were new forms of partnership and the issuing of insurance, both of which contributed to reducing the risk of commercial ventures; the bill of exchange and other forms of credit that circumvented the canonical laws for gentiles against usury and eliminated the dangers of carrying bullion; and new forms of accounting, in particular double-entry bookkeeping, which allowed for better oversight and accuracy.

With the financial expansion, trading rights became more jealously guarded by the commercial elite. Towns saw the growing power of guilds, while on a national level, special companies would be granted monopolies on particular trades, like the English wool Staple. The beneficiaries of these developments would accumulate immense wealth. Families like the Fuggers in Germany, the Medicis in Italy, and the de la Poles in England and individuals like Jacques Cœur in France would help finance the wars of kings, achieving great political influence in the process.

Though there is no doubt that the demographic crisis of the 14th century caused a dramatic fall in production and commerce in absolute terms, there has been a vigorous historical debate over whether the decline was greater than the fall in population. While the older orthodoxy held that the artistic output of the Renaissance was a result of greater opulence, more recent studies have suggested that there might have been a so-called "depression of the Renaissance". In spite of convincing arguments for the case, the statistical evidence is simply too incomplete for a definite conclusion to be made.

Arts and sciences
In the 14th century, the predominant academic trend of scholasticism was challenged by the humanist movement. Though primarily an attempt to revitalise the classical languages, the movement also led to innovations within the fields of science, art, and literature, helped by impulses from Byzantine scholars who had to seek refuge in the west after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453.

In science, classical authorities like Aristotle were challenged for the first time since antiquity. Within the arts, humanism took the form of the Renaissance. Though the 15th-century Renaissance was a highly localised phenomenon – limited mostly to the city-states of northern Italy – artistic developments were taking place also further north, particularly in the Netherlands.

Philosophy, science and technology

The predominant school of thought in the 13th century was the Thomistic reconciliation of the teachings of Aristotle with Christian theology. The Condemnation of 1277, enacted at the University of Paris, placed restrictions on ideas that could be interpreted as heretical, restrictions that had implication for Aristotelian thought. An alternative was presented by William of Ockham, following the manner of the earlier Franciscan John Duns Scotus, who insisted that the world of reason and the world of faith had to be kept apart. Ockham introduced the principle of parsimony – or Occam's razor – whereby a simple theory is preferred to a more complex one and speculation on unobservable phenomena is avoided. This maxim is, however, often misquoted. Occam was referring to his nominalism in this quotation. Essentially saying the theory of absolutes, or metaphysical realism, was unnecessary to make sense of the world.

This new approach liberated scientific speculation from the dogmatic restraints of Aristotelian science and paved the way for new approaches. Particularly within the field of theories of motion, great advances were made, when such scholars as Jean Buridan, Nicole Oresme, and the Oxford Calculators challenged the work of Aristotle. Buridan developed the theory of impetus as the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was an important step towards the modern concept of inertia. The works of these scholars anticipated the heliocentric worldview of Nicolaus Copernicus.

Certain technological inventions of the period – whether of Arab or Chinese origin or unique European innovations – were to have great influence on political and social developments, in particular gunpowder, the printing press, and the compass. The introduction of gunpowder to the field of battle not only affected military organisation but also helped advance the nation-state. Gutenberg's movable type printing press made possible not only the Reformation but also a dissemination of knowledge that would lead to a gradually more egalitarian society. The compass, along with other innovations such as the cross-staff, the mariner's astrolabe, and advances in shipbuilding, enabled the navigation of the World Oceans and the early phases of colonialism. Other inventions had a greater impact on everyday life, such as eyeglasses and the weight-driven clock.

Visual arts and architecture

A precursor to Renaissance art can be seen already in the early 14th-century works of Giotto. Giotto was the first painter since antiquity to attempt the representation of three-dimensional reality and endow his characters with true human emotions. The most important developments, however, came in 15th-century Florence. The affluence of the merchant class allowed extensive patronage of the arts, and foremost among the patrons were the Medici.

