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Native American studies

 Native American studies (also known as American Indian, Indigenous American, Aboriginal, Native, or First Nations studies) is an interdisciplinary academic field that examines the history, culture, politics, issues, spirituality, sociology and contemporary experience of Native peoples in North America, or, taking a hemispheric approach, the Americas. Increasingly, debate has focused on the differences rather than the similarities between other ethnic studies disciplines such as African American studies, Asian American studies, and Latino/a studies.

In particular, the political sovereignty of many indigenous nations marks substantive differences in historical experience from that of other racial and ethnic groups in the United States and Canada. Drawing from numerous disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, history, literature, political science, and gender studies, Native American studies scholars consider a variety of perspectives and employ diverse analytical and methodological tools in their work.

Two key concepts shape Native American studies, according to Crow Creek Lakota scholar Elizabeth Cook-Lynn, indigenousness (as defined in culture, geography, and philosophy) and sovereignty (as legally and historically defined). Practitioners advocate for decolonization of indigenous peoples, political autonomy, and the establishment of a discipline dedicated to alleviating contemporary problems facing indigenous peoples.

History
The Native American historical experience is marked by forcible and sometimes cooperative attempts at assimilation into mainstream European-American culture (Americanization). Beginning with missionaries and leading up to federally controlled schools, the aim was to educate American Indians so that they could return to their communities and facilitate cultural assimilation. As described by David Beck in his article "American Indian Higher Education before 1974: From Colonization to Self-Determination", the schools were a tool for assimilation. Their focus was not academic, but training for industrial or domestic jobs.

The Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s–60s contested mainstream methods of assimilationist indoctrination and the curriculum in K-12 schools and universities throughout the United States. American Indian students, coupled with sympathetic professors, assisted in creating programs with new goals. Rather than being focused on education for community assimilation there was a move to educate for empowerment. Programs that practiced community outreach and focused on student retention on campus arose from that movement. The school programs fostered a new interpretation of American Indian history, sociology, and politics.

During the First Convocation of American Indian Scholars in March 1970 at Princeton University, indigenous scholars drafted a plan to develop "Native American Studies as an Academic Discipline", which would defend indigenous control of land and indigenous rights and would ultimately reform US Indian Policy. This discipline would be informed by traditional knowledge, especially oral history, and would "defend indigenous nationhood in America".

In contrast to Western anthropology, the knowledge base of Native American studies is endogenous, emerging from indigenous communities. Developers of Native American studies widely dismissed scientific objectivity, since Western cultural biases have historically informed anthropology and other disciplines.

Discourse about Diversity and Decolonization
Since the inception of Native American Studies, there’s been discourse on the question of who should study and contribute to the field of Native Americans Studies. These fundamental questions range from who can study Native American Studies in undergraduate courses to how academics of non-Indian descent dominate Native American Studies and surrounding discourse.

Linda Tuhiwai Smith is a professor of education and Maori development and Pro-Vice-Chancellor Maori at the University of Waikato in Hamilton, New Zealand. Smith explains that the word "research" is linked to European colonialism. Indigenous peoples are apprehensive and cautious of that connection, and the pursuit of knowledge, or research, is deeply embedded in multiple layers of European and Colonial processes. Colonial definitions and understandings of native peoples were reported to the West and then those representations were sent back and attached to indigenous identity. In this way, research is very powerful. Indigenous researchers must be afforded the opportunity to critique and fine tune the methodologies so that  their experiences are more accurately represented.

Universities and colleges with Native American studies departments, programs, and courses
United States Canada Europe
 * Blackfeet Community College (Browning, MT)
 * College of Menominee Nation (Keshena, WI)
 * Dartmouth College (Hanover, NH)
 * Fort Lewis College (Durango, CO)
 * Haskell Indian Nations University (Lawrence, KS)
 * Haskell Indian Nations University (Lawrence, KS)
 * Montana State University (Bozeman, MT)
 * Northern Arizona University (Flagstaff, AZ)
 * Northwest Indian College (Bellingham, WA)
 * Navajo Technical University (Crownpoint, NM)
 * Salish Kootenai College (Pablo, MT)
 * San Diego State University (San Diego, CA)
 * Sitting Bull College (Fort Yates, ND)
 * Southwestern Community College (Sylva, NC)
 * Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute (Albuquerque, NM)
 * United Tribes Technical College (Bismarck, ND)
 * University of Alaska Fairbanks (Fairbanks, AK)
 * University of Arizona (Tucson, AZ)
 * University of California, Berkeley (Berkeley, CA)
 * University of California, Davis (Davis, CA)
 * University of California, Los Angeles (Los Angeles, CA)
 * University of California, Riverside (Riverside, CA)
 * University of California, Santa Cruz (Santa Cruz, CA)
 * University of Hawaii at Manoa (Honolulu, HI)
 * University of Kansas (Lawrence, KS)
 * University of Minnesota (Minneapolis, MN)
 * University of Montana (Missoula, MT)
 * University of New Mexico (Albuquerque, NM)
 * University of North Carolina at Pembroke (Pembroke, NC)
 * University of North Dakota (Grand Forks, ND)
 * University of Oklahoma (Norman, OK)
 * University of Utah (Salt Lake City, UT)
 * University of Washington (Seattle, WA)
 * University of Wisconsin-Madison (Madison, WI)
 * Carleton University (Ottawa, Ontario)
 * McGill University (Montreal, Quebec)
 * Simon Fraser University (Burnaby, British Columbia)
 * University of Alberta (Edmonton, Alberta)
 * University of British Columbia (Vancouver, British Columbia)
 * University of Calgary (Calgary, Alberta)
 * University of Manitoba (Winnipeg, Manitoba)
 * University of Saskatchewan (Saskatoon, Saskatchewan)
 * University of Toronto (Toronto, Ontario)
 * University of Victoria (Victoria, British Columbia)
 * University of Winnipeg (Winnipeg, Manitoba)
 * Blackfeet Community College (Browning, MT)
 * Leiden University (Leiden, Netherlands)
 * University of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, Scotland)
 * University of Bern (Bern, Switzerland)
 * University of Cologne (Cologne, Germany)
 * University of Copenhagen (Copenhagen, Denmark)
 * University of East Anglia (Norwich, England)
 * University of Edinburgh (Edinburgh, Scotland)
 * University of Exeter (Exeter, England)
 * University of Helsinki (Helsinki, Finland)
 * University of Osnabrück (Osnabrück, Germany)
 * University of St. Andrews (St. Andrews, Scotland)
 * University of Tromsø (Tromsø, Norway)

Publications

 * Decolonization Indigeneity, Education & Society
 * Wíčazo Ša Review
 * American Indian Quarterly
 * American Indian Culture and Research Journal
 * Canadian Journal of Native Studies
 * The NAIS Journal
 * Native South
 * Native Studies Review
 * Studies in American Indian Literatures (SAIL)
 * Transmotion
 * Yellow Medicine Review

Conferences and symposia

 * Native American and Indigenous Studies Association (NAISA)
 * American Indian Studies Conference
 * Native American Art Studies Association, biannual
 * Native American Literature Symposium
 * Native American Symposium, Southeastern Oklahoma State University, biannual
 * Symposium on the American Indian, Northeastern State University

Notable scholars

 * Taiaiake Alfred (Kanien'kehaka/Kahnawake Mohawk)
 * Paula Gunn Allen (Laguna Pueblo/Sioux)
 * Cutcha Risling Baldy (Hupa/Yurok/Karuk)
 * Greg Cajete (Santa Clara Pueblo)
 * Dean Chavers (Lumbee)
 * Brenda Child (Red Lake Ojibwe)
 * Allison Hedge Coke
 * Elizabeth Cook-Lynn (Crow Creek Sioux)
 * Philip S. Deloria (Standing Rock Sioux)
 * Vine Deloria, Jr. (Standing Rock Sioux)
 * Raymond DeMallie
 * Jack D. Forbes (self-identified Powhatan/Renape-Lenape descent)
 * Daniel Heath Justice (Cherokee Nation)
 * Trudie Lamb-Richmond (Schaghticoke)
 * Stacy Leeds (Cherokee Nation)
 * Devon A. Mