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Ida Laura Pfeiffer

Ida Laura Pfeiffer (14 October 1797, Vienna – 27 October 1858, Vienna), née Reyer, an Austrian explorer, travel writer, and ethnographer, became a famous early female traveler; her bestselling journals were translated into seven languages. She journeyed an estimated 32,000 km by land and 240,000 km by sea through Southeast Asia, the Americas, the Middle East, and Africa, and made two trips around the world between 1846 and 1855. Though a member of the geographical societies of both Berlin and Paris, she was denied membership by the Royal Geographical Society in London as it forbade the election of women before 1913.

Early life
Ida Laura Pfeiffer was born in Vienna on 14 October 1797 to a wealthy textile manufacturer named Aloys Reyer. She had five brothers and a younger sister. As a child, she preferred boys' clothing, liked sports and exercise, and received the same education as her brothers under the encouragement of her father. "I was not shy," she wrote in her autobiography, "but wild as a boy, and bolder and more forward than my elder brothers." Her first long journey was a trip to Palestine and Egypt when she was five years old. The influence of this experience remained with her. Following the death of her father in 1806, her mother Anna, disapproving of her previously unconventional upbringing, insisted that she wear dresses and take up piano lessons. After Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Vienna in 1809, some of the French troops were quartered in Reyer's home to Ida's dislike. During the grand review held in Schönbrunn Palace, she protested against foreign occupation by turning her back as the generals rode past.

She was introduced to contemporary explorers by her tutor, Franz Josef Trimmel, and became particularly interested in Robinson Crusoe and the writings of Alexander von Humboldt, whom she would later meet in Berlin.

On May 1, 1820, she married Dr. Mark Anton Pfeiffer, a lawyer in Lemberg (now Lviv, Ukraine). He was 24 years her senior and a widower with a grown-up son. The couple left for Lemberg a week after their wedding. Dr. Pfeiffer was soon forced to resign after uncovering corruption among senior government officials in Galicia and subsequently found it difficult to regain employment. In order to support her family, Ida moved back and forth between Vienna and Lemberg. She gave drawing and music lessons and borrowed money from her brothers.

She gave birth to two sons in Vienna: Alfred in 1821 and Oscar in 1824. (She also had a daughter who lived only a few days.) The family's financial situation slightly improved after the death of her mother in 1831. With a small inheritance, she was able to continue her sons' education. She stayed in Vienna with the boys in 1833, while Dr. Pfeiffer remained in Lemberg, near his first son. Dr. Pfeiffer occasionally visited his family in Vienna.

Istanbul, Jerusalem, and Iceland (1842–1845)
After her sons settled in secure employment, Ida Pfeiffer was finally able to fulfill her childhood dream of traveling to foreign places. She later wrote in Reise nach dem skandinavischen Norden und der Insel Island im Jahre 1845 ("Visit to Iceland and the Scandinavian North," 2 vols., Leipzig, 1845): When I was but a little child, I had already a strong desire to see the world. Whenever I met a travelling-carriage, I would stop involuntarily, and gaze after it until it had disappeared; I used even to envy the postilion, for I thought he also must have accomplished the whole long journey.

In 1842, she traveled along the Danube river to Istanbul. From there she continued to Jerusalem, stopping at Smyrna, Rhodes, Cyprus, Beirut, Caesarea, and Jaffa. She returned to Beirut on 10 July 1842 and sailed for Egypt. She visited Alexandria, Cairo, and the Red Sea before returning home via Rome. Among those she met on the trip was landscape painter Hubert Sattler, the British artist William Henry Bartlett, and the Bohemian botanist, Count Friedrich von Berchtold.

She published an anonymous account of her journey in Reise einer Wienerin in das Heilige Land ("A Vienna woman's trip to the Holy Land," 2 vols., Vienna, 1844). In return, she received 700 florins to fund her next trip. The book was an instant success. It went through three editions and was translated into Czech in 1846 and English in 1852. In 1845, Pfeiffer set out to Scandinavia and Iceland. In preparation for her travel, she studied English and Danish as well as how to preserve natural specimens and take daguerreotypes. The adventure began on 10 April 1845. She traveled from Vienna to Copenhagen, then boarded the Johann on 4 May, reaching Hafnarfjörður on the southwest coast of Iceland in eleven days. She rode to Reykjavík on horseback and toured the geothermal area of Krýsuvík. She proceeded to visit the Golden Falls and climb the volcano Mount Hekla. After her return to Denmark, she took a small steamer north to Gothenburg, Sweden and from there, went further north to Norway.

She came back to Vienna on 4 October 1845 and published her journal the following year: Reise nach dem skandinavischen Norden und der Insel Island ("Trip to the Scandinavian North and the island of Iceland," Pest, 1846). English translations of the book appeared in Britain and the US in 1852.

First trip round the world (1846–1848)
In 1846, Pfeiffer started on a journey round the world, visiting Brazil, Chile and other countries of South America, Tahiti, China, India, Persia, Asia Minor and Greece, returning to Vienna in 1848. The results were published in Eine Frauenfahrt um die Welt ("A Woman's Journey round the World," 3 vols., Vienna, 1850).

She boarded the Danish brig Caroline, sailing southwest from Hamburg out into the Atlantic and across the equator, entering the harbor of Rio de Janeiro on 16 September 1846. Along with Friedrich von Berchtold, she traveled up the Macacu River to Nova Friburgo in southeastern Brazil and ventured deep into the forest, accompanied by a single servant. Upon her return to Rio, she booked a spot on the English barque John Renwick and set off for Chile, arriving at Valparaiso on 2 March 1847. She then sailed to the island of Tahiti before disembarking in Macao on the coast of China on 9 July.

For the next two months, she visited temples and villages in Hong Kong, went on a hunting excursion in Singapore, toured Colombo and Kandy, inquired about Bengali traditions in Calcutta, and visited the holy city of Benares. From Delhi, she arranged a bullock cart to Bombay under the advisement of Austrian scholar Aloys Sprenger, passing through Hyderabad and the Daulatabad Fort and the Ellora Caves in Aurangabad.

On 23 April 1848, she left Bombay for Baghdad, then part of the Ottoman Empire. While exploring the ruins of the ancient city of Ctesiphon, she encountered Prince Emam Qoli Mirza of the Qajar dynasty. She proceeded to tour the archaeological sites of Babylon, Borsippa, and Nineveh, facilitated by the British Resident Henry Creswicke Rawlinson and Hormuzd Rassam, the British Vice-Consul at Mosul. During the month of Ramadan, she visited local homes in Tabriz, the capital of Azerbaijan (now East Azerbaijan Province in Iran), and was presented to the Vicegerent, Bahman Mirza.

In August 1848, she set out for Nakhchivan bordering Armenia, and soon joined a caravan heading for Tbilisi, the capital of Georgia. She then crossed the Black Sea into the Russian Empire.

A Woman's Journey Round the World was published in 1850 in three volumes, two years after Pfeiffer's return to Vienna. English translations appeared in Britain in 1851, followed by Dutch (1852), French (1858), and Russian (1867). The book garnered reviews in major international journals, such as Le Constitutionnel, The Athenaeum, The Westminster Review, The Literary Gazette, The Straits Times, and Calcutta Review.

Second trip round the world (1851–1855)
To fund her next expedition, Pfeiffer sold 300 guilders worth of specimens to the Royal Museum of Vienna. Carl von Schreibers, director of the Viennese natural history collections, and Austrian archaeologist Josef von Arneth applied for governmental funding on her behalf on the grounds that she had proven herself skilled at procuring rare specimens from far corners of the world. As a result, Pfeiffer was awarded 1,500 guilders.

In 1851, she set off to Berlin where she was met with an enthusiastic audience. Among them was her childhood hero, Prussian explorer Alexander von Humboldt, whose travels in the Americas inspired a great number of contemporary scientists and naturalists, including Charles Darwin, Henry David Thoreau, John Muir, and Ernst Haeckel. Pfeiffer was also welcomed by German geographer and cartographer Carl Ritter who was, at the time, Professor of Geography at the University of Berlin and with whom she would continue to collaborate after her departure. Both Humboldt and Ritter supported her, and as a result she became the first woman to be awarded the honorary membership of the Geographical Society of Berlin. From Hamburg, Pfeiffer set sail to London and met with paleontologist Richard Owen, an outspoken critic of Charles Darwin, geographer Augustus Petermann for his expertise on Africa, and William Bartlett, her traveling companion to Jerusalem.

On 27 May 1851, Pfeiffer departed for Cape Town, South Africa. She arrived on 11 August and soon sent a box of specimens to Vincenz Kollar, curator of the Natural History Museum in Vienna. She had intended to penetrate deeper into Africa, but her hopes proved impracticable in light of overwhelming expenses.

She proceeded across the Indian Ocean to the Malay archipelago, spending two weeks in Singapore where she collected a new species of mole cricket in addition to fish, seaweed, and crustaceans. She spent eighteen months in the Sunda Islands, accompanied by Captain John Brooke, the nephew and heir of Sir James Brooke. She visited the Dayaks of Borneo and became one of the first explorers to report on the traditions of the Bataks in Sumatra and the Malukus. Along the way, she encountered Sultan Abdu'l Rashid Muhammad Jamal ud-din of the principality of Sintang, renowned ichthyologist Dr. Pieter Bleeker in Batavia (present-day Jakarta), and Colonel van der Hart at Bukittinggi in West Sumatra. She was granted permission to enter the territories of local villages where she observed dance performances, acquired a finely carved tunggal panaluan, and accumulated a collection of valuable specimens, including ray-finned fish (Homalopterula gymnogaster) and checker barb (Puntius oligolepis).

On 6 July 1853, she sailed across the Pacific to North America. She arrived on the West Coast of the United States during the California Gold Rush and visited Sacramento, Marysville, Crescent City, Santa Clara, and San Jose before heading south to Central America. After stops at New Granada and Peru, she returned to Guayaquil, the main port of Ecuador. In her book A Lady's Second Journey Round the World she relates some unpleasant experiences in Ecuador. However, the ambassador of the United States Friedrich Hassaurek in his book Four Years among Spanish-Americans criticized these chapters of her book, as he conceived it as interesting as a personal narrative, but full of misconceptions and inaccuracies.

