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Genetically modified crops

Genetically modified crops (GM crops) are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering methods. Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of Agrobacterium for the delivery of sequences hosted in T-DNA binary vectors. In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species. Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, environmental conditions, reduction of spoilage, resistance to chemical treatments (e.g. resistance to a herbicide), or improving the nutrient profile of the crop. Examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation.

Farmers have widely adopted GM technology. Acreage increased from 1.7 million hectares in 1996 to 185.1 million hectares in 2016, some 12% of global cropland. As of 2016, major crop (soybean, maize, canola and cotton) traits consist of herbicide tolerance (95.9 million hectares) insect resistance (25.2 million hectares), or both (58.5 million hectares). In 2015, 53.6 million ha of Genetically modified maize were under cultivation (almost 1/3 of the maize crop). GM maize outperformed its predecessors: yield was 5.6 to 24.5% higher with less mycotoxins (−28.8%), fumonisin (−30.6%) and thricotecens (−36.5%). Non-target organisms were unaffected, except for lower populations some parasitoid wasps due to decreased populations of their pest host European corn borer; European corn borer is a target of Lepidoptera active Bt maize. Biogeochemical parameters such as lignin content did not vary, while biomass decomposition was higher.

A 2014 meta-analysis concluded that GM technology adoption had reduced chemical pesticide use by 37%, increased crop yields by 22%, and increased farmer profits by 68%. This reduction in pesticide use has been ecologically beneficial, but benefits may be reduced by overuse. Yield gains and pesticide reductions are larger for insect-resistant crops than for herbicide-tolerant crops. Yield and profit gains are higher in developing countries than in developed countries. Pesticide poisonings were reduced by 2.4 to 9 million cases per year in India alone. A 2011 review of the relationship between Bt cotton adoption and farmer suicides in India found that "Available data show no evidence of a 'resurgence' of farmer suicides" and that "Bt cotton technology has been very effective overall in India." During the time period of Bt cotton introduction in India, farmer suicides instead declined by 25%.

There is a scientific consensus   that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food,     but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.

History
Humans have directly influenced the genetic makeup of plants to increase their value as a crop through domestication. The first evidence of plant domestication comes from emmer and einkorn wheat found in pre-Pottery Neolithic A villages in Southwest Asia dated about 10,500 to 10,100 BC. The Fertile Crescent of Western Asia, Egypt, and India were sites of the earliest planned sowing and harvesting of plants that had previously been gathered in the wild. Independent development of agriculture occurred in northern and southern China, Africa's Sahel, New Guinea and several regions of the Americas. The eight Neolithic founder crops (emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax) had all appeared by about 7,000 BC. Traditional crop breeders have long introduced foreign germplasm into crops by creating novel crosses. A hybrid cereal grain was created in 1875, by crossing wheat and rye. Since then traits including dwarfing genes and rust resistance have been introduced in that manner. Plant tissue culture and deliberate mutations have enabled humans to alter the makeup of plant genomes.

Modern advances in genetics have allowed humans to more directly alter plants genetics. In 1970 Hamilton Smith's lab discovered restriction enzymes that allowed DNA to be cut at specific places, enabling scientists to isolate genes from an organism's genome. DNA ligases that join broken DNA together had been discovered earlier in 1967, and by combining the two technologies, it was possible to "cut and paste" DNA sequences and create recombinant DNA. Plasmids, discovered in 1952, became important tools for transferring information between cells and replicating DNA sequences. In 1907 a bacterium that caused plant tumors, Agrobacterium tumefaciens, was discovered and in the early 1970s the tumor inducing agent was found to be a DNA plasmid called the Ti plasmid. By removing the genes in the plasmid that caused the tumor and adding in novel genes researchers were able to infect plants with A. tumefaciens and let the bacteria insert their chosen DNA sequence into the genomes of the plants. As not all plant cells were susceptible to infection by A. tumefaciens other methods were developed, including electroporation, micro-injection and particle bombardment with a gene gun (invented in 1987). In the 1980s techniques were developed to introduce isolated chloroplasts back into a plant cell that had its cell wall removed. With the introduction of the gene gun in 1987 it became possible to integrate foreign genes into a chloroplast. Genetic transformation has become very efficient in some model organisms. In 2008 genetically modified seeds were produced in Arabidopsis thaliana by dipping the flowers in an Agrobacterium solution. In 2013 CRISPR was first used to target modification of plant genomes.

The first genetically engineered crop plant was tobacco, reported in 1983. It was developed creating a chimeric gene that joined an antibiotic resistant gene to the T1 plasmid from Agrobacterium. The tobacco was infected with Agrobacterium transformed with this plasmid resulting in the chimeric gene being inserted into the plant. Through tissue culture techniques a single tobacco cell was selected that contained the gene and a new plant grown from it. The first field trials of genetically engineered plants occurred in France and the US in 1986, tobacco plants were engineered to be resistant to herbicides. In 1987 Plant Genetic Systems, founded by Marc Van Montagu and Jeff Schell, was the first company to genetically engineer insect-resistant plants by incorporating genes that produced insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) into tobacco. The People's Republic of China was the first country to commercialise transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992. In 1994 Calgene attained approval to commercially release the Flavr Savr tomato, a tomato engineered to have a longer shelf life. Also in 1994, the European Union approved tobacco engineered to be resistant to the herbicide bromoxynil, making it the first genetically engineered crop commercialised in Europe. In 1995 Bt Potato was approved safe by the Environmental Protection Agency, after having been approved by the FDA, making it the first pesticide producing crop to be approved in the US. In 1996 a total of 35 approvals had been granted to commercially grow 8 transgenic crops and one flower crop (carnation), with 8 different traits in 6 countries plus the EU. By 2010, 29 countries had planted commercialised genetically modified crops and a further 31 countries had granted regulatory approval for transgenic crops to be imported.

GM banana cultivar QCAV-4 was approved by Australia and New Zealand in 2024. The banana resists the fungus that is fatal to the Cavendish banana, the dominant cultivar.

Methods
Genetically engineered crops have genes added or removed using genetic engineering techniques, originally including gene guns, electroporation, microinjection and agrobacterium. More recently, CRISPR and TALEN offered much more precise and convenient editing techniques.

Gene guns (also known as biolistics) "shoot" (direct high energy particles or radiations against ) target genes into plant cells. It is the most common method. DNA is bound to tiny particles of gold or tungsten which are subsequently shot into plant tissue or single plant cells under high pressure. The accelerated particles penetrate both the cell wall and membranes. The DNA separates from the metal and is integrated into plant DNA inside the nucleus. This method has been applied successfully for many cultivated crops, especially monocots like wheat or maize, for which transformation using Agrobacterium tumefaciens has been less successful. The major disadvantage of this procedure is that serious damage can be done to the cellular tissue.

Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation is another common technique. Agrobacteria are natural plant parasites. Their natural ability to transfer genes provides another engineering method. To create a suitable environment for themselves, these Agrobacteria insert their genes into plant hosts, resulting in a proliferation of modified plant cells near the soil level (crown gall). The genetic information for tumor growth is encoded on a mobile, circular DNA fragment (plasmid). When Agrobacterium infects a plant, it transfers this T-DNA to a random site in the plant genome. When used in genetic engineering the bacterial T-DNA is removed from the bacterial plasmid and replaced with the desired foreign gene. The bacterium is a vector, enabling transportation of foreign genes into plants. This method works especially well for dicotyledonous plants like potatoes, tomatoes, and tobacco. Agrobacteria infection is less successful in crops like wheat and maize.

Electroporation is used when the plant tissue does not contain cell walls. In this technique, "DNA enters the plant cells through miniature pores which are temporarily caused by electric pulses."

Microinjection is used to directly inject foreign DNA into cells.

Plant scientists, backed by results of modern comprehensive profiling of crop composition, point out that crops modified using GM techniques are less likely to have unintended changes than are conventionally bred crops.

In research tobacco and Arabidopsis thaliana are the most frequently modified plants, due to well-developed transformation methods, easy propagation and well studied genomes. They serve as model organisms for other plant species.

Introducing new genes into plants requires a promoter specific to the area where the gene is to be expressed. For instance, to express a gene only in rice grains and not in leaves, an endosperm-specific promoter is used. The codons of the gene must be optimized for the organism due to codon usage bias.

Transgenic
Transgenic plants have genes inserted into them that are derived from another species. The inserted genes can come from species within the same kingdom (plant to plant), or between kingdoms (for example, bacteria to plant). In many cases the inserted DNA has to be modified slightly in order to be correctly and efficiently expressed in the host organism. Transgenic plants are used to express proteins, like the cry toxins from B. thuringiensis, herbicide-resistant genes, antibodies, and antigens for vaccinations. A study led by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) also found viral genes in transgenic plants.

Transgenic carrots have been used to produce the drug Taliglucerase alfa which is used to treat Gaucher's disease. In the laboratory, transgenic plants have been modified to increase photosynthesis (currently about 2% at most plants versus the theoretic potential of 9–10%). This is possible by changing the rubisco enzyme (i.e. changing C3 plants into C4 plants ), by placing the rubisco in a carboxysome, by adding pumps in the cell wall, or by changing the leaf form or size. Plants have been engineered to exhibit bioluminescence that may become a sustainable alternative to electric lighting.

Cisgenic
Cisgenic plants are made using genes found within the same species or a sexually-compatible closely related one, where conventional plant breeding can occur. Some breeders and scientists argue that cisgenic modification is useful for plants that are difficult to crossbreed by conventional means (such as potatoes), and that plants in the cisgenic category should not require the same regulatory scrutiny as transgenics.

Subgenic
Genetically modified plants can also be developed using gene knockdown or gene knockout to alter the genetic makeup of a plant without incorporating genes from other plants. In 2014, Chinese researcher Gao Caixia filed patents on the creation of a strain of wheat that is resistant to powdery mildew. The strain lacks genes that encode proteins that repress defenses against the mildew. The researchers deleted all three copies of the genes from wheat's hexaploid genome. Gao used the TALENs and CRISPR gene editing tools without adding or changing any other genes. No field trials were immediately planned. The CRISPR technique has also been used by Penn State researcher Yinong Yang to modify white button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) to be non-browning, and by DuPont Pioneer to make a new variety of corn.

Multiple trait integration
With multiple trait integration, several new traits may be integrated into a new crop.

Economics
GM food's economic value to farmers is one of its major benefits, including in developing nations. A 2010 study found that Bt corn provided economic benefits of $6.9 billion over the previous 14 years in five Midwestern states. The majority ($4.3 billion) accrued to farmers producing non-Bt corn. This was attributed to European corn borer populations reduced by exposure to Bt corn, leaving fewer to attack conventional corn nearby. Agriculture economists calculated that "world surplus [increased by] $240.3 million for 1996. Of this total, the largest share (59%) went to U.S. farmers. Seed company Monsanto received the next largest share (21%), followed by US consumers (9%), the rest of the world (6%), and the germplasm supplier, Delta & Pine Land Company of Mississippi (5%)."

According to the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA), in 2014 approximately 18 million farmers grew biotech crops in 28 countries; about 94% of the farmers were resource-poor in developing countries. 53% of the global biotech crop area of 181.5 million hectares was grown in 20 developing countries. PG Economics comprehensive 2012 study concluded that GM crops increased farm incomes worldwide by $14 billion in 2010, with over half this total going to farmers in developing countries.

Forgoing these benefits is costly. Wesseler et al., 2017 estimate the cost of delay for several crops including GM banana in Uganda, GM cowpea in west Africa, and GM maize/corn in Kenya. They estimate Nigeria alone loses $33–46m annually. The potential and alleged harms of GM crops must then be compared to these costs of delay.

Critics challenged the claimed benefits to farmers over the prevalence of biased observers and by the absence of randomized controlled trials. The main Bt crop grown by small farmers in developing countries is cotton. A 2006 review of Bt cotton findings by agricultural economists concluded, "the overall balance sheet, though promising, is mixed. Economic returns are highly variable over years, farm type, and geographical location".

In 2013 the European Academies Science Advisory Council (EASAC) asked the EU to allow the development of agricultural GM technologies to enable more sustainable agriculture, by employing fewer land, water, and nutrient resources. EASAC also criticizes the EU's "time-consuming and expensive regulatory framework" and said that the EU had fallen behind in the adoption of GM technologies.

Participants in agriculture business markets include seed companies, agrochemical companies, distributors, farmers, grain elevators and universities that develop new crops/traits and whose agricultural extensions advise farmers on best practices. According to a 2012 review based on data from the late 1990s and early 2000s, much of the GM crop grown each year is used for livestock feed and increased demand for meat leads to increased demand for GM feed crops. Feed grain usage as a percentage of total crop production is 70% for corn and more than 90% of oil seed meals such as soybeans. About 65 million metric tons of GM corn grains and about 70 million metric tons of soybean meals derived from GM soybean become feed.

In 2014 the global value of biotech seed was US$15.7 billion; US$11.3 billion (72%) was in industrial countries and US$4.4 billion (28%) was in the developing countries. In 2009, Monsanto had $7.3 billion in sales of seeds and from licensing its technology; DuPont, through its Pioneer subsidiary, was the next biggest company in that market. As of 2009, the overall Roundup line of products including the GM seeds represented about 50% of Monsanto's business.

Some patents on GM traits have expired, allowing the legal development of generic strains that include these traits. For example, generic glyphosate-tolerant GM soybean is now available. Another impact is that traits developed by one vendor can be added to another vendor's proprietary strains, potentially increasing product choice and competition. The patent on the first type of Roundup Ready crop that Monsanto produced (soybeans) expired in 2014 and the first harvest of off-patent soybeans occurs in the spring of 2015. Monsanto has broadly licensed the patent to other seed companies that include the glyphosate resistance trait in their seed products. About 150 companies have licensed the technology, including Syngenta and DuPont Pioneer.

Yield
In 2014, the largest review yet concluded that GM crops' effects on farming were positive. The meta-analysis considered all published English-language examinations of the agronomic and economic impacts between 1995 and March 2014 for three major GM crops: soybean, maize, and cotton. The study found that herbicide-tolerant crops have lower production costs, while for insect-resistant crops the reduced pesticide use was offset by higher seed prices, leaving overall production costs about the same.

Yields increased 9% for herbicide tolerance and 25% for insect resistant varieties. Farmers who adopted GM crops made 69% higher profits than those who did not. The review found that GM crops help farmers in developing countries, increasing yields by 14 percentage points.

The researchers considered some studies that were not peer-reviewed and a few that did not report sample sizes. They attempted to correct for publication bias, by considering sources beyond academic journals. The large data set allowed the study to control for potentially confounding variables such as fertilizer use. Separately, they concluded that the funding source did not influence study results.

Under special conditions meant to reveal only genetic yield factors, many GM crops are known to actually have lower yields. This is variously due to one or both of: Yield drag, wherein the trait itself lowers yield, either by competing for synthesis feedstock or by being inserted slightly inaccurately, into the middle of a yield-relevant gene; and/or yield lag, wherein it takes some time to breed the newest yield genetics into the GM lines. This does not reflect realistic field conditions however, especially leaving out pest pressure which is often the point of the GM trait. See for example Roundup Ready § Productivity claims.

Gene editing may also increase yields non-specific to the use of any biocides/pesticides. In March 2022, field test results showed CRISPR-based gene knockout of KRN2 in maize and OsKRN2 in rice increased grain yields by ~10% and ~8% without any detected negative effects.

Traits
GM crops grown today, or under development, have been modified with various traits. These traits include improved shelf life, disease resistance, stress resistance, herbicide resistance, pest resistance, production of useful goods such as biofuel or drugs, and ability to absorb toxins and for use in bioremediation of pollution.

Recently, research and development has been targeted to enhancement of crops that are locally important in developing countries, such as insect-resistant cowpea for Africa and insect-resistant brinjal (eggplant).

Extended shelf life
The first genetically modified crop approved for sale in the U.S. was the FlavrSavr tomato, which had a longer shelf life. First sold in 1994, FlavrSavr tomato production ceased in 1997. It is no longer on the market.

In November 2014, the USDA approved a GM potato that prevents bruising.

In February 2015 Arctic Apples were approved by the USDA, becoming the first genetically modified apple approved for US sale. Gene silencing was used to reduce the expression of polyphenol oxidase (PPO), thus preventing enzymatic browning of the fruit after it has been sliced open. The trait was added to Granny Smith and Golden Delicious varieties. The trait includes a bacterial antibiotic resistance gene that provides resistance to the antibiotic kanamycin. The genetic engineering involved cultivation in the presence of kanamycin, which allowed only resistant cultivars to survive. Humans consuming apples do not acquire kanamycin resistance, per arcticapple.com. The FDA approved the apples in March 2015.

Improved photosynthesis
Plants use non-photochemical quenching to protect them from excessive amounts of sunlight. Plants can switch on the quenching mechanism almost instantaneously, but it takes much longer for it to switch off again. During the time that it is switched off, the amount of energy that is wasted increases. A genetic modification in three genes allows to correct this (in a trial with tobacco plants). As a result, yields were 14-20% higher, in terms of the weight of the dry leaves harvested. The plants had larger leaves, were taller and had more vigorous roots.

Another improvement that can be made on the photosynthesis process (with C3 pathway plants) is on photorespiration. By inserting the C4 pathway into C3 plants, productivity may increase by as much as 50% for cereal crops, such as rice.

Improved biosequestration capability
The Harnessing Plants Initiative focuses on creating GM plants that have increased root mass, root depth and suberin content.

Edible oils
Some GM soybeans offer improved oil profiles for processing. Camelina sativa has been modified to produce plants that accumulate high levels of oils similar to fish oils.

Vitamin enrichment
Golden rice, developed by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), provides greater amounts of vitamin A targeted at reducing vitamin A deficiency. As of January 2016, golden rice has not yet been grown commercially in any country.

Toxin reduction
A genetically modified cassava under development offers lower cyanogen glucosides and enhanced protein and other nutrients (called BioCassava).

In November 2014, the USDA approved a potato that prevents bruising and produces less acrylamide when fried. They do not employ genes from non-potato species. The trait was added to the Russet Burbank, Ranger Russet and Atlantic varieties.

Stress resistance
Plants have been engineered to tolerate non-biological stressors, such as drought, frost, and high soil salinity. In 2011, Monsanto's DroughtGard maize became the first drought-resistant GM crop to receive US marketing approval.

Drought resistance occurs by modifying the plant's genes responsible for the mechanism known as the crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM), which allows the plants to survive despite low water levels. This holds promise for water-heavy crops such as rice, wheat, soybeans and poplar to accelerate their adaptation to water-limited environments. Several salinity tolerance mechanisms have been identified in salt-tolerant crops. For example, rice, canola and tomato crops have been genetically modified to increase their tolerance to salt stress.

Glyphosate
The most prevalent GM trait is herbicide tolerance, where glyphosate-tolerance is the most common. Glyphosate (the active ingredient in Roundup and other herbicide products) kills plants by interfering with the shikimate pathway in plants, which is essential for the synthesis of the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan. The shikimate pathway is not present in animals, which instead obtain aromatic amino acids from their diet. More specifically, glyphosate inhibits the enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS).

This trait was developed because the herbicides used on grain and grass crops at the time were highly toxic and not effective against narrow-leaved weeds. Thus, developing crops that could withstand spraying with glyphosate would both reduce environmental and health risks, and give an agricultural edge to the farmer.

Some micro-organisms have a version of EPSPS that is resistant to glyphosate inhibition. One of these was isolated from an Agrobacterium strain CP4 (CP4 EPSPS) that was resistant to glyphosate. The CP4 EPSPS gene was engineered for plant expression by fusing the 5' end of the gene to a chloroplast transit peptide derived from the petunia EPSPS. This transit peptide was used because it had shown previously an ability to deliver bacterial EPSPS to the chloroplasts of other plants. This CP4 EPSPS gene was cloned and transfected into soybeans.

The plasmid used to move the gene into soybeans was PV-GMGTO4. It contained three bacterial genes, two CP4 EPSPS genes, and a gene encoding beta-glucuronidase (GUS) from Escherichia coli as a marker. The DNA was injected into the soybeans using the particle acceleration method. Soybean cultivar A54O3 was used for the transformation.

Bromoxynil
Tobacco plants have been engineered to be resistant to the herbicide bromoxynil.

Glufosinate
Crops have been commercialized that are resistant to the herbicide glufosinate, as well. Crops engineered for resistance to multiple herbicides to allow farmers to use a mixed group of two, three, or four different chemicals are under development to combat growing herbicide resistance.

2,4-D
In October 2014 the US EPA registered Dow's Enlist Duo maize, which is genetically modified to be resistant to both glyphosate and 2,4-D, in six states. Inserting a bacterial aryloxyalkanoate dioxygenase gene, aad1 makes the corn resistant to 2,4-D. The USDA had approved maize and soybeans with the mutation in September 2014.

Dicamba
Monsanto has requested approval for a stacked strain that is tolerant of both glyphosate and dicamba. The request includes plans for avoiding herbicide drift to other crops. Significant damage to other non-resistant crops occurred from dicamba formulations intended to reduce volatilization drifting when sprayed on resistant soybeans in 2017. The newer dicamba formulation labels specify to not spray when average wind speeds are above 10 - 15 mph to avoid particle drift, average wind speeds below 3 mph to avoid temperature inversions, and rain or high temperatures are in the next day forecast. However, these conditions typically only occur during June and July for a few hours at a time.

Insects
Tobacco, corn, rice and some other crops have been engineered to express genes encoding for insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). The introduction of Bt crops during the period between 1996 and 2005 has been estimated to have reduced the total volume of insecticide active ingredient use in the United States by over 100 thousand tons. This represents a 19.4% reduction in insecticide use.

In the late 1990s, a genetically modified potato that was resistant to the Colorado potato beetle was withdrawn because major buyers rejected it, fearing consumer opposition.

Viruses
Plant viruses are a cause of around half of the plant diseases emerging worldwide, and an estimated 10–15% of losses in crop yields. Papaya, potatoes, and squash have been engineered to resist viral pathogens such as cucumber mosaic virus which, despite its name, infects a wide variety of plants. Virus resistant papaya were developed in response to a papaya ringspot virus (PRV) outbreak in Hawaii in the late 1990s. They incorporate PRV DNA. By 2010, 80% of Hawaiian papaya plants were genetically modified.

Potatoes were engineered for resistance to potato leaf roll virus and Potato virus Y in 1998. Poor sales led to their market withdrawal after three years.

Yellow squash that were resistant to at first two, then three viruses were developed, beginning in the 1990s. The viruses are watermelon, cucumber and zucchini/courgette yellow mosaic. Squash was the second GM crop to be approved by US regulators. The trait was later added to zucchini.

Many strains of corn have been developed in recent years to combat the spread of Maize dwarf mosaic virus, a costly virus that causes stunted growth which is carried in Johnson grass and spread by aphid insect vectors. These strands are commercially available although the resistance is not standard among GM corn variants.

Drugs
In 2012, the FDA approved the first plant-produced pharmaceutical, a treatment for Gaucher's Disease. Tobacco plants have been modified to produce therapeutic antibodies.

Biofuel
Algae is under development for use in biofuels. The focus of Microalgae for mass production for biofuels modifying the algae to produce more lipid has become a focus yet will take years to see results due to the cost of this process to extract lipids. Researchers in Singapore were working on GM jatropha for biofuel production. Syngenta has USDA approval to market a maize trademarked Enogen that has been genetically modified to convert its starch to sugar for ethanol. Some trees have been genetically modified to either have less lignin, or to express lignin with chemically labile bonds. Lignin is the critical limiting factor when using wood to make bio-ethanol because lignin limits the accessibility of cellulose microfibrils to depolymerization by enzymes. Besides with trees, the chemically labile lignin bonds are also very useful for cereal crops such as maize,

Materials
Companies and labs are working on plants that can be used to make bioplastics. Potatoes that produce industrially useful starches have been developed as well. Oilseed can be modified to produce fatty acids for detergents, substitute fuels and petrochemicals.

Non-pesticide pest management products
Besides the modified oilcrop above, Camelina sativa has also been modified to produce Helicoverpa armigera pheromones and is in progress with a Spodoptera frugiperda version. The H. armigera pheromones have been tested and are effective.

Bioremediation
Scientists at the University of York developed a weed (Arabidopsis thaliana) that contains genes from bacteria that could clean TNT and RDX-explosive soil contaminants in 2011. 16 million hectares in the US (1.5% of the total surface) are estimated to be contaminated with TNT and RDX. However A. thaliana was not tough enough for use on military test grounds. Modifications in 2016 included switchgrass and bentgrass.

Genetically modified plants have been used for bioremediation of contaminated soils. Mercury, selenium and organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).

Marine environments are especially vulnerable since pollution such as oil spills are not containable. In addition to anthropogenic pollution, millions of tons of petroleum annually enter the marine environment from natural seepages. Despite its toxicity, a considerable fraction of petroleum oil entering marine systems is eliminated by the hydrocarbon-degrading activities of microbial communities. Particularly successful is a recently discovered group of specialists, the so-called hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (HCCB) that may offer useful genes.

Asexual reproduction
Crops such as maize reproduce sexually each year. This randomizes which genes get propagated to the next generation, meaning that desirable traits can be lost. To maintain a high-quality crop, some farmers purchase seeds every year. Typically, the seed company maintains two inbred varieties and crosses them into a hybrid strain that is then sold. Related plants like sorghum and gamma grass are able to perform apomixis, a form of asexual reproduction that keeps the plant's DNA intact. This trait is apparently controlled by a single dominant gene, but traditional breeding has been unsuccessful in creating asexually-reproducing maize. Genetic engineering offers another route to this goal. Successful modification would allow farmers to replant harvested seeds that retain desirable traits, rather than relying on purchased seed.

Other
Genetic modifications to some crops also exist, which make it easier to process the crop, i.e. by growing it in a more compact form. Crops such as tomatoes have been modified to be seedless. Tobacco has been modified to produce chlorophyll c in addition to a and b, increasing growth rates. The transgene was discovered in marine algae, which uses it to gain energy from the blue light that is able to penetrate seawater more effectively than longer wavelengths.

GM Camelina
Several modifications of Camelina sativa have been done, see §Edible oils and §Non-pesticide pest management products above.

Development
The number of USDA-approved field releases for testing grew from 4 in 1985 to 1,194 in 2002 and averaged around 800 per year thereafter. The number of sites per release and the number of gene constructs (ways that the gene of interest is packaged together with other elements) – have rapidly increased since 2005. Releases with agronomic properties (such as drought resistance) jumped from 1,043 in 2005 to 5,190 in 2013. As of September 2013, about 7,800 releases had been approved for corn, more than 2,200 for soybeans, more than 1,100 for cotton, and about 900 for potatoes. Releases were approved for herbicide tolerance (6,772 releases), insect resistance (4,809), product quality such as flavor or nutrition (4,896), agronomic properties like drought resistance (5,190), and virus/fungal resistance (2,616). The institutions with the most authorized field releases include Monsanto with 6,782, Pioneer/DuPont with 1,405, Syngenta with 565, and USDA's Agricultural Research Service with 370. As of September 2013 USDA had received proposals for releasing GM rice, squash, plum, rose, tobacco, flax, and chicory.

Bacillus thuringiensis
Constant exposure to a toxin creates evolutionary pressure for pests resistant to that toxin. Over-reliance on glyphosate and a reduction in the diversity of weed management practices allowed the spread of glyphosate resistance in 14 weed species in the US, and in soybeans.

To reduce resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) crops, the 1996 commercialization of transgenic cotton and maize came with a management strategy to prevent insects from becoming resistant. Insect resistance management plans are mandatory for Bt crops. The aim is to encourage a large population of pests so that any (recessive) resistance genes are diluted within the population. Resistance lowers evolutionary fitness in the absence of the stressor, Bt. In refuges, non-resistant strains outcompete resistant ones.

With sufficiently high levels of transgene expression, nearly all of the heterozygotes (S/s), i.e., the largest segment of the pest population carrying a resistance allele, will be killed before maturation, thus preventing transmission of the resistance gene to their progeny. Refuges (i. e., fields of nontransgenic plants) adjacent to transgenic fields increases the likelihood that homozygous resistant (s/s) individuals and any surviving heterozygotes will mate with susceptible (S/S) individuals from the refuge, instead of with other individuals carrying the resistance allele. As a result, the resistance gene frequency in the population remains lower.

Complicating factors can affect the success of the high-dose/refuge strategy. For example, if the temperature is not ideal, thermal stress can lower Bt toxin production and leave the plant more susceptible. More importantly, reduced late-season expression has been documented, possibly resulting from DNA methylation of the promoter. The success of the high-dose/refuge strategy has successfully maintained the value of Bt crops. This success has depended on factors independent of management strategy, including low initial resistance allele frequencies, fitness costs associated with resistance, and the abundance of non-Bt host plants outside the refuges.

Companies that produce Bt seed are introducing strains with multiple Bt proteins. Monsanto did this with Bt cotton in India, where the product was rapidly adopted. Monsanto has also; in an attempt to simplify the process of implementing refuges in fields to comply with Insect Resistance Management(IRM) policies and prevent irresponsible planting practices; begun marketing seed bags with a set proportion of refuge (non-transgenic) seeds mixed in with the Bt seeds being sold. Coined "Refuge-In-a-Bag" (RIB), this practice is intended to increase farmer compliance with refuge requirements and reduce additional labor needed at planting from having separate Bt and refuge seed bags on hand. This strategy is likely to reduce the likelihood of Bt-resistance occurring for corn rootworm, but may increase the risk of resistance for lepidopteran corn pests, such as European corn borer. Increased concerns for resistance with seed mixtures include partially resistant larvae on a Bt plant being able to move to a susceptible plant to survive or cross pollination of refuge pollen on to Bt plants that can lower the amount of Bt expressed in kernels for ear feeding insects.

Herbicide resistance
Best management practices (BMPs) to control weeds may help delay resistance. BMPs include applying multiple herbicides with different modes of action, rotating crops, planting weed-free seed, scouting fields routinely, cleaning equipment to reduce the transmission of weeds to other fields, and maintaining field borders. The most widely planted GM crops are designed to tolerate herbicides. By 2006 some weed populations had evolved to tolerate some of the same herbicides. Palmer amaranth is a weed that competes with cotton. A native of the southwestern US, it traveled east and was first found resistant to glyphosate in 2006, less than 10 years after GM cotton was introduced.

Plant protection
Farmers generally use less insecticide when they plant Bt-resistant crops. Insecticide use on corn farms declined from 0.21 pound per planted acre in 1995 to 0.02 pound in 2010. This is consistent with the decline in European corn borer populations as a direct result of Bt corn and cotton. The establishment of minimum refuge requirements helped delay the evolution of Bt resistance. However, resistance appears to be developing to some Bt traits in some areas. In Columbia, GM cotton has reduced insecticide usage by 25% and herbicide usage by 5%, and GM corn has reduced insecticide and herbicide usage by 66% and 13%, respectively.

Tillage
By leaving at least 30% of crop residue on the soil surface from harvest through planting, conservation tillage reduces soil erosion from wind and water, increases water retention, and reduces soil degradation as well as water and chemical runoff. In addition, conservation tillage reduces the carbon footprint of agriculture. A 2014 review covering 12 states from 1996 to 2006, found that a 1% increase in herbicde-tolerant (HT) soybean adoption leads to a 0.21% increase in conservation tillage and a 0.3% decrease in quality-adjusted herbicide use.

Greenhouse gas emissions
Combined features of increased yield, decreased land use, reduced use of fertilizer and reduced farming machinery use create a feedback loop that reduces carbon emissions related to farming. These reductions have been estimated at 7.5% of total agricultural emissions in the EU or 33 millions tons of and an estimated 8.76 million tons of  in Columbia.

Drought tolerance
The use of drought tolerant crops can increase yield in water-scarce locations, making farming possible in new areas. The adoption of drought tolerant maize in Ghana was shown to increase yield by more than 150% and boost commercialization intensity, although it did not significantly affect farm income.

Regulation
The regulation of genetic engineering concerns the approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the risks associated with the development and release of genetically modified crops. There are differences in the regulation of GM crops between countries, with some of the most marked differences occurring between the US and Europe. Regulation varies in a given country depending on the intended use of each product. For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities responsible for food safety.

Production

In 2013, GM crops were planted in 27 countries; 19 were developing countries and 8 were developed countries. 2013 was the second year in which developing countries grew a majority (54%) of the total GM harvest. 18 million farmers grew GM crops; around 90% were small-holding farmers in developing countries.

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) reports every year on the total area of GM crop varieties planted in the United States. According to National Agricultural Statistics Service, the states published in these tables represent 81–86 percent of all corn planted area, 88–90 percent of all soybean planted area, and 81–93 percent of all upland cotton planted area (depending on the year).

Global estimates are produced by the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA) and can be found in their annual reports, "Global Status of Commercialized Transgenic Crops".

Farmers have widely adopted GM technology (see figure). Between 1996 and 2013, the total surface area of land cultivated with GM crops increased by a factor of 100, from 17000 km2 to 1,750,000 km2 (432 million acres). 10% of the world's arable land was planted with GM crops in 2010. As of 2011, 11 different transgenic crops were grown commercially on 395 million acres (160 million hectares) in 29 countries such as the US, Brazil, Argentina, India, Canada, China, Paraguay, Pakistan, South Africa, Uruguay, Bolivia, Australia, Philippines, Myanmar, Burkina Faso, Mexico and Spain. One of the key reasons for this widespread adoption is the perceived economic benefit the technology brings to farmers. For example, the system of planting glyphosate-resistant seed and then applying glyphosate once plants emerged provided farmers with the opportunity to dramatically increase the yield from a given plot of land, since this allowed them to plant rows closer together. Without it, farmers had to plant rows far enough apart to control post-emergent weeds with mechanical tillage. Likewise, using Bt seeds means that farmers do not have to purchase insecticides, and then invest time, fuel, and equipment in applying them. However critics have disputed whether yields are higher and whether chemical use is less, with GM crops. See Genetically modified food controversies article for information.

In the US, by 2014, 94% of the planted area of soybeans, 96% of cotton and 93% of corn were genetically modified varieties. Genetically modified soybeans carried herbicide-tolerant traits only, but maize and cotton carried both herbicide tolerance and insect protection traits (the latter largely Bt protein). These constitute "input-traits" that are aimed to financially benefit the producers, but may have indirect environmental benefits and cost benefits to consumers. The Grocery Manufacturers of America estimated in 2003 that 70–75% of all processed foods in the U.S. contained a GM ingredient.

As of 2024, the cultivation of genetically engineered crops is banned in 38 countries, while 9 countries have banned their import. Europe grows relatively few genetically engineered crops with the exception of Spain, where one fifth of maize is genetically engineered, and smaller amounts in five other countries. The EU had a 'de facto' ban on the approval of new GM crops, from 1999 until 2004. GM crops are now regulated by the EU. Developing countries grew 54 percent of genetically engineered crops in 2013.

In recent years GM crops expanded rapidly in developing countries. In 2013 approximately 18 million farmers grew 54% of worldwide GM crops in developing countries. 2013's largest increase was in Brazil (403,000 km2 versus 368,000 km2 in 2012). GM cotton began growing in India in 2002, reaching 110,000 km2 in 2013.

According to the 2013 ISAAA brief: "a total of 36 countries (35 + EU-28) have granted regulatory approvals for biotech crops for food and/or feed use and for environmental release or planting since 1994 ... a total of 2,833 regulatory approvals involving 27 GM crops and 336 GM events (NB: an "event" is a specific genetic modification in a specific species) have been issued by authorities, of which 1,321 are for food use (direct use or processing), 918 for feed use (direct use or processing) and 599 for environmental release or planting. Japan has the largest number (198), followed by the U.S.A. (165, not including "stacked" events), Canada (146), Mexico (131), South Korea (103), Australia (93), New Zealand (83), European Union (71 including approvals that have expired or under renewal process), Philippines (68), Taiwan (65), Colombia (59), China (55) and South Africa (52). Maize has the largest number (130 events in 27 countries), followed by cotton (49 events in 22 countries), potato (31 events in 10 countries), canola (30 events in 12 countries) and soybean (27 events in 26 countries).

Controversy
Direct genetic engineering has been controversial since its introduction. Most, but not all of the controversies are over GM foods rather than crops per se. GM foods are the subject of protests, vandalism, referendums, legislation, court action and scientific disputes. The controversies involve consumers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations and scientists.

Opponents have objected to GM crops on multiple grounds including environmental impacts, food safety, whether GM crops are needed to address food needs, whether they are sufficiently accessible to farmers in developing countries, concerns over subjecting crops to intellectual property law, and on religious grounds. Secondary issues include labeling, the behavior of government regulators, the effects of pesticide use and pesticide tolerance.

A significant environmental concern about using genetically modified crops is possible cross-breeding with related crops, giving them advantages over naturally occurring varieties. One example is a glyphosate-resistant rice crop that crossbreeds with a weedy relative, giving the weed a competitive advantage. The transgenic hybrid had higher rates of photosynthesis, more shoots and flowers, and more seeds than the non-transgenic hybrids. This demonstrates the possibility of ecosystem damage by GM crop usage.

The role of biopiracy in the development of GM crops is also potentially problematic, as developed countries have gotten economic gain by using the genetic resources of developing countries. In the twentieth century, the International Rice Research Institute catalogued the genomes of almost 80,000 varieties of rice from Asian farms, which has since been used to create new higher yielding varieties of rice. These new varieties create almost 655 million dollars of economic gain for Australia, USA, Canada, and New Zealand every year.

There is a scientific consensus   that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food,     but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.

No reports of ill effects from GM food have been documented in the human population. GM crop labeling is required in many countries, although the United States Food and Drug Administration does not, nor does it distinguish between approved GM and non-GM foods. The United States enacted a law that requires labeling regulations to be issued by July 2018. It allows indirect disclosure such as with a phone number, bar code, or web site.

Advocacy groups such as Center for Food Safety, Union of Concerned Scientists, and Greenpeace claim that risks related to GM food have not been adequately examined and managed, that GM crops are not sufficiently tested and should be labelled, and that regulatory authorities and scientific bodies are too closely tied to industry. Some studies have claimed that genetically modified crops can cause harm; a 2016 review that reanalyzed the data from six of these studies found that their statistical methodologies were flawed and did not demonstrate harm, and said that conclusions about GM crop safety should be drawn from "the totality of the evidence ... instead of far-fetched evidence from single studies".

title: Genetically modified crops


text: User talk:69.219.181.192

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:69.219.181.192


text:
Talk:Karl von Müller

Untitled
Thank you to Rolfmueller for adding the picture link. --R.D.H. (Ghost In The Machine) 03:34, 23 July 2005 (UTC)

Thanks to GEWJ for adding details on von Müller's time as a POW. --R.D.H. (Ghost In The Machine) 10:54, 16 August 2005 (UTC)

POV
"Selfless and chivalrous until the end, a major concern of his final years was the welfare of the surviving Emden crew." A bit emotionally charged and therefore POV for a biog. I do not doubt the man's honour, but such language is not really appropriate. Also, this article needs sources!!! —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Psidogretro (talk • contribs) 20:07, 4 December 2006 (UTC).

External links modified
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title: Talk:Karl von Müller


text:
Rashidi Kawawa

Rashidi Mfaume Kawawa (27 May 1926 – 31 December 2009) was the second Tanganyikan Prime Minister, Preceded by Julius Kambarage Nyerere from 22nd Jan 1962 to 9th Dec 1962 when the post was abolished and the first Tanzanian Prime Minister from 17th Feb 1972 to 13th Feb 1977, succeeded by Edward Sokoine.

Early life and education
Mr. Rashid Mfaume Kawawa was born in Matepwende village, Namtumbo District, Ruvuma Region on February 27, 1926. At 1935, he enrolled in the Tunduru Urban School in Lindi. From 1942 to 1947, he attended Middle School Dar es Salaam Central School before continuing his education at Tabora Boys School between 1951 and 1956. In 1951, he married Sofia Kawawa.

Political career
Rashid Kawawa was one of the founders of the Federation of Workers in 1955, where he was elected as the first General Secretary, before joining the Uhuru movement. It was in this capacity that he began to take a more active role in the Tanganyika independence struggle, mobilizing employees. He was previously the Secretary General of the Government Employees Federation (TLF). Mzee Kawawa left his work at the Workers' Federation in February 1956 because he was a government employee, which banned him from acting in politics, and opted to join the TANU movement to seek Uhuru.

In 1957, he was a member of TANU's 24th Central Committee, and in 1960, he was Vice President of TANU. When Mwalimu Nyerere opted to go to the provinces to create a party and engage in political activities, he was nominated as Tanganyika's Second Prime Minister on January 22, 1962. He served in that capacity until December 8, 1962. He was reappointed to that office on March 2, 1972, and served until February 13, 1977, when Mr. Edward Moringe Sokoine took his place.

Rashid Mfaume Kawawa was named Minister of Local Government and Housing in the President of TANU's Government of Power in 1960. He then became Prime Minister in January 1962, as a Minister without a Special Ministry, when Mwalimu Julius Kambarage Nyerere resigned in order to boost TANU.

Rashid Mfaume Kawawa was chosen Vice President in December 1962, when the country became a republic under President Mwalimu Julius Kambarage Nyerere.He was then appointed as the Second Vice President and Minister of Defense following the merger of Tanganyika and Zanzibar in 1964. During that time, he made significant contributions to the establishment of the Tanzanian People's Defense Force (JWTZ), laying the groundwork for the Force. In addition, he founded the Nation Building Army.

Rashid Mfaume Kawawa was appointed Prime Minister of Tanzania in 1972, a position he held until 1977, when he was re-appointed as Minister of Defense. In addition to these duties, Mzee Rashid Mfaume Kawawa was a Member of Parliament for Nachingwea in Lindi Region and afterwards Liwale from 1965 until 1985. In politics, he has held several roles, including General Secretary of the Revolutionary Party in 1980 and Vice Chairman of the CCM in 1982, and he is a permanent member of the CCM's Central Committee.

Death
Rashid Kawawa at 83, died on Thursday, December 31, 2009, at 3.20 a.m. at Muhimbili National Hospital. Residents of the City of Dar es Salaam had the opportunity to pay their last respects at the Karimjee Gardens on Friday, January 2, 2010, beginning at 7 o'clock in the afternoon, and he was buried on Saturday, January 2, 2010, beginning at 7 o'clock in the afternoon, at his residence in Wazo Area of Wazo Ward in Kinondoni District of Dar es Salaam Region.

Honorary degrees

 * Makerere University, Doctor of Laws (posthumous)
 * University of Dodoma, Honoris Causa (posthumous), 26 November 2010

title: Rashidi Kawawa


text:
Antim Monastery

The Antim Monastery (Mănăstirea Antim) is a Romanian Orthodox church located in Bucharest, Romania on Mitropolit Antim Ivireanu Street, no. 29. It was built between 1713 and 1715 by Saint Antim Ivireanu, at that time a Metropolitan Bishop of Wallachia. The buildings were restored by Patriarch Justinian Marina in the 1960s. As of 2005, there were 7 monks living in the Monastery. The monastery also hosts a museum with religious objects and facts about the life of Antim Ivireanu.

The Monastery is connected to the Legionnaires' rebellion and Bucharest pogrom. On January 22, 1941, led by Hieromonk Nicodem Ioniță, the monks of Antim armed themselves and, using explosives, blew up a synagogue on Antim Street. The numerous Jewish inhabitants of the neighborhood hid in terror. Some of the monks involved were graduates of the Cernica Seminary, a Legionary stronghold.

During the communist rule of Nicolae Ceaușescu, the government threatened demolition of the church and many other historic structures in Romania. A project organized by engineer Eugeniu Iordăchescu moved the church to a different nearby site and saved it in time.

title: Antim Monastery


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Mark Fox

 This page is an archive of the proposed deletion of the article below. Further comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination). No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was delete as unverifiable. Sasquatch′↔T↔C 23:38, July 28, 2005 (UTC)

Mark Fox
Appears to be a non-encyclopedic entry. --Mysidia 03:30, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete -- JamesTeterenko 03:31, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Interesting life, but not notable. Gazpacho 03:32, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete Vanity. Hamster Sandwich 03:50, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete/Move Should probably be moved to my personal page. Madon 04:22, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * As you were the creator of this page, I have copied the content to your user page. -- JamesTeterenko 14:05, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete nn vanity. JamesBurns 05:10, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete - is a work in progress but unlikely subject at 20yo has achieved other notability. Core information may be worth moving to medical-condition page if genuinely unusual. Barnabypage 07:51, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Wait - it says work is in progress and I think user should get his/her chanse to say it all. Renata3 09:32, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, no evidence of notability. Wile E. Heresiarch 17:57, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. No hits on any search engine for "Mark fox" "Arthrogryposis multiplex congenita".  As per that, since he seems to have had no impact on the disease or its understanding, I'd say delete.  Almafeta 01:15, 24 July 2005 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


text:
Pedinidae

Pedinidae are a family of echinoderms.

title: Pedinidae


text:
User talk:Tuco7777

Wikipedia does not yet have a User_talk page called Tuco7777.

