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Prelabor rupture of membranes

Prelabor rupture of membranes (PROM), previously known as premature rupture of membranes, is breakage of the amniotic sac before the onset of labour. Women usually experience a painless gush or a steady leakage of fluid from the vagina. Complications in the baby may include premature birth, cord compression, and infection. Complications in the mother may include placental abruption and postpartum endometritis.

Risk factors include infection of the amniotic fluid, prior PROM, bleeding in the later parts of pregnancy, smoking, and a mother who is underweight. Diagnosis is suspected based on symptoms and speculum exam and may be supported by testing the vaginal fluid or by ultrasound. If it occurs before 37 weeks it is known as PPROM (preterm prelabor rupture of membranes) otherwise it is known as term PROM.

Treatment is based on how far along a woman is in pregnancy and whether complications are present. In those at or near term without any complications, induction of labor is generally recommended. Time may also be provided for labor to begin spontaneously. In those 24 to 34 weeks of gestation without complications corticosteroids and close observation is recommended. A 2017 Cochrane review found waiting generally resulted in better outcomes in those before 37 weeks. Antibiotics may be given for those at risk of Group B streptococcus. Delivery is generally indicated in those with complications, regardless of how far along in pregnancy.

About 8% of term pregnancies are complicated by PROM while about 30% of preterm births are complicated by PROM. Before 24 weeks PROM occurs in fewer than 1% of pregnancies. Prognosis is primarily determined by complications related to prematurity such as necrotizing enterocolitis, intraventricular hemorrhage, and cerebral palsy.

Signs and symptoms
Most women will experience a painless leakage of fluid out of the vagina. They may notice either a distinct "gush" or a steady flow of small amounts of watery fluid in the absence of steady uterine contractions. Loss of fluid may be associated with the baby becoming easier to feel through the belly (due to the loss of the surrounding fluid), decreased uterine size, or meconium (fetal stool) seen in the fluid.

Risk factors
The cause of PROM is not clearly understood, but the following are risk factors that increase the chance of it occurring. In many cases, however, no risk factor is identified.
 * Infections: urinary tract infection, sexually transmitted diseases, lower genital tract infections (e.g. bacterial vaginosis), infections within the amniotic sac membranes (chorioamnionitis)
 * Tobacco use during pregnancy
 * Illicit drug use during pregnancy
 * Having had PROM or preterm delivery in previous pregnancies
 * Polyhydramnios: too much amniotic fluid
 * Multiple gestation: being pregnant with two or more fetuses at one time
 * Having had episodes of bleeding anytime during the pregnancy
 * Invasive procedures (e.g. amniocentesis)
 * Nutritional deficits
 * Cervical insufficiency: having a short or prematurely dilated cervix during pregnancy
 * Low socioeconomic status
 * Being underweight

Weak membranes
Fetal membranes likely break because they become weak and fragile. This weakening is a normal process that typically happens at term as the body prepares for labor and delivery. However, this can be a problem when it occurs before 37 weeks (preterm). The natural weakening of fetal membranes is thought to be due to one or a combination of the following. In PROM, these processes are activated too early:
 * Cell death: when cells undergo programmed cell death, they release biochemical markers that are detected in higher concentrations in cases of PPROM.
 * Poor assembly of collagen: collagen is a molecule that gives fetal membranes, as well as other parts of the human body such as the skin, their strength. In cases of PPROM, proteins that bind and cross-link collagen to increase its tensile strength are altered.
 * Breakdown of collagen: collagen is broken down by enzymes called matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), which are found at higher levels in PPROM amniotic fluid. This breakdown results in prostaglandin production which stimulates uterine contractions and cervical ripening. MMPs are inhibited by tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinases (TIMPs) which are found at lower levels in PPROM amniotic fluid.

Infection
Infection and inflammation likely explains why membranes break earlier than they are supposed to. In studies, bacteria have been found in the amniotic fluid from about one-third of cases of PROM. Often, testing of the amniotic fluid is normal, but a subclinical infection (too small to detect) or infection of maternal tissues adjacent to the amniotic fluid, may still be a contributing factor. In response to infection, the resultant infection and release of chemicals (cytokines) subsequently weakens the fetal membranes and put them at risk for rupture. PROM is also a risk factor in the development of neonatal infections.

Genetics
Many genes play a role in inflammation and collagen production, therefore inherited genes may play a role in predisposing a person to PROM.

Diagnosis
To confirm if a woman has experienced PROM, a clinician must prove that the fluid leaking from the vagina is amniotic fluid, and that labor has not yet started. To do this, a careful medical history is taken, a gynecological exam is conducted using a sterile speculum, and an ultrasound of the uterus is performed.
 * History: a person with PROM typically recalls a sudden "gush" of fluid loss from the vagina, or steady loss of small amounts of fluid.
 * Sterile speculum exam: a clinician will insert a sterile speculum into the vagina in order to see inside and perform the following evaluations. Digital cervical exams, in which gloved fingers are inserted into the vagina to measure the cervix, are avoided until the women is in active labor to reduce the risk of infection.
 * Pooling test: Pooling is when a collection of amniotic fluid can be seen in the back of the vagina (vaginal fornix). Sometimes leakage of fluid from the cervical opening can be seen when the person coughs or performs a valsalva maneuver.
 * Nitrazine test: A sterile cotton swab is used to collect fluid from the vagina and place it on nitrazine (phenaphthazine) paper. Amniotic fluid is mildly basic (pH 7.1–7.3) compared to normal vaginal secretions which are acidic (pH 4.5–6). Basic fluid, like amniotic fluid, will turn the nitrazine paper from orange to dark blue.
 * Fern test: A sterile cotton swab is used to collect fluid from the vagina and place it on a microscope slide. After drying, amniotic fluid will form a crystallization pattern called arborization which resembles leaves of a fern plant when viewed under a microscope.
 * Fibronectin and alpha-fetoprotein blood tests

Classification

 * Prelabor rupture of membranes (PROM): when the fetal membranes rupture early, at least one hour before labor has started.
 * Prolonged PROM: a case of prelabor rupture of membranes in which more than 18 hours has passed between the rupture and the onset of labor.
 * Preterm prelabor rupture of membranes (PPROM): prelabor rupture of membranes that occurs before 37 weeks gestation.
 * Midtrimester PPROM or pre-viable PPROM: prelabor rupture of membranes that occurs before 24 weeks' gestation. Before this age, the fetus cannot survive outside of the mother's womb.

Additional tests
The following tests should only be used if the diagnosis is still unclear after the standard tests above.
 * Ultrasound: Ultrasound can measure the amount of fluid still in the uterus surrounding the fetus. If the fluid levels are low, PROM is more likely. This is helpful in cases when the diagnosis is not certain, but is not, by itself, definitive.
 * Immune-chromatological tests are helpful, if negative, to rule out PROM, but are not that helpful if positive since the false-positive rate is relatively high (19–30%).
 * Indigo carmine dye test: a needle is used to inject indigo carmine dye (blue) into the amniotic fluid that remains in the uterus through the abdominal wall. In the case of PROM, blue dye can be seen on a stained tampon or pad after about 15–30 minutes. This method can be used to definitively make a diagnosis, but is rarely done because it is invasive and increases risk of infection. But, can be helpful if the diagnosis is still unclear after the above evaluations have been done.

It is unclear if different methods of assessing the fetus in a woman with PPROM affects outcomes.

False positives
Like amniotic fluid, blood, semen, vaginal secretions in the presence of infection, soap, urine, and cervical mucus also have an alkaline pH and can also turn nitrazine paper blue. Cervical mucus can also make a pattern similar to ferning on a microscope slide, but it is usually patchy and with less branching.