On 31 May 1854, she boarded a steamer bound for New Orleans where she stayed for three weeks, then toured the Great Lakes Region. In her journal, she described visits to American circuses, theaters, private girls' schools, the Manhattan Detention Complex as well as encounters with the eminent short story writer, Washington Irving, the celebrated surgeon John Collins Warren, and Swiss-American biologist Louis Agassiz.

Back in Vienna at the end of July 1855, Pfeiffer completed her narrative, Meine zweite Weltreise ("My second trip around the world"), published in Vienna in 1856. The English translation, Second Journey round the World, was published by Longmans, followed by editions in Dutch (1856), French (1857), Polish (1860), Russian (1876), and Malay (1877–1907). The book was well received with positive reviews in Austrian and German newspapers, the English Edinburgh Review, and the American literary magazine Criterion.

Madagascar (1856–1858)
In May 1857, Pfeiffer set out to explore Madagascar. Her first stop was Cape Town, South Africa. There, she encountered the French civil engineer and slave trader Joseph-François Lambert. Unbeknownst to Pfeiffer, Lambert had joined Jean Laborde and a few other Europeans in a plot to replace Ranavalona I, the queen of Madagascar, with the more moderate crown prince, Rakoto (the future king Radama II). Pfeiffer unwittingly became part of the conspiracy and was expelled from Madagascar in July 1857 after the queen discovered the attempted coup.

During Pfeiffer's passage from the capital of Antananarivo to the coastal port of departure, she had unfortunately contracted a disease (likely malaria) and never fully recovered. She suffered through spells of fever on Mauritius and left for London on 10 March 1858. She then traveled to Hamburg but was struck by a renewed outbreak of vomiting and diarrhea.

Ida Laura Pfeiffer died in Vienna on 27 October 1858 in the home of her brother, Carl Reyer. A travelogue describing her final voyage, Reise nach Madagaskar ("Trip to Madagascar"), was published in Vienna in 1861 in 2 volumes and included a biography written by her son Oscar Pfeiffer.

Natural history
During her travels, Pfeiffer collected plants, insects, mollusks, marine life, and mineral specimens. Many were sold to Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin and the British Museum, including but not limited to:
 * Orb-weaver spider (Poltys idea)
 * Lonchodes pfeifferae
 * Freshwater prawn (Palaemon idae)
 * Snails (Vaginula idae and Pupina superba)
 * Soft-shell turtles from Ambon and Seram of Maluku

The Naturhistorisches Museum in Vienna purchased 721 specimens from Pfeiffer's collection in Madagascar and Mauritius, including nine species of mammals, fourteen species of birds, twenty-three species of reptiles, three species of crustaceans, fifteen species of mollusks, ten species of spiders, and 185 species of insects.

Contemporary influences
Pfeiffer is referenced as "Madam Pfeiffer" in Thoreau's book, Walden. Thoreau talks of how she wore more civilized clothes as she got closer to her homeland.

Alfred Wallace frequently mentioned Pfeiffer in his letters to his sister, to his colleague Henry Walter Bates, and to Samuel Stevens, a natural history agent in London who supported Pfeiffer's collecting expedition to the Americas. In fact, Wallace would visit many of the same places that Pfeiffer did before him, including the Malay Archipelago.

Charles Darwin cited Pfeiffer in his Descent of Man (1871), remarking that "in Java, a yellow, not a white girl, is considered, according to Madame Pfeiffer, a beauty."

Legacy
In 1867, Austrian herpetologist Franz Steindachner named a species of frog native to Madagascar, Boophis idae, in honor of Ida Pfeiffer.

In 1892, the Viennese Society for the Further Education of Women transferred Ida Pfeiffer's remains to a place of honor in the Vienna Central Cemetery. She was the first woman to be admitted to the rows of honored dead.

In 2000, a street in Munich was renamed as Ida-Pfeiffer-Straße.

In 2018, the University of Vienna established an "Ida Pfeiffer Professorship" in the Faculty of Earth Sciences, Geography and Astronomy.

Pfeiffer has been of interest to historians of travel. Works of research on her life include:
 * Hiltgund Jehle's Ida Pfeiffer: Weltreisende im 19. Jahrhundert (1989)
 * Gabriele Habinger's publication of her surviving correspondence
 * John van Wyhe's 2019 biography, Wanderlust
 * Ida and the World Beyond Mount Kaiserzipf: a picture book highlighting her life and achievements
 * Xavier Sistach's 2023 biography, Les aventures d'Ida Pfeiffer (in Catalan), and the accompanying webpage with additional resources.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ida Laura Pfeiffer


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User:PrologFan/Sandbox

Stuff I have done
Category:Network access - created to deal with huge number of stubs in Category:Telecommunications

Error correction and detection, Error-correcting code, Error-detecting code and bits of Channel coding merged, rest of Channel coding spun off into Node-to-node data transfer.

Orbital nodes, ascending node, descending node merged as orbital node.

TODO

 * Node, node (networking) etc.
 * Software design, currently a redirect to software engineering, really needs a separate article.
 * Design pattern (computer science)
 * Relationship

title: User:PrologFan/Sandbox


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Pyrena

A pyrena or pyrene (commonly called a "pit" or "stone") is the fruitstone within a drupe or drupelet produced by the ossification of the endocarp or lining of the fruit. It consists of a hard endocarp tissue surrounding one or more seeds (also called the "kernel"). The hardened endocarp which constitutes the pyrene provides a protective physical barrier around the seed, shielding it from pathogens and herbivory.

While many drupes are monopyrenous, containing only one pyrene, pome-type fruit with a hard, stony (rather than leathery) endocarp are typically polypyrenous drupes, containing multiple pyrenes.

Development
The hardening of the endocarp of a developing drupe occurs via secondary cell wall formation and lignification. The biopolymer lignin, also found in wood, provides a structure within secondary cell walls which supports the polymerisation of cellulose and hemicellulose; together these polymers provide the endocarp with tensile strength and stiffness. Further hardening occurs during the biomineralisation of the endocarp. The biomineralisation of pyrenes during the life of the plant can aid the preservation of fruit remains in archaeological findings.

title: Pyrena


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Widdringtonia

Widdringtonia is a genus of coniferous trees in the Cupressaceae (cypress family). The name was Austrian botanist Stephan Endlicher's way of honouring an early expert on the coniferous forests of Spain, Capt. Samuel Edward Widdrington (1787–1856). There are four species, all native to southern Africa, where they are known as cedars or African cypresses.

Description
This genus contains large evergreen shrubs and trees, reaching 5–20 m tall (to 40 m in W. whytei). Juveniles have needle-like leaves that are arranged in spirals. The scale-like leaves in adults are arranged in decussate opposite pairs in four rows along the twigs.

The plants are dioecious. The small male cones grow at the ends of twigs. The scales have no stalks. They grow into an upward, decreasing beak with two to six pollen sacs at the base of the cone.

The female cones are small and stalkless and grow in short spikes on the branches. The scales grow in two opposite rows that spread at the base during pollination. They then close into a corky, leathery cone with five or more ovules at the base of each scale. The cones become woody as they mature.

The cones mostly remain closed on the trees for many years, opening only after being scorched by a wildfire; this then releases the seeds to grow on the newly cleared burnt ground. They open at four very thick valves that correspond to the four scales. Each cone produces few seeds. They are wing with hard test and two cotyledons.

In W. whytei the cones open soon after maturity to shed the seed without fire; this species is more sensitive to fire and only grows in moister situations where it is protected from fire. The best adapted to fire is W. nodiflora, which has the ability to re-grow from the roots, as well as by seed.

Species
One species is widespread in southern Africa, while the other three have restricted ranges, often occurring with or near to the widespread species.

The closest relatives of Widdringtonia are Callitris and Actinostrobus from Australia, which differ in their cones and leaves being in whorls of three, not opposite pairs.

Uses
The wood is light, soft and aromatic. It can be easily split and resists decay. It is used to make furniture, indoor and outdoor panelling, and fence posts. That of W. whytei was particularly valuable as it was available in large sizes, but this species is now endangered and no longer cut to any extent.

References and external links

 * Pauw, C. A. & Linder, H. P. 1997. Widdringtonia systematics, ecology and conservation status. Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 123: 297–319.
 * Recommended English names for trees of Southern Africa (archive)
 * Arboretum de Villardebelle - Photos of cones

title: Widdringtonia


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Rare-earth magnet

A rare-earth magnet is a strong permanent magnet made from alloys of rare-earth elements. Developed in the 1970s and 1980s, rare-earth magnets are the strongest type of permanent magnets made, producing significantly stronger magnetic fields than other types such as ferrite or alnico magnets. The magnetic field typically produced by rare-earth magnets can exceed 1.2 teslas, whereas ferrite or ceramic magnets typically exhibit fields of 0.5 to 1 tesla.

There are two types: neodymium magnets and samarium–cobalt magnets. Rare-earth magnets are extremely brittle and also vulnerable to corrosion, so they are usually plated or coated to protect them from breaking, chipping, or crumbling into powder.

The development of rare-earth magnets began around 1966, when K. J. Strnat and G. Hoffer of the US Air Force Materials Laboratory discovered that an alloy of yttrium and cobalt, YCo5, had by far the largest magnetic anisotropy constant of any material then known.

The term "rare earth" can be misleading, as some of these metals can be as abundant in the Earth's crust as tin or lead, but rare earth ores do not exist in seams (like coal or copper), so in any given cubic kilometre of crust they are "rare". China has the highest production but China imports significant amounts of REE ore from Myanmar. Some countries classify rare earth metals as strategically important, and Chinese export restrictions on these materials have led other countries, including the United States, to initiate research programs to develop strong magnets that do not require rare earth metals.

