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Comarnic

Comarnic is a town in Prahova County, Muntenia, Romania, with a population of 11,106 as of 2021. Four villages are administered by the town: Ghioșești, Podu Lung, Poiana, and Posada.

The town is situated along the Prahova River, in the main on the left bank, but with some of the component villages on the right bank of the river.

Cormarnic has one sister city:
 * 🇺🇸 Anacortes, USA

Climate
Comarnic has a humid continental climate (Cfb in the Köppen climate classification).

Etymology
Its name origin is the Romanian word "comarnic" for a kind of a shepherd's hut, of Slavic origin: komar=mosquito+ -nik, literally, "retreat from mosquitoes". It is used for milking sheep and storing milk and other dairy products.

Natives

 * Corina Drăgan-Terecoasa (born 1971), luger
 * Constantin Dragomir (born 1927), bobsledder
 * Georgeta Năpăruș (1930–1997), painter
 * Ion Panțuru (1934–2016), bobsledder
 * David Popescu (1886–1955), general in World War II and Interior Minister

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Comarnic


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1881 in archaeology

Below are notable events in archaeology that occurred in 1881.

Explorations

 * Alfred Maudslay begins his thorough examination of Quiriguá.

Excavations

 * Timgad, Algeria, is excavated.
 * The excavations at Olympia, Greece which began in 1875 and were led by Ernst Curtius end.
 * Mount Nemrut, Turkey, is excavated by German engineer Karl Sester.
 * Great Pyramid of Cholula in Mexico is investigated by Swiss-born American archaeologist Adolph Bandelier.
 * Pyramid of Unas in Egypt is investigated by French archaeologist Gaston Maspero.

Finds

 * March - Augustus Pitt Rivers finds palaeolithic flints in concreted gravels of the Nile terraces near Thebes.
 * "Official" discovery of collective tomb DB320 at Deir el-Bahari in Egypt.
 * Capt. H. L. Wells, RE, finds Qadamgah in Fars Province, Persia (Iran).
 * The birch bark Bakhshali manuscript, incorporating perhaps the earliest known use of mathematical zero, is unearthed near Bakhshali in British India.

Publications

 * John Evans - The Ancient Bronze Implements, Weapons and Ornaments of Great Britain and Ireland.
 * H. A. Fletcher - "The archaeology of the west Cumberland iron trade". Transactions of the Cumberland & Westmorland Archaeological Society 5:5–21.
 * Possible earliest use of the term "Industrial archaeology" in the English language.

Other events

 * February 22 - 'Cleopatra's Needle' erected in Central Park, New York.

Births

 * December 19 - Hetty Goldman, American archaeologist (d. 1972)

Deaths

 * January 24 - Frances Stackhouse Acton, English botanist, archaeologist, artist and writer (b. 1794)
 * May 19 - Joseph Barnard Davis, English craniologist (b. 1801)
 * June 21 - Ferdinand Keller, Swiss archaeologist (b. 1800)

title: 1881 in archaeology


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Brithenig

 This page is an archive of the proposed deletion of the article below. Further comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination). No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was keep -- Francs2000 | Talk 12:46, 5 August 2005 (UTC)

Brithenig

 * Keep. I am not an absolutist about keeping every possible piece of knowledge on Wikipedia, but in this instance it is not clear to me how to make an objective decision about which conlangs to include and which to exclude.  I mean, just look at the following three things I discovered with the randomizing function:  Rohtas Fort, King of Arms, and Wellsville, Ohio (population: 4,133).  Should every fort in Pakistan, every member of the hierarchy of heralds, or every city in Ohio, no matter how small, have an entry? Well, maybe.  The decision is ultimately about counts as important, and nobody can predetermine what will count as important before it actually becomes so.  Brithenig is a small conlang, but one developed by a number of people, and has drawn some attention in the online conlanging community; it is equivalent to a town slightly more important than Wellsville, Ohio.  But Wellsville has an entry.  Why not Brithenig?   Trwier 26 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. This article is about a conlang. I believe that it is not notable for inclusion in Wikipedia. – ishwar  (speak)  15:35, 2005 July 23 (UTC)
 * Keep - inventing fake languages might be a goofy way to spend your life, but it's certainly a worthy topic. - DavidWBrooks 15:37, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete - inventing fake languages might be a less goofy way to spend your life than quite a few others, but that does not make every fake language a worthy topic. --Thorsten1 10:03, 24 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep - If you delete this article, please proceed and remove all the constructed languages that appear in this list. If you delete this one, but keep the others, it'll be unfair. I think this kind of articles is worth enough, and they hurt no one. Thanks. Assdl 15:42, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * "There is a lot of worthless crap in Wikipedia" isn't an argument for keeping this article. User has made less than 50 edits. Wile E. Heresiarch 19:36, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Comment. I'm not sure about the notability of Brithenig in particular, but constructed languages cannot all be eligible for Wikipedia.  If it is judged that this one is not, others, such as Esperanto and Languages of Middle-Earth, still are, so I disagree with Assdl about treating all conlangs the same.  As regards the comments of DavidWBrooks on the worthiness of the topic in general, that is why there is a constructed language article. --Joel7687 16:16, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep - pretty good article, not sure about notability, but does no harm. I could not call it vanity (as in music bands). -Renata3 16:25, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep - Brithenig is highly notable, in fact it was the first of its kind. Ishwar, have you listed every conlang on wikipedia for deletion? Whence the sudden zeal? Dewrad 16:55, July 23, 2005 (UTC)
 * hi. no, i havent listed every conlang for deletion. i have only listed a few that user Assdl brought to my attention. my covert question here is: What constraints are there for the inclusion of conlangs in an encyclopedia?. thats it. i just put these up to let the community decide about this. peace – ishwar  (speak)  19:23, 2005 July 23 (UTC)
 * This in my view is uncomfortably close to the behaviour of GRider in the schools deletion debate . . . Ask the question explicitly, rather than covertly. Hopefully these votes will build consensus rather than provoke antagonism, which was what happened with GRider.  Slac  speak up!  21:42, 24 July 2005 (UTC)
 * i dont know what you are referring to (you could explain on my talk page if you have time). i dont mean to provoke antagonism. peace – ishwar  (speak)  22:02, 2005 July 24 (UTC)