* To start the page, begin typing in the box below. When you're done, press the "Save page" button. Your changes should be visible immediately. * If you have created this page in the past few minutes and it has not yet appeared, it may not be visible due to a delay in updating the database. Please wait and check again later before attempting to recreate the page. * Please do not create an article to promote yourself, a website, a product, or a business (see Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not). * Newly created articles often meet the criteria for speedy deletion. Before saving your work, please make sure your article does not. Also, if you are unable to finish a significant part of a planned article, it is often better not save it to the article space. Instead save it as a subpage of your user page. * If you are new to Wikipedia, please read the tutorial before creating your first article, and only use the sandbox for editing experiments. * Search for Tuco7777 in Wikipedia

title: User talk:Tuco7777


text:
Talk:Battle of Bedriacum

Untitled
Thanks to SimonP for the redirect. --R.D.H. (Ghost In The Machine) 03:34, 23 July 2005 (UTC)

error in map
The map shows Arabia as a Roman province - however Arabia was only added under Trajan about 40 year after the battles of Bedriacum.--Kmhkmh (talk) 04:25, 12 November 2009 (UTC)
 * No it doesn't, Look again.--R.D.H. (Ghost In The Machine) (talk) 11:37, 12 November 2009 (UTC)
 * To see what exactly? Arabia is still displayed as a part on the Roman empire, so i'm not sure what you are trying to say here. Note, i'm talking about Arabia Petraea and not the Arabian peninsula.--Kmhkmh (talk) 16:37, 12 November 2009 (UTC)
 * You clearly said Arabia above, not Arabia Petraea. So, being a reader and not a mind reader, how was I to know your meaning. I suggest you take the matter up with the map's creator. The reason I added it to this article was to illustrate which provinces supported which Imperial candidates. Towards that end I think it serves the purpose of the article.--R.D.H. (Ghost In The Machine) (talk) 10:34, 13 November 2009 (UTC)
 * First of all I said "Arabia as roman province", i.e. the roman province arabia, which is well defined term. Moreover what matters here is not really whether my first comment might have been misleading or ambiguous to you or in general (miscommunication happens). What matters here, is that we have an factual error (in the map) and the discussion page of the article is exactly the place to inform about that and to discuss it. Also it should be clear despite the current map being clearly beneficial, that in the long run this needs to fixed (by whoever) - factually false information has no place in WP.--Kmhkmh (talk) 17:25, 13 November 2009 (UTC)
 * P.S: Another problem with the map the or its thumbnail is, that it doesn't say anything regarding the red area. Was it neutral territory? Or did it simply cite with whoever was in Rome at the time? Or just undefined? What's with allegiances that switched (Vespasian for instance and his supporters entered the game late)?--Kmhkmh (talk) 18:18, 13 November 2009 (UTC)

 * Well, my friend, you have two options: Either fix it yourself or (as I stated) get in touch with the creator. Those red areas, I presume, are Armenia and Mesopotamia, which swayed between being aligned with Rome and Parthia.--R.D.H. (Ghost In The Machine) (talk) 15:33, 21 November 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Battle of Bedriacum


text:
Don Rojas

Don Rojas (born 1949) is a journalist and political commentator from Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. He was the Editor in Chief of Grenada's national newspaper The Free West Indian. He served as press secretary for Prime Minister Maurice Bishop from 1981 to 1983, until a Bishop power-sharing dispute led to fighting and Bishop's death. When U.S. Marines invaded Grenada in 1983, he was deported by the U.S. military to Barbados.

Rojas subsequently worked in the International Organization of Journalists (IOJ).

Rojas returned to the United States in the early 1990s.

Since moving to the United States, Rojas worked as General Manager of Pacifica Radio station WBAI in New York from late 2002 to May 2005. In the early 1990s, he was an editor at the New York Amsterdam News, a famous Black paper based in Harlem. In 2006 he was employed as a press officer by Oxfam America. In 2007, Rojas was employed by the Louisiana Disaster Recovery Foundation, an organization that awards money to nonprofit organizations assisting the state's residents in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina.

He briefly served as Executive Director of Free Speech TV in 2014.

title: Don Rojas


text:
Supernature

Supernature may refer to:

 * Supernature (Cerrone III), a 1977 album by Cerrone
 * "Supernature" (song), the title track, covered by Erasure

 * Supernature (Inkubus Sukkubus album), 2001
 * Supernature (Goldfrapp album), 2005
 * Supernature, a 1973 book by Lyall Watson
 * "Supernature", a song by Sharon Needles from the album Taxidermy
 * Ricky Gervais: SuperNature, a 2022 Netflix stand-up comedy show

title: Supernature


text:
Category talk:Rail transport stubs

first sort
I've gone through the articles up through L in this category, sorting into the various stub subcategories as appropriate. If someone else has some time and wants to continue, start with the first article that begins with M and keep going toward Z. slambo 03:37, July 23, 2005 (UTC)
 * I've done M. slambo 15:36, July 23, 2005 (UTC)
 * I've done N. slambo 15:49, July 23, 2005 (UTC)
 * There's O, P and Q. slambo 15:06, July 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * R and S are done. slambo 20:55, July 25, 2005 (UTC)

Wow, I just looked at the number of articles that fit into and it's at 453 right now. That's a lot of stubs that all have almost the same information in them! slambo 20:59, July 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * I admire your patience... At one point I attempted to move all of the stations into and ; never got past "F".  For what it's worth, I've done X through Z.  JYolkowski // talk 02:07, 26 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Cool. I just finished T.  slambo 11:32, July 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * U and V are done, now for W to finish off this task (at least for now...) slambo 12:58, July 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * Whew, just finished W. So, the Great Rail-stub Sort is done for now. slambo 13:42, July 26, 2005 (UTC)

With the sort noted above done, it looks like this category still has 928 articles in it. Time to get working on expanding them and removing the stub tags! slambo 13:55, July 26, 2005 (UTC)

US-rail-stub
Okay, one more pass through to sort again, this time to. I've just finished A, now on to B... slambo 14:59, August 8, 2005 (UTC)
 * B is done. slambo 15:19, August 8, 2005 (UTC)
 * C is done. slambo 15:44, August 8, 2005 (UTC)
 * D is done. slambo 15:50, August 8, 2005 (UTC)
 * E is done. slambo 15:57, August 8, 2005 (UTC)
 * F and G are done. Thanks for the help!  slambo 19:04, August 8, 2005 (UTC)
 * H and I are done. slambo 19:09, August 8, 2005 (UTC)
 * J and K are done. slambo 19:16, August 8, 2005 (UTC)
 * L is done. slambo 19:30, August 8, 2005 (UTC)
 * M is done. slambo 13:14, August 10, 2005 (UTC)
 * N is done. slambo 13:40, August 10, 2005 (UTC)
 * O is done. slambo 13:53, August 10, 2005 (UTC)
 * P is done. slambo 14:46, August 10, 2005 (UTC)
 * Q and R are done. slambo 15:14, August 10, 2005 (UTC)
 * S is done. slambo 16:01, August 10, 2005 (UTC)
 * T is done. slambo 17:44, August 10, 2005 (UTC)
 * All done. slambo 18:02, August 10, 2005 (UTC)

UK-rail-stub
Here we go again. With what appears to be popular support for the stub category, I've created and started sorting into it. A is done. slambo 15:38, August 12, 2005 (UTC)
 * B is done. slambo 16:07, August 12, 2005 (UTC)
 * C is done. CComMack 17:32, 12 August 2005 (UTC)
 * D is done. slambo 17:41, August 12, 2005 (UTC)
 * E is done. slambo 17:46, August 12, 2005 (UTC)
 * F is done. slambo 18:03, August 12, 2005 (UTC)
 * G is done. slambo 18:14, August 12, 2005 (UTC)
 * H is done. slambo 18:24, August 12, 2005 (UTC)
 * I is done. slambo 18:29, August 12, 2005 (UTC)
 * J is done. slambo 18:38, August 12, 2005 (UTC)
 * K and L are done. slambo 19:07, August 12, 2005 (UTC)
 * M is done. CComMack 17:32, 12 August 2005 (UTC) (trying to keep out of your way!)
 * N is done. slambo 19:16, August 12, 2005 (UTC)
 * O and P are done. slambo 19:24, August 12, 2005 (UTC)
 * Q and R are done. slambo 19:46, August 12, 2005 (UTC)
 * S is done. slambo 20:17, August 12, 2005 (UTC)
 * T is done. slambo 20:44, August 12, 2005 (UTC)
 * U-Z are done. CComMack 17:32, 12 August 2005 (UTC)

Korea-rail-stub
Another new stub subcategory, this one for Korea. slambo 11:33, 12 October 2005 (UTC)
 * A through F is done, I started on G. slambo 11:33, 12 October 2005 (UTC)
 * G is done. slambo 11:35, 12 October 2005 (UTC)
 * H through M is done. slambo 13:26, 12 October 2005 (UTC)
 * N through S is done. slambo 13:34, 12 October 2005 (UTC)
 * T through Z is done. slambo 13:38, 12 October 2005 (UTC)