Properties

The rare-earth (lanthanide) elements are metals that are ferromagnetic, meaning that like iron they can be magnetized to become permanent magnets, but their Curie temperatures (the temperature above which their ferromagnetism disappears) are below room temperature, so in pure form their magnetism only appears at low temperatures. However, they form compounds with the transition metals such as iron, nickel, and cobalt, and some of these compounds have Curie temperatures well above room temperature. Rare-earth magnets are made from these compounds.

The greater strength of rare-earth magnets is mostly due to two factors:

 * Firstly, their crystalline structures have very high magnetic anisotropy. This means that a crystal of the material preferentially magnetizes along a specific crystal axis but is very difficult to magnetize in other directions. Like other magnets, rare-earth magnets are composed of microcrystalline grains, which are aligned in a powerful magnetic field during manufacture, so their magnetic axes all point in the same direction. The resistance of the crystal lattice to turning its direction of magnetization gives these compounds a very high magnetic coercivity (resistance to being demagnetized), so that the strong demagnetizing field within the finished magnet does not reduce the material's magnetization.
 * Secondly, atoms of rare-earth elements can have high magnetic moments. Their orbital electron structures contain many unpaired electrons; in other elements, almost all of the electrons exist in pairs with opposite spins, so their magnetic fields cancel out, but in rare-earths, there is much less magnetic cancellation. This is a consequence of incomplete filling of the f-shell, which can contain up to 7 unpaired electrons. In a magnet, it is the unpaired electrons, aligned so they spin in the same direction, which generate the magnetic field. This gives the materials high remanence (saturation magnetization J$s$). The maximal energy density B·H$max$ is proportional to J$s$$2$, so these materials have the potential for storing large amounts of magnetic energy. The magnetic energy product B·H$max$ of neodymium magnets is about 18 times greater than "ordinary" magnets by volume. This allows rare-earth magnets to be smaller than other magnets with the same field strength.

Some important properties used to compare permanent magnets are: remanence (Br), which measures the strength of the magnetic field; coercivity (Hci), the material's resistance to becoming demagnetized; energy product (B·Hmax), the density of magnetic energy; and Curie temperature (TC), the temperature at which the material loses its magnetism. Rare-earth magnets have higher remanence, much higher coercivity and energy product, but (for neodymium) lower Curie temperature than other types. The table below compares the magnetic performance of the two types of rare-earth magnets, neodymium (Nd2Fe14B) and samarium–cobalt (SmCo5), with other types of permanent magnets.

Samarium–cobalt
Samarium–cobalt magnets (chemical formula: SmCo5), the first family of rare-earth magnets invented, are less used than neodymium magnets because of their higher cost and lower magnetic field strength. However, samarium–cobalt has a higher Curie temperature, creating a niche for these magnets in applications where high field strength is needed at high operating temperatures. They are highly resistant to oxidation, but sintered samarium–cobalt magnets are brittle and prone to chipping and cracking and may fracture when subjected to thermal shock.

Neodymium

Neodymium magnets, invented in the 1980s, are the strongest and most affordable type of rare-earth magnet. They are made of an alloy of neodymium, iron, and boron (Nd2Fe14B), sometimes abbreviated as NIB. Neodymium magnets are used in numerous applications requiring strong, compact permanent magnets, such as electric motors for cordless tools, hard disk drives, magnetic hold-downs, and jewellery clasps. They have the highest magnetic field strength and have a higher coercivity (which makes them magnetically stable), but they have a lower Curie temperature and are more vulnerable to oxidation than samarium–cobalt magnets.

Corrosion can cause unprotected magnets to spall off a surface layer or to crumble into a powder. Use of protective surface treatments such as gold, nickel, zinc, and tin plating and epoxy-resin coating can provide corrosion protection; the majority of neodymium magnets use nickel plating to provide a robust protection.

Originally, the high cost of these magnets limited their use to applications requiring compactness together with high field strength. Both the raw materials and the patent licenses were expensive. However, since the 1990s, NIB magnets have become steadily less expensive, and their lower cost has inspired new uses such as magnetic construction toys.

Applications

Since their prices became competitive in the 1990s, neodymium magnets have been replacing alnico and ferrite magnets in the many applications in modern technology requiring powerful magnets. Their greater strength allows smaller and lighter magnets to be used for a given application.

Common applications of rare-earth magnets include:

 * Computer hard disk drives
 * Wind turbine generators
 * speakers / headphones
 * Bicycle dynamos
 * MRI scanners
 * Fishing reel brakes
 * Permanent magnet motors in cordless tools
 * High-performance AC servo motors
 * Traction motors and integrated starter-generators in hybrid and electric vehicles
 * Mechanically powered flashlights, employing rare earth magnets for generating electricity in a shaking motion or rotating (hand-crank-powered) motion
 * Industrial uses such as maintaining product purity, equipment protection, and quality control
 * Capture of fine metallic particles in lubricating oils (crankcases of internal combustion engines, also gearboxes and differentials), so as to keep said particles out of circulation, thereby rendering them unable to cause abrasive wear of moving machine parts

Other applications of rare-earth magnets include:

 * Linear motors (used in maglev trains, etc.)
 * Stop motion animation: as tie-downs when the use of traditional screw and nut tie-downs is impractical.
 * Diamagnetic levitation experimentation, the study of magnetic field dynamics and superconductor levitation.
 * Electrodynamic bearings
 * Launched roller coaster technology found on roller coaster and other thrill rides.
 * LED Throwies, small LEDs attached to a button cell battery and a small rare earth magnet, used as a form of non-destructive graffiti and temporary public art.
 * Desk toys
 * Electric guitar pickups
 * Miniature figures, for which rare-earth magnets have gained popularity in the miniatures gaming community for their small size and relative strength assisting in basing and swapping weapons between models.

Hazards and legislation

The greater force exerted by rare-earth magnets creates hazards that are not seen with other types of magnet. Magnets larger than a few centimeters are strong enough to cause injuries to body parts pinched between two magnets or a magnet and a metal surface, even causing broken bones. Magnets allowed to get too near each other can strike each other with enough force to chip and shatter the brittle material, and the flying chips can cause injuries. Starting in 2005, powerful magnets breaking off toys or from magnetic construction sets started causing injuries and deaths. Young children who have swallowed several magnets have had a fold of the digestive tract pinched between the magnets, causing injury and in one case intestinal perforations, sepsis, and death.

The swallowing of small magnets such as neodymium magnetic spheres can result in intestinal injury requiring surgery. The magnets attract each other through the walls of the stomach and intestine, perforating the bowel. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control reported 33 cases as of 2010 requiring surgery and one death. The magnets have been swallowed by both toddlers and teens (who were using the magnets to pretend to have tongue piercings).

North America
A voluntary standard for toys, permanently fusing strong magnets to prevent swallowing, and capping unconnected magnet strength, was adopted in 2007. In 2009, a sudden growth in sales of magnetic desk toys for adults caused a surge in injuries, with emergency room visits estimated at 3,617 in 2012. In response, the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission passed a rule in 2012 restricting rare-earth magnet size in consumer products, but it was vacated by a US federal court decision in November 2016, in a case brought by the one remaining manufacturer. After the rule was nullified, the number of ingestion incidents in the country rose sharply, and is estimated to exceed 1,500 in 2019, leading the CPSC to advise children under the age of 14 to not use the magnets.

In 2009 US company Maxfield & Oberton, maker of Buckyballs, decided to repackage sphere magnets and sell them as toys. Buckyballs launched at New York International Gift Fair in 2009 and sold in the hundreds of thousands before the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission issued a recall on packaging labeled 13+. According to the CPSC, 175,000 units had been sold to the public. Fewer than 50 were returned. Buckyballs labeled "Keep Away From All Children" were not recalled. Subsequently, Maxfield & Oberton changed all mentions of "toy" to "desk toy", positioning the product as a stress-reliever for adults and restricted sales from stores that sold primarily children's products.

In the United States, as a result of an estimated 2,900 emergency room visits between 2009 and 2013 due to either "ball-shaped" or "high-powered" magnets, or both, the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) has undergone rulemaking to attempt to restrict their sale.

Further investigation by the CPSC published in 2012 found an increasing trend of magnet ingestion incidents in young children and teens since 2009. Incidents involving older children and teens were unintentional and the result of using the magnets to mimic body piercings such as tongue studs. The commission cited hidden complications if more than one magnet becomes attached across tissue inside the body. Another recall was issued for Buckyballs in 2012 along with similar products marketed as toys in the US. Recalls and administrative complaints were filed against other similar US companies. Maxfield & Oberton refused the recall and continued selling their desktop toys. The company launched a political campaign against the CPSC, and Craig Zucker, the company's co-founder, debated the safety commission on FOX News.

In June 2012, due to a letter by U.S. Senator Kirsten Gillibrand to U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission Chairwoman Inez Tenenbaum, the United States Consumer Product Safety Commission filed administrative complaints, attempting to ban the sale of Buckyballs and Zen Magnets. Zen Magnets LLC is the first company to ever receive this sort of complaint without record of injury. In November 2012, Buckyballs announced that they had stopped production due to a CPSC lawsuit.

In March 2016, Zen Magnets (a manufacturer of neodymium magnet spheres) won in a major 2014 court hearing concerning the danger posed by "defective" warning labels on their spherical magnets. It was decided by a DC court (CPSC Docket No: 12-2) that "Proper use of Zen Magnets and Neoballs creates no exposure to danger whatsoever." As of January 2017, many brands of magnet spheres including Zen Magnets have resumed the sale of small neodymium magnet spheres following a successful appeal by Zen Magnets in the Tenth Circuit US Court of Appeals which vacated the 2012 CPSC regulation banning these products and thereby rendered the sale of small neodymium magnets once again legal in the United States. It was the CPSC's first such loss in more than 30 years.

A study published in the Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition found a significant increase in magnet ingestions by children after 2017, including "a 5-fold increase in the escalation of care for multiple magnet ingestions". On June 3, 2020, the CPSC submitted a "Petition Response Staff Briefing Package" to the commission, even after the petition was rescinded. It outlines a desire to conduct research in 2021 with a suggested rule proposal in 2022 for a vote.

As of 2019, manufacturers are working on a similar voluntary standard at the ASTM. On October 26, 2017, the CPSC filed an administrative complaint against Zen Magnets, alleging that the magnet sets contained product defects that created a substantial risk of injury to children, declaring that "It is illegal under federal law for any person to sell, offer for sale, manufacture, distribute in commerce, or import into the United States any Zen Magnets and Neoballs."

Sales of "certain products with small, powerful magnets" are prohibited in Canada since 2015.

Oceania
In November 2012, following an interim ban in New South Wales, a permanent ban on the sale of neodymium magnets went into effect throughout Australia.

In January 2013, Consumer Affairs Minister Simon Bridges announced a ban on the import and sale of neodymium magnet sets in New Zealand, effective from January 24, 2013.

Environmental impact
The European Union's ETN-Demeter project (European Training Network for the Design and Recycling of Rare-Earth Permanent Magnet Motors and Generators in Hybrid and Full Electric Vehicles) is examining sustainable design of electric motors used in vehicles. They are, for example, designing electric motors in which the magnets can be easily removed for recycling the rare earth metals.

The European Union's European Research Council also awarded to Principal Investigator, Prof. Thomas Zemb, and co-Principal Investigator, Dr. Jean-Christophe P. Gabriel, an Advanced Research Grant for the project "Rare Earth Element reCYCling with Low harmful Emissions : REE-CYCLE", which aimed at finding new processes for the recycling of rare earth.

Alternatives
The United States Department of Energy has identified a need to find substitutes for rare-earth metals in permanent-magnet technology and has begun funding such research. The Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E) has sponsored a Rare Earth Alternatives in Critical Technologies (REACT) program, to develop alternative materials. In 2011, ARPA-E awarded $31.6 million to fund Rare-Earth Substitute projects.

title: Rare-earth magnet


text: User talk:169.155.33.1

title: User talk:169.155.33.1


text:
George Snell

George Snell may refer to:
 * George Snell (archdeacon of Totnes) (died 1701), Anglican archdeacon
 * George Snell (archdeacon of Chester), Anglican archdeacon
 * George Dixon Snell (1836–1911), mayor of Spanish Fork, Utah
 * George Davis Snell (1903–1996), American geneticist
 * George Snell (bishop) (1907–2006), Bishop in the Anglican Church of Canada

title: George Snell


text:
Talk:United States/Archive 9

Vandalism protection
I know the vandalism is now infrequent, but is it necessary? I don't think so since so many people watch this page anyway... -- AllyUnion (talk) 20:31, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Republicans and religious Jews
Excuse me. In the "Politics" section, the following sentence appears:

 * The Republicans generally receive more funding and support from business groups, religious Christians and Jews, and rural Americans, while the Democratic party receives more support from labor unions and minority ethnic groups.

In the history, 216.229.90.10 sliced out the phrase "and Jews" and then Mackensen promptly reverted it. Now, I'm a little confused. Historically, when Jews are considered as a voting bloc, they tend to lean Democratic. However, this analysis has always considered Jews as a single ethnic class and not separated out religious Jews from non-religious Jews. Therefore, my question:

Does anyone have evidence that religious Jews tend to vote Republican (or Democratic)?

— DLJessup 21:28, 2004 Dec 30 (UTC)

Social Issues
I added some more information about the incarceration/prison situation in the US. Feel free to verify if you need to, I tried to include all necessary sources though some of the math you'll have to check yourself :P. --Ben 09:22, 2 Jan 2005 (UTC)

What about Indians and slaves
I was reading the article and was really surprised that it doesn't mention the fate of Native Americans anywhere (except the state of being of descendants today). Neither does it mention the slavery part of the history (except by using the word enslaved when speaking about slaves' descendants today). I don't want to rush into editing, because may be this issues was already brought forward here and wanted to ask first.

Are these issues considered minor irrelevant details, unworthy of inclusion into the main article? Or is it just an unfortunate omission? Paranoid 01:10, 3 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Pretty much every country at one point had slavery, there were also many that had the original inhabitants forced out of the lands to make way for other people. I don't see why it has to be mentioned. That is a history question, not a current events question.

It is a current events question for those who are still feeling the effects of those events. Fergananim

 * I just added a bit about slavery and the Civil War to the history. I feel that the Civil War (and by association slavery) caused fundamental changes in America, and it needs to be in the summary. -- Dpark 23:16, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Infobox
Is there something wrong? The infobox doesn't align to the right.--Jerryseinfeld 20:18, 3 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Article title
Shouldn't this article be properly entitled "United States of America" instead of "United States"? 129.143.4.68

United States → United States of America & United States (disambiguation) → United States

 * The second half of this proposal was not made sufficiently clear, so it has been added to the title -- Curps 23:27, 24 Jan 2005 (UTC)

The reason is quite simple: I believe that, although the countries should be referred to by their shortened names rather than full, official names, in this context the term United States is highly ambiguous. I believe it would be better to move all of the United States to their respective official names and list them on top of the disambiguation page at United States (after it is moved from United States (disambiguation). Halibutt 19:12, Jan 24, 2005 (UTC)

 * You gotta be kidding. You sure you want to open this can of worms again? Oppose. older ≠ wiser 19:19, Jan 24, 2005 (UTC)
 * Weak Oppose; While not the official name the United States is a nice little abbreviation which is gonna offend no American - if you change this then you should really change United Kingdom to United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland --Neo 19:36, 24 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * But not as little or as accurate as USA, surely? Oh, and United Kingdom can be UK just like United States of America can be USA.--Alun 20:53, 9 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Supportthe move since it's the country's proper name (but not so formal as to be an affected use), but I wouldn't move the disambiguation page. 98% of the time United States means the U.S. of A.  —Michael Z. 2005-01-22 16:54 Z
 * Oppose, since I'm not in favour of making it a disambiguation page. —Michael Z. 2005-01-22 16:54 Z
 * Support, for the reasons Michael Z. cited - Guettarda 19:57, 24 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * I'd be OK with it, despite having adjusted many links from variations, but, looking at United States (disambiguation), I don't see any ambiguity. I guess I oppose unless a stronger case is made for contemporary "ambiguity". And why move it if United States still links there? Oppose both. Still haven't seen a specific case made for any contemporary ambiguity. Niteowlneils 23:47, 24 Jan 2005 (UTC) Niteowlneils 20:03, 24 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Naming conventions (common names) Niteowlneils 20:56, 24 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Support: even the disambiguation page has the link United States of America so that the link shows as "United States of America". I've always promoted the use of official/full names and redirecting common names to it.  Ambiguity isn't very valid point since "United States" is pretty ubiquitous to "The United States of America", but I support the move nonetheless. Cburnett 20:20, 24 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Strong Oppose. Definitely not. Proteus (Talk) 20:33, 24 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Strong oppose. Pointless move. --Tony Sidaway|Talk 21:18, 24 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Please can this be dicussed at the article before a move is requested? violet/riga (t) 21:42, 24 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Strongly Oppose because I believe this proposal is being made in extreme bad faith. Not only is it being proposed to move United States → United States of America, but then to also move United States (disambiguation) → United States.  In other words, the page at United States would become a disambiguation page. This second proposal is frankly preposterous. The title and introduction of this section did not properly reflect this second proposal at all. Since both moves are being proposed as a package deal, I would urge those who voted to support to reconsider. -- Curps 23:27, 24 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * I did not have any hidden agenda, anti-american sentiments or any bad faith when I proposed the move. Please provide any proof for such bad intentions. Or withdraw your comment. As to the reasons why to move the dismabiguation page to United States - I stumbled upon that page while searching for United States of Brasil. Then I realised, that while there are at least three important states to use the term "United States", wikipedia promotes only one of them. IMHO this is simply not right. Please note that I'm not proposing to move the article on the United Mexican States to United States. I only want all country articles to follow the same rules. That's all. Halibutt 09:48, Jan 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * See my comments in the separate section below. As to your reasons to move the disambiguation page: it is established Wikipedia practice that when one meaning very greatly predominates in public usage and perception, then we do not detour through a disambiguation page. Please, would you agree to move Poland (disambiguation) to Poland? And which "three important states" are you referring to?  "The United States of Europe" is an obsolete proposed name that was never in any actual use, and the new permanent name is European Union.  "United States of Brazil" has not been used in 37 years, and was mostly used only in Portuguese and hardly ever in English, and even then only in formal diplomatic usage and never in common usage.  As for Mexico, it's called "United Mexican States" in English, not "United States of Mexico", so there is no ambiguity... and as someone has already pointed out, Estados Unidos in Mexican Spanish unambiguously refers to the USA. It is stretching credulity to the limit and beyond to claim that the term "United States" is highly ambiguous, as you do in the introduction to this requested move. -- Curps 22:08, 25 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Oppose for reasons stated. →Raul654 23:32, Jan 24, 2005 (UTC)
 * Oppose unless only the first half is done. --SPUI 23:35, 24 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Oppose. This would affect many redirects and dependent pages and a huge number of links. Jonathunder 23:56, 2005 Jan 24 (UTC)
 * Oppose: United States should not be a disambig page. Cburnett 00:26, 25 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Oppose. Reasons reasonably statated by previous voters. —Ben Brockert (42) UE News  02:49, Jan 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * Oppose. Reasons stated above. Mackensen (talk) 06:01, 25 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Strongly oppose. This has been covered before, but America is clearly the primary topic for English speakers (and even Spanish speakers; the term Estados Unidos in Mexico refers to the U.S. of A.).  ADH (t&m) 06:07, Jan 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * Support both as a package deal or failing that, just the first —Ashley Y 07:29, 2005 Jan 25 (UTC)
 * Support - though I think that the same should be applied to United Kingdom - Estel (talk) 10:19, Jan 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * Oppose - IMO the ideal situation would be that the page is called United States of America and then United States redirects to it. However the status quo is preferable to this proposal which would cause problems both for linking and for people that type United Status into the search box. There's hardly anybody who would respond to "United States" by saying, "which one?" mattrix 10:42, 25 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Oppose with extreme prejudice. United States is used unambiguously on literally thousands of pages, which shows there's no need to move the article. And the latter half of the move would mean having to change all of those links to avoid a disambig page, which is beyond stupid. (This vote is intended to be read as an insult.) sjorford// 16:33, 25 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Oppose, unless someone knows of another United States more deserving of the article name. Xezbeth  16:39, Jan 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * Oppose so much that I also oppose the next page move request made by this user. -- Netoholic @ 16:43, 2005 Jan 25 (UTC)
 * Strongly Oppose. This is trying to solve a problem that doesn't exist. Carrp 16:47, 25 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Oppose there is a clear reference to the disambig page at the top and this creates more problems than it solves 19:23, 25 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * In the proud tradition of John Kerry, I supported the proposal before I opposed it, but given Halibutt's clarification of the proposal, I once again Support the idea. And why not call the country by its proper name?  There is some sort of a weird undertone that this is anti-American and thus must be opposed...Actually more than an undertone now that sjorford has written: This vote is intended to be read as an insult.  (And the insult is due to what...accuracy?  Wikipedia is in bad shape when accuracy falls into second place behind rather odd ideas of nationalism).  If it were my country I'd want it have it placed under the correct name.  It's not quite the same as putting the UK under The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland - it's more like moving the UK to the United Kingdom.  Has the shot been called - Don't mess with the US?  Shall we soon see Wikipedians disappearing into  .  Scary stuff.  Weird...  Guettarda 20:08, 25 Jan 2005 (UTC)

The above is a history of the discussion at requested moves.

Bad faith
Halibutt,

At Wikipedia talk:Requested_moves you are now claiming that you never proposed the second move (United States (disambiguation) → United States). But this is simply not true.

Let's look at your contributions:

 * 19:12, 24 Jan 2005 (hist) (diff) Requested moves (→January 24)
 * 19:08, 24 Jan 2005 (hist) (diff) United States
 * 19:08, 24 Jan 2005 (hist) (diff) United States (disambiguation)

You edited both pages at the exact same time (19:08). You added to United States (disambiguation), so that page reads:

So you are indeed proposing United States (disambiguation) → United States, and sending people to comment and vote on it at Requested moves.

Yet on the Requested moves page itself, the header reads only:
 * United States → United States of America

The header makes no mention of the second move at all, and your intro text mentions the second move only in a disguised and confusing way:
 * I believe that… in this context the term United States is highly ambiguous. I believe it would be better to move all of the United States to their respective official names and list them on top of the disambiguation page at United States (after it is moved from United States (disambiguation).

You seem to be trying to trick people into voting for something without realizing what they are voting for. This is extreme bad faith.

-- Curps 20:45, 25 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * But I did not list that move on the RM for a good reason - I wanted to decide those matters separately, one by one. By changing the vote I proposed you made the users misinterpret my intentions. Full stop. Halibutt 11:19, Jan 26, 2005 (UTC)

 * Then why did you add the "move" header to United States (disambiguation) (simultaneously to adding the header to United States) if you did not want this move to be done? Also, your intro text (quoted above) mentioned the second move in a way that certainly seemed to imply that it would be done. If there was indeed confusion about your intentions, you must admit that you yourself greatly contributed to that confusion.  Since there is a new vote now, let's move on. -- Curps 21:29, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)

New vote: swap "United States" with "United States of America"
Though the WP:RM was a mangled mess, I'll propose a new vote here. The vote entails:
 * Swapping United States with United States of America
 * Change all redirects pointing to United States to United States of America

Consequences:
 * Article content found at United States of America
 * All other redirects point to United States of America
 * United States becomes a redirect to United States of America
 * United States (disambiguation) is unchanged

Support swap
No discussion here, only votes. See below for discussion
 * 1) Cburnett 22:31, 25 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * 2) Grunt 🇪🇺 22:32, 2005 Jan 25 (UTC)
 * 3) Estel  (talk) 10:09, Jan 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * 4) Halibutt 14:40, Jan 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * 5) ExplorerCDT 15:33, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * 6) SECProto 15:55, Jan 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * 7) Michael Z. 21:01, 2005 Jan 26 (UTC)
 * 8) Heimdal 11:23, 27 Jan 2005 (UTC) Acronym "U.S.A." would also do.
 * 9) Timrollpickering 15:59, 27 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * 10) Guettarda 19:40, 27 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * 11) Jayjg (talk)  00:59, 31 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * 12) Trilobite 06:52, 1 Feb 2005 (UTC) I've never understood why it's at United States.
 * 13) Refdoc 22:25, 2 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * 14) Calmypal 17:44, Feb 18, 2005 (UTC)
 * 15) Thryduulf 17:25, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC) Like Triolbite, I've always expected it to be at United States of America.
 * 16) Rainer 10:46, 22 Mar 2005 (UTC) I'm thinking the same as Thryduulf.
 * 17) Ddye 00:08, 19 May 2005 (UTC)

Oppose swap
No discussion here, only votes. See below for discussion
 * 1) Proteus (Talk) 10:41, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * 2) Tony Sidaway|Talk 11:25, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * 3) Carrp 15:26, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * 4) sjorford// 15:37, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * 5) Jonathunder 15:42, 2005 Jan 26 (UTC)
 * 6) Use common names. Google just "United States" = 31,700,000 hits — "United States of America" = 10,500,000 hits. -- Netoholic @ 16:50, 2005 Jan 26 (UTC)
 * 7) older ≠ wiser 17:20, Jan 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * 8) jguk 21:08, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * 9) violet/riga (t) 21:16, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * 10) Not unless we move United Kingdom to United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Neutralitytalk 21:20, Jan 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * 11) Jiang 08:22, 27 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * 12) Xezbeth  09:53, Jan 27, 2005 (UTC)
 * 13) ADH (t&m) 10:59, Jan 28, 2005 (UTC)
 * 14) Niteowlneils 22:52, 28 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * 15) Minesweeper 03:29, 1 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * 16) Milkmandan 19:06, 2005 Feb 2 (UTC)
 * 17) Flyers13 22:08, 2 Feb 2005 (UTC). Agree with Neutrality.
 * 18) –Hajor 20:56, 5 Feb 2005 (UTC).
 * 19) Daniel Quinlan 20:34, Mar 19, 2005 (UTC)
 * 20) Funnyhat 20:32, 22 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * 21) --Jleon 20:38, 22 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * 22) Dpark 19:57, 20 Apr 2005 (UTC) (Late vote, but whatever)
 * 23) Srl 09:14, 28 May 2005 (UTC) Later vote

Other vote
No discussion here, only votes. See below for discussion
 * 1) Curps 10:06, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC) (either this or status quo is fine)

Discussion
Another option would be to swap "United States" with "U.S.A.". That would look better, imo. Sorry but "United States" sounds too much like "United Kingdom". 129.143.4.68

I oppose on the grounds that it's far too early for a vote; a change like this could do with a bit more (calm) discussion first. I'm actually fairly neutral on whether this would be a good thing. sjorford// 15:44, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * To Netoholic: How many of those "United States" hits on google are for "United States of Mexico" (10,100) or other countries using "United States" in their names?  Also, how many of those are for "United States Army" (2,110,000) or "United States Marine Corps" (394,000) or "United States Air Force" (1,130,000) or "United States Navy" (1,020,000), or "United States Department of State" (and other cabinet departments) or other organizations or corporations (United States Steel - 90,700) that just use the "United States" part of the "United States of America"?   Or for phrases like "President of the United States" (3,940,000) or "Supreme Court of the United States" (670,000)?  Eventually (despite your blanket attempt to say there are more U.S. references than U.S. of A. hits), those totals (like the pennies I so hate to have in my pocket) do add up.  —ExplorerCDT 17:06, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * I think your examples (except perhaps Mexico :| ) proove the point. If government stations and military forces don't use "United States of America" in their name, then it is just more evidence that the longer name is not used in common speech or writing - even to the government agencies themselves.  The United States self-identifies more frequently using the shorter name. -- Netoholic @ 17:15, 2005 Jan 26 (UTC)
 * (agreeing with Netoholic--written before he posted the above, but caught in an edit conflict) Formations such as "President of the United States" or "Supreme Court of the United States" (as opposed to "President of the United States of America" or "Supreme Court of the United States of America") should count as evidence for the shortened form. Even if you eliminate all the non-governmental incidents (like U.S. Steel), there'd still be an overwhelming difference. But beyond Google, how about some common sense: if you go to any English-speaking part of the world and ask what "United States" refers to--the response would be nearly unanimous. None of the other "United States" are commonly referred to as such except in limited situations where the context makes the reference clear. older ≠ wiser 17:20, Jan 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * I disagree that google is a good measure of what to name an article. Especially when expanding the name of an article.  Searching for "United States" or "United States of America" will still land this article in both result sets.  This is the *only* reason given in the convention for caring about search engines and it's null & void.  The convention only proposes to use common names to ensure it gets listed on search engines.  Again, with this move, this is a null & void point: it will be in both results by same virtue "United States Army" is.  Netholic, you're using the naming convention (along with a lot of people I see) for purposes other than intended.  Cburnett 21:58, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * The convention only proposes to use common names to ensure it gets listed on search engines. Nonsense. From the third paragraph of Naming conventions: Generally, article naming should give priority to what the majority of English speakers would most easily recognize, with a reasonable minimum of ambiguity, while at the same time making linking to those articles easy and second nature. No mention whatsoever there of search engines. "United States" is unambiguously recognized by most English-speaking people (and even those with only a limited familiarity with English). "United States" is the simpler name and is easier to link to than "United States of America". older ≠ wiser 22:05, Jan 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * What you quoted from WP:NC is a summary and you didn't link to the fuller explanation at Naming conventions (common names). The first reason listed is for listing on external search engines. Cburnett 22:21, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * While it is not readily apparent, the subpage, Naming conventions (common names), was originally developed primarily to address the names of people (as can be seen where it is linked to from Naming conventions). Back in August 2002, Mav created the subpage by transferring and editing the section then labelled "Use common names of persons" . In a later edit, Mav merged what had been a separate section labelled "Use simple titles" into the new Common Names subpage . Although there is certainly some overlap, this is more clearly a case of "use simple titles" rather than strictly "use common names". Adding "of America" does not help to clarify the topic of the article, as "United States" is unambiguous to nearly all speakers of English; it merely makes a longer and more difficult to link to title. While you dismiss WP:NC as merely a summary, it is the primary page and the clearest statement of basic naming conventions. older ≠ wiser 23:01, Jan 26, 2005 (UTC)
 * Then why did Netholic use Naming conventions (common names) as his rationale? :) Cburnett 23:12, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Well, I suppose because the somewhat related issues of simple title and common name got conflated into a single convention. older ≠ wiser 23:23, Jan 26, 2005 (UTC)