The period saw several important technical innovations, like the principle of linear perspective found in the work of Masaccio and later described by Brunelleschi. Greater realism was also achieved through the scientific study of anatomy, championed by artists like Donatello. This can be seen particularly well in his sculptures, inspired by the study of classical models. As the centre of the movement shifted to Rome, the period culminated in the High Renaissance masters da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael.

The ideas of the Italian Renaissance were slow to cross the Alps into northern Europe, but important artistic innovations were made also in the Low Countries. Though not – as previously believed – the inventor of oil painting, Jan van Eyck was a champion of the new medium and used it to create works of great realism and minute detail. The two cultures influenced each other and learned from each other, but painting in the Netherlands remained more focused on textures and surfaces than the idealized compositions of Italy.

In northern European countries, Gothic architecture remained the norm, and the Gothic cathedral was further elaborated. In Italy, on the other hand, architecture took a different direction, also here inspired by classical ideals. The crowning work of the period was the Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence, with Giotto's clock tower, Ghiberti's baptistery gates, and Brunelleschi's cathedral dome of unprecedented proportions.

Literature

The most important development of late medieval literature was the ascendancy of the vernacular languages. The vernacular had been in use in England since the 8th century and France since the 11th century, where the most popular genres had been the chanson de geste, troubadour lyrics, and romantic epics, or the romance. Though Italy was later in evolving a native literature in the vernacular language, it was here that the most important developments of the period were to come.

Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, written in the early 14th century, merged a medieval worldview with classical ideals. Another promoter of the Italian language was Boccaccio with his Decameron. The application of the vernacular did not entail a rejection of Latin, and both Dante and Boccaccio wrote prolifically in Latin as well as Italian, as would Petrarch later (whose Canzoniere also promoted the vernacular and whose contents are considered the first modern lyric poems). Together, the three poets established the Tuscan dialect as the norm for the modern Italian language.

The new literary style spread rapidly and in France, influenced such writers as Eustache Deschamps and Guillaume de Machaut. In England, Geoffrey Chaucer helped establish Middle English as a literary language with his Canterbury Tales, which contained a wide variety of narrators and stories (including some translated from Boccaccio). The spread of vernacular literature eventually reached as far as Bohemia and the Baltic, Slavic, and Byzantine worlds.

Music

Music was an important part of both secular and spiritual culture, and in the universities, it made up part of the quadrivium of the liberal arts. From the early 13th century, the dominant sacred musical form had been the motet, a composition with text in several parts. From the 1330s and onwards emerged the polyphonic style, which was a more complex fusion of independent voices. Polyphony had been common in the secular music of the Provençal troubadours. Many of these had fallen victim to the 13th-century Albigensian Crusade, but their influence reached the papal court at Avignon.

The main representatives of the new style, often referred to as ars nova as opposed to ars antiqua, were the composers Philippe de Vitry and Guillaume de Machaut. In Italy, where the Provençal troubadours had also found refuge, the corresponding period goes under the name of trecento, and the leading composers were Giovanni da Cascia, Jacopo da Bologna, and Francesco Landini. A prominent reformer of Orthodox Church music from the first half of the 14th century was John Kukuzelis; he also introduced a system of notation widely used in the Balkans in the following centuries.

Theatre
In the British Isles, plays were produced in some 127 different towns during the Middle Ages. These vernacular Mystery plays were written in cycles of a large number of plays: York (48 plays), Chester (24), Wakefield (32), and Unknown (42). A larger number of plays survive from France and Germany in this period, and some type of religious drama was performed in nearly every European country in the late Middle Ages. Many of these plays contained comedy, devils, villains, and clowns.

Morality plays emerged as a distinct dramatic form around 1400 and flourished until 1550, an example being The Castle of Perseverance, which depicts mankind's progress from birth to death. Another famous morality play is Everyman. Everyman receives Death's summons, struggles to escape, and finally resigns himself to necessity. Along the way, he is deserted by Kindred, Goods, and Fellowship – only Good Deeds goes with him to the grave.

At the end of the late Middle Ages, professional actors began to appear in England and Europe. Richard III and Henry VII both maintained small companies of professional actors. Their plays were performed in the Great Hall of a nobleman's residence, often with a raised platform at one end for the audience and a "screen" at the other for the actors. Also important were Mummers' plays, performed during the Christmas season, and court masques. These masques were especially popular during the reign of Henry VIII who had a House of Revels built and an Office of Revels established in 1545.

The end of medieval drama came about due to a number of factors, including the weakening power of the Catholic Church, the Protestant Reformation, and the banning of religious plays in many countries. Elizabeth I forbid all religious plays in 1558, and the great cycle plays had been silenced by the 1580s. Similarly, religious plays were banned in the Netherlands in 1539, the Papal States in 1547, and Paris in 1548. The abandonment of these plays destroyed the international theatre that had thereto existed and forced each country to develop its own form of drama. It also allowed dramatists to turn to secular subjects and the reviving interest in Greek and Roman theatre provided them with the perfect opportunity.

After the Middle Ages
After the end of the late Middle Ages period, the Renaissance spread unevenly over continental Europe from the southern European region. The intellectual transformation of the Renaissance is viewed as a bridge between the Middle Ages and the Modern era. Europeans would later begin an era of world discovery. Combined with the influx of classical ideas was the invention of printing which facilitated dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. These two things would lead to the Protestant Reformation. Europeans also discovered new trading routes, as was the case with Columbus' travel to the Americas in 1492, and Vasco da Gama's circumnavigation of Africa and India in 1498. Their discoveries strengthened the economy and power of European nations.

Ottomans and Europe
By the end of the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire had advanced all over Southeast Europe, eventually conquering the Byzantine Empire and extending control over the Balkan states. Hungary was the last bastion of the Latin Christian world in the East, and fought to keep its rule over a period of two centuries. After the death of the young king Vladislaus I of Hungary during the Battle of Varna in 1444 against the Ottomans, the Kingdom was placed in the hands of Count John Hunyadi, who became Hungary's regent-governor (1446–1453). Hunyadi was considered one of the most relevant military figures of the 15th century: Pope Pius II awarded him the title of Athleta Christi, or Champion of Christ, for being the only hope of resisting the Ottomans from advancing to Central and Western Europe.

Hunyadi succeeded during the siege of Belgrade in 1456 against the Ottomans, the biggest victory against that empire in decades. This battle became a real crusade against the Muslims, as the peasants were motivated by the Franciscan friar Saint John of Capistrano, who came from Italy predicating him holy war. The effect that it created in that time was one of the main factors that helped in achieving the victory. However the premature death of the Hungarian lord left Pannonia defenseless and in chaos. In an extremely unusual event for the Middle Ages, Hunyadi's son, Matthias, was elected as king of Hungary by the Hungarian nobility. For the first time, a member of an aristocratic family (and not from a royal family) was crowned.

King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary (1458–1490) was one of the most prominent figures of the period, directing campaigns to the West, conquering Bohemia in answer to the pope's call for help against the Hussite Protestants. Also, in resolving political hostilities with the German emperor Frederick III of Habsburg, he invaded his western domains. Matthew organized the Black Army of mercenary soldiers; it was considered as the biggest army of its time. Using this powerful tool, the Hungarian king led wars against the Turkish armies and stopped the Ottomans during his reign. After the death of Matthew, and with end of the Black Army, the Ottoman Empire grew in strength and Central Europe was defenseless. At the Battle of Mohács, the forces of the Ottoman Empire annihilated the Hungarian army and Louis II of Hungary drowned in the Csele Creek while trying to escape. The leader of the Hungarian army, Pál Tomori, also died in the battle. This is considered to be one of the final battles of medieval times.