Euro-rail-stub
All European rail stubs covered in Slambo's scratchpad are sorted; a second pass through the category may be called for, but I'm not doing it tonight. --CComMack 02:16, 5 April 2006 (UTC)
 * I sorted a few more into it today for entities that cross international boundaries in Europe. There are probably more that could go in there too, but I don't see them right now. Slambo (Speak)  18:09, 5 April 2006 (UTC)

US-rail-bio-stub
Sorted the remainder of the biographies from US-rail-stub into US-rail-bio-stub. Slambo (Speak) 18:09, 5 April 2006 (UTC)

Category hierarchy of Euro-rail-stub
In adding the new stub category for Europe, I've reorganized the listing here, but it sort of breaks the classification (under "Rail transport by country": Europe is not a country!). Also, I wanted to ask here before actually recategorizing Category:French rail stubs, Category:Polish rail stubs, and Category:UK rail stubs to be children of Category:Europe rail stubs if there's any reason to not do that. In the meantime, on to sorting! --CComMack 01:04, 5 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Sure, as long as we list them on the main rail stubs category page, I don't see much of a reason not to. They are part of Europe last time I looked.  I'll take a look at the hierarchy listing later today.  Slambo (Speak)  11:07, 5 April 2006 (UTC)

Stubs don't work
The Europe rail transport stub does not work, and possibly neither possibly does the Oceania rail transport stub Hugo999. Neither "Europe-rail-stub" or "Europe-rail-transport-stub" as given in the article work (I tried to use both for ASVi museum) (talk) 22:14, 28 September 2011 (UTC)
 * Am I right in thinking that the problem is that although both these stub templates exist (note that is a redirect to ), the category that they attempt to use  is redlinked? -- Red rose64 (talk) 13:29, 29 September 2011 (UTC)
 * As far as I am concerned there was some inconsistancy in the stubdiscussion where some templates and some categories were not nominated for the rename. In particular the continent categories and two city templates.

 * 1) Melbourne-rail-stub
 * 2) Sydney-rail-stub
 * We have two options nominating them and wait a few days or just implement them in the spirit of the rename discussion. Suggestions? Agathoclea (talk) 14:29, 29 September 2011 (UTC)
 * At the moment I pointed the continent templates to their old categories, so everything should be working as before. Agathoclea (talk) 14:35, 29 September 2011 (UTC)
 * Looks like a few more were not nominated. South America and Africa. Agathoclea (talk) 15:29, 29 September 2011 (UTC)
 * see Stub types for deletion/Log/2011/October/1 - Agathoclea (talk) 10:01, 1 October 2011 (UTC)
 * We have two options nominating them and wait a few days or just implement them in the spirit of the rename discussion. Suggestions? Agathoclea (talk) 14:29, 29 September 2011 (UTC)
 * At the moment I pointed the continent templates to their old categories, so everything should be working as before. Agathoclea (talk) 14:35, 29 September 2011 (UTC)
 * Looks like a few more were not nominated. South America and Africa. Agathoclea (talk) 15:29, 29 September 2011 (UTC)
 * see Stub types for deletion/Log/2011/October/1 - Agathoclea (talk) 10:01, 1 October 2011 (UTC)

title: Category talk:Rail transport stubs


text:
Gay Purr-ee

Gay Purr-ee is a 1962 American animated musical film produced by United Productions of America and released by Warner Bros. It features the voice of Judy Garland as Mewsette, a feline living in the French countryside wanting to go to Paris in her only animated-film role, as well as Robert Goulet in his first feature film as her love interest Jaune Tom. While the film did received positive reviews, in reality, it was a box office failure. It is also the first animated feature film to be theatrically released by Warner Bros, and the second and final animated film by UPA.

Plot
The story is set in 1895 and takes place predominantly in Paris, but it begins on a farm in rural Provence. The lovely cat Mewsette and the accomplished but shy mouser Jaune Tom are in love, until the former is frustrated with his plebeian ways (and those of the farm), to the point of calling him a "clumsy country clod". Inspired by the human Jeanette's stories of glamour and sophistication in Paris, Mewsette runs away by taking a train to the big city, where she encounters the slick con-cat Meowrice. Taking advantage of the country kitty's naivete, he puts her in the care of the sultry Madame Henrietta Reubens-Chatte, who promises to turn Mewsette into a dainty debutante known as "The Belle of all Paris". Unbeknownst to Mewsette, Meowrice is grooming her to be the mail-order bride of a rich American cat in Pittsburgh known as "Mr. Henry Phtt". Meanwhile, Jaune Tom and his sidekick Robespierre arrive in Paris, searching for Mewsette.

Training does not go well. Just as Mewsette is about to give up and return to the farm, Meowrice takes her out to see the cat side of Paris, the Eiffel Tower, the Champs-Élysées and the Mewlon Rouge and then take a buggy ride back home. Reinvigorated, she returns to her studies. Jaune Tom and Robespierre arrive just at that moment but get waylaid by one of Meowrice's shadowy cat henchmen and barely escape drowning in Paris's famous labyrinthine sewers. By coincidence, Jaune Tom displays his incredible mouse-hunting skills in front of Meowrice, who sees a money-making opportunity, gets them drunk, and sells them as mousers to a ship bound for Alaska. On the ship, Robespierre consoles a depressed Jaune Tom, telling him that any problem, regardless of size, can be broken up into manageable pieces, by remarking that even the mighty ocean is made up of little drops of water. Jaune Tom has a vision of Mewsette singing about how no problem is unconquerable, and the importance of never giving up.

Mewsette finishes her training and is now lovely enough to impress even Meowrice, who commissions a series of paintings of her so that he can send them to Phtt. Meowrice quietly writes a check with invisible ink to pay his "sister" Madame Reubens-Chatte, and takes Mewsette to his hideout in Notre Dame. There, he reveals his plan to ship her to America and tries to coerce her to enter a luggage crate, but after seeing a portrait of Phtt, unseen by the audience, she manages to escape Meowrice and his sidekicks. In the resulting chase scene, she leads them to a bulldog, who injures Meowrice badly enough to put him out of action for six weeks. Meanwhile, his sycophants (who are nowhere near as intelligent as he is) comb the city without success, searching for Mewsette. Meanwhile, not long after they reach Alaska, Jaune Tom and Robespierre strike gold thanks to the former's mouse-hunting skills. Now wealthy, the two cats hurry back to Paris.

A disillusioned and homeless Mewsette wanders around the streets of Paris and stops atop a bridge over the river, considering ending her misery, but she is captured by Meowrice and his sidekicks. She is taken to the Gare du Nord railway station, en route to a boat to America, and all hope seems lost, when Jaune Tom and Robespierre arrive. They have been aided by Reubens-Chatte, who is outraged that her own "brother" double-crossed her and tears up the worthless check. Fighting inside the boxcar of a moving train, the three heroes defeat Meowrice and pack him into the crate intended for Mewsette instead of kicking him off the train, as a surprise for Phtt. The film concludes with Mewsette, Jaune Tom and Robespierre enjoying the high life in Paris that Mewsette was seeking when she left home.

Voice cast

 * Judy Garland as Mewsette, a beautiful white Turkish Angora and Jaune Tom's girlfriend.
 * Robert Goulet as Jaune Tom, an orange tabby cat.
 * Red Buttons as Robespierre, a young black and white cat and Jaune Tom's friend.
 * Paul Frees as Meowrice, a slim tuxedo cat. Frees also plays the voice of the cat from the railway station.
 * Hermione Gingold as Mme. Rubens-Chatte, Meowrice's "sister" and a Persian cat.
 * Morey Amsterdam as Narrator and Man on Ship.
 * Mel Blanc as Bulldog and additional voices.
 * The Mellomen as Meowrice's business partners (singing voices).
 * Julie Bennett and Joan Gardner as two ladies from Provence.
 * Thurl Ravenscroft as Singing Hench Cat (uncredited).

Production
Gay Purr-ee was the second and final feature film, following 1001 Arabian Nights with Mr. Magoo, produced by UPA (United Productions of America), a studio which had revolutionized animation during the 1950s by incorporating design and limited animation.

The script for Gay Purr-ee was written by Dorothy Webster Jones and her husband, Chuck Jones, who was a veteran director for Warner Bros. Cartoons. One of the former animators from his Warner Bros. unit, Abe Levitow, directed the film. According to the production notes on the DVD edition, it was Garland who suggested that her Wizard of Oz songwriters, Harold Arlen and E.Y. Harburg, should write and compose the songs for Gay Purr-ee.

A copyright entry for a song titled "Free at Last" made for the film exists, though it is not included in the final production.

When Warner Bros. became the film's distributor, they discovered that Chuck Jones had worked on the film. After a long debate with management over the details of Jones' exclusivity agreement, the studio fired Jones in July 1962 and laid off his staff after they had finished their next cartoon. After Warner Bros. Cartoons was closed a year later, Jones hired his old unit for his first independent studio, Sib Tower 12 Productions.

Reception
Gay Purr-ee was theatrically released on December 17, 1962.