In addition to 'common names', I'd be extremely reluctant to move any page with more than 500 incoming links, at least until the paging feature is added to the 'what links here' pages. It was only by luck that I found a broken redir to Washington, DC caused by its weak consensus move. Niteowlneils 20:36, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * It's a page swap and can't create a double redirect unless there was already one there. Cburnett 21:50, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * No, this is incorrect. If there are any redirects to the United States, when that is moved to United States of America, those redirects would become double-redirects and would no longer work. older ≠ wiser 22:10, Jan 26, 2005 (UTC)

 * Imagine my surprise when I entered "United States" into the search category expecting to find an article on the Republic of the United States of Brazil (what Brazil was called pre-1968), and suddenly finding an article about a ragtag collection of 50 states that are scattered across the most southerly third of North America! Let's keep things simple and where people expect to find them, shall we? jguk 21:13, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * Er, the most southerly third of North America includes Mexico and Central America. I've always suspected this newfangled "Wikipedia" thing was unreliable.  Or maybe this is indeed something new and notable and we need to create United States (southerly third) and add it to the disambiguation page. I look forward to your original research :-) -- Curps 21:35, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * Mexico's in Central America - North America is Canada, the United States, St Pierre et Miquelon, Greenland and (arguably) Bermuda. Of course, two of the ragtag areas aren't in the southerly third of North America. One's a former outermost province of Russia, and another one, properly called the Sandwich Islands isn't in a continent at all, jguk 22:06, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * Mexico is a Latin American country, but it's definitely in North America. Geophysically speaking, the continent ends at the Panama Canal, so all of Central America is in North America, too.  —Michael Z. 2005-01-22 16:54 Z

 * Central America is in North America, Mexico is not in Central America. e.g. Flora of North America North of Mexico

We have the United States Air Force (USAF) not the United States of America Air Force (USAAF), United States Postal Service (USPS), not United States of America Postal Service (USAPS), President of the United States (POTUS), not President of the United States of America (POTUSA)...even the Constitution itself makes repeated references to the "Congress of the United States" instead of the "Congress of the United States of America". Using "United States" is perfectly correct and most common--Jiang 08:26, 27 Jan 2005 (UTC)

"America", "US", "USA" are all in as common usage as "United States" alone. Why pick one and not the others? The name of the country (or federation, if you prefer) is the United States of America. Isn't accuracy supposed to be of some value in an encyclopaedia? Why is this even an issue? Do the people who are so passionate about this thing want to be called "United Statesians" rather than Americans? Fine with me - I'd be happy to get my continent back. Guettarda 19:53, 27 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Do the people who are so passionate about this thing want to be called "United Statesians" rather than Americans? Actually, I'd rather not be called either, what with being Irish and all. Proteus (Talk) 12:57, 28 Jan 2005 (UTC)

United Kingdom does not need to be moved to United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Ever heard of the UKGBNI? The full title is so unwieldy that there's not even a decent acronym for it - neither would you hear it often in official speeches. On the other hand, "United States of America" and "U.S.A." are commonly used, and widely referred to. Heimdal 11:27, 28 Jan 2005 (UTC)

You know, they tend to use, "Miss United States" -- AllyUnion (talk) 12:37, 28 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * sounds like good advice to me:) jguk 13:17, 28 Jan 2005 (UTC)

There is a Straw Poll taking place on Wikipedia talk:Requested moves on where votes for "Requested Moves" should be placed. As this page was listed on the RM page and the debate was moved to here, the people who voted here, have practical experience of the issue and you might like to contribute to the straw poll on the RM page. Philip Baird Shearer 11:48, 25 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Quote: Title 28 United States Code Section 3002(15) "United States means - (A) a Federal Corporation. Bouviers: "The republic whose organic law is the constitution adopted by the people of the thirteen states which declared their independence of the government of Great Britain on the fourth day of July, 1776." Richard Fuselier — 216.78.8.110 (talk)
 * 28 USC 3002(15) does not create a legal definition of the term "United States". That subsection simply defines the words "United States" when they are used in that particular chapter of the United States Code. This is simply a way of saving words in the remainder of that chapter of the U.S. Code. Mateo SA | talk 01:53, May 26, 2005 (UTC)

Previous archive page is Talk:United States/Archive 8

Next archive page is Talk:United States/Archive 10

title: Talk:United States/Archive 9


text:
User:Famousindo

Thank you for experimenting with Wikipedia. Your test worked, and has been reverted or removed. Please use the sandbox for any other tests you want to do. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our encyclopedia. Lucky 6.9 21:32, 21 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User:Famousindo


text:
List of grand dukes of Russia

This is a list of those members of the Russian imperial family who bore the title velikiy knjaz (usually translated into English as grand duke, but more accurately grand prince). This courtesy title was borne by the sons and male-line grandsons of the Emperor of all the Russias, along with the style of His Imperial Highness. They were not sovereigns, but members and dynasts of the House of the reigning emperor.

The title grand prince is the English translation of the Russian великий князь. The Slavic knyaz and the Baltic kunigaitis (both nowadays usually translated as prince) is a cognate of king.

title: List of grand dukes of Russia


text:
User:Hytmal

I mostly just make spelling and grammar fixes when I run into them. I really can't stand it when I see a sentence that just reads poorly. I also do some wiki-ing over at Tractat.us.

See me Tractat.us user page here.

title: User:Hytmal


text:
John Pettie

John Pettie (Edinburgh 17 March 1839 – 21 February 1893 Hastings) was a painter from Edinburgh who spent most of his career in London. He became a member of the Royal Academy in 1866 and a full academician in 1874.

As an enthusiastic amateur musician, he helped the career of the young composer Hamish MacCunn by organising concerts for him in his own studio. MacCunn, who would marry Pettie's daughter Alison in 1889, also served as a model for many of his paintings and sketches in various distinctive occasions.

Biography
John Pettie was born in Edinburgh, the son of Alexander and Alison Pettie. In 1852 the family moved to East Linton, Haddingtonshire. Initially, his father objected to him taking up art as a career, but this was overcome following a portrait by Pettie of the village carrier and his donkey.

When he was sixteen he entered the Trustees Academy in Edinburgh, working under Robert Scott Lauder with William Quiller Orchardson, J. MacWhirter, William McTaggart, Peter Graham (1836–1921), Tom Graham (1840–1906) and George Paul Chalmers. His first exhibits at the Royal Scottish Academy were A Scene from the Fortunes of Nigel, one of the many subjects for which he sought inspiration in the novels of Sir Walter Scott, and two portraits in 1858, followed in 1859 by The Prison. To the Royal Academy in 1860 he sent The Armourers; and the success of this work and What d'ye Lack, Madam? in the following year encouraged him to settle in London (1862), where he joined Orchardson. In 1866 he was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1874 received full academical honours in succession to Sir Edwin Landseer. His diploma picture was Jacobites, 1745. Pettie was a hard and rapid worker, and, in his best days, a colourist of a high order and a brilliant executant. In his early days he produced a certain amount of book illustration. His connection with Good Words began in 1861, and was continued until 1864. He painted a portrait of the painter James Campbell Noble RSA and this is exhibited in the Scottish National Portrait Gallery in Edinburgh. His Two Strings to her Bow, in which the composer Hamish MacCunn is portrayed, is now in the Kelvingrove Art Gallery, Glasgow. In 1917 it was in demand as a cigarette card from soldiers fighting in the war. In 1894 a selection of his work was included in the Winter Exhibition of the Royal Academy. His self-portrait is in the Tate Gallery.

The National Portrait Gallery has four of his works in its collection.

Works
With William McTaggart and others, he illustrated The Postman's Bag (Strahan, 1862), and with John MacWhirter he illustrated Wordsworth's Poetry for the Young (Strahan, 1863). His principal paintings, in addition to those already mentioned, are:

 * Cromwell's Saints (1862)
 * The Trio (1863)
 * George Fox refusing to take the Oath (1864)
 * A Drumhead Courtmartial (1865)
 * The Arrest for Witchcraft (1866)
 * Treason (1867)
 * Tussle with a Highland Smuggler (1868)
 * The Sally (1870)
 * Terms to the Besieged (1872)
 * The Flag of Truce (1873)
 * Ho! Ho! Old Null and A State Secret (1874)
 * A Sword and Dagger Fight (1877)
 * The Death Warrant (1879)
 * Monmouth and James II (1882)
 * The Vigil (1884)
 * Challenged (1883)
 * The Chieftain's Candlesticks (1886)
 * Two Strings to Her Bow (1887)
 * The Traitor and Sir Charles Wyndham as David Garrick (1888)
 * The Ultimatum and Bonnie Prince Charlie (1892)

Literature

 * The book John Pettie, R.A., H.R.S.A. (London, 1908), by his nephew Martin Hardie, gives the story of his life, a catalogue of his pictures, and fifty reproductions in colour.

title: John Pettie


text:
Cascade River

The Cascade River is a placename that can mean:
 * Cascade River (Alberta) (Canada), a tributary of the Bow River
 * Cascade River (Ontario) (Canada)
 * Cascade River (Mindanao) (Philippines)
 * Cascade River (Minnesota) (United States)
 * Cascade River (New Zealand)
 * Cascade River (Nunavut) (Canada), a minor river on the Meta Incognita Peninsula on Baffin Island
 * Cascade River (Tasmania) (Australia)
 * Cascade River (Washington) (United States)

title: Cascade River


text:
User talk:Jthomps3

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikipedia. It is considered vandalism. If you were just trying to experiment, then use the sandbox instead. Thank you.