Timeline
Dates are approximate, consult particular articles for details Middle Ages themes Other themes

14th century

Lithuania defeats Golden Horde. Principality of Kiev becomes part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
 * 1305: William Wallace was executed
 * 1307: The Knights Templar were destroyed
 * 1309: Beginning of Avignon papacy
 * 1310: Dante began the Divine Comedy
 * 1314: Battle of Bannockburn
 * 1315–1317 Great Famine
 * 1321–1328 Byzantine civil war
 * 1328: First War of Scottish Independence ends
 * 1337: The Hundred Years' War begins
 * 1346: Stephen Dušan established a short-lived Serbian Empire
 * 1347: The Black Death begins
 * 1347: University of Prague was founded
 * 1348: Giovanni Villani finishes work on Nuova Cronica
 * 1348–1349: Byzantine–Genoese War
 * 1362: Battle of Blue Waters
 * 1364: Jagiellonian University was founded
 * 1371: Battle of Maritsa—first substantial Ottoman victory in Europe; partition of Bulgaria
 * 1376: Avignon Papacy ended
 * 1380: Battle of Kulikovo
 * 1380: The Canterbury Tales
 * 1381: Peasants' Revolt (England)
 * 1381: John Wycliffe translated the Bible
 * 1385: Union of Krewo, initiation of the Polish–Lithuanian union
 * 1385: Battle of Aljubarrota
 * 1386: University of Heidelberg was founded
 * 1389: Battle of Kosovo—Serbian and Bosnian forces defeated by the Ottomans
 * 1342–1392: Partitioning of the Kingdom of Rus (Galicia) between Poland and Lithuania (Galicia–Volhynia Wars)
 * 1396: Battle of Nicopolis and first Ottoman conquest in Europe
 * 1397: Kalmar Union

15th century

 * 1402: Battle of Ankara
 * 1409: Venetian Dalmatia
 * 1410: Battle of Grunwald
 * 1415: Conquest of Ceuta
 * 1415: Battle of Agincourt
 * 1415: Jan Hus was burned at the stake
 * 1417: The Council of Constance
 * 1419–1434: Hussite Wars in Bohemia
 * 1429: Battle of Orléans
 * 1431: Joan of Arc was burned at the stake
 * 1434: The Medici family in Florence
 * 1439: Johannes Gutenberg first used movable type printing in Europe
 * 1444: Battle of Varna
 * 1445: Battle of Suzdal
 * 1453: Constantinople falls to Ottoman conquest
 * 1455: Gutenberg Bible printed in Mainz
 * 1456: Siege of Belgrade
 * 1461: The Empire of Trebizond fell to the Turks
 * 1469: Catholic Monarchs
 * 1470: Battle of Lipnic
 * 1474–1477: Burgundian Wars
 * 1478: Muscovy conquered Novgorod
 * 1478: The Catholic Monarchs established the Spanish Inquisition
 * 1479: Battle of Breadfield
 * 1480: Great Stand on the Ugra River. The end of the Tatar-Mongol yoke over the Russian principalities.
 * 1485: Thomas Malory (Le Morte d'Arthur)
 * 1492: Alhambra Decree
 * 1492: Reconquista ended with the fall of Granada
 * 1492: Christopher Columbus reached the "New World"
 * 1494: Treaty of Tordesillas
 * 1497–1498: Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama's first voyage reached India after circumnavigating Africa
 * 1499: Battle of Zonchio

Surveys

 * Ferguson, Wallace K. Europe in transition, 1300-1520 (1962) online.
 * Koenigsberger, H.G. Medieval Europe 400 - 1500 (1987) excerpt
 * Ferguson, Wallace K. Europe in transition, 1300-1520 (1962) online.
 * Koenigsberger, H.G. Medieval Europe 400 - 1500 (1987) excerpt
 * Ferguson, Wallace K. Europe in transition, 1300-1520 (1962) online.
 * Koenigsberger, H.G. Medieval Europe 400 - 1500 (1987) excerpt
 * Koenigsberger, H.G. Medieval Europe 400 - 1500 (1987) excerpt
 * Koenigsberger, H.G. Medieval Europe 400 - 1500 (1987) excerpt
 * Koenigsberger, H.G. Medieval Europe 400 - 1500 (1987) excerpt
 * Koenigsberger, H.G. Medieval Europe 400 - 1500 (1987) excerpt

title: Late Middle Ages