Bosley Crowther of The New York Times felt the film's backgrounds were "good-natured tone and diverting" but felt "the characters almost pale by contrast". Philip K. Scheuer of the Los Angeles Times wrote: "The animation, in Technicolor, is inventive enough, leaning toward the economy of motion with which UPA revolutionized the cartoon movie (to say nothing of the TV commercial) and filling in the backgrounds with charming semi-abstractions in consonance with what might be called the modern French manner." Variety felt the film was "hampered by an uninspired storyline, but its otherwise slick and meticulous production values overshadow the weakness with ample artistry." A Newsweek review felt that the film's subject matter was too sophisticated for an animated film, drily noting that its target audience seemed to be "the fey four-year-old of recherché taste". Jerry Beck, in his 2005 book The Animated Movie Guide, felt Gay Purr-ee was "a good effort" and "unjustly underrated". Despite its "strong design sense" and voice cast, he agreed the animation quality is sometimes "on a television level or worse".

Multiple analyses have noted its modernist style, called "remarkably designed" in one such review.

One analysis claims the modernist aesthetic has plot implications: though both urban and pastoral landscapes are equally "highlighted", the plot praises the triumph of "pastoral nature over corrupt urban technology".

Home media
Gay Pur-ee was released on VHS and LaserDisc in 1991 by Warner Home Video (under the Warner Bros. Family Entertainment label). The film was reissued on VHS in 1992 and 1994, then released on DVD for the first time in 2003, and later also re-released on DVD in 2014 as a manufactured-on-demand (MOD) title from the Warner Archive Collection. It has been released in HD on streaming services. The film was released on Blu-ray on August 29, 2023 from Warner Archive.

Soundtrack

On November 4, 2003, Rhino Handmade, a division of the Warner Music Group, released the soundtrack on CD. This was identical to the 1962 LP version but contained 5 additional demo tracks. The demo tracks are performed by Harold Arlen and E. Y. "Yip" Harburg, the composers of the songs for the film. They were also the primary songwriters for the music of The Wizard of Oz, the 1939 Garland feature. Garland stated that the song "Little Drops of Rain" was one of her favorite songs. The CD track listing is as follows:

 * 1) Overture – Judy Garland and Chorus (3:59)
 * 2) Mewsette – Robert Goulet (3:09)
 * 3) Take My Hand, Paree – Judy Garland (2:58)
 * 4) Roses Red, Violets Blue – Judy Garland (2:02)
 * 5) The Money Cat – Paul Frees and the Mellomen (2:17)
 * 6) The Horse Won't Talk – Paul Frees (1:45)
 * 7) Bubbles – Robert Goulet, Red Buttons, and the Mellomen (2:48)
 * 8) Little Drops of Rain – Judy Garland (3:29)
 * 9) Little Drops of Rain – Robert Goulet (1:30)
 * 10) Portrait of Mewsette – Orchestra (3:30)
 * 11) Paris is a Lonely Town – Judy Garland (4:15)
 * 12) Mewsette Finale – Judy Garland, Robert Goulet, and Chorus (2:38)
 * 13) Paris is a Lonely Town (variation) – Orchestra (1:58)
 * 14) Roses Red, Violets Blue (demo) – Harold Arlen and E. Y. "Yip" Harburg (1:43)
 * 15) The Money Cat (demo) – Harold Arlen and E. Y. "Yip" Harburg (2:10)
 * 16) The Horse Won't Talk (demo) – Harold Arlen (3:46)
 * 17) Little Drops of Rain (demo) – Harold Arlen (2:39)
 * 18) Paris is a Lonely Town (demo) – Harold Arlen (2:46)

title: Gay Purr-ee


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/"Alec Moody"

 This page is an archive of the proposed deletion of the article below. Further comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination). No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was speedily deleted as resume/vanity. FCYTravis 03:51, 23 July 2005 (UTC)

"Alec Moody"
Delete this résumé. I'd almost speedy it as correspondence. Gazpacho 03:37, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * delete - speedy if possible
 * delete --Richhil 03:41, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * delete - Agreed with speedy delete. Hansamurai 03:44, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Speedy delete as correspondence and or CV. - Lucky 6.9 03:49, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


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Talk:KAZT-TV

Huh?
To KAZT

Dear Sirs/MMes,

I live in Scottsdale and would like to see KAZT Channel 27 listed on the TV page.

I use a free advertising newspaper put out by Ashland and the AZ Republic.

Can you contact them and arrange to be listed?

DGK Scottsdale

 * DGK, leaving a note on the Wikipedia talk page does not get you in contact with the station management — it just gets you in contact with other Wikipedia readers. You'd be best to contact the station directly. Bearcat 19:53, 27 December 2005 (UTC)

Move to AZ-TV
I did this because at least three more KAZT repeaters have been found. There would just be too many satellites of KAZT (save bandwidth). -TrackerTV 01:27, 26 December 2005 (UTC)

 * A repeater transmitter doesn't get its own article; it only gets a redirect to the originating callsign. Things like K19CX and K545CO would, at best, be redirects to this title anyway. So there's no real bandwidth issue to worry about. Bearcat 19:53, 27 December 2005 (UTC)

KAZT-CA Digital sign on
While AZTV officially started on 1/14/7 the digital broadcast actually started on 1/10/7 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 65.39.87.106 (talk) 04:45, 15 January 2008 (UTC)
 * True, but not verifiable through reliable sources. To my knowledge, KAZT-CA's digital signal hasn't officially started yet. Jan. 14 was their goal, but I don't believe they met it. dhett (talk • contribs) 07:04, 15 January 2008 (UTC)

Early history, low power TV network hub?
In the late 1970s and about 1980/81, the FCC started what we now know as low power television, and when it was announced that the FCC was accepting applications for filings, a number of parties, including KUSK, filed many applications, usually over 100 each, often including one station in every major market. About 90 percent of the original applications never got past the review stage, and many of those never got built that got construction permits. It would not be until the 1990s that low power TV as we know it now really began to become what we know it today.

KUSK did have five in Phoenix originally, there was one on 17 and one on 55, and I think two others. I don't think any of them are in the same places now nor are they KAZT stations now, save for possibly the one mentioned on 27 until the digital switch and the subsequent move to channel 36.

The programming during the period when they were anticipating the national network was actually quite solid. Good off-network reruns, CNN2 (the forerunner of CNN Headline News), and even some sports. Shopping programming was run overnight from the beginning also, although if they had become a national network that might have given way to more off-network programming.

I personally had a relative who worked on things for Bill Sauro, and the national low poer network was basically his idea.

Can anyone find more on this history? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 174.23.163.74 (talk) 03:52, 8 April 2010 (UTC)

External links modified
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External links modified
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July 2023
Do you think you could look over this article and see what needs to be rewritten, particularly the section on translators? Mvcg66b3r (talk) 04:37, 18 July 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:KAZT-TV


text:
Kipper the Dog

Kipper the Dog is a character in a series of books for preschool-age children by British writer Mick Inkpen. The books consist of 34 titles (as of July 2005), which have sold over 8 million copies and have been translated into over 20 languages. The books have also won many awards.

The characters in the Kipper the Dog book series also appear in the animated television series Kipper.

Characters

 * Kipper the Dog - The title character of the TV show and books. He is warm-hearted, friendly and curious. Kipper is not at all selfish, though he is known to be a hoarder. Kipper is likely portrayed after beagle, beagle mix or Jack Russell terrier breed.
 * Tiger - Kipper's best friend. He is more practical and wise than Kipper. Sometimes Tiger can be very smug and naughty, though he really is a kind dog at heart. Tiger is likely portrayed after Scottish Terrier or schnauzer breed.
 * Jake - A friendly, warm-hearted sheepdog who is one of Kipper's best friends. He is a minor character on Kipper. However, he, Kipper and Tiger have had many adventures together.
 * Holly - A cheery white dog with brown spots who is one of Kipper's friends.
 * Pig - Kipper's other best friend. Pig likes to eat chocolate cakes and cookies and at times can be misjudging.
 * Arnold - Pig's toddler cousin who is more aware than Pig and he usually says nothing, but at times he says simple words like "duck" and "igloo". Arnold has many exciting encounters while the older ones are occupied.
 * Mouse - A mouse who lives with Kipper at his house.
 * The Bleepers - A couple of space aliens and a robot who live on the Moon.

Books
Some of the books have been translated into other languages, including Spanish.

TV series
Kipper is a British animated children's television series based on the Kipper the Dog picture book series.

Awards

 * Winner of BAFTA for Preschool Animation in 1998, 2000 and 2001.
 * Publishers Weekly named Kipper as one of the Best Children's Books in 2001.
 * Annecy International Animated Film Festival '98 award, TV Series, Special Prize (up to 12 minutes).
 * Silver Pulcinella Award, 1999, Best Series for Infants
 * Dove Foundation, Dove Family-Approved Suitable for all ages. Tiger Tales and Pools, Parks and Picnics.

title: Kipper the Dog


text:
User talk:Dststm44

I am doing research on the Checks and Balanvce system of the US Constitution. In Government class I was taught that if any American felt that what any branch of government did was unconstitutional they could under the checks and balance system of the US Constitution call for a Special National Vote. I am trying to find out if this is so, can you all help me to find this answer for my research?

title: User talk:Dststm44