title: User talk:Jthomps3


text:
User talk:Famousindo

Some of the people, places or things you have written about in the article Patrick kusnadi may not be well-known enough to merit articles of their own. The Wikipedia community welcomes newcomers, and encourages them to become Wikipedians. By starting an account or logging in, each user is entitled to a user page in which they can describe themselves, and this article's content may be incorporated into that page. However, to merit inclusion in the encyclopedia proper a subject must be notable. We encourage you to write or improve articles on notable subjects. -- Essjay ·  Talk 21:34, July 21, 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Famousindo


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Storyline patent

 This page is an archive of the proposed deletion of the article below. Further comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination). No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was Delete --Allen3 talk 12:52, August 3, 2005 (UTC)

Storyline patent
Neologism. Non-notable (6 hits on Google, 5 from the same web site). Presumably promotional (see the external link at the bottom of the article). I vote delete. --Edcolins 21:35, July 21, 2005 (UTC)

 * delete: Neologism. Perhaps No original research. Nothing anywhere except on his website. I vote delete. Mmmbeer 03:15, 22 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete Any attorney dreaming of doing this has my condolences, for they need serious clinical help. Xoloz 05:06, 22 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete nn concept. JamesBurns 03:27, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete. Neologism. Advertisement. --Ann O'nyme 10:16, July 25, 2005 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.


text:
François Buloz

François Buloz  (20 September 1803 – 12 January 1877) was a French littérateur, magazine editor, and theater administrator.

He was born in Vulbens, Haute-Savoie, near Geneva, and died in Paris.

Originally employed as a chemist, and then as a printer and proofreader, he became the editor of the Revue des deux Mondes in 1831. Making an audacious change in its direction, Buloz took the magazine to the pinnacle of French publishing by bringing in some of France's most celebrated literary talent: Sainte-Beuve, Victor Hugo, Alfred de Vigny, Alfred de Musset, George Sand, Balzac, Dumas père and eventually Octave Feuillet, Hippolyte Taine and Ernest Renan.

From 17 October 1838 to 2 March 1848, Buloz was chief administrator of the Comédie-Française.

title: François Buloz


text:
WHHS

WHHS (99.9 FM) is a non-commercial educational FM radio station licensed to the School District of Haverford Township in Havertown, Pennsylvania (a suburb of Philadelphia), and run by the students of Haverford High School. Studios are located within the school, and the transmitter is located on top of the building.

Typical show formats include rock, Top 40, classic rock, rap/hip-hop, sports talk, political talk, and sometimes more eclectic genres like classical or jazz. Occasionally, shows feature live performances from local or school-based bands. Students apply for a radio show (usually 90 minutes long), and a typical show has 2-4 hosts. On the basis of interviews and previous experience with the station, students are chosen to fill several positions, including general manager, technical director, programming director, promotions director, music director, and sports director. The radio station provides an introduction into the radio or communications industries for students interested in careers in these fields.

History
WHHS is the oldest high school-run radio station in the country. The station was originally assigned to 89.3 MHz and was granted its first license on February 21, 1950. In 1992, the FCC forced the station to change frequencies to 107.9 MHz.

In 2004, a new radio station licensed to Radio One to serve Pennsauken, New Jersey and the Philadelphia market (WRNB, now WPPZ-FM) signed on, requiring WHHS to change frequencies again. With Radio One's help, WHHS moved to 99.9 MHz in 2005.

In 2006, the station began broadcasting live sporting events such as football and hockey. The station has broadcast election day specials and interviews with such politicians and Congressman Curt Weldon and Congressman elect Joe Sestak.

WHHS celebrated 70 years of broadcasting in 2019.

title: WHHS


text:
Talk:2-meter band

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the nomination was Moved -- Kim van der Linde at venus 03:47, 14 July 2006 (UTC) This page should be renamed '2 meters' if it is to have sentence case and be consistent similar pages. Bobblewik 21:37, 21 July 2005 (UTC)

The band plan, although it is labelled as a sample, is US-specific. Should the article mention the differences in repeater bands and channel spacing? Many countries use 25Khz channel spacing and would have for example a call channel of 146.500 instead of 146.520. vk6hgr 13:54, 11 December 2005 (UTC) 2 Meters → 2 meters – {Not a proper noun, and consistency with other radio band articles. –Mysid(t) 19:35, 6 July 2006 (UTC)} copied from the entry on the WP:RM page

Survey

 * Add *Support or *Oppose followed by an optional one-sentence explanation, then sign your opinion with  ~ ''

 * Support - Dddstone 21:27, 6 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Support should not be capitalized for a variety of reasons. ;Bear 06:17, 8 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Support not a proper name (though "2 Meters" should redirect.) --Vengeful Cynic 02:07, 10 July 2006 (UTC)

Discussion

 * Add any additional comments

I'm surprised that discussion is required. New policy? I haven't been wikiing at the rate I used to, perhaps growth has taken its toll. ;Bear 06:20, 8 July 2006 (UTC)
 * It is required in cases where the move is not straightforward – in this case, a redirect in 2 meters is blocking it. –Mysid(t) 15:34, 9 July 2006 (UTC)
 * (Well, the Discussion header is here mostly because it is included in the default template.) –Mysid(t) 19:33, 9 July 2006 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review). No further edits should be made to this page.

Dead link
During several automated bot runs the following external link was found to be unavailable. Please check if the link is in fact down and fix or remove it in that case!

 * http://www.rsgb.org/spectrumforum/bandplans/RSGB%20Band%20Plan%20master.pdf
 * In 2-meter band on 2011-05-25 06:56:04, 404 Not Found
 * In 2-meter band on 2011-06-10 04:45:27, 404 Not Found

--JeffGBot (talk) 04:45, 10 June 2011 (UTC)

Move or delete general RF propagation sections
Terrestrial RF propagation is well-covered elsewhere in Wikipedia, one example being Skywave, another Tropospheric_propagation. There's a lot of general propagation information in the 2-meter article that doesn't directly relate to, or is not unique to, 2-meter operation. A lot of this information is redundant with respect to these other articles. I would think the general propagation content here should be deleted or moved, with the appropriate "see also" links added. AKeenEye 04:03, 10 September 2014 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by AKeenEye (talk • contribs)

Loss of band to Amateurs
I've been seeing stuff about the loss of this band to amateur radio. Of course, I am not an expert and I came here to have a look. Is this topic worth inclusion in this article? -Roxy, the dog . wooF 10:10, 9 July 2019 (UTC)
 * Is it lost? Is there consideration on losing it? Gah4 (talk) 01:10, 4 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Is it lost? Is there consideration on losing it? Gah4 (talk) 01:10, 4 October 2021 (UTC)

Simple radios for FM repeater operation have become plentiful and inexpensive in recent years.
There is a citation needed for: Simple radios for FM repeater operation have become plentiful and inexpensive in recent years. Modern technology makes things like this inexpensive, and production in countries like China makes them plentiful. Is there something more that needs to be said? Gah4 (talk) 01:12, 4 October 2021 (UTC)

Someone seems to have put cn on just about every paragraph. Some might actually be true, but most are so well known or obvious that they aren't needed. Even more, they didn't discuss any of them here! Gah4 (talk) 08:31, 9 February 2022 (UTC)
 * Actually, there are vast swathes of unsourced text in this article, and those tags are individually quite justified. I acknowledge that the text is not too bad in terms of an article on this subject if there were refs. Somebody has made a very valid point here, and I would hope that wikihams might provide some citations for us, there must be huge amounts of WP:RS judging by the verbosity of amateur radio enthusiasts. (that's an observational joke btw.)
 * So yes, perhaps the editor who tag bombed the article, and I haven't looked at the history yet to see, might have had the decency to discuss it here, but it is entirely possible that it was a good faith tagging spree by a newbie or a helpful passer by. Not sure what to do, as I agree that the text isn't unreasonable, it's just not sourced, and we require sources. -Roxy the dog . wooF 15:23, 9 February 2022 (UTC)
 * This diff added the tags, plus some other stuff in September 2021. The editor has made just two edits to the project, so it was a drive-by. If this was a controversial and disputed area, I might support removing the text tagged until citations could be supplied, and though this text might be trivially verifiable, I'm not comfortable leaving it all alone, but I'm going to. Happy to discuss further. -Roxy the dog . wooF 15:36, 9 February 2022 (UTC)
 * Yes, I didn't remove them all, partly because I didn't feel like doing it, but some might be good. It was the one that some people might put an antenna on the roof of their house that got me. For one, there is weasel words where the statement is generic enough not to be wrong. (They might, but it doesn't say that anyone did.) But some can probably use a good WP:RS. Gah4 (talk) 18:24, 9 February 2022 (UTC)
 * Yes, I didn't remove them all, partly because I didn't feel like doing it, but some might be good. It was the one that some people might put an antenna on the roof of their house that got me. For one, there is weasel words where the statement is generic enough not to be wrong. (They might, but it doesn't say that anyone did.) But some can probably use a good WP:RS. Gah4 (talk) 18:24, 9 February 2022 (UTC)
 * Yes, I didn't remove them all, partly because I didn't feel like doing it, but some might be good. It was the one that some people might put an antenna on the roof of their house that got me. For one, there is weasel words where the statement is generic enough not to be wrong. (They might, but it doesn't say that anyone did.) But some can probably use a good WP:RS. Gah4 (talk) 18:24, 9 February 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:2-meter band


text: User talk:132.250.114.41

title: User talk:132.250.114.41


text:
High courts of India

The high courts of India are the highest courts of appellate jurisdiction in each state and union territory of India. However, a high court exercises its original civil and criminal jurisdiction only if the subordinate courts are not authorized by law to try such matters for lack of peculiar or territorial jurisdiction. High courts may also enjoy original jurisdiction in certain matters, if so designated, especially by the constitution, a state law or union law.

The work of most high courts primarily consists of appeals from lower courts and writ petitions in terms of Articles 226 and 227 of the Constitution. Writ jurisdiction is also the original jurisdiction of a high court.