Differential diagnosis
Other conditions that may present similarly to premature rupture of membranes are the following:
 * Urinary incontinence: leakage of small amounts of urine is common in the last part of pregnancy
 * Normal vaginal secretions of pregnancy
 * Increased sweat or moisture around the perineum
 * Increased cervical discharge: this can happen when there is a genital tract infection
 * Semen
 * Douching
 * Vesicovaginal fistula: an abnormal connection between the bladder and the vagina
 * Loss of the mucus plug

Prevention
Women who have had PROM are more likely to experience it in future pregnancies. There is not enough data to recommend a way to specifically prevent future PROM. However, any woman that has had a history of preterm delivery, because of PROM or not, is recommended to take progesterone supplementation to prevent recurrence.

Management
The management of PROM remains controversial, and depends largely on the gestational age of the fetus and other complicating factors. The risks of quick delivery (induction of labor) vs. watchful waiting in each case is carefully considered before deciding on a course of action.

As of 2012, the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists advised, based on expert opinion and not clinical evidence, that attempted delivery during maternal instability increases the rates of both fetal death and maternal death, unless the source of instability is an intrauterine infection.

In all women with PROM, the age of the fetus, its position in the uterus, and its well-being should be evaluated. This can be done with ultrasound, Doppler fetal heart rate monitoring, and uterine activity monitoring. This will also show whether or not uterine contractions are happening which may be a sign that labor is starting. Signs and symptoms of infection should be closely monitored, and, if not already done, a group B streptococcus (GBS) culture should be collected.

At any age, if the fetal well-being appears to be compromised, or if intrauterine infection is suspected, the baby should be delivered quickly by induction of labour.

Term
Both expectant management (watchful waiting) and an induction of labor (artificially stimulating labor) are considered in this case. 90% of women start labor on their own within 24 hours, and therefore it is reasonable to wait for 12–24 hours as long as there is no risk of infection. However, if labor does not begin soon after the PROM, an induction of labor is recommended because it reduces rates of infections, decreases the chances that the baby will require a stay in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), and does not increase the rate of caesarean sections. If a woman strongly does not want to be induced, watchful waiting is an acceptable option as long as there is no sign of infection, the fetus is not in distress, and she is aware and accepts the risks of PPROM. There is not enough data to show that the use of prophylactic antibiotics (to prevent infection) is beneficial for mothers or babies at or near term because of the potential side effects and development of antibiotic resistance.

34 to 37 weeks
When the fetus is 34 to 37 weeks gestation, the risk of being born prematurely must be weighed against the risk of PROM. Previously it was recommended that delivery be carried out as if the baby was term. A 2017 Cochrane review however found waiting resulted in better outcomes when pregnancy is before 37 weeks.

24 to 34 weeks
Before 34 weeks, the fetus is at a much higher risk of the complications of prematurity. Therefore, as long as the fetus is doing well, and there are no signs of infection or placental abruption, watchful waiting (expectant management) is recommended. The younger the fetus, the longer it takes for labor to start on its own, but most women will deliver within a week. Waiting usually requires a woman to stay in the hospital so that health care providers can watch her carefully for infection, placental abruption, umbilical cord compression, or any other fetal emergency that would require quick delivery by induction of labor.

In 2017, a review of watchful waiting vs the early birth strategy was conducted to ascertain which was associated with a lower overall risk. Focusing on the 24–37-week range, the review analysed twelve randomised controlled trials from the "Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth's Trials Register", concluding that "In women with PPROM before 37 weeks' gestation with no contraindications to continuing the pregnancy, a policy of expectant management with careful monitoring was associated with better outcomes for the mother and baby."

There is believed to be a correlation between volume of amniotic fluid retained and neonatal outcomes before 26 weeks' gestation. Amniotic fluid levels are an important consideration when debating expectant management vs clinical intervention, as low levels, or oligohydramnios, can result in lung and limb abnormalities. Additionally, labor and infection are less likely to occur when there are sufficient levels of amniotic fluid remaining in the uterus. Serial amnioinfusion in pregnancies with PPROM-related oligohydramnios at less than 26 weeks gestation, successfully alleviates oligohydramnios, with perinatal outcomes that are significantly better than the outcome in those with the persistent condition and is comparable with gestations with PPROM in which oligohydramnios never develops.

Recommended

 * Monitoring for infection: signs of infection include a fever in the mother, fetal tachycardia (fast heart rate of the fetus, more than160 beats per minute), or tachycardia in the mother (more than 100 beats per minute). White blood cell (WBC) counts are not helpful in this case because WBC's are normally high in late pregnancy.
 * Steroids before birth: corticosteroids (betamethasone) given to the mother of a baby at risk of being born prematurely can speed up fetal lung development and reduce the risk of death of the infant, respiratory distress syndrome, brain bleeds, and bowel necrosis. It is recommended that mothers receive one course of corticosteroids between 24 and 34 weeks when there is a risk of preterm delivery. In cases of PPROM these medications do not increase the risk of infection even though steroids are known to suppress the immune system. More than two courses is not recommended because three or more can lead to small birth weight and small head circumference. In pregnancies between 32 and 34 weeks (right around the time that fetal lungs mature) vaginal fluid can be tested to determine fetal lung maturity using chemical markers which can help to decide if corticosteroids should be given.
 * Magnesium sulfate: Intravenous magnesium sulfate is given to the mother in cases when there is a risk of preterm birth before 32 weeks. This has been shown to protect the fetal brain and reduce the risk of cerebral palsy.
 * Latency antibiotics: The time from PROM to labor is termed the latency period, and there is an inverse relationship between gestational age and the length of latency, meaning that the earlier the rupture, the longer it will take for labor to begin naturally. As expected, antibiotics given to mothers that experience PPROM serve to protect against infections during this lengthened latency period. Additionally, antibiotics increase the time that babies stay in the womb. Antibiotics don't seem to prevent death or make a difference in the long-term (years after the baby is born). But, because of the short-term benefits, routine use of antibiotics in PPROM is still recommended. The American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) recommends a seven-day course of intravenous ampicillin and erythromycin followed by oral amoxicillin and erythromycin if watchful waiting is attempted before 34 weeks. Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid increases the risk of fetal bowel death (necrotizing enterocolitis) and should be avoided in pregnancy.
 * Prophylactic antibiotics: If a woman is colonized with GBS, than the typical use of antibiotics during labor is recommended to prevent transmission of this bacteria to the fetus, regardless of earlier treatments.

Controversial or not recommended

 * Preventative tocolysis (medications to prevent contractions): the use of tocolytic medications to prevent labor contractions is controversial. On the one hand, this can delay delivery and allow the fetus more time to develop and benefit from antenatal corticosteroid medication, on the other hand it increases the risk of infection or chorioamnionitis. The use of tocolysis has not shown to benefit mom or baby and currently there is not enough data to recommend or discourage its use in the case of preterm PROM.
 * Therapeutic tocolysis (medications to stop contractions): Once labor has started, using tocolysis to stop labor has not been shown to help, and is not recommended.
 * Amnioinfusion: This treatment attempts to replace the lost amniotic fluid from the uterus by infusing normal saline fluid into the uterine cavity. This can be done through the vagina and cervix (transcervical amnioinfusion) or by passing a needle through the abdominal wall (transabdominal amnioinfusion). Current data suggests that this treatment prevents infection, lung problems, and fetal death. However, there have not been enough trials to recommend its routine use in all cases of PPROM.
 * Home care: Typically women with PPROM are managed in the hospital, but, occasionally they opt to go home if watchful waiting is attempted. Since labor usually starts soon after PPROM, and infection, umbilical cord compression, and other fetal emergencies can happen very suddenly, it is recommended that women stay in the hospital in cases of PPROM after 24 weeks. Currently, there is not enough evidence to determine meaningful differences in safety, cost, and women's views between management at home vs. the hospital.
 * Sealing membranes after rupture: Infection is the major risk associated with PROM and PPROM. By closing the ruptured membranes, it is hoped that there would be a decrease in infection, as well as encouraging the re-accumulation of amniotic fluid in the uterus to protect the fetus and allow for further lung development. Common techniques include placing a sponge over the ruptured membrane and the use of oral autoimmune stimulating drugs to encourage the body's immune system to repair the rupture. There is currently insufficient research to determine whether these or other resealing techniques improve maternal or neonatal outcomes when compared to the current standard of care.

Before 24 weeks
Before 24 weeks, a fetus is not viable meaning it cannot live outside the mother. In this case, either watchful waiting at home or an induction of labor done.

Because the risk of infection is so high, the mother should check her temperature often and return to the hospital if she develops any signs or symptoms of infection, labor, or vaginal bleeding. These women are typically admitted to the hospital once their fetus reaches 24 weeks and then managed the same as women with PPROM before 34 weeks (discussed above). When possible, these deliveries should take place in a hospital that has expertise in the management of the potential maternal and neonatal complications, and has the necessary infrastructure in place to support the care of these patients (i.e. neonatal intensive care unit). Antenatal corticosteroids, latency antibiotics, magnesium sulfate, and tocolytic medications are not recommended until the fetus reaches viability (24 weeks). In cases of pre-viable PPROM, chance of survival of the fetus is between 15 and 50%, and the risk of chorioamnionitis is about 30%.

Chorioamnionitis
Chorioamnionitis is a bacterial infection of the fetal membranes, which can be life-threatening to both mother and fetus. Women with PROM at any age are at high risk of infection because the membranes are open and allow bacteria to enter. Women are checked often (usually every 4 hours) for signs of infection: fever (more than 38 °C or 100.5 °F), uterine pain, maternal tachycardia, fetal tachycardia, or foul-smelling amniotic fluid. Elevated white blood cells are not a good way to predict infection because they are normally high in labor. If infection is suspected, artificial induction of labor is started at any gestational age and broad antibiotics are given. Caesarean section should not be automatically done in cases of infection, and should only be reserved for the usual fetal emergencies.

Outcomes
The consequences of PROM depend on the gestational age of the fetus. When PROM occurs at term (after 36 weeks), it is typically followed soon thereafter by the start of labor and delivery. About half of women will give birth within 5 hours, and 95% will give birth within 28 hours without any intervention. The younger the baby, the longer the latency period (time between membrane rupture and start of labor). Rarely, in cases of preterm PROM, amniotic fluid will stop leaking and the amniotic fluid volume will return to normal.

If PROM occurs before 37 weeks, it is called preterm prelabor rupture of membranes (PPROM), and the baby and mother are at greater risk of complications. PPROM causes one-third of all preterm births. PROM provides a path for disease-causing organisms to enter the womb and puts both the mother and baby at risk for infection. Low levels of fluid around the baby also increase the risk of umbilical cord compression and can interfere with lung and body formation of the baby in early pregnancy.

Infection (any age)
At any gestational age, an opening in the fetal membranes provides a route for bacteria to enter the womb. This can lead to chorioamnionitis (an infection of the fetal membranes and amniotic fluid) which can be life-threatening to both the mother and fetus. The risk of infection increases the longer the membranes remain open and baby undelivered. Women with preterm PROM will develop an intra-amniotic infection 15–25% of the time, and the chances of infection increase at earlier gestational ages.

Pre-term birth (before 37 weeks)
PROM occurring before 37 weeks (PPROM) is one of the leading causes of preterm birth. Thirty to 35% of all preterm births are caused by PPROM. This puts the fetus at risk for the many complications associated with prematurity such as respiratory distress, brain bleeds, infection, necrotizing enterocolitis (death of the fetal bowels), brain injury, muscle dysfunction, and death. Prematurity from any cause leads to 75% of perinatal mortality and about 50% of all long-term morbidity. PROM is responsible for 20% of all fetal deaths between 24 and 34 weeks' gestation.

Fetal development (before 24 weeks)
Before 24 weeks the fetus is still developing its organs, and the amniotic fluid is important for protecting the fetus against infection, physical impact, and for preventing the umbilical cord from becoming compressed. It also allows for fetal movement and breathing that is necessary for the development of the lungs, chest, and bones. Low levels of amniotic fluid due to mid-trimester or previable PPROM (before 24 weeks) can result in fetal deformity (e.g. Potter-like facies), limb contractures, pulmonary hypoplasia (underdeveloped lungs), infection (especially if the mother is colonized by group B streptococcus or bacterial vaginosis), prolapsed umbilical cord or compression, and placental abruption.

PROM after second-trimester amniocentesis
Most cases of PROM occur spontaneously, but the risk of PROM in women undergoing a second trimester amniocentesis for prenatal diagnosis of genetic disorders is 1%. Although no studies are known to account for all cases of PROM that stem from amniocentesis. This case, the chances of the membranes healing on their own and the amniotic fluid returning to normal levels is much higher than spontaneous PROM. Compared to spontaneous PROM, about 70% of women will have normal amniotic fluid levels within one month, and about 90% of babies will survive.

Epidemiology
Of term pregnancies (more than 37 weeks) about 8% are complicated by PROM, 20% of these become prolonged PROM. About 30% of all preterm deliveries (before 37 weeks) are complicated by PPROM, and rupture of membranes before viability (before 24 weeks) occurs in less than 1% of all pregnancies. Since there are significantly fewer preterm deliveries than term deliveries, the number of PPROM cases make up only about 5% of all cases of PROM.

title: Prelabor rupture of membranes


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Manresa

Manresa is the capital of Bages county, located in the central region of Catalonia, Spain.

Crossed by the river Cardener, it is an industrial area with textile, metallurgical, and glass industries. The houses of Manresa are arranged around the basilica of Santa Maria de la Seu. Saint Ignatius of Loyola stopped to pray in the town on his way back from Montserrat in 1522. He also read in solitude in a cave near the town for a year, which contributed to the formulation of his Spiritual Exercises. As such, the town is a place of pilgrimage for Catholics.

It is believed the comarcal name "Bages" comes from a corruption of the Latin "Bacchus" due to the extensive production of wine in the area. The wine was produced from grapes grown mainly in terraced vineyards, and many of these old terraces can be seen today. Wine ceased to be the main product of the area as a consequence of phylloxera, but is still a very important part of the Manresa/Bages economy.

During the Napoleonic invasion, the volunteer troops of Manresa (sometent in Catalan language) defeated the French troops in the Bruch Pass (June 1808), but the retreating French burned and demolished much of the town. After the expulsion of Napoleon's troops, Manresans rebuilt the town using the rubble.

Influential documents

 * In 1892, the Unió Catalanista, a confederation of Catalan centres approved the Bases de Manresa (Manresa Bases) the first draft statute of self-government for Catalonia and laid the essential conditions for a Catalan Regional Constitution.
 * Bases propositions included:
 * Catalan should be the sole official language in Catalonia
 * Public order be under the jurisdiction of the Catalan government exclusively, which should also control finance and taxation
 * Catalans only should be eligible for public office in Catalonia
 * Military service (from which the upper class could buy exemption) was to be replaced by a volunteer corps
 * As prior to 1714, there should be no appeal from decisions of the Catalan high court.
 * The Bases also called for the composition of a Catalan Parliament, which was to be elected by 'all heads of family, grouped together in classes based on manual work, technical skill or professional careers and on property, industry and commerce, as far as possible through the corresponding guild organizations'
 * The 1408 Liber Manifesti of Manresa is an influential historical document that lets us peer into Renaissance practice of slavery.
 * The Liber Manifesti consistently designates slaves as distinct from other servants and provides us with basic but prior elusive figures like the total number of slaves in the town, the proportion of slaves to free people, the percentage of households who owned slaves, the proportion of women and children amongst slaves, and the market value of female, male, and child slaves.

Jewish history
In the 12th century Manresa was said to have contained 500 Jewish families, most of whom lived in a narrow lane called "Grau dels Jueus," near the town hall; their cemetery, still called "Fossana dels Jueus," was outside the city. In the 13th and 14th centuries the Jews there were engaged in manufacturing, trading, money-lending, and in the cultivation of their vineyards and estates.

The hostility of the Christians towards the Jews, which prevailed throughout Catalonia, was also manifested in Manresa. In 1325 the Christian inhabitants of the town tried to prevent the Jews from baking their Passover bread, so that the latter were obliged to appeal to the King for protection. The Jews in Manresa did not escape the general persecution of 1391, and many of them professed to accept Christianity.

After 1414 comparatively few Jews remained in the town, and in 1492 they sold their property for whatever they could get, and left the country. At the beginning of the 15th century Manresa had 30,000 inhabitants; three centuries later it contained barely one-fifth of that number. Several members of the Zabarra (Sabara) family lived in Manresa. The town is not mentioned in the "Shebeṭ Yehudah."

Climate
Manresa has a humid subtropical (Köppen Cfa), with cold winters and hot, moderately dry summers, while the rainiest seasons are spring and autumn.

Main sights
Three bridges cross the Cardener River. The 14th-century basilica of Santa Maria de la Seu stands on a rock above the oldest bridge. La Seu is the principal monument of Manresa. The church we can see today was designed by Berenguer de Montagut who also designed Santa Maria del Mar, Barcelona. The architectural style is characteristic of Catalan Gothic. The work began in 1325, but the church was not finished until the end of the 15th century. The municipal museum is housed in the cloisters of the 17th-century church of Sant Ignasi. This church is part of the Sanctuary Cave of Saint Ignatius (in Catalan Cova de Sant Ignasi), built over a cave in which Saint Ignatius of Loyola is said to have prayed and meditated.

Economy
Industry in the town covers textile-making, metallurgy, and glass manufacture.

Sport
Bàsquet Manresa is a professional basketball club based at the Pavelló Nou Congost. They play in the Spanish Premier Championship which they won once, in 1998.

Major events
The Fira Mediterrania in Manresa is held the first complete weekend in November every year. It is the main meeting point and trade fair of the mediterranean world, folk and roots artists with distributors, organisers, agencies, labels, export offices, instrument makers and dealers, journalists and other professionals.

Manresa Town Hall
The original building dates back to the 19th century.

Remodeling was agreed to be needed due to the old building's impractical use in Modern times. At the end of 2004, a competition was held to remodel the building with the aim of easing its disabled circulation.

The Barcelona-based Add + Arquitectura was selected and the project was completed in 2008. Add partners Manuel Bailo and Rosa Rull were responsible for the design. Bailo and Rull's key move was to partly demolish and extend the rear south-west wall of the town hall in order to implant a new circulation core

The front of the building maintained its traditional structure but at the rear of the building, the elevator and staircase are encased in a "cubist cacoon".

Places borrowing the name

 * Because of the town's association with St. Ignatius, the novitiate house of the English province of the Jesuits is called Manresa House. Formerly in Roehampton in the London suburbs, it is now in Birmingham.
 * SEARSOLIN, the extension/outreach research center of Xavier University – Ateneo de Cagayan, is also called the Manresa Farm.
 * Manresa School takes its name from the town of Manresa, because Saint Candida Maria de Jesus, the foundress of the congregation that runs the school, is influenced by Ignatian spirituality.
 * Manresa House of Retreats was founded by the Jesuit religious order on the banks of the Mississippi River, midway between Baton Rouge and New Orleans, in Convent, Louisiana. The 130-acre campus hosts three-day preached retreats for men, made in silence, based on the Spiritual Exercises of Saint Ignatius Loyola.
 * Manresa Island is a 144-acre coastal property in Norwalk, Connecticut, that is the site of a decommissioned coal-fired power plant.

Twin towns

 * Sant Joan de Vilatorrada
 * Sant Vicenç de Castellet

European cooperation

 * Manresa is a member city of Eurotowns

Famous people

 * Juan Ignacio Cirac Sasturain, physicist
 * Toni Elías, professional motorcycle racer and inaugural champion of the Moto2 World Championship.
 * Manuel Estiarte, former water polo player
 * Manel Fontdevila, cartoonist
 * Pol Freixanet, Spanish footballer
 * Joaquín Gomis Cornet, Carlist politician and businessman
 * Jordi Lardín, former footballer
 * Rafael de Mestre, electric car pioneer and racing driver
 * Maria Picassó, illustrator
 * Nuria Rial, soprano
 * Joan Ribó, mayor of Valencia
 * Berto Romero, humorist

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title: Manresa


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August 4 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)

August 3 - Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar - August 5

All fixed commemorations below are observed on August 17 by Orthodox Churches on the Old Calendar.

For August 4, Orthodox Churches on the Old Calendar commemorate the Saints listed on July 22.

Saints

 * The Holy Seven Youths ("Seven Sleepers") of Ephesus:
 * Maximilian, Jamblicus, Martinian, John, Dionysius, Exacustodian (Constantine), and Antoninus (250 and ca. 446)

 * Martyr Eleutherius of Byzantium (early 4th century)  (see also: December 15)
 * Martyr Thathuil, by hanging from an apple tree.
 * Martyr Eudokia of Anatolia, in Persia, by beheading (362)
 * Martyrs Ia and 9,000 with her in Persia (363)     (see also: August 11 and September 11)

Pre-Schism Western saints

 * Saint Perpetua, a matron from Rome baptised by the Apostle Peter who converted her husband and her son, St Nazarius (c. 80)
 * Saint Agabius, Bishop of Verona in Italy, and Confessor (c. 250)
 * Saint Tertullinus, apriest, martyred in Rome under Valerian two days after his ordination (257)
 * Saints Epiphanes and Isidore, two early martyrs, venerated at the Cathedral of Besançon in France until the French Revolution.
 * Saint Protasius, a martyr honoured in Cologne in Germany.
 * Saint Sithney (Sezni), patron saint of Sithney, Cornwall (c. 529)
 * Saint Euphronius of Tours, Bishop of Tours in France (573)
 * Saints Peregrinus, Maceratus and Viventius (6th century)
 * Saint Lugid of Killaloe (Lua, Molua), a disciple of St Comgall, founded many monasteries (c. 609)

Post-Schism Orthodox saints

 * New Hieromartyr Cosmas of Aitolia, Equal-to-the-Apostles (1779)  (see also: August 24 - Greek)

New martyrs and confessors

 * New Hieromartyr Nicholas (Prozgrov) (1930)
 * New Hieromartyr Michael (Zhuk), Hieromonk of Staroye Zubarevo in Mordovia, and Martyrs Simeon and Demetrius Vorobiev of Tver (1937)

Other commemorations

 * Consecration of the sacred temple of the Christ the Saviour, within the Pantocrator Monastery in Constantinople.
 * "Kazan-Penza" (Kazan of Penza) Icon of the Most Holy Theotokos (1717)  (see also: July 8)
 * Uncovering of the relics (2000) of Saint Alexei Bortsurmansky (1848)  (see also: April 21)

title: August 4 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)


text: Category:Natural history of Iran

title: Category:Natural history of Iran


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Jorge Luis Perez-Rosario

 This page is an archive of the proposed deletion of the article below. Further comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination). No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was Delete --Allen3 talk 12:25, August 3, 2005 (UTC)

Jorge Luis Perez-Rosario
vanity of vanities, all is vanity seglea 23:48, 21 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete nn teen vanity. -- Etacar11   01:10, 22 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete nn teen vanity. Can't these be speedied now? --TheMidnighters 05:46, 22 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Speedy delete. Vanity. --Edcolins 09:51, July 22, 2005 (UTC)

OK, I hadn't read the new policy till now, I have speed-deleted it. seglea 13:08, 22 July 2005 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


text:
User talk:Jere~enwiki

Hello and Welcome to Wikipedia! Image:Europa 1993.jpg has been listed at Images and media for deletion because I fear it is a copyright violation. If you feel that this image should not be deleted, please go there to voice your opinion. bbx 23:48, 21 July 2005 (UTC)

Speedy deletion nomination of Catalyzer

A tag has been placed on Catalyzer requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under section A7 of the criteria for speedy deletion, because the article appears to be about an organization or company, but it does not indicate how or why the subject is important or significant: that is, why an article about that subject should be included in an encyclopedia. Under the criteria for speedy deletion, such articles may be deleted at any time. Please read more about what is generally accepted as notable.

If you think this page should not be deleted for this reason, you may contest the nomination by visiting the page and clicking the button labelled "Click here to contest this speedy deletion". This will give you the opportunity to explain why you believe the page should not be deleted. However, be aware that once a page is tagged for speedy deletion, it may be removed without delay. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag from the page yourself, but do not hesitate to add information in line with Wikipedia's policies and guidelines. If the page is deleted, and you wish to retrieve the deleted material for future reference or improvement, you can place a request here. MrOllie (talk) 16:53, 23 October 2013 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Jere. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Jere~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 00:40, 20 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 14:22, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jere~enwiki


text:
Jim Rodford

James Walter Rodford (7 July 1941 – 20 January 2018) was an English musician, who played bass for several British rock bands. He was a founding member of Argent, which was led by his cousin Rod Argent, and performed with them from their formation in 1969 until they disbanded in 1976. He was the bassist for the Kinks from 1978 until they disbanded in 1997. In 2004, he joined the reunited Zombies, whom he had been closely associated with since the early 1960s, and remained a member until his death in 2018. He was also a member of the Swinging Blue Jeans and the Kast Off Kinks.

Early years
Rodford was born on 7 July 1941, in St Albans, Hertfordshire, England. In the late 1950s and early 1960s he was a member of the Bluetones, the biggest band in St Albans at the time. Although he did not become a band member at this stage, Rodford was instrumental in helping his younger cousin Rod Argent form the Zombies in 1964. Rodford later joined the Mike Cotton Sound as a bassist.

Music career
Along with Rod Argent, Rodford was one of the founding members of Argent. When Rod Argent quit the band, the remaining three members (Rodford, Bob Henrit, and John Verity) formed the short-lived band Phoenix. Eventually, Rodford joined the Kinks as a bass guitarist in 1978 and played with them until their final disintegration in 1997.

From 1999–2001 Rodford appeared in a band that ex-Animals guitarist Hilton Valentine formed, the Animals II, which also featured former Animals drummer John Steel, and keyboardist Dave Rowberry. Rodford continued with this band (which changed its working name to "The Animals and Friends" after Valentine left) until joining Argent and Colin Blunstone in the revival of the Zombies.

Rodford never played with the Zombies during their original incarnation, despite having been closely involved with them. However, he began to play with them in the band's reincarnation in 1968 and again in the early years of the 21st century, with his son Steve on drums.

In 2008, Rodford joined the Kast Off Kinks, on the retirement of John Dalton, whom he had followed into the Kinks after Andy Pyle. In 2009, Jim Rodford regularly played in "The Rodford Files" along with his sons Steve Rodford (Blunstone/Argent band) on drums and Russ Rodford on guitar, plus Derik Timms (mOOn Dogs) on guitar, lap steel, slide and vocals.

In 2010, the original line-up of Argent reformed and resumed playing in concert. They mounted a short tour including gigs in Frome, Southampton, Wolverhampton, Leamington Spa and London.

On 20 January 2018, Rodford died after he fell down stairs at his home in St Albans.

Personal life
Rodford met his wife, Jean, at the Pioneer Club, St Albans, in the early days of his music career. They have two sons, Steve, a drummer, Russell a guitarist and a daughter, Paula. Rodford died after a fall on 20 January 2018, at the age of 76, a few days after returning from America where he had played a few gigs with The Zombies. His son Steve is currently the drummer for the Zombies.

title: Jim Rodford


text:
The Stevens–Coolidge Place

The Stevens–Coolidge House and Gardens, formerly known as Ashdale Farm, is a garden and historic house located on 91 acre of land at 153 Chickering Road in North Andover, a town in Essex County, Massachusetts. Helen Stevens Coolidge's family first acquired the farm in 1729, and from 1914 to 1962 it served as a summer home that she shared with her husband John Gardner Coolidge American diplomat and one time Minister to Nicaragua (as well as a descendant of Thomas Jefferson, and nephew of Isabella Stewart Gardner), and their family. The property and house is now a nonprofit museum operated by The Trustees of Reservations.

Between 1914 and 1918, Colonial Revival architect Joseph Everett Chandler remodeled two farmhouses from the late Federal period of American architecture to form the house that stands on the property. Chandler also enhanced the design of the landscape, which eventually included a perennial garden, a kitchen, flower garden, and a rose garden (all in the Colonial Revival style). A potager garden (kitchen garden in the French style), with a brick serpentine wall and a complex of greenhouses were also built. The collections inside the house include Asian artifacts such as Chinese porcelain, as well as American furniture, and European decorative arts.

In 2020, a project began to restore the murals inside the house.

title: The Stevens–Coolidge Place


text:
Rakusen's

Rakusen's is a British kosher food manufacturer established in 1900 in Leeds, where it continues to operate today. Although best known for its matzo, matzo meal and matzo crackers, it also produces soups, beans, Tomor margarine, and other products.

Rakusen's was founded by a watch maker, Lloyd Rakusen, who started from baking matzos in his own back room and grew to form a factory in the city of Leeds, eventually passing the thriving company onto his family in 1944 on his death.

Rakusen's is owned by Andrew Simpson, who took over the company in 2015.

Rakusen's products are all approved by the London Beth Din. Most British supermarkets stock some Rakusen's products all year, and special Passover matzo at Passover. Many of Rakusen's products are also popular with vegetarians and vegans.

title: Rakusen's


text:
Talk:Time/Parmenides

I am confused by the use and capitilization of; mainly the word sole, but also the words spirit and self. Perhaps there is a new convention of avoiding the (religious) implications of the word soul while returning to the concept of individuality implicated in the definition of that same word soul, of perhaps dubious associations. But that is not the only source of confusion here. I wonder what the Quran has to do with Parmenides and his argument that time and motion are an illusion? I also doubt that any of what is said is actually taken from any account of Parmenides himself. But rather, it appears to be ones (meager) interpretation/explanation of what may or may not have been Parmenides argument. In any case I question the validity of it being presented as such regardless of it's historical accuracy.

The definitions provided by dictionary.com of the words sole & soul are as follows:

Sole: adj 1: not divided or shared with others; "they have exclusive use of the machine"; "sole rights of publication" [syn: exclusive, sole(a)] 2: being the only one; single and isolated from others; "the lone doctor in the entire county"; "a lonesome pine"; "an only child"; "the sole heir"; "the sole example"; "a solitary instance of cowardice"; "a solitary speck in the sky" [syn: lone(a), lonesome(a), only(a), sole(a), solitary(a)]

Soul: n 1: the immaterial part of a person; the actuating cause of an individual life [syn: psyche] The first word of a sentence

Here is a link to the rules of capatilization provided by dictionary.com:

The original article as I have edited it:

Time is no longer a mystery in the Holy Quran. Time is a perception, like any other perception, has no locality anywhere except in the soul of the living being, Humans or otherwise. The soul, the self or the spirit are all referring to what we can call the identity that makes one living person distinguishable from others. Science proved that matter is perceived by the brain, but matter has no physical relation to the brain and the brain itself is matter. our brian translates, what our senses transmit to it; our soul. It is not our eyes that see, nor our ears that hear. A sleeping person sees and hear with the same soul that sees and hears while awake. The soul is the realization of matter though matter may be unreal, such as in a dream. Time is a perception by the soul, but if the soul is unfunctioal, such as in a sleep without dream or death, or pre-birth, time then is inexistant. We perceive two things: Matter and non-matter; physical or tangible and mental or untangible. As we differ in perceiving matter, we differ in perceiving non-matter more. One hour to a 50 year old man, is much shoter than to a three years old.