 * Delete. First off, I find this very interesting, privately. However, the article itself admits that this "language" is nothing but a "thought experiment" conducted as a "hobby". We must draw a line somewhere, and I think that private thought experiments that have not gained any wider currency should not be included in Wikipedia. --Thorsten1 17:05, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Nonnotable. mikka (t) 18:20, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep - I think that if someone would like information on a conlang, there's no reason Wikipedia shouldn't be a place to start. -Firespeaker 18:22, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * User has made less than 50 edits. Wile E. Heresiarch 19:36, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep - fairly notable as conlangs go, especially with with having spawned Ill Bethisad. -- pne 19:01, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete: vanity, advert, nonnotable. Wile E. Heresiarch 19:24, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Heresiarch, you are making me very angry! Where did you get the godforsaken arrogance to state these things? I have been in contact with Andrew Smith at numerous occasions, and I can testify that he is an extraordinarily gentle and modest person. I hate to see him accused of "vanity" by someone who obviously doesn't know him, doesn't know his creations and doesn't know anything about conlangs in general. For the record, he did not create the article himself, nor did he contribute anything to it. Likewise, your accusation that this is an "advert" is ridiculous! I've nothing against a little healthy polemising, but ad hominem attacks like this one, so deeply under the belt, are really out of line. By all means be ashamed of yourself! --IJzeren Jan 22:45, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * I see your comments are all about personalities -- yours, mine, and the gentle and modest Andrew Smith. Feel free to come up with some arguments for preserving this article. Wile E. Heresiarch 03:06, 24 July 2005 (UTC)
 * And so are yours! Why otherwise would you be counting the edits of everybody who votes "keep" and complain about the fact that someone made a note of these VfDs at ZBB? What counts is that people are wikipedia users. There's nothing wrong with notifying other wikipedians that a VfD has been made in a field of their interest. Since you are so interested in the personal background of the voters, consider this (from Votes for Deletion): You don't have to vote on every nomination; even consider not participating if: a nomination involves a topic of which you are ignorant; [...]. For the record, I have no problem with the status quo. It's you who want to delete these articles, so if anybody were supposed to come up with good arguments its you! Frankly, I haven't seen any yet. All you could come up with is: non-notability (not a real criterium anyway, see here); vanity; and advertising (both evidently are complete nonsense). I must say, in related discussions in other wikis I've heard much better arguments! Now I'd love to give you a whole list of arguments in favour of all those articles that are currently under attack, but I wonder if it wouldn't be worth the effort to have all these discussions in one place. So for now I'll limit myself to this: language construction is a serious, full-fledged artform, and most of the languages that have attracted your wrath are excellent, important and representative examples of this artform. Therefore, their lemmata are warranted. For the record, I'm nót proposing that every conlang have its own entry in the wikipedia. --IJzeren Jan 07:41, 24 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Keep, this one's just over the bar of notability for me. --Angr/undefined 20:00, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Comment. Without any irony whatsoever, I'd be interested to learn what your criteria to measure the notability of fictional languages are. What is it that sets Brithenig apart from Wenedyk, where you voted delete, IIRC? --Thorsten1 13:24, 24 July 2005 (UTC) actually from earlier this morning, forgot to sign
 * I think it was the fact that "Brithenig is respected among the conlang community, being the best-known example of the altlang genre. It is the first known conlang to extrapolate a real Earth language through an alternate evolution, and as such can be considered the grandfather of the genre." (emphasis mine) --Angr/undefined 05:50, 25 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep How many conlangs are widely known anyway? --malathion talk 21:08, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Strong keep. It's sooo tiring: every once in a while someone pops up who claims that all conlangs are non-notable and who want to limit the pages about it to Esperanto, Ido and Interlingua. Why can't those people accept that language construction is a form of art like any other? That the audience is smaller doesn't make it insignificant IMO. Now I agree that it is important to distinguish between notable and non-notable conlangs. But being a conlanger myself and knowing my way in conlangland, I assure you guys that Brithenig is an extremely notable language: it has been an immense source of inspiration for many other conlangs, it is the first known and most notable language of its kind (the "altlang" genre). It's a true masterpiece! --IJzeren Jan 22:52, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Comment. ...someone pops up who claims that all conlangs are non-notable and who want to limit the pages about it to Esperanto, Ido and Interlingua: Sorry Jan, but I think there is a huge distance between languages seriously designed for real-life international communication, and languages that form part of some work of fiction someone pursues as a hobby without any evident audience. "Klingon" or Tolkien's invented languages are special cases as they have established a huge audience. Further, see mine and others' comments on Wenedyk's VfD. No offence, --Thorsten1 10:03, 24 July 2005 (UTC)
 * There ís such a distinction, Thorsten. Brithenig and other artlangs have not been created with the purpose of building up a community of speakers. So, you can't judge them by that criterium. That's my entire point here! As for the hobby element: yes, that is at least an argument. But if you ask me, virtually every form of art starts out as a hobby and in many cases never ceases to be one. Admittedly, the audience for artistic languages is a rather small one. But that conlanging is not the kind of artform people make a lot of money with does IMO not render it insignificant. --IJzeren Jan 11:14, 24 July 2005 (UTC)
 * NB if you insist on using the number of speakers as a criterium, we might as well delete at least two third of the auxlangs listed in International auxiliary language. In fact, their case is even worse since they serve no other purpose than being used by "the world", while in reality they never gathered a community with more than a neglectable number of speakers. --IJzeren Jan 11:14, 24 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Jan, I do not at all insist on the number of speakers, but I do agree that a significant proportion of auxiliary languages on Wikipedia probably are, at best, of borderline interest to anybody but their creators or smallish fan communities. But as I tried to explain on Wenedyk's parallel VfD, two wrongs don't make a right, and neither do two thirds of wrongs. "every form of art starts out as a hobby and in many cases never ceases to be one" - that is true enough. But for me, the decisive question is not what something starts out as, but what it ends up as - and Brithenig has yet to transcend the status of a private hobby, at least I see no evidence that it has already accomplished that. Once it has, I'll be glad to renegotiate my vote. To use a Dutch example, had Van Gogh not posthumously received the recognition he was denied during his lifetime, we would rather not have immortalised him here, either, even if the paintings were the same. "conlanging is not the kind of artform people make a lot of money with does IMO not render it insignificant". Not by itself, no. But, like it or not, the way our society is structured, making a lot of money with something usually proves that it is of significance. Of course, if something isn't making lots of money, this does not mean (yet) it is insignificant by definiton. But then there have to be other, objective signals to indicate significance. Even though I might subjectively agree with your opinion, I still fail to see what the objective indications might be in this case. --Thorsten1 13:24, 24 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Strong Keep: I'd disagree that Brithenig hasn't transcended the status of a private hobby. It did, after all, spawn a highly active community developing the world around it (Disclosure: I participate in Ill Bethisad, and handle Ireland and a few other small sections). It's also notable amongst conlangs as one of the prototypical examples of the altlang genre. While there's few reasons I'd add an article on a conlang to the wiki, Brithenig and Verdurian are, because of their influence upon the art and their completeness, some of those I'd deem notable enough to keep. (And Wile E., don't post up the number of edits I've made. If anybody's interested, they can find them out for themselves. It's childish and demeaning to your fellow Wikipedians. Quality of edits is far more important than quantity. The same goes for anybody on either side of the argument doing this.) --Kgaughan 16:13, 25 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Delete. Per CONLANG, no points of notability (#105 in Langmaker is closest to notable).  Almafeta 01:34, 24 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Strong keep. Brithenig has a code in ISO 639-3 (namely, bzt) which apparently means (according to their conlang inclusion criteria) that "The language has a literature" and "The language is designed for the purpose of human communication". —Muke Tever talk (la.wiktionary) 02:35, 24 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Comment. Whoever decides such things, this only proves they can make mistakes (at best) or simply cannot be trusted to tell truth from fiction (at worst).--Thorsten1 10:03, 24 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Possible. But our job here is to describe things that are, not things as they ought to be. --IJzeren Jan 11:05, 24 July 2005 (UTC)
 * ...and neither things as they could have been had the Romans invaded Poland or stayed in Britain for longer. :-P. --Thorsten1 13:28, 24 July 2005 (UTC)
 * (comment - the latter criterion, of course, wouldn't serve to keep it; my main argument was the inclusion in ISO 639-3, but I got sidetracked. —Muke Tever talk (la.wiktionary) 03:54, 24 July 2005 (UTC))
 * Strong Keep. Per Muke Tever -- ISO codes prolly should be in CONLANG.  And speaking of, heya, Muke, long time no see!  Almafeta 04:04, 24 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Weak DeleteNo indication of having, now or ever, been a vernacular for any sized group of people. No pop culture notability, as per Klingon. No academic notability, as due to the fact that I couldn't find a reference to it after searching over a half dozen scholarly journals' online editions. I suppose one could say that the fact it seems to have spawned some other conlangs nobody seems to speak and nobody who studies languages cares about could be called notability, but the first lemming off the cliff isn't encyclopedic either.  The Literate Engineer 06:15, 24 July 2005 (UTC)
 * (very) Weak keep. Brithenig just creeps in over the line of notability to me (as a conlanger). It's spawned a lot of copycats as well as Ill Bethisad and members of the conlanging community generally know about it. Nothing less notable than Brithenig should be included, though, which is why I voted delete on Venedic and Breathenach. Felix the Cassowary 14:06, 24 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. As a conlanger, and much as I would like to make public the art of conlanging to the greatest extent possible, I really don't see the need for grammatical treatises and descriptions of individual conlangs here on the Wikipedia. There is already a good Wikipedia article, Artistic language, which should serve as a central locus for this particular art form and has already got a quite a long list of conlangs there. I think it vèry meet and right for conlangers to link to their own pages or to some other conlang oriented source, if they wish to do so. I wouldn't create a Wikipedia article for any of my conlangs, even though at least one of them ìs "notable" per these criteria, and if I found one, I'ld delete it for the reasons stated. Elemtilas
 * Comment: User has five contributions, all of them VfD votes:  Slac  speak up!  21:44, 24 July 2005 (UTC).
 * Response: So what? I was invited to "speak up", so I am speaking up. Elemtilas

 * Weak Keep -- having found and read the deletion policies, I have to reconsider my opinion. I still don't think most conlangs warrant individual articles, but they are works of art and as such should not necessarily be removed simply because some people don't get the artform or can't think of anything better than personal attacks against the artists that create languages. Anyone who wants to create such an article on a conlang should be responsible enough to really consider whether this piece of artwork warrants an individual and unique article of its own. If possible, this article should be merged with Constructed languages or Artistic languages or Ill Bethisad. Elemtilas
 * Keep Personally, I don't understand why "notable" should even be a criterion. I can understand the "vanity" thing, but there are a lot of obscure topics in Wikipedia, and that's a good thing, IMO. Nik42 21:37, 24 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep, as with other votes above, just over the bar of notability. Nominating multiple articles for VfD is not as productive a way to build consensus on notability as some others. . . Slac speak up!  21:42, 24 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. No hits in Proquest Research Library. No hits in Google Scholar. Compare: Interlingua, 12 hits in Proquest Research Library, 2400 hits in Google Scholar; Solresol, no hits in Proquest Research Library, 9 hits in Google Scholar Dpbsmith (talk) 22:10, 24 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Comment: and how many does Krypto get? How about Sonic the Hedgehog? Google Scholar and Proquest are not standards that you can compare the entire Wikipedia to.--Prosfilaes 21:06, 25 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. If a few artistic languages deserve to be in Wikipedia, Brithenig and Verdurian should be in. Chlewey 01:55, 25 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Can easily be combined with the Ill Bethisad page, if it's that important a part of IB; otherwise, it need not be mentioned. (Since Ill Bethisad is one of the larger collaborative conworlds, it certainly deserves mention.) However, the language's significance predicates on Ill Bethisad's significance, so it should only be mentioned as part of Ill Bethisad and in that article. (Compare The Scream, which is a significant work apart from its artist.) Dhasenan 03:55, 25 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. In that small, perhaps rather sad, section of the world that whiles its days away making up imaginary languages, this is one of the better-known examples of the art. Of course, that doesn't make it of note to the luminaries who spend their time so much more valuably here but if you cannot find it in Wikipedia, where can you find it? Grace Note 05:20, 25 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Note that Wikipedia is not an indiscriminate collection of information. Wile E. Heresiarch 14:42, 25 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep Brithenig is a highly regarded creation in the Conlanging community - in fact, it's a conlang which has insipred other conlangers. It's one of the great works of the art.
 * Keep. Brithenig is not just any old conlang! BenctPhilipJonsson 19:27, 25 July 2005 (UTC)
 * User has no other edits but voting for keeping conlangs.mikka (t) 19:40, 25 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete notability not established. JamesBurns 04:09, 26 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. I am not an absolutist about keeping every possible piece of knowledge on Wikipedia, but in this instance it is not clear to me how to make an objective decision about which conlangs to include and which to exclude.  I mean, just look at the following three things I discovered with the randomizing function:  Rohtas Fort, King of Arms, and Wellsville, Ohio (population: 4,133).  Should every fort in Pakistan, every member of the hierarchy of heralds, or every city in Ohio, no matter how small, have an entry? Well, maybe.  The decision is ultimately about counts as important, and nobody can predetermine what will count as important before it actually becomes so.  Brithenig is a small conlang, but one developed by a number of people, and has drawn some attention in the online conlanging community; it is equivalent to a town slightly more important than Wellsville, Ohio.  But Wellsville has an entry.  Why not Brithenig?  Incidentally, I find the argument that conlangs are ipso facto unworthy of an entry, as ishwar does, a little bizarre.  Does Super Mario Brothers deserve an entry? Surely that's considerably more fatuous than conlanging (8P), but Wikipedia has devoted it a whole set of pages just to the characters in that series. (unsigned contribution by Trwier)
 * Keep. The article provides valuable information about a well-known artistic language. arj 12:47, 26 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep - Being a conlang is not enough reason to delete the article. This gets 9,350 hits on google, and 4,150 if i include the word language. Please consider growing up. --Phroziac (talk) 19:53, 26 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. While I am impressed that people out there can actually do stuff like this, it is not notable enough for an encyclopedia. Indrian 20:48, July 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * For a print encyclopedia, perhaps... Almafeta 03:36, 28 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. After reading through the deletion policy in its entirety, it seems clear that this article has a place here. SamuelRiv 16:49, 27 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. Brithenig a notable example of the science of applied linguistics. The applicability to theoretical anthropology also makes it important.  I agree that anything less notable shouldn't be included in Wiki, however. Tygertyger 17:59, July 27, 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep. One of the best-known and most influential artlangs, with many people involved besides the creator. --Jim Henry | Talk 03:20, 28 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Maybe we should consider discussing and voting on a Wikipedia policy on criteria for inclusion of conlangs? Almafeta's conlang notability criteria might be a good starting point.  Where would be the appropriate place to propose/discuss such a new policy? --Jim Henry | Talk 04:29, 28 July 2005 (UTC)
 * An excellent idea, and a far better solution than shooting at random. I agree that Almafeta's page provides a good starting point for a discussion, even though I don't agree with it on every point. Where should such a discussion take place? Well, definitely not here! I'd say that either User:Almafeta/Conlang, or Talk:Constructed language. --IJzeren Jan 06:31, 28 July 2005 (UTC)

 * As far as I know Talk:Constructed language is a good place to discuss the draft policy, but I'm not sure about how to go about proposing it as a policy and getting it voted on, once the people discussing the draft have some consensus on what policy to propose. Maybe we should copy Almafeta's conlang notability criteria to Talk:Constructed language/Conlang notability criteria or Talk:Constructed language/Conlang article inclusion policy draft, and then let people revise the draft and comment on the reasons for their proposed revisions, etc...?  --Jim Henry | Talk 16:51, 28 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Keep. As others have mentioned before, Brithenig is notable for being the first known conlang of its kind (an altlang). - irisheye 23:44, 31 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Keep. Its seminal status puts it just over the bar for me. Hv 11:51, 1 August 2005 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


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Ancient technology

During the growth of the ancient civilizations, ancient technology was the result from advances in engineering in ancient times. These advances in the history of technology stimulated societies to adopt new ways of living and governance.