Each state is divided into judicial districts presided over by a district judge and a session judge. He is known as the district judge when he presides over a civil case and the session's judge when he presides over a criminal case. He is the highest judicial authority below a high court judge. Below him, there are courts of civil jurisdiction, known by different names in different states. Under Article 141 of the constitution, all courts in India, including high courts – are bound by the judgements and orders of the Supreme Court of India by precedence.

Judges in a high court are appointed by the president of India in consultation with the chief justice of India and the governor of the state under Article 217, Chapter Five of Part VI of the Constitution, but through subsequent judicial interpretations, the primacy of the appointment process is on the hands of the Judicial Collegium. High courts are headed by a chief justice. The chief justices rank fourteenth (within their respective states) and seventeenth (outside their respective states) on the Indian order of precedence. The number of judges in a court is decided by dividing the average institution of main cases during the last five years by the national average, or the average rate of disposal of main cases per judge per year in that high court, whichever is higher.

The Madras High Court is the oldest high court in the country, established on 26 June 1862. High courts that handle numerous cases of a particular region have permanent benches established there. Benches are also present in states which come under the jurisdiction of a court outside its territorial limits. Smaller states with few cases may have circuit benches established. Circuit benches (known as circuit courts in some parts of the world) are temporary courts which hold proceedings for a few selected months in a year. Thus cases built up during this interim period are judged when the circuit court is in session. According to a study conducted by Bangalore-based N.G.O, Daksh, on 21 high courts in collaboration with the Ministry of Law and Justice in March 2015, it was found that average pendency of a case in high courts in India is 3 years.

The buildings of Bombay High Court (as part of the Victorian and art deco ensemble of Mumbai) and Punjab and Haryana High Court (as part of the architectural work of Le Corbusier) are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

The high courts are substantially different from and should not be confused with the state courts of other federations, in that the Constitution of India includes detailed provisions for the uniform organisation and operation of all high courts. In other federations like the United States, state courts are formed under the constitutions of the separate states and as a result vary greatly from state to state.

High courts
The Calcutta High Court in Kolkata (est. 1862), Bombay High Court in Mumbai (est. 1862), Madras High Court in Chennai (est. 1862), Allahabad High Court in Allahabad (est. 1866), and Bangalore High Court (now Karnataka High Court) in Bengaluru (est. 1884) are the five oldest high courts in India. The Andhra High Court and Telangana High Court are the newest high courts, established on 1 January 2019 according to the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014.

The following are the 25 high courts in India, sorted by name, year established, act by which it was established, jurisdiction, principal seat (headquarters), permanent benches (subordinate to the principal seat), circuit benches (functional a few days in a month/year), the maximum number of judges sanctioned, and the presiding chief justice of the high court:

Courts under a high court

 * District Court
 * District Munsiff Court
 * Courts of Judicial Magistrate of First Class
 * Court of Judicial Magistrate of Second Class
 * E-courts

title: High courts of India


text: User talk:70.19.68.78

title: User talk:70.19.68.78


text:
Kensington Park

Kensington Park may refer to:

 * Australia
 * Kensington Park, South Australia, a suburb of Adelaide
 * Canada
 * Kensington Park (Burnaby), a park in Burnaby, a suburb of Vancouver, British Columbia
 * Jamaica
 * Kensington Park (Kingston), a cricket ground in Kingston
 * New Zealand
 * Kensington Park, Orewa, a subdivision the northern town of Orewa
 * United Kingdom
 * Kensington Park, Bristol, a district
 * Kensington Park, London, a 19th-century designation for a London residential district now subsumed within Notting Hill
 * Kensington Park School, an independent school in London
 * Kensington Gardens, a park in London
 * United States
 * Kensington Park, California
 * Kensington Park, a park in Chicago, Illinois
 * Kensington Park, former name of Kensington, California
 * Kensington Park, Florida, a census-designated place
 * Kensington Metropark, Michigan

title: Kensington Park


text:
Pyrene (disambiguation)

Pyrene may refer to:

 * Pyrene, a chemical compound.
 * Carbon tetrachloride, pyrene is the brand name used by the Pyrene Manufacturing Company for Carbon tetrachloride.
 * Pyrene (mythology), consort of Ares and the mother of Cycnus in Greek mythology
 * Pyrene, a Celtic city near the sources of the Danube mentioned by Herodotus: see Heuneburg
 * The Pyrene Company Limited, a manufacturer of firefighting equipment
 * The Pyrene Building, Golden Mile (Brentford), a noted former Pyrene Company factory in London, England in the Art Deco style
 * Pyrene (gastropod), a genus of sea snails from the family Columbellidae
 * Pyrena, a kind of nutlet
 * Pyrenees, a mountain range between France and Spain

title: Pyrene (disambiguation)


text:
File:WHHS.JPG

Licensing
-

title: File:WHHS.JPG


text:
User:Larineso

I am currently working on translating Larino into Italian, French, and Spanish.

Real Life
Outside of Wikipedia, in my actual life, I am a student and amateur photographer (you can see my gallery). I would like to learn Portuguese, and after that, we'll see. If you, too are interested in learning a languge, I urge you to visit www.how-to-learn-any-language.com (they aren't trying to sell anything).

fr:Utilisateur:Larineso

title: User:Larineso


text:
Achille Guenée

Achille Guenée (sometimes M.A. Guenée; 1 January 1809 – 30 December 1880) was a French lawyer and entomologist.

Biography
Achille Guenée was born in Chartres and died in Châteaudun.

He was educated in Chartres, where he showed a very early interest in butterflies and was encouraged and taught by François de Villiers (1790–1847). He went to study law in Paris, then entered the “Bareau”. After the death of his only son, he lived at Châteaudun in Chatelliers. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, Châteaudun was burned by the Prussians but Guénée's collections remained intact.

He was the author of 63 publications, some with Philogène Auguste Joseph Duponchel (1774–1846). He notably wrote Species des nocturnes  (Night Species in English) (six volumes, 1852–1857) forming parts of the Suites à Buffon. This work of almost 1,300 pages treats Noctuidae of the world. Also co-author, with Jean Baptiste Boisduval, of ''Histoire naturelle des Insectes. Species général des Lépidoptères'' (vols 5–10, 1836–57).

He was a founding member 1832 of the Société Entomologique de France, (1832) and was president in 1848 then honorary member in 1874. He was among the first to describe the Cadra calidella species.

title: Achille Guenée


text:
Elliot in the Morning

Elliot in the Morning is a syndicated morning radio talk show hosted by DJ Elliot Segal and airing weekdays from "5:48 until 10 something." It is based at WWDC-FM Washington, D.C., and is heard on affiliate WRXL in Richmond. The format covers a broad spectrum of topics, ranging from in-person or telephone interviews with well-known celebrities, to gross-out stunts involving much of the show's supporting cast. The show has regular telephone interviews with Patricia Murphy (from The Daily Beast), Mark Steines (formerly from Entertainment Tonight) during sweeps and Brandon Noble (former NFL player) during football season.

As of 2005, Elliot in the Morning had been the cause of the fifth largest amount of Federal Communications Commission (FCC) fines since 1970, with $302,500 worth of fines leveled at the show. As a result, while the show still frequently involves euphemistic mentions of sexual topics, it is broadcast with a short tape delay, and is occasionally "dumped" to canned music for profanity.

The program was carried on WOSC in Ocean City, Maryland, from 2003 to 2004; on WCHH in Baltimore, Maryland, from May 2008 to November 2009; and on WBWZ in the Hudson Valley of New York until 2017. Beginning in January 2014, the show was briefly heard on AM talk radio station WOR in New York after that station's purchase by iHeartMedia, along with the DC and Richmond FM stations. The show made plans to leave the DC101 studios and relocate to New York. However, after citing that "significant changes" would be needed for the show to succeed in NYC, it was announced that the show would no longer be carried on WOR; in reality, the show and its audience flow proved to be an ill fit for the older-skewing AM station.

On December 22, 2021, it was announced that the show would be carried by KRBZ in Kansas City. On April 6, 2022, it was announced that the show would once again be heard in New York City, this time on alternative rock station WNYL 92.3 FM. While the originating station, DC101, is owned by iHeartMedia, the New York, Kansas City and Richmond affiliates are owned by Audacy, Inc. The Atlanta affiliate is owned by Cumulus Media. On October 27, 2022, WNYL started simulcasting all-news 1010 WINS and stopped carrying the show. On December 1, WNNX in Atlanta dropped the show after eight months. In January 2023, KRBZ dropped the show after one year.

White House stunt
On the morning of February 8, 2001, Elliot Segal sent Bryan "Flounder" Schlossberg to the south fence of the White House, where a gunman had been shot and arrested the previous day, offering passersby to a "free shot of bush." The "bush" in question was an anatomical reference in connection to a spread of porn magazines that were on display. Flounder was connected to the airwaves via cell phone when the Secret Service surrounded him and demanded that he hang up the phone. In the end, Flounder avoided being taken into custody, but was however banned from the grounds of the White House indefinitely.

Bishop O'Connell High School
The morning of May 7, 2002, two sixteen-year-old O'Connell students called the show to be considered in a contest whose winners were to be cage dancers at an upcoming Kid Rock concert at George Mason University's Patriot Center. Instead, goaded by Elliot, they discussed alleged sexual activity at O'Connell. The students claimed to be eighteen. The two discussed giving oral sex to lines of boys in the hallway and having intercourse in stairwells and closets. They implied these acts occurred during a typical school day. The students, who had used false names on air, were suspended the same day for their comments. The principal addressed the student body on the PA system and discussed the immorality of Mr. Segal's radio show. The following day (May 8), Mr. Segal, angered by the students' suspension, personally insulted the principal on air, making lewd remarks about his family and his sexual activity. He also mocked the school's mission statement, specifically what he considered to be a hypocritical statement that their educational environment is "rooted in the life of Christ." The two days of broadcasting were ruled indecent by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). As a result, in October 2003, sixteen months after the incident, DC101's parent company Clear Channel Communications was fined $55,000.

title: Elliot in the Morning