--allafloat@hotmail.com

title: Talk:Time/Parmenides


text:
1957 Northwest Territories general election

The 1957 Northwest Territories general election was held on August 19, 1957.

Elected members
For complete electoral history, see individual districts


text:
Hushang Ansary

Hushang Ansary (, born 1927) is an Iranian-American former diplomat, businessman, and philanthropist. He served for eighteen years in the Iranian government prior to the Iranian Revolution including as Minister of Economic Affairs and Finance and Iran's Ambassador to the United States from 1967 to 1969. He has been chairman or director of companies both in Iran and in the United States.

In 2021, he was convicted, together with his daughter Nina Ansary and others, of defrauding policyholders of Dutch Caribbean insurer ENNIA of more than 500 million dollars.

Biography
Born in 1927 in Ahvaz, in Iran's Khuzestan Province, Ansary first worked as a newspaper and magazine photographer in Ahvaz, Tehran, and England before moving to Japan in 1954. There he met Abbas Aram, Iran's ambassador to Japan, who soon brought him to the attention of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. The Shah asked Ansary to return to Iran and appointed him to several government positions starting in 1961, including undersecretary of commerce, ambassador to many African nations and to Pakistan, and minister of information.

In 1964, he married Maryam Panahi, a friend of ambassador Abbas Aram who had many high-ranking acquaintances in the governments of the United States and Iran. He served as ambassador to the United States until July 1969. Then he was named as the minister of economic affairs and finance. His accomplishments during this time included assisting the Shah in lending millions of dollars in aid and grants to other countries and the signing of an agreement with U.S. State Secretary Henry Kissinger to build eight nuclear power plants in Iran.

By the 1970s, the CIA considered Ansary to be one of the seventeen members of "the Shah's Inner Circle" and he was one of the Shah's top two choices to succeed Amir Abbas Hoveyda as Prime Minister. Ultimately, this appointment went to Jamshid Amouzegar, and Ansary became the leader of the Constructionist wing of the Rastakhiz party, which opposed Amouzegar's Progressive wing. Some of Ansary's supporters have seen Amouzegar's appointment as a poor decision in hindsight. Even his now ex-wife Maryam Panahi, to whom his marriage "came to a bitter end" according to historian Abbas Milani, said "not appointing Hushang was one of the shah's two biggest mistakes, leading to the revolution." Ansary was appointed minister of economics and finance on 7 August 1977 when Jamshid Amouzegar formed a cabinet. In November 1977, Ansary also became the director of the National Iranian Oil Company, but resigned one year later and moved to the United States, citing health problems.

Business and philanthropy
During his time in the Iranian government, Ansary also maintained a successful career in business. He was the director of an unstable company called Fakhre Iran, which he made profitable and sold to the government. Ansary arrived in the U.S. a very wealthy man and became a U.S. citizen in 1986. After settling in the United States, Ansary started the Parman Group, a holding company for leisure industries, textiles, international trade, and real estate, which included IRI International - a company that makes oilfield equipment. IRI International was sold to National Oilwell Varco in 2005. Ansary was the chairman of Stewart & Stevenson LLC until the company was purchased by Kirby Corp in September 2018.

In recent years Ansari and Parman have come under scrutiny of the Central Bank of Curaçao and Sint Maarten (CBCS) with regard to financial misappropriations regarding an insurance company operating in the Dutch Caribbean islands of Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten. The CBCS has stated that under shareholder Parman International B.V., in which Ansary is a majority shareholder, ENNIA Caribe Holding and ENNIA Caribe Investments had appropriated 1,5 billion Antillean guilders (approximately $838 million) from ENNIA insurance companies. These insurance companies operate on the islands of Curaçao and Sint Maarten and therefore fall under the supervision of the CBCS. According to the CBCS, the appropriation took place by having the insurance companies invest in shares in another Parman subsidiary, Stewart & Stevenson Inc. When these shares were sold in 2017, although the insurance companies had held 74% of the shares and should have received $558.7 million, they only received $282.2 million and thus lost approximately $273 million. In another transaction, land at Mullet Bay (sint Maarten) was put in the books of the insurance company for 771 million guilders (just under $431 million) although according to Cushman & Wakefield, one of the largest appraisers in the world, the value is only 89 million guilders ($49 million). In August 2018, after negotiations between CBCS and ENNIA and major shareholder Husang Ansary collapsed, Ansary gave instructions to withdraw $100 million in policyholders money from ENNIA. After CBCS placed ENNIA under an emergency measure, the $100 million was returned to ENNIA. The CBCS notes, however, that $50 million came from a private account of Ansary. On 29 January 2019, a United States Bankruptcy Court declared CBCS is entitled to the accounts since based on the emergency measure, CBCS, and not Parman, is effectively managing ENNIA. The accounts had been frozen because Parman and its major shareholder Ansary did not want to confirm that the CBCS is entitled to the accounts. According to the CBCS, the procedures of Parman and Ansary delay the restructuring process of ENNIA, which increases the risk of its policy holders.

Ansary is a devoted Republican, a former friend and business partner of Henry Kissinger, Alexander Haig, and James Baker, served on the National Finance Committee of the Bush-Cheney 2004 Presidential Campaign and is a trustee of the George W. Bush Presidential Library. In 2015, Ansary and his wife donated $2 million to a Super PAC supporting the presidential candidacy of Jeb Bush. He donated $2 million to Donald Trump's inauguration.

Ansary was involved in the creation of several medical and educational institutions, such as the University of St. Martin and the James Baker Institute. In February 2014, Ansary supported the A Thousand Years of the Persian Book Exhibition at the Library of Congress.

Ansary and his wife Shahla are based in Houston, Texas. He has two children, Nina and Nader, and is the brother of Cyrus A. Ansary.

Awards and honors

 * Ansary is a recipient of the Ellis Island Medal of Honor (2003) and the Woodrow Wilson Award.
 * Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University established the Ansary Center for Stem Cell Therapeutics in 2004 in honor of a grant from Ansary and his wife Shahla.
 * The American Academy of Diplomacy's Ansary Outreach Program was a two-year series of discussions, lectures, and seminars about U.S. foreign policy which began in 2004.
 * The Ansary Gallery of American History at the George Bush Presidential Library was named in his honor in 2004.
 * James A. Baker III Prize for Excellence in Leadership (2013)

title: Hushang Ansary


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Hoffsegen

 This page is an archive of the proposed deletion of the article below. Further comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination). No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was Delete --Allen3 talk 12:22, August 3, 2005 (UTC)

Hoffsegen
Non-notable online petition and campaign started by a particular messageboard. It's goal is to get David Hasselhoff at the 2006 Oxegen Festival. Only 2 unique Google hits Madchester 23:53, July 21, 2005 (UTC)
 * BJAODN, I hope! --Irishpunktom\talk 00:01, July 22, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. nn. --Edcolins 09:54, July 22, 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete nn petition. JamesBurns 03:38, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


text:
List of storms named Franklin

The name Franklin has been used for four tropical cyclones in the Atlantic Ocean, replacing Floyd after 1999. It has also been used for an extratropical European windstorm.

In the Atlantic: In Europe:
 * Tropical Storm Franklin (2005) – formed over the Bahamas, then moved erratically in the open ocean, never affecting land directly; twice approached hurricane status.
 * Tropical Storm Franklin (2011) – weak tropical storm that never threatened land.
 * Hurricane Franklin (2017) – made landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula as a moderate tropical storm, then made a second landfall in Veracruz, Mexico as a Category 1 hurricane.
 * Hurricane Franklin (2023) – a large and strong Category 4 hurricane that made landfall in Hispaniola as a tropical storm.

 * Storm Franklin – a European windstorm which impacted Western Europe.

title: List of storms named Franklin


text:
Thomas C. Mann

Thomas Clifton Mann (November 11, 1912 – January 23, 1999) was an American diplomat who specialized in Latin American affairs. He entered the U.S. Department of State in 1942 and quickly rose through the ranks to become an influential establishment figure. He worked to influence the internal affairs of numerous Latin American nations, typically focusing on economic and political influence rather than direct military intervention. After Lyndon B. Johnson became President in 1963, Mann received a double appointment and was recognized as the U.S. authority on Latin America. In March 1964, Mann outlined a policy of supporting regime change and promoting the economic interests of U.S. businesses. This policy, which moved away from the political centrism of Kennedy's Alliance for Progress, has been called the Mann Doctrine. Mann left the State Department in 1966 and became a spokesperson for the Automobile Manufacturer's Association.

Early life
Born in Laredo, an American city on the border with Mexico, Mann grew up speaking English and Spanish. His father was a lawyer and a Southern Baptist.

He attended Baylor University and Baylor Law School, both in Waco, Texas, where he met his wife, the former Nancy Milling Aynesworth. They later had a son, Clifton Aynesworth Mann. Mann graduated from law school in 1934 and took a job at his father's law firm. He held various posts, as a lawyer in Laredo, in 1934 to 1942.

Early career
Mann was rejected from the Navy due to poor vision. He joined the Diplomatic Service, United States Department Of State in 1942, and was deployed to Montevideo in Uruguay to investigate Nazi shipping. In 1943, he was promoted to do this job across Latin America. He was involved in creating the 1945 Act of Chapultepec treaty for mutual defense of trans-American nations.

Truman administration
After unsuccessfully coordinating US opposition to Juan Perón in the 1946 Argentine election, he directed US diplomats in Latin America to avoid supporting particular candidates in elections—lest they suffer due to the perceived association. He commented during the 1950 Guatemalan election:

"At election time it is just political suicide to try to defend the United States... I think on the whole people in the other American Republics understand and support us, but it isn't good politics to say so at election time. We are a sort of punching bag during elections. Everybody likes to take a swing at us, and makes sure he does every time you say something."

Mann sought military assistance from Latin American countries during the Korean War, commenting "that if the Bolivians were complaining about spilling their blood for Yankees, a lot of Yankees were also complaining about American blood already being spilled in Korea for Bolivia and other countries of the hemisphere".

Mann believed that nationalism and Communism were related problems, and sought to prevent both as part of efforts to prevent Latin nationalization of resources. In a surprise to many observers, he agreed to secure US aid for Bolivia following the 1952 Bolivian revolution, partly as a reward for the new government's agreement to compensate US tin companies for nationalized assets.

Policy shift
In 1952, Mann welcomed the incoming Eisenhower administration with a 42-page memo on US relations with Latin America. The memo argued that the main issue for the US in this region was not a Communist invasion, but the problem of US control over "readily accessible essential strategic materials". These included vanadium as well as crude petroleum, resources which the US imported mostly from Latin America. Mann advocated swift US intervention to retaliate against nationalizations, as a show of force to deter similar actions by other countries. This memo was a source for NSC 144/1, representing the incoming Eisenhower administration's new policy on Latin America.

Guatemala
In Guatemala, Mann attended the inauguration of President Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán and pronounced him a communist. Although he resisted early overtures by United Fruit representatives to intervene, he opposed Árbenz's land reform law, fearing that Guatemala would provide a test case for other nations. After the CIA-backed military coup in 1954, Mann was recalled from Greece to Guatemala. He established Norman Armour as the US ambassador and sought to bolster the new military government of Castillo Armas. Mann reportedly gained de facto veto power over Guatemalan policy; after Mann had rejected a new oil law, Armas said he would come to "no final decision without consulting with Mr. Mann."

Mann later reflected that US operatives in Guatemala had an "illusion of omnipotence", saying in 1975:

"We were on the crest of a wave and nobody, literally nobody on the Hill or anywhere else ever questioned our ability to do anything if we wanted to do it [and] if we were willing to spend the money and the effort to do it."

Economic aid
In late September 1957 Mann moved to Washington, D.C., to become Assistant Secretary of State for Economic Affairs. Trans-American economic problems had created dissatisfaction and threatened to push Latin American countries away from the US. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles blamed an "economic war" waged by Moscow. Vice President Richard Nixon was mobbed by angry protestors in Venezuela and elsewhere. Mann advocated policies of robust economic assistance, establishing the Inter-American Development Bank and promoting low-interest loans financed by the US government. Mann pushed for "a Marshall Plan for Latin America" which would also include private finance. Eisenhower concurred, and appointed Mann as Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs in August 1960.

Kennedy administration
President John F. Kennedy promoted the Alliance for Progress, a centrist initiative to support Latin American economies and stave off communism through moderate reform.

Mann did not support the Bay of Pigs invasion, which had been planned by the CIA before Kennedy took office. He doubted the possibility of a popular uprising and, with Kennedy, opposed involvement by the US Air Force. He resigned his position at the State Department just weeks before the invasion took place in April 1961. In general, Mann felt that military action against Cuba would be too damaging for the US image. Instead, he supported economic sanctions to create suffering and dissatisfaction among the Cuban poor.

Kennedy appointed Mann United States Ambassador to Mexico where he successfully negotiated a settlement of the Chamizal border between the US and Mexican governments, caused by a shift in the Rio Grande.

Johnson administration
On December 14, 1963, new President Lyndon B. Johnson re-appointed Mann Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs. On December 21, Johnson also made Mann the head of the US Agency for International Development (USAID), an organization created by President Kennedy two years earlier. The double-appointment was opposed by the Kennedys and their liberal supporters, including Senator Hubert Humphrey and advisor Arthur Schlesinger Jr. Schlesinger wrote that Johnson's appointment of Mann constituted "a declaration of independence, even perhaps a declaration of aggression against the Kennedys." Members of the United States corporate establishment, generally felt they had a good relationship with Mann and supported the appointment.

Mann Doctrine
In March 1964, the new Johnson administration held a three-day policy conference for all U.S. diplomats in Latin America. On March 18, Mann gave a secret speech to U.S. officials which laid out the administration's policy for the region. Mann did not discuss the Alliance for Progress. His policy called for non-intervention against dictators if they were friendly to US business interests, but intervention against Communists regardless of their policies. The content of Mann's speech was leaked to the New York Times. His comments were interpreted as prioritizing US economic interests over political reform, and the thrust of this policy became known as the "Mann Doctrine".

Brazil
Later that month, Mann supported the military overthrow of the democratically elected government in Brazil, claiming a victory against Communism. Mann assisted this takeover directly by diverting US aid to Brazil away from the Goulart's central government. US operatives interpreted the March 18 Mann Doctrine as a "green light" for the coup to go forward. After the coup, Mann stated that "the frustration of Communistic objectives in Brazil was the single most important victory for freedom in the hemisphere in recent years".

Chile
In Chile, Mann ordered an intensive and coordinated campaign in favor of Eduardo Frei against Salvador Allende in the 1964 elections. In a May 1 memo to Secretary of State Dean Rusk, Mann wrote:

"Clearly, the September election will be determined by factors which are deeply rooted in the political, economic, and social fabric of the Chilean scene and by the campaign abilities of the major contenders. Given the consequences, however, if this major Latin American nation should become the first country in the hemisphere to freely choose an avowed Marxist as its elected president, the Department, CIA, and other agencies have embarked on a major campaign to prevent Allende's election and to support Frei, the only candidate who has a chance of beating him."

Mann described a ten-point plan, which included:
 * threats of economic retaliation against Chile if Allende won;
 * CIA and USIA production and dissemination of unattributed propaganda against Allende;
 * $70 million in emergency loans to prop up the economy and reduce unemployment before the election; and
 * secret contacts of US government and businesses with Chilean business, military, police, clergy, trade unions, and Masons, for the purpose of opposing Allende.

These efforts were successful in 1964 but reversed in 1970.

Bolivia
In Bolivia, when General René Barrientos Ortuño led a takeover of the popular Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR) government, which had been in power for twelve years, Mann secured aid for the new military government.

Panama
Mann later served in Panama during a period of intense agitation waged by Panamanians against the Panama Canal Zone. Mann began some successful negotiations with Panama, but was undercut by Johnson, who did not want to capitulate for political reasons.

Dominican Republic
In the Dominican Republic, Mann labeled democratically elected President Juan Bosch a communist and supported the US invasion in 1965. In April 1965, Mann personally insisted on the production of a cable which would describe danger to American citizens in the Dominican Republic. At the same time, Mann pressured the military government to crack down on insurgents in Santo Domingo. Mann described the popular rebellion as Communist infiltration enabled by Castro and supported the U.S. invasion as a necessary response.

Promotion and resignation
Mann became the Undersecretary of State for Economic Affairs in 1965. He was bestowed the President's Award for Distinguished Federal Civilian Service by President Johnson in 1966. This is the highest award that can be given to a career civilian employee of the federal government. Mann was cited as having "represented the United States with outstanding judgment, initiative, intelligence, and vision." He resigned from the State Department in June of 1966 and served as President of the Automobile Manufacturer's Association from 1967 through 1971.

Personal life

Mann was a brother of the late Laredo attorney Samuel Edward "Ed" Mann, a 1923 graduate of the University of Texas Law School and an inductee into the prestigious legal honor society, Crossroads. He died on January 23, 1999, in Lubbock, Texas.

Mann Road in Laredo is named for the Mann family. Thomas Mann is interred at Laredo City Cemetery.

Newspaper articles

 * "Reds' Work in Cuba Outlined: State Dept. Aide Says Technicians Imported", Daytona Beach Morning Journal,
 * "Latin-American Ties Jolted", Sarasota Herald-Tribune, March 20, 1964.
 * "Castro End Well Begun", William S. White, Sarasota Journal, August 1, 1964.
 * "Pan-American Squeeze Is Hurting Fidel Castro", William S. White, Morning Record, September 14, 1964.
 * "U.S. Offering Countries Population Problems Aid", St. Petersburg Times, November 12, 1964.
 * "Mann to Replace Harriman in State Department Shakeup", Meriden Journal, February 12, 1965.
 * "Latin Policy Protest Halts Senate Vote", Spokane Daily Chronicle, February 8, 1966
 * "Automakers Sued Over Air Pollution", Meriden Journal, January 11, 1969.

title: Thomas C. Mann


text: Category:Disability rights organizations


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Bryan Herta

Bryan John Herta (born May 23, 1970) is an American race strategist and former race car driver. He currently runs his own team, Bryan Herta Autosport in the NTT IndyCar Series and is the strategist for the #27 Andretti Autosport in the same series. His team won the 2011 Indianapolis 500 with driver Dan Wheldon and the 2016 Indianapolis 500 with driver Alexander Rossi. He is the father and former strategist of IndyCar driver Colton Herta.

CART/Champ Cars/IndyCars
Herta enjoyed considerable success in the lower formulae, winning the Barber Formula Ford and Barber Saab Pro Series, and dominating the 1993 Indy Lights championship with Tasman Motorsports, race engineered by Gerald Tyler.

He graduated to IndyCar racing in 1994 with team owner A. J. Foyt, where he had several promising races before suffering a season-ending injury at Toronto.

In 1995, Herta was hired to drive for Chip Ganassi Racing. Despite a pole at Phoenix, the association was unsuccessful, with Herta managing only a 20th place in the series standings while his teammate Jimmy Vasser finished 8th. Even so, Herta landed a top ride with Team Rahal for the 1996 season.

During the next few years, Herta developed a reputation for his prowess on road courses, especially at Laguna Seca Raceway. In 1996, he was the leader until the last lap, when Alex Zanardi made a pass through the "Corkscrew" chicane and took the victory. Herta, who rarely qualified below the first row at Laguna Seca, won two events at the circuit in 1998 and 1999. At the height of Herta's career, fan interest in the Shell-sponsored driver was dubbed "Hertamania" by team owner David Letterman.

In the opening laps of the 1998 event at Elkhart Lake, Wisconsin's Road America circuit, Herta was involved in a major accident. In the 4 mi road course's fifth turn, Herta got too close to the back of the car of co-owner Rahal, and spun out into a paved runoff area, facing oncoming traffic. A few seconds later, Alex Barron slid into the front of Herta's car and rode up on top of it. Both drivers were uninjured; Herta reported that Barron's car had actually hit his hands, only inches from his face.

From 2000 to 2003, Herta drove for a variety of Champ Car teams including Forsythe Championship Racing, Mo Nunn Racing, and PK Racing, but never quite regained his form from the late 1990s. In 2002 Herta drove an F1 car for the first time, piloting a Minardi at the "Thunder in the Park" event held at Donington Park. This led to speculation that he would test and even race for Minardi in F1.

IRL IndyCar Series
After dabbling in sports cars, he revitalized his open-wheel racing career by substituting for an injured Dario Franchitti halfway through the 2003 IRL season.

In just his third IRL start, Herta picked up his first IndyCar Series win at Kansas Speedway for Andretti Green Racing. He was retained in an expanded four-car squad in 2004, usually running development engines. On July 31, 2005, Herta took his second IndyCar Series win, defeating AGR teammate Dan Wheldon in a close finish in the Firestone Indy 400 at the Michigan International Speedway.

In early 2006, he drove at Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca and Fundidora Park for A1 Team USA in the A1 Grand Prix series before returning to Andretti Green for the IRL season.

As of 2006, Herta has started in the Indianapolis 500 five times (1994–1995, 2004–2006) with three top ten finishes, including a best of 3rd in 2005. Bryan has his helmets painted by AliveDesignCo.com

Sports cars
On October 31, 2006, Herta was confirmed as a driver for Andretti Green Racing's new Acura Le Mans prototype program for the 2007 American Le Mans Series season. He shared the car with Marino Franchitti, brother of his former teammate Dario Franchitti. On January 3, 2007, it was announced that Dario would also drive a limited ALMS programme with both Marino and Herta. Herta finished the season 7th in driver points with 1 class win. He also drove for A1 Team USA. At the event in Australia, Herta scored a 10th-place finish.

After racing
Since retiring from racing, Herta served as a driver coach for Vision Racing and founded a Firestone Indy Lights Series team named Bryan Herta Autosport, which has a technical alliance with Vision Racing's Indy Lights team. In 2009, the team fielded a full-time entry for Daniel Herrington. The team campaigned Sebastián Saavedra for eleven races of the 2010 Firestone Indy Lights season and the Indianapolis 500. In 2011 the team fielded a car for Dan Wheldon in the 2011 Indianapolis 500 which resulted in a stunning victory, and a full-time entry in Indy Lights for Duarte Ferreira.

For the 2012 IZOD IndyCar Series season, Alex Tagliani ran the 500. The team switched to a Honda powered DW12 in May 2012 for the remainder of the season.

In 2016 Herta partnered with Michael Andretti as a co-owner and won the 2016 Indianapolis 500. Their car was driven by series rookie Alexander Rossi.

Herta's son, Colton, is also a racing driver, and made his IndyCar debut in 2019 with Harding Steinbrenner Racing. In March 2019, Colton became the youngest ever IndyCar winner in the second round at the Circuit of the Americas.

Personal life
Herta and his wife Janette Michele (née Fountaine) have three children: Calysta, Colton, and Caden.

American Open Wheel
(key)

CART career summary
2 wins, Best championship result: 8th

IndyCar Series career summary
2 wins, best championship result: 8th

Complete A1 Grand Prix results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

title: Bryan Herta