This article includes the advances in technology and the development of several engineering sciences in historic times before the Middle Ages, which began after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in AD 476, the death of Justinian I in the 6th century, the coming of Islam in the 7th century, or the rise of Charlemagne in the 8th century. For technologies developed in medieval societies, see Medieval technology and Inventions in medieval Islam.

Africa
Technology in Africa has a history stretching to the beginning of the human species, stretching back to the first evidence of tool use by hominid ancestors in the areas of Africa where humans are believed to have evolved. Africa saw the advent of some of the earliest ironworking technology in the Aïr Mountains region of what is today Niger and the erection of some of the world's oldest monuments, pyramids, and towers in Egypt, Nubia, and North Africa. In Nubia and ancient Kush, glazed quartzite and building in brick were developed to a greater extent than in Egypt. Parts of the East African Swahili Coast saw the creation of the world's oldest carbon steel creation with high-temperature blast furnaces created by the Haya people of Tanzania.

Mesopotamia
The Mesopotamians were one of the first to enter the Bronze Age in the world. Early on they used copper, bronze and gold, and later they used iron. Palaces were decorated with hundreds of kilograms of these very expensive metals. Also, copper, bronze, and iron were used for armor as well as for different weapons such as swords, daggers, spears, and maces.

Perhaps the most important advance made by the Mesopotamians was the invention of writing by the Sumerians. With the invention of writing came the first recorded laws called the Code of Hammurabi as well as the first major piece of literature called the Epic of Gilgamesh.

Several of the six classic simple machines were invented in Mesopotamia. Mesopotamians have been credited with the invention of the wheel. The wheel and axle mechanism first appeared with the potter's wheel, invented in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC. This led to the invention of the wheeled vehicle in Mesopotamia during the early 4th millennium BC. Depictions of wheeled wagons found on clay tablet pictographs at the Eanna district of Uruk are dated between 3700 and 3500 BC. The lever was used in the shadoof water-lifting device, the first crane machine, which appeared in Mesopotamia circa 3000 BC. and then in ancient Egyptian technology circa 2000 BC. The earliest evidence of pulleys date back to Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BC.

The screw, the last of the simple machines to be invented, first appeared in Mesopotamia during the Neo-Assyrian period (911-609) BC. According to the assyriologist Stephanie Dalley, the earliest pump was the screw pump, first used by Sennacherib, King of Assyria, for the water systems at the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and Nineveh in the 7th century BC. This attribution, however, is disputed by the historian John Peter Oleson.

The Mesopotamians used a sexagesimal number system with the base 60 (like we use base 10). They divided time up by 60s including a 60-second minute and a 60-minute hour, which we still use today. They also divided up the circle into 360 degrees. They had a wide knowledge of mathematics including addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, quadratic and cubic equations, and fractions. This was important in keeping track of records as well as in some of their large building projects. The Mesopotamians had formulas for figuring out the circumference and area for different geometric shapes like rectangles, circles, and triangles. Some evidence suggests that they even knew the Pythagorean Theorem long before Pythagoras wrote it down. They may have even discovered the number for pi in figuring the circumference of a circle.

Babylonian astronomy was able to follow the movements of the stars, planets, and the Moon. Application of advanced math predicted the movements of several planets. By studying the phases of the Moon, the Mesopotamians created the first calendar. It had 12 lunar months and was the predecessor for both the Jewish and Greek calendars.

Babylonian medicine used logic and recorded medical history to be able to diagnose and treat illnesses with various creams and pills. Mesopotamians had two kinds of medical practices, magical and physical, and would often use both practices on the same patient.

The Mesopotamians made many technological discoveries. They were the first to use the potter's wheel to make better pottery, they used irrigation to get water to their crops, they used bronze metal (and later iron metal) to make strong tools and weapons, and used looms to weave cloth from wool.

The Jerwan Aqueduct (c. 688 BC) is made with stone arches and lined with waterproof concrete.

For later technologies developed in the Mesopotamian region, now known as Iraq, see Persia below for developments under the ancient Persian Empire, and the Inventions in medieval Islam and Arab Agricultural Revolution articles for developments under the medieval Islamic Caliphates.

Egypt
The Egyptians invented and used many simple machines, such as the ramp to aid construction processes. They were among the first to extract gold by large-scale mining using fire-setting, and the first recognisable map, the Turin papyrus shows the plan of one such mine in Nubia.

The Egyptians are known for building pyramids centuries before the creation of modern tools. Historians and archaeologists have found evidence that the Egyptian pyramids were built using three of what is called the Six Simple Machines, from which all machines are based. These machines are the inclined plane, the wedge, and the lever, which allowed the ancient Egyptians to move millions of limestone blocks which weighed approximately 3.5 tons (7,000 lbs.) each into place to create structures like the Great Pyramid of Giza, which is 481 ft high.

Egyptian paper, made from papyrus, and pottery were mass-produced and exported throughout the Mediterranean basin. The wheel, however, did not arrive until foreign invaders introduced the chariot. They developed Mediterranean maritime technology including ships and lighthouses. Early construction techniques utilized by the Ancient Egyptians made use of bricks composed mainly of clay, sand, silt, and other minerals. These constructs would have been vital in flood control and irrigation, especially along the Nile delta.

The screw pump is the oldest positive displacement pump. The first records of a screw pump, also known as a water screw or Archimedes' screw, dates back to Ancient Egypt before the 3rd century BC. The Egyptian screw, used to lift water from the Nile, was composed of tubes wound around a cylinder; as the entire unit rotates, water is lifted within the spiral tube to the higher elevation. A later screw pump design from Egypt had a spiral groove cut on the outside of a solid wooden cylinder and then the cylinder was covered by boards or sheets of metal closely covering the surfaces between the grooves. The screw pump was later introduced from Egypt to Greece.

For later technologies in Ptolemaic Egypt and Roman Egypt, see Ancient Greek technology and Roman technology, respectively. For later technology in medieval Arabic Egypt, see Inventions in medieval Islam and Arab Agricultural Revolution.

India
The history of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent dates back to the earliest civilizations of the world. The Indus Valley civilization yields evidence of mathematics, hydrography, metrology, metallurgy, astronomy, medicine, surgery, civil engineering and sewage collection and disposal being practiced by its inhabitants.

The Indus Valley civilization, situated in a resource-rich area (in modern Pakistan and northwestern India), is notable for its early application of city planning, sanitation technologies, and plumbing. Cities in the Indus Valley offer some of the first examples of closed gutters, public baths, and communal granaries.

The Takshashila University was an important seat of learning in the ancient world. It was the center of education for scholars from all over Asia. Many Greek, Persian and Chinese students studied here under great scholars including Kautilya, Panini, Jivaka, and Vishnu Sharma.

The ancient system of medicine in India, Ayurveda was a significant milestone in Indian history. It mainly uses herbs as medicines. Its origins can be traced back to origin of Atharvaveda. The Sushruta Samhita (400 BC) by Sushruta has details about performing cataract surgery, plastic surgery, etc.

Ancient India was also at the forefront of seafaring technology - a panel found at Mohenjo-daro, depicts a sailing craft. Ship construction is vividly described in the Yukti Kalpa Taru, an ancient Indian text on Shipbuilding. (The Yukti Kalpa Taru had been translated and published by Prof. Aufrecht in his 'Catalogue of Sanskrit Manuscripts').

Indian construction and architecture, called 'Vaastu Shastra', suggests a thorough understanding of materials engineering, hydrology, and sanitation. Ancient Indian culture was also pioneering in its use of vegetable dyes, cultivating plants including indigo and cinnabar. Many of the dyes were used in art and sculpture. The use of perfumes demonstrates some knowledge of chemistry, particularly distillation and purification processes.

China

The history of science and technology in China shows significant advances in science, technology, mathematics, and astronomy. The first recorded observations of comets, solar eclipses, and supernovae were made in China. Traditional Chinese medicine, acupuncture and herbal medicine were also practiced. The Four Great Inventions of China: the compass, gunpowder, papermaking, and printing were among the most important technological advances, only known in Europe by the end of the Middle Ages.

According to the Scottish researcher Joseph Needham, the Chinese made many first-known discoveries and developments. Major technological contributions from China include early seismological detectors, matches, paper, the double-action piston pump, cast iron, the iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the suspension bridge, natural gas as fuel, the magnetic compass, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, the south-pointing chariot, and gunpowder. Other Chinese discoveries and inventions from the Medieval period, according to Joseph Needham's research, include: block printing and movable type, phosphorescent paint, and the spinning wheel.

The solid-fuel rocket was invented in China about 1150 AD, nearly 200 years after the invention of black powder (which acted as the rocket's fuel). At the same time that the Age of Exploration was occurring in the West, the Chinese emperors of the Ming Dynasty also sent ships, some reaching Africa. But the enterprises were not further funded, halting further exploration and development. When Ferdinand Magellan's ships reached Brunei in 1521, they found a wealthy city that had been fortified by Chinese engineers, and protected by a breakwater. Antonio Pigafetta noted that much of the technology of Brunei was equal to Western technology of the time. Also, there were more cannons in Brunei than on Magellan's ships, and the Chinese merchants to the Brunei court had sold them spectacles and porcelain, which were rarities in Europe.

Persian Empire
The Qanat, a water management system used for irrigation, originated in Iran before the Achaemenid period of Persia. The oldest and largest known qanat is in the Iranian city of Gonabad which, after 2,700 years, still provides drinking and agricultural water to nearly 40,000 people.

The earliest evidence of water wheels and watermills date back to the ancient Near East in the 4th century BC, specifically in the Persian Empire before 350 BC, in the regions of Mesopotamia (Iraq) and Persia (Iran). This pioneering use of water power constituted the first human-devised motive force not to rely on muscle power (besides the sail).

In the 7th century AD, Persians in Afghanistan developed the first practical windmills. For later medieval technologies developed in Islamic Persia, see Inventions in medieval Islam and Arab Agricultural Revolution.

Mesoamerica and Andean Region
Lacking suitable beasts of burden and inhabiting domains often too mountainous or boggy for wheeled transport, the ancient civilizations of the Americas did not develop wheeled transport or the mechanics associated with animal power. Nevertheless, they produced advanced engineering including above ground and underground aqueducts, quake-proof masonry, artificial lakes, dykes, 'fountains,' pressurized water, road ways and complex terracing. Equally, gold-working commenced early in Peru (2000 BC), and eventually copper, tin, lead and bronze were used. Although metallurgy did not spread to Mesoamerica until the Middle Ages, it was employed here and in the Andes for sophisticated alloys and gilding. The Native Americans developed a complex understanding of the chemical properties or utility of natural substances, with the result that a majority of the world's early medicinal drugs and edible crops, many important adhesives, paints, fibres, plasters, and other useful items were the products of these civilizations. Perhaps the best-known Mesoamerican invention was rubber, which was used to create rubber bands, rubber bindings, balls, syringes, 'raincoats,' boots, and waterproof insulation on containers and flasks.

Hellenistic Mediterranean
The Hellenistic period of Mediterranean history began in the 4th century BC with Alexander's conquests, which led to the emergence of a Hellenistic civilization representing a synthesis of Greek and Near-Eastern cultures in the Eastern Mediterranean region, including the Balkans, Levant and Egypt. With Ptolemaic Egypt as its intellectual center and Greek as the lingua franca, the Hellenistic civilization included Greek, Egyptian, Jewish, Persian and Phoenician scholars and engineers who wrote in Greek.

Hellenistic technology made significant progress from the 4th century BC, continuing up to and including the Roman period. Some inventions that are credited to the ancient Greeks are the following: bronze casting techniques, water organ (hydraulis), and torsion siege engine. Many of these inventions occurred late in the Hellenistic period, often inspired by the need to improve weapons and tactics in war.

Hellenistic engineers of the Eastern Mediterranean were responsible for a number of inventions and improvements to existing technology. Archimedes invented several machines. Hellenistic engineers often combined scientific research with the development of new technologies. Technologies invented by Hellenistic engineers include the ballistae, the piston pump, and primitive analog computers like the Antikythera mechanism. Hellenistic architects built domes, and were the first to explore the Golden ratio and its relationship with geometry and architecture.

Other Hellenistic innovations include torsion catapults, pneumatic catapults, crossbows, rutways, organs, the keyboard mechanism, differential gears, showers, dry docks, diving bells, odometer and astrolabes. In architecture, Hellenistic engineers constructed monumental lighthouses such as the Pharos and devised central heating systems. The Tunnel of Eupalinos is the earliest tunnel which has been excavated with a scientific approach from both ends.

Automata like automatic doors and other ingenious devices were built by Hellenistic engineers as Ctesibius and Philo of Byzantium. Greek technological treatises were scrupulously studied and advanced by later Byzantine, Arabic and Latin scholars, and provided some of the foundations for further technological advances in these civilizations.

Roman Empire

The Roman Empire expanded from Italia across the entire Mediterranean region between the 1st century BC and 1st century AD. Its most advanced and economically productive provinces outside of Italia were the Eastern Roman provinces in the Balkans, Asia Minor, Egypt, and the Levant, with Roman Egypt in particular being the wealthiest Roman province outside of Italia.

Roman technology supported Roman civilization and made the expansion of Roman commerce and Roman military possible over nearly a thousand years. The Roman Empire had an advanced set of technology for their time. Some of the Roman technology in Europe may have been lost during the turbulent eras of Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Roman technological feats in many different areas such as civil engineering, construction materials, transport technology, and some inventions such as the mechanical reaper went unmatched until the 19th century. Romans developed an intensive and sophisticated agriculture, expanded upon existing iron working technology, created laws providing for individual ownership, advanced stonemasonry technology, advanced road-building (exceeded only in the 19th century), military engineering, civil engineering, spinning and weaving and several different machines like the Gallic reaper that helped to increase productivity in many sectors of the Roman economy. They also developed water power through building aqueducts on a grand scale, using water not just for drinking supplies but also for irrigation, powering water mills and in mining. They used drainage wheels extensively in deep underground mines, one device being the reverse overshot water-wheel. They were the first to apply hydraulic mining methods for prospecting for metal ores, and for extracting those ores from the ground when found using a method known as hushing.

Roman engineers have built triumphal arches, amphitheatres, aqueducts, public baths, true arch bridges, harbours, dams, vaults and domes on a very large scale across their Empire. Notable Roman inventions include the book (Codex), glass blowing and concrete. Because Rome was located on a volcanic peninsula, with sand which contained suitable crystalline grains, the concrete which the Romans formulated was especially durable. Some of their buildings have lasted 2000 years, to the present day. Roman society had also carried over the design of a door lock with tumblers and springs from Greece. Like many other aspects of innovation and culture that were carried on from Greece to Rome, the lines between where each one originated from have become skewed over time. These mechanisms were highly sophisticated and intricate for the era.

Roman civilization was highly urbanized by pre-modern standards. Many cities of the Roman Empire had over 100,000 inhabitants with the capital Rome being the largest metropolis of antiquity. Features of Roman urban life included multistory apartment buildings called insulae, street paving, public flush toilets, glass windows and floor and wall heating. The Romans understood hydraulics and constructed fountains and waterworks, particularly aqueducts, which were the hallmark of their civilization. They exploited water power by building water mills, sometimes in series, such as the sequence found at Barbegal in southern France and suspected on the Janiculum in Rome. Some Roman baths have lasted to this day. The Romans developed many technologies which were apparently lost in the Middle Ages, and were only fully reinvented in the 19th and 20th centuries. They also left texts describing their achievements, especially Pliny the Elder, Frontinus and Vitruvius.

Other less known Roman innovations include cement, boat mills, arch dams and possibly tide mills.

In Roman Egypt, Heron of Alexandria invented the aeolipile, a basic steam-powered device, and demonstrated knowledge of mechanic and pneumatic systems. He was also the first to experiment with a wind-powered mechanical device, a windwheel. He also described a vending machine. However, his inventions were primarily toys, rather than practical machines.

title: Ancient technology


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Hans Dreier

Hans Dreier (August 21, 1885 – October 24, 1966) was a German motion picture art director. He was Paramount Pictures' supervising art director from 1927 until his retirement in 1950, when he was succeeded by Hal Pereira.

Hans Dreier was born in Bremen, Germany in 1885. After studying architecture in Munich, Germany, Dreier worked as imperial supervising architect of the German Cameroon. During World War I, he served in the German Lancers.

He began his career in German films in 1919 as an assistant designer at UFA Studios. At the urging of German director Ernst Lubitsch, Dreier relocated to Hollywood in 1923 to work for Paramount. His first Hollywood film was Forbidden Paradise, directed by Lubitsch and starring Pola Negri. Dreier worked as Paramount's supervising art director from 1927 until his retirement in 1950.

He made contributions to nearly 500 films during his career, including many films directed by Josef von Sternberg and Ernst Lubitsch, as well as the film It's a Gift (1934) starring W. C. Fields. He was nominated for Academy Awards for his art direction on 23 occasions. He won Academy Awards for Best Art Direction (Color) for Frenchman's Creek (1944) and Samson and Delilah (1950). He also won the award for Art Direction (Black and White) for Sunset Boulevard (1950).

Selected filmography

 * The Devil and the Madonna (1919)
 * Figures of the Night (1920)
 * Mary Magdalene (1920)
 * Napoleon and the Little Washerwoman (1920)
 * Kurfürstendamm (1920)
 * Lady Godiva (1921)
 * The Riddle of the Sphinx (1921)
 * The Adventuress of Monte Carlo (1921)
 * The Last Witness (1921)
 * Fridericus Rex (1922)
 * The Vice of Gambling (1923)
 * La Boheme (1923)
 * The Great Unknown (1924)
 * Forbidden Paradise (1924, art director)
 * Underworld (1927, set design)
 * The Docks of New York (1928)
 * The Last Command (1928)
 * The Patriot (1928) (Oscar nominee)
 * Morocco (1930) (Oscar nominee)
 * The Love Parade (1930) (Oscar nominee)
 * The Vagabond King (1930) (Oscar nominee)
 * A Farewell to Arms (1932) (Oscar nominee)
 * One Hour with You (1932)
 * Trouble in Paradise (1932)
 * Shanghai Express (1932)
 * Cleopatra (1934)
 * The Lives of a Bengal Lancer (1935) (Oscar nominee)
 * If I Were King (1938) (Oscar nominee)
 * Arise, My Love (1940) (Oscar nominee)
 * North West Mounted Police (1940) (Oscar nominee)
 * The Lady Eve (1941)
 * Holiday Inn (1942, art director with Roland Anderson)
 * Road to Morocco (1942)
 * Take a Letter, Darling (1942) (Oscar nominee)
 * Five Graves to Cairo (1943) (Oscar nominee)
 * For Whom the Bell Tolls (1943) (Oscar nominee)
 * Double Indemnity (1944, art director with Hal Pereira)
 * Going My Way (1944)
 * Frenchman's Creek (1944, art director with Ernst Fegte) (Oscar winner)
 * Kitty (1945) (Oscar nominee)
 * The Lost Weekend (1945, art director with Ted Hedrick)
 * Love Letters (1945) (Oscar nominee)
 * A Foreign Affair (1948)
 * Samson and Delilah (1950, art director with Walter Tyler) (Oscar winner)
 * Sunset Boulevard (1950, art director with John Meehan) (Oscar winner)
 * A Place in the Sun (1951)

title: Hans Dreier


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List of law schools in Poland

This is a list of law schools in Poland.

Public

 * Gdańsk University, Faculty of Law and Administration
 * Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, Faculty of Law and Administration
 * Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Faculty of Law and Administration
 * Cardinal Stefan Wyszynski University in Warsaw, Faculty of Law
 * University of Łódź, Faculty of Law and Administration
 * Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin, Faculty of Law and Administration
 * Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Faculty of Law and Administration
 * University of Opole, Faculty of Law and Administration
 * University of Rzeszów, Faculty of Law and Administration
 * University of Szczecin, Faculty of Law and Administration
 * University of Silesia in Katowice, Faculty of Law and Administration
 * Białystok University, Faculty of Law
 * University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Faculty of Law and Administration
 * University of Warsaw, Faculty of Law and Administration
 * University of Wrocław, Faculty of Law, Administration and Economy

Non-public

 * Catholic University of Lublin
 * Faculty of Law, Canon Law, and Administration
 * Faculty of Legal and Economic Sciences in Tomaszów Lubelski
 * Faculty of Social Sciences in Stalowa Wola
 * European School of Law and Administration in Warsaw, Faculty of Law, Administration, International Relations
 * Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski Cracow College, Faculty of Law and Administration
 * Private Higher School of Business and Administration in Warsaw, Faculty of Administration, Law, and Diplomacy
 * Ryszard Lazarski University of Commerce and Law in Warsaw, Faculty of Law
 * SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Faculty of Law
 * Warsaw Management Academy of the Society of Economic Enterprises, Faculty of Law, Administration, and European Integration
 * Academy of International Economic and Political Relations in Gdynia, Faculty of Law
 * Leon Koźmiński Academy of Entrepreneurship and Management in Warsaw, Faculty of Law
 * Higher School of Management and Law in Warsaw, Faculty of Law (Warsaw and Wrocław)
 * Legnica University of Management, Faculty of Law

title: List of law schools in Poland


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Tanya Franks

Tanya Christine Franks (born 16 August 1967) is an English actress. She is best known for her role as Rainie Cross in the BBC soap opera, EastEnders.

1986–2006
Franks worked for 14 years in theatre both in the UK and abroad. Her roles included the title role in Tess at The Kings Head Theatre in London in 1989 which was Time Out's Critics Choice, and Sylv in Steven Berkoff's 25th Anniversary production of East at the Vaudeville Theatre in London's West End and on tour. Tanya then rose to prominence when her TV career began in 2000, after being cast in the Channel 5 soap opera Family Affairs as Karen Ellis. Franks continued in the soap opera for three years, with storylines including a cancer scare, infertility, surrogacy, and a child custody battle, before leaving the series in 2003. In 2004, Franks was cast as DI Rowanne Morell in the long-running ITV1 police serial-drama The Bill. Franks stayed with the serial for over a year, with her character investigating various murders of police officers and police corruption.

In 2006, Franks starred opposite Sharon Horgan and Rebekah Staton in the BBC Three comedy series Pulling. Franks was cast as Karen, a promiscuous, raunchy, aggressive primary school teacher, who drinks heavily and is not suited to her job, for which she was nominated at The British Comedy Awards in 2009. The sitcom ran for two series and a special feature episode, and gained a BAFTA nomination for best comedy series and won The South Bank Show award for Best Comedy.

2007–present
In July 2007, it was announced that Franks would play the role of Tanya Branning's (Jo Joyner) sister, Rainie Cross in the BBC One soap opera EastEnders for a week-long stint from 2 August 2007. Franks returned to EastEnders as Rainie in January 2008, and again in August 2010. She returned again in April 2011, before departing once more later that year. She made a surprise return to the show on 16 June 2014 and departed on 15 February 2015. EastEnders announced on 18 January 2018 that Franks would make a guest appearance the following day and return on a permanent basis later in the year. Franks made her full-time return on 24 April 2018. It was announced in June 2022 that Franks had left the role of Rainie. Her final scenes aired on 29 June 2022. She returned for a brief stint on 23 August until 25 August 2022.

In 2008, Franks starred as Sandra Farrell in the BBC Two mocumentary The Cup. In 2010, Franks appeared in an episode of the E4 teen drama Skins. Also in 2010, she appeared in an episode of the BBC1 time-travelling drama Ashes to Ashes. From September 2010 to August 2011, Franks starred as a series regular in the CBBC comedy serial Hotel Trubble. Franks also appears in Episode 7, Series 9 of New Tricks as literary agent Roxanne Guthrie. In 2013 she was a guest lead in an episode of "Pramface" as Fiona. Tanya plays Richard Burton's wife, Sybil, in the 2012 made-for-television film Liz & Dick. In 2013 Tanya played Lucy Stevens, sister to Detective Sergeant Ellie Miller played by Olivia Colman, in the series Broadchurch. She also played Mandy in the E4 sitcom Chewing Gum in 2015 and earlier in 2016 and 2018 she played Carol in the hit BBC comedy series Mum. In 2018, Franks appeared in an episode of Inside No 9.

In addition to her television work, Franks has also appeared in further theatre roles, including starring as Sylv in Steven Berkoff’s 25th anniversary production of "East" at the Vaudeville Theatre in London’s West End, leading roles at the Royal National Theatre in "Sing Yer Heart Out For The Lads" by Roy Williams in 2004, "The Black Album" by Hanif Kureishi in 2009, and in the premier run of Really Old, Like Forty Five in 2010. In 2013 she toured as Irene Adler in the new mystery "Sherlock Holmes: The Best Kept Secret", and played the title role in Bertolt Brecht's "The Good Person of Sichuan" at the Mercury Theatre in Colchester. In 2016 Tanya co-starred at The Menier Chocolate Factory in The Truth written by Florian Zeller and adapted by Oscar winning playwright Christopher Hampton. Following its sell-out run the production transferred to the Wyndham's Theatre in London's West End and was nominated for a Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Comedy. In 2022 Tanya starred as Emilia at The Royal National Theatre’s production of Othello by William Shakespeare.

1993–present
Franks founded Stock-pot Productions in 1993. Theatre credits included Scenes of Shaw at London's Theatre Museum starring Les Dennis and the late Paul Eddington; Deckchairs at London's Kings Head Theatre in which Tanya also co-starred. Co-productions included the national tour of You Don't Kiss and All Fall Away which the Guardian named Pick of the Week with Tanya playing the lead role at the Latchmere Theatre (now Theatre 503). The company has made three short films, the last of which Franks wrote, produced, and starred in, entitled One Day. It was officially selected at several national and international film festivals and was Kodak best short film finalist. In addition to Franks, the film starred Tim McInnerny as well as Toby Stephens in a small part.

Personal life
Franks has been in a relationship with recruitment consultant Scott Mitchell, the widower of Dame Barbara Windsor, since July 2023.

title: Tanya Franks


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Constantin Meunier

Constantin Meunier (12 April 1831 – 4 April 1905) was a Belgian painter and sculptor. He made an important contribution to the development of modern art by elevating the image of the industrial worker, docker and miner to an icon of modernity. His work is a reflection of the industrial, social and political developments of his day and represents a compassionate and committed view of man and the world.

Early life and education
Constantin Meunier was born in the traditionally working-class area of Etterbeek in Brussels. His family was poor and suffered from the negative economic impact caused by the Belgian Revolution which had taken place the year before Meunier's birth. Meunier's father committed suicide when he was just four years old.

He began studying sculpture at the age of 14 at the Academy of Fine Arts in Brussels in September 1845. He studied under the sculptor Louis Jehotte (1804–84) from 1848. He also attended from 1852 the private studio of the sculptor Charles-Auguste Fraikin. While he encountered modestly success as a sculptor, his encounter with Gustave Courbet's social realist painting The Stone Breakers in 1851 caused him to doubt the ability of sculpture to adequate represent the contemporary social and artistic issues that were of concern to him. He therefore gave up sculpture in favour of painting which he practised almost exclusively for the next thirty years.

Career
Meunier's first exhibit was a plaster sketch, The Garland, shown at the Brussels Salon in 1851. His first important painting, The Salle St Roch (1857), was followed by a series of paintings including A Trappist Funeral (1860), Trappists Ploughing (1863), in collaboration with Alfred Verwee, Divine Service at the Monastery of La Trappe (1871) and episodes of the German Peasants' War (1878), as well as of Belgium's own historical Peasants' War.

About 1880 Meunier was commissioned to illustrate those parts of Camille Lemonnier's description of Belgium in Le Tour du monde which referred to miners and factory-workers, and produced In the Factory, Smithery at Cockerill's, Melting Steel at the Factory at Seraing (1882), Returning from the Pit, and The Broken Crucible (1884). In 1882 he was employed by the government to copy Pedro de Campaña's Descent from the Cross at Seville, and in Spain he painted such characteristic pictures as The Café Concert, Procession on Good Friday, and The Tobacco Factory at Seville (Brussels Gallery). On his return to Belgium he was appointed professor at the Louvain Academy of Fine Arts.

In 1885 he returned to sculpture and produced The Puddler, The Hammerman (1886), Firedamp (1889, Brussels Gallery), Le Débardeur (modeled 1885; many castings made 1889–1905), Ecce Homo (1891), The Old Mine-Horse (1891), The Mower (1892), The Glebe (1892), the monument to Father Damien at Louvain (1893), Puddler at the Furnace (1893), the scheme of decoration for the Botanical Garden of Brussels in collaboration with the sculptor Charles van der Stappen (1893), The Horse at the Pond, in the square in the north-east quarter of Brussels, and two unfinished works, the Monument to Labour and the Émile Zola monument, in collaboration with the French sculptor Alexandre Charpentier.

The Monument to Labour, which was acquired by the State for the Brussels Gallery, comprises four stone bas-reliefs: Industry, The Mine, Harvest, and the Harbour; four bronze statues: The Sower, The Smith, The Miner, and the Ancestor; and a bronze group, Maternity.

He was one of the co-founders of the Société Libre des Beaux-Arts of Brussels and was a member of the International Society of Sculptors, Painters and Gravers.

Meunier was a freemason and a member of the lodge Les Amis Philanthropes of the Grand Orient of Belgium in Brussels.

Meunier died in Ixelles on 4 April 1905.

Museum collections
In 1939, the Musée Constantin-Meunier dedicated to his work was opened in the last house in which Meunier lived and worked, in Ixelles, Brussels. Today about 150 of his works are displayed there. M - Museum Leuven also holds a number of important works by Meunier, as does Brussels' Fin-de-Siècle Museum. The Galleria d’arte moderna di Milano, one of the most important modern art collection in Italy, holds “The fisherman of Ostend”, 1850.

title: Constantin Meunier


text:
ASCII (disambiguation)

ASCII, the American Standard Code for Information Interchange.

ASCII may also refer to:
 * ASCII Corporation, a Japanese publisher later merged to ASCII Media Works and Enterbrain
 * ASCII (magazine), a Japanese personal computer magazine
 * ASCII (squat), Dutch computing project
 * ASCII, asteroid 3568 ASCII
 * ASCII, the second release of Linux distribution Devuan

title: ASCII (disambiguation)


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Beth Hunter

Elizabeth Ann "Beth" Hunter (also Walters and Sutherland) is a fictional character from the Australian Channel Seven soap opera Home and Away, played by Clarissa House. She made her first on-screen appearance on 17 April 2003 and departed on 30 January 2007. The character died from injuries sustained in a car crash on 23 April 2007.

Character development
The serial's official website described Beth as an "open-minded" female who holds a "strong sense of personal morality and integrity". When characters get to know Beth she shows a "delicious sense of humour". Beth is portrayed as a country girl who did not see herself as "anything but a farmer's wife" whilst married to Jack Hunter (Ian Lind). Marriage and family mean everything to Beth and she also ignored her husband's affair to keep her family together. They also said that Beth's "world fell apart" when Jack died.

One of Beth's main romances is with Tony Holden (Jon Sivewright). Sivewright said that both Beth and Tony have got "very good attitudes towards their kids" and are supportive to them and the community. Beth and Tony support each other when making parental decisions, even if they did not personally agree with the other's actions. Sivewright said that "even though Tony would question what Beth was doing, he was still supporting her. That’s what Beth does with Tony as well."

Beth features in many emotional storylines. House has said that after she had filmed an emotional scene, she exercised to forget about her character's feelings.

Storylines
Beth is the mother of Scott (Kip Gamblin), Kit (Amy Mizzi), Robbie (Jason Smith), Henry (Tobi Atkins) and Matilda (Indiana Evans). Beth was married to Jack, the father of her five children until his death in 2002. Beth had known about Jack's ongoing affair with Valerie Squires (Denise Roberts) and did not tell the children, thinking it would hurt their family. It later emerges Scott knew secretly and kept it to himself for the same reason as Beth.

Beth arrives in Summer Bay and meets Rhys Sutherland (Michael Beckley) when their respective eldest children, Scott and Dani (Tammin Sursok) become a couple. When Kit arrives and begins drinking excessively, Rhys is on hand to support Beth. After Kit leaves for rehab, Beth and Rhys become a couple and Rhys later proposes. Following money troubles, Beth is forced to pull the rest of her children from their boarding schools and they all move in with the Sutherlands. In early 2004, Beth and Rhys marry in an intimate ceremony on the beach with most of the family attending and Alf Stewart (Ray Meagher) and Colleen Smart (Lyn Collingwood) as witnesses. The day is marred when Rhy's daughter Kirsty (Christie Hayes) elopes with her fiancé Kane Phillips (Sam Atwell) and argument ensues and Beth is forced to keep the peace.

Beth and Rhy's marriage is tested numerous times by the many dramas of their combined brood, but nothing can prepare them for the return of Rhy's ex-wife, Shelley (Paula Forrest) when Kirsty suffers kidney problems and needs a transplant. Rhys gradually falls in love with Shelley again and leaves Summer Bay, breaking Beth's heart. Wanting to move on with her life, Beth reverts to her previous married name and swaps houses with Sally Fletcher (Kate Ritchie) and Flynn Saunders (Joel McIlroy). When her new neighbour, widower Tony Holden arrives, Beth is taken with him and they become a couple.

Graham Walters (Doug Scroope), Beth's father arrives in Summer Bay announcing he has sold his farm and when it is revealed he has married the much younger Amanda Vale (Holly Brisley), Beth is disgusted and constantly finds herself at odds with Amanda, as she had previously tried to manipulate Scott into believing she was pregnant. When Graham suffers a massive heart attack and recovers in hospital, he makes peace with Beth, telling her that he does not want to continue living should he suffer a relapse. Graham suffers another heart attack and is pronounced brain dead. Beth and Amanda battle over turning the machine off. Amanda wins the fight and is pleased as she is Graham's wife and needs to keep him alive in order to render the pre-nuptial agreement invalid and gain his assets. Robbie later turns the machine off and Beth is shocked but understanding. Beth tells Amanda she does not care about the money but wants Graham's war medals, which Amanda later gives her.

Feeling trapped and longing to pursue her dreams of travelling the world, Beth is ready to go but Tony is firmly settled in Summer Bay. Tony supports her and she leaves to visit Scott and his partner Hayley Smith (Bec Cartwright) and their son, Noah in France then she visits Robbie, his wife Tasha (Isabel Lucas) and their daughter Ella in America. On the day Beth is due to return home, Kit goes into labour and Tony decides to wait for her to return. After Beth fails to appear, he assumes she has gone directly to the hospital and leaves to find her. On the way, Tony discovers a serious road traffic accident and is stopped by his son Jack (Paul O'Brien), who is one of the police officers on the scene who tries to break it to him that the body recovered from the wreckage is Beth. Tony, Kit and Matilda are left devastated and a memorial service for Beth is held in Summer Bay before her body is buried in her home town of Adelaide.

Reception
Sacha Molitorisz of The Sydney Morning Herald said that the episode featuring Beth and Rhys' wedding was better suited to "die hard fans". They criticised the plot for being "unengaging" and opined that the music, performances and dialogue were "painful" and "patchy".

title: Beth Hunter


text:
Georges Pichard

Georges Pichard (17 January 1920 – 6 June 2003) was a French comics artist, known for numerous magazine covers, serial publications and albums, stereotypically featuring partially exposed voluptuous women.

Biography
A native of Paris, he was educated at the École des Arts Appliques, and after World War II worked as illustrator in advertising before publishing his first cartoon strip in La Semaine de Suzette in 1956, featuring a "girl next-door" character named Miss Mimi.

In the early 1960s he met Jacques Lob, with whom he collaborated on the superhero parodies Ténébrax and Submerman. Ténébrax was first published in the short-lived Franco-Belgian comics magazine Chouchou, and continued its serial run in Italian magazine Linus. In 1967, Submerman was serialised in Pilote magazine, but after a few years Pichard left the family friendly comics genre entirely.

Having collaborated with Danie Dubos on the more daring Lolly-strip which was serialised in Le Rire in 1966, Pichard and Lob began work within the erotic genre of comics as Blanche Épiphanie started serial publication in V Magazine in 1967. There was significant public reaction as this character acted outside the moral boundaries of the times, and at one point emulated Jane Fonda by going to Vietnam. This period saw Pichard develop his style of shaping his female heroines into tall, well-endowed women with excessive eyeliner make-up to create a gothic appearance.

Pichard continued to push the moral boundaries when he collaborated with Georges Wolinski to create a yet more controversial series featuring an eponymous character, Paulette, which began serial publication in Charlie Mensuel in 1970. This development became a target of right-wing politicians of that period, Jean Royer and Michel Debré. Continuing in this genre, Pichard reunited with Danie Dubos to produce Caroline Choléra which was serialised in L'Écho des savanes in 1975. Upon the publication in 1977 of Marie-Gabrielle de Saint-Eutrope, a work almost entirely devoted to sexualized sadism, the explicit nature of Pichard's work led to a ban from bookshops and kiosks.

Less scrutinized for its erotic emphasis are the collaborations Pichard did with science-fiction author Jean-Pierre Andrevon, La Reserve and Édouard from 1974 and Ceux–là from 1977, published in Charlie Mensuel.

Toward the end of his life, Pichard adapted classic erotic stories such as Les Exploits d'un jeune Don Juan by Guillaume Apollinaire, The Kama-Sutra by Vatsyayana, Trois filles de leur mère by Pierre Louÿs, La Religieuse by Denis Diderot and Germinal by Émile Zola.

title: Georges Pichard


text:
Hut (disambiguation)

A hut is a small, crude shelter.

Hut, HUT or The Hut may also refer to:

People

 * Hans Hut (c. 1490 – 1527), Anabaptist leader
 * Piet Hut (born 1952), Dutch-American astrophysicist
 * Hut Stricklin (born 1961), American racing driver
 * William Hut, Norwegian singer of former band Poor Rich Ones

Places

 * Hut Bay, in the Andaman Islands
 * Hut Cove, on the Antarctic Peninsula
 * Hout, Syria, older spelling for this place

Universities

 * Hanoi University of Technology, now Hanoi University of Science and Technology
 * Hefei University of Technology, Anhui, China
 * Helsinki University of Technology, Finland
 * Hunan University of Technology, in Zhuzhou, Hunan, China

Other uses

 * "Hut!", a command in American football
 * Hard Upper Torso, spacesuit component
 * Home-user test, a product marketing test
 * Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope, a space telescope
 * Humla language, a Tibetic language of Nepal (ISO code: hut)
 * Hut Group, a political party in the Åland Islands
 * Hut Records, an English record label
 * Hutchinson Municipal Airport (Kansas), US, by IATA airport code
 * Hutton Cranswick railway station, in England
 * The Hut Group, a British online retailer

title: Hut (disambiguation)


text:
Jaime Rosenthal

Jaime Rolando Rosenthal Oliva (May 5, 1936 – January 12, 2019) was a Honduran politician, and leader of one of Liberal Party of Honduras's (PLH) wings, and was a perennial candidate for President. On March 20, 1974, he founded the Banco Continental. On October 7, 2015, Rosenthal was labeled a "specially designated narcotics trafficker" under the Foreign Narcotics Kingpin Designation Act.

Biography
His Romanian Jewish father, Yankel Rosenthal, emigrated from Romania to Honduras in 1929. His father married Esther Oliva from El Salvador. Rosenthal held a BS degree in Civil Engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and an MS degree from the MIT Sloan School of Management. He was one of the Vice Presidents (known as Designados Presidenciales) during the presidency of José Azcona del Hoyo (Jan. 1986-Jan.1990) and resigned because of political differences. He was also a Congressman in Honduras, (Jan. 2002 to Jan. 2006). A 2006 study by the Friedrich Ebert Foundation named Rosenthal one of "the most powerful men in Honduras" (along with Fredy Nasser and Schucry Kafie).

Rosenthal died following a heart attack on January 12, 2019. He was 82 years old. He was the father of Yani Rosenthal, who was a minister from 2006 to 2009 under Manuel Zelaya. His nephew, Yankel Rosenthal, is a former minister under President Juan Orlando Hernández.

Grupo Continental
Banco Continental was founded in 1974 and until its closure in late 2015 was the eighth largest bank in Honduras, forming part of Grupo Continental, itself founded in 1929 and owned by the Rosenthal family.

title: Jaime Rosenthal


text:
Anna Acton

Anna Acton (born 29 January 1977) is an English actress who is best known for her roles as Rochelle Barratt, the wife of a borough commander, in the ITV television series The Bill, and DC Emma Summerhayes in the BBC One soap opera EastEnders.

Career
Prior to appearing in The Bill, Acton played the long-suffering yet bubbly Geri Evans in the soap opera Family Affairs for three and a half years.

Acton also appeared in two episodes of Doctors as Rachel Cook (April 2006) and later as Keira Chesterton (February 2008) and Hollyoaks (October 2006) as DC Mullins. In May 2007, she starred as Louise Martin in two episodes of HolbyBlue for the BBC. In August 2008 she appeared with Paul Nicholls in Harley Street (ITV) and was also seen as Dorothy in the CGI Sketch Show for BBC The Wrong Door.

From 2013 to 2015, Acton played the role of Joy in the CBeebies programme Topsy and Tim. From 21 April 2014 to 2 January 2015, she portrayed DC Emma Summerhayes, the police officer investigating Lucy Beale's (Hetti Bywater) murder, in the BBC One soap opera EastEnders.

From 2015 to 2016, Acton appeared in the BBC One medical soap Casualty as Nikki Chisom. In 2018, she appeared in Birches, a UK-based feature based on the novel Silver Birches published in 2009 by Adrian Plass. Birches was turned into a film directed by Randall Stevens, with screenplay by Mark Freiburger. It starred Natasha Little and Todd Carty. In May 2021, she appeared in an episode of the BBC soap opera Doctors as Vicki.

In 2022, Acton appeared in an advertisement for No7.

Personal life
Acton is married to actor and former Family Affairs co-star Ben Hull. The couple reside in Buckinghamshire and have two daughters, Grace and Lana.

title: Anna Acton


text:
Collins Hill High School

Collins Hill High School is a public high school in Gwinnett County, near Suwanee, Georgia, United States. The school is operated by Gwinnett County Public Schools. The only school which feeds into it is Creekland Middle School.

Collins Hill was the biggest high school in Georgia when it first opened in 1994, and has since added 20 acre. Its student population has grown from its original 1377 to a high of about 4,200, the current count being 3,155.

Charity
Each year, the students volunteer over 27,000 hours toward community service activities, including the Thanksgiving Can-a-Thon, Holiday Hope, and Relay for Life.

Many students participate in community service clubs such as Beta Club, and are active in helping others. Students are offered many volunteer opportunities throughout the year via the school's Volunteer Center. Four scholarships are available to students for volunteering and getting involved.

Notable alumni

 * Brandon Coutu, former NFL football player
 * Taylor Heinicke, NFL quarterback
 * Tomon Fox, NFL football player
 * Matt Lanter, model and actor
 * Kyle Maynard, author and athlete
 * Maya Moore, WNBA basketball player and Olympic gold medalist
 * Travis Hunter, American college football player
 * Elena Shinohara, American rhythmic gymnast and Social media personality

title: Collins Hill High School


text:
Talk:Sozopol

Language
To be honest, the language in this article needs to be massaged a bit to turn it into something closer to English.--Filll (talk | wpc ) 00:52, 7 June 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sozopol


text:
Talk:Race riot

Untitled
I'm breaking this redirect because the redirect to Mass racial violence in the United States does not reflect a world-wide scope. Plenty of race riots (perhaps even the majority) took/take place outside the United States.

The Mass racial violence in the United States article is fine for the US, but Race riot should not redirect there. If no one wants to do anything about it, I will restore the former Race riot article with its country-neutral perspective. --kudz75 08:30, 9 August 2005 (UTC)

 * I believe your memory is faulty when you refer to "the former Race riot article with its country-neutral perspective." The old race riots article actually was 100% about the U.S. I have no problem with breaking the redirect and creating a country-neutral Race riot article, but there won't be much in it initially except for a link to this article. --Bcrowell 15:22, 9 August 2005 (UTC)

= Race Riot category? =

I thought Race Riot was a subcat of Riots? It's not? or is it? --Duemellon 15:26, 22 March 2006 (UTC)

1884 Cincinnati, Ohio The deadliest riot
The incident was racially motivated as the flare-up of violence was a reaction to a murder sentencing difference between the Black & White (I think he was a 1st generation foreigner) criminals convicted of murdering a white person. They demanded the white guy get the death sentence & went as a lynch mob to the courthouse to steal him & exact justice on him, but he was arleady moved to another location. The white mob them proceeded to destroy the courthouse in anger. --Duemellon 21:44, 29 May 2006 (UTC)

Someone added: "Contrary to popular belief, the riot was not race related. It was instead a reaction to sensationalized yellow journalism spawned from a fierce newspaper war between the establishment paper, The Cincinnati Enquirer, and various other smaller independent newspapers, led by the Democratic "Evening Post", (present day The Cincinnati Post). 56 people were killed and the city's courthouse was burned down." with no citation & no mention of the important ingredients that made it a race riot. A race riot doesn't need to be between opposing races to be about race. Even so, the white co-defendant was a 1st generation immigrant. If you have information contrary to this or something you'd like to add to clarify, please discuss so we can find a balance. --Duemellon 01:27, 23 June 2006 (UTC)

1992 LA Riots
Were "race riots".

1st - The reaction to the polices' acquittal was one of distrust & accusations of the system protecting the cops because they were white while completely disregarding Rodney King's civil rights because he was a Black man. Beyond that, the participants in the riots were mostly Black & they were specially acting out against what they perceived to be non-Black entities during their rioting. --Duemellon 21:50, 29 May 2006 (UTC)

Definition of a Race Riot
Is NOT limited to incidents where one race attacks another. It involves any riot where "Race is a key factor". Meaning:

 * it could be one racial group targetting a very limited racial demographic
 * it could be multiple racial groups targettign a single racial demographic
 * it could be one racial group attacking the establishment or properties
 * it could be multiple racial groups attacking a non-racial entity as a reaction to an incident they perceived to be racist

What it cannot be is:
 * One racial group attacking another entity that happened to homogenously one race as a reaction to something other than the perception of racism or to begin/live-out racist desries

So, when considering what is a race riot, please keep in mind that it might not depend on the participants if it's a reaction percieved racism or the attempt to perform race-based violence. --Duemellon 21:56, 29 May 2006 (UTC)

Russian
Due to recent racial controversy in Russian society, I feel Russia should be added to the list of countries who have endured race riots. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 69.117.237.169 (talk) 02:43, 17 January 2007 (UTC).

Proposed page move
Considering that virtually the entire contents of this article consist of a timeline of events, with only a short intro, it seems to me that it should have a title which more accurately reflects the contents -- something along the lines of "World timeline of race riots" or "World timeline of mass racial violence".

I would like to know if there are any serious objections to this proposal; also, if anybody has another possible title which might be preferable to those I've suggested. Comments, everybody? Cgingold 03:56, 5 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Nearly three weeks have passed, and nobody has seen fit to respond to my proposal. I would much prefer to have some input on this before I take it upon myself to move the page. But if there's no input, I guess I will just do it myself in another few days. Cgingold 21:38, 24 March 2007 (UTC)``

 * I'm a bit surprised that nobody has had anything to say about this in all this time. I guess there's no real objection, so I will proceed with the page move. Cgingold 22:24, 1 May 2007 (UTC)

The proper solution is to separate list from main article, not move. `'Míkka 17:52, 23 July 2007 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:OldhamRioter1.jpg
The image Image:OldhamRioter1.jpg is used in this article under a claim of fair use, but it does not have an adequate explanation for why it meets the requirements for such images when used here. In particular, for each page the image is used on, it must have an explanation linking to that page which explains why it needs to be used on that page. Please check

 * That there is a non-free use rationale on the image's description page for the use in this article.
 * That this article is linked to from the image description page.

This is an automated notice by FairuseBot. For assistance on the image use policy, see Media copyright questions. --23:29, 30 September 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Race riot


text:
Digital evidence

In evidence law, digital evidence or electronic evidence is any probative information stored or transmitted in digital form that a party to a court case may use at trial. Before accepting digital evidence a court will determine if the evidence is relevant, whether it is authentic, if it is hearsay and whether a copy is acceptable or the original is required.

The use of digital evidence has increased in the past few decades as courts have allowed the use of e-mails, digital photographs, ATM transaction logs, word processing documents, instant message histories, files saved from accounting programs, spreadsheets, internet browser histories, databases, the contents of computer memory, computer backups, computer printouts, Global Positioning System tracks, logs from a hotel’s electronic door locks, and digital video or audio files.

Many courts in the United States have applied the Federal Rules of Evidence to digital evidence in a similar way to traditional documents, although important differences such as the lack of established standards and procedures have been noted. In addition, digital evidence tends to be more voluminous, more difficult to destroy, easily modified, easily duplicated, potentially more expressive, and more readily available. As such, some courts have sometimes treated digital evidence differently for purposes of authentication, hearsay, the best evidence rule, and privilege. In December 2006, strict new rules were enacted within the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure requiring the preservation and disclosure of electronically stored evidence. Digital evidence is often attacked for its authenticity due to the ease with which it can be modified, although courts are beginning to reject this argument without proof of tampering.

Admissibility
Digital evidence is often ruled inadmissible by courts because it was obtained without authorization. In most jurisdictions a warrant is required to seize and investigate digital devices. In a digital investigation this can present problems where, for example, evidence of other crimes are identified while investigating another. During a 1999 investigation into online harassment by Keith Schroeder investigators found pornographic images of children on his computer. A second warrant had to be obtained before the evidence could be used to charge Schroeder.

Authentication
As with any evidence, the proponent of digital evidence must lay the proper foundation. Courts largely concerned themselves with the reliability of such digital evidence. As such, early court decisions required that authentication called "for a more comprehensive foundation." US v. Scholle, 553 F.2d 1109 (8th Cir. 1976). As courts became more familiar with digital documents, they backed away from the higher standard and have since held that "computer data compilations… should be treated as any other record." US v. Vela, 673 F.2d 86, 90 (5th Cir. 1982).

A common attack on digital evidence is that digital media can be easily altered. However, in 2002 a US court ruled that "the fact that it is possible to alter data contained in a computer is plainly insufficient to establish untrustworthiness" (US v. Bonallo, 858 F. 2d 1427–1988 – Court of Appeals, 9th).

Nevertheless, the "more comprehensive" foundation required by Scholle remains good practice. The American Law Reports lists a number of ways to establish the comprehensive foundation. It suggests that the proponent demonstrate "the reliability of the computer equipment", "the manner in which the basic data was initially entered", "the measures taken to ensure the accuracy of the data as entered", "the method of storing the data and the precautions taken to prevent its loss", "the reliability of the computer programs used to process the data", and "the measures taken to verify the accuracy of the program".

The Best Evidence Rule is a legal principle that requires presenting the most reliable form of evidence in court, which is often the original document or file. In cases where digital evidence is involved, this means presenting the original digital file, rather than a printout or a copy. However, proving the authenticity and integrity of digital evidence can be challenging, as it is relatively easy to manipulate digital files and metadata. Therefore, establishing a clear chain of custody and demonstrating that the evidence presented is unchanged from its original state is crucial. To address this issue, commercial software technology solutions have been developed to preserve digital evidence in its original form and authenticate it for admissibility in court disputes.

UK ACPO guidelines
In the United Kingdom, examiners usually follow guidelines issued by the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) for the authentication and integrity of evidence. They were updated to Version 5 in October 2011 when computer based evidence was replaced with digital evidence reflecting the development of investigating information security incidents in a wider context. The guidelines consist of four principles:

Principle 1: No action taken by law enforcement agencies, persons employed within those agencies or their agents should change data which may subsequently be relied upon in court.

Principle 2: In circumstances where a person finds it necessary to access original data, that person must be competent to do so and be able to give evidence explaining the relevance and the implications of their actions.

Principle 3: An audit trail or other record of all processes applied to digital evidence should be created and preserved. An independent third party should be able to examine those processes and achieve the same result.

Principle 4: The person in charge of the investigation has overall responsibility for ensuring that the law and these principles are adhered to.

These guidelines are widely accepted in courts of England and Scotland, but they do not constitute a legal requirement and their use is voluntary. It is arguable that whilst voluntary, non adherence is almost certain to lead to the exclusion of evidence that does not comply subject to the provisions of s 78 Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (Power to exclude evidence obtained unfairly)

ADAM Principles
Building on the ACPO Guidelines with a more generic application outside of law enforcement, a doctoral thesis proposed the following overriding principles to be followed by digital forensic practitioners:
 * 1) The activities of the digital forensic practitioner should not alter the original data. If the requirements of the work mean that this is not possible then the effect of the practitioner’s actions on the original data should be clearly identified and the process that caused any changes justified.
 * 2) A complete record of all activities associated with the acquisition and handling of the original data and any copies of the original data must be maintained. This includes compliance with the appropriate rules of evidence, such as maintaining a chain of custody record, and verification processes such as hashing.
 * 3) The digital forensic practitioner must not undertake any activities which are beyond their ability or knowledge.
 * 4) The digital forensic practitioner must take into consideration all aspects of personal and equipment safety whilst undertaking their work.
 * 5) At all times the legal rights of anyone affected by your actions should be considered.
 * 6) The practitioner must be aware of all organizational policies and procedures relating to their activities
 * 7) Communication must be maintained as appropriate with the client, legal practitioners, supervisors and other team members

Best evidence rule
Digital evidence is almost never in a format readable by humans, requiring additional steps to include digital documents as evidence (i.e. printing out the material). It has been argued that this change of format may mean digital evidence does not qualify under the "best evidence rule". However, the "Federal Rules of Evidence" rule 1001(3) states "if data are stored in a computer…, any printout or other output readable by sight, shown to reflect the data accurately, is an ‘original.’"

Commonly courts do not bar printouts under the best evidence rule. In Aguimatang v. California State Lottery, the court gave near per se treatment to the admissibility of digital evidence stating "the computer printout does not violate the best evidence rule, because a computer printout is considered an ‘original.’" 234 Cal. App. 3d 769, 798.

Video evidence
Video evidence is a video clip that may be used in a court case at trial. Examples include:
 * George Holliday's video of Rodney King's beating by the LAPD
 * The shooting of Neda Agha-Soltan
 * BART Police shooting of Oscar Grant
 * Death of Ian Tomlinson
 * Robert Dziekański Taser incident
 * Death of Eric Garner

title: Digital evidence


text:
Pedernales

Pedernales may refer to:

 * Geography:
 * Salar de Pedernales, Chile
 * Pedernales Province, Dominican Republic
 * Pedernales, Dominican Republic, its capital
 * Pedernales Canton, Manabí Province, Ecuador
 * Pedernales, Ecuador, its capital
 * Pedernales, Vizcaya, Vizcaya, Spain
 * Pedernales River, Texas, United States
 * Pedernales Falls State Park, Texas, United States
 * Pedernales (Cabo Rojo), a barrio in Cabo Rojo, Puerto Rico
 * Pedernales, Delta Amacuro (Delta Amacuro State), Venezuela

 * Transport:
 * SS Pedernales, a tanker ship attacked by the German submarine U-156 in 1942, during World War II

title: Pedernales


text:
User talk:Brythain

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Where to ask a question, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome! --Huaiwei 15:47, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * The five pillars of Wikipedia
 * How to edit a page
 * Help pages
 * Tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Manual of Style

Find the rest of the Singapore community!
Yeap, you can find us in these pages:

 * Singapore portal
 * SGpedians' notice board
 * Singapore-related topics
 * Complete to do list
 * Singapore Wikipedians

Do leave your name at the notice board, and thanks again for making wikipedia your online abode! ;)--Huaiwei 15:47, 23 July 2005 (UTC)

Linkspam
-- Alarics (talk) 20:24, 25 January 2011 (UTC)

-- Alarics (talk) 09:10, 26 January 2011 (UTC)

Expulsion vs Separation
Please refer to:-
 * 1) http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Singapore&oldid=410538299&direction=prev ; &
 * 2) Talk:Singapore/2010_archive.

Thank you for your interest on the article page of Singapore, as you understand that certain words may not meet Wikipedia's requirement for reuse here hence my rewording of the term "expelled" to "separation" since the former was a straight forward violation per WP:Synthesis & Neutral point of view. As stated in the constitution of Malaysia prior to July 1965, member states are allowed to join the federation but there wasn't any legal provision for member states to leave it; Lee Kuan Yew being an established lawyer was well aware of this and had gotten Eddie Barker to request from Tunku for the necessary amendment to the Malaysian constitution in view of the deteriorating situation then, which was documented in "Lee's Lieutenants" (South Wind Production) ISBN 1-86448-639-2 and also, according to a web archive in the United States Library of Congress, effectively a third party view of the whole scenario.

The term "separation" was quoted consistently throughout, while "expel/expulsion" being a term used mainly by Tunku and Malaysian politicians (mostly for their political gains), Tunku and UMNO delegates didn't really understand how the constitution really work. In order for Singapore to separate from Malaysia, a minor change in the Malaysian Constitution was necessary so as to allow both leaders to sign the official papers, which states that Singapore secede or separate from Malaysia.

Honestly, I can't fault you for thinking that expelled was the correct term when it isn't so because of the cloud of political uncertainty back then which indirectly compelled the popular media to write and report in sensational terms. That said, I like the way you had reword the sentence but the term "expel" has got to go. Thoughts?

Best. -- Dave ♠♣♥♦™№1185©♪♫® 03:58, 29 January 2011 (UTC)

 * Actually, I don't think expelled was the correct term; however, secession (the other word used in most of the texts) seems wrong as well. I am glad you've settled on separation, actually; it seems to be a good antonym for 'merger', which initiated the state of affairs. The problem is that historically, 'expulsion' was used in Lee's account, as you've probably noticed. I would go further in agreement with you by noting that Yeo Kim Wah and Albert Lau, in Chapter 7 (pp 117-153) of 'A History of Singapore' (edited by Ernest Chew and Edwin Lee, London:OUP, 1991; ISBN 0-19-588917-7) use the word 'separation' throughout. Thanks! Brythain (talk) 08:59, 29 January 2011 (UTC)

Helping out on Singapore

 * Hello again. The page is fully locked up but IMO, you being an uninvolved third party and all that, you can still help to make some changes to the article. How? Very simple, you just need to setup a sandbox under your username (such as → User:Brythain/Sandbox ←, which I've created on your behalf and you may add it in your user page for other future uses as well) and then... blast away! Oh, I've taken the liberty and copied the page content from the article into that sandbox... so like I've said, blast away! When you're done, simply leave me a message and I'll get a friendly Admin to help with the input. Or if you want to do it yourself, you may proceed to User talk:Ged UK and tickle him.

Don't worry, I'm usually not that in your face kind of guy, but the actions of some people really irks me when they pretend not to see or notice my/our complaints and went on to irritate me and the other editors by blindly reverting contents without first discussing them. Hope this clear things up, cheers! -- Dave ♠♣♥♦™№1185©♪♫® 18:41, 13 July 2011 (UTC)

 * Hey, Dave, thanks very much for the response. I was gone a few days, off and on, and suddenly there were all these revert sequences. Got kind of lost. Glad to receive help. Brythain (talk) 16:39, 14 July 2011 (UTC)

 * No problem, and knowing that you're still a novice, I'm just glad I could help. To which, I will leave you with the following. Cheers! -- Dave ♠♣♥♦™№1185©♪♫® 16:46, 14 July 2011 (UTC)

Meritocracy
Hey, you posted on the Singapore talkpage awhile ago a quote from a book about the ruling style of the PAP. Do you think you could whip up a paragraph about the PAP for the politics section with the sources you have? That way the article will conform to WP:LEAD. Cheers, Chipmunkdavis (talk) 02:49, 24 August 2011 (UTC)
 * A paragraph on the ruling style of the PAP? Give me a rough idea of what you think is needed and I'll get it together. The problem with having too many sources is you can't see the trees for the wood. Thanks! Brythain (talk) 11:40, 24 August 2011 (UTC)
 * Well, at the very least we need to expand on what was considered necessary to include in the lead during the discussion on the talk page. Information about how the PAP operates; how it determines who enters the party, how the party is structured, and how it chooses who to employ as civil servants. This is where information about meritocracy would be useful. Do you think going into historical electoral support for the PAP would be useful? Anyway, this could be balanced out by the criticisms of its authoritarian style and its control over domestic life and elections. More is better than less at the moment. It doesn't seem right to have a politics section on Singapore without an explanation on the party that has ruled for over half a century after all. Chipmunkdavis (talk) 14:43, 24 August 2011 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 13:04, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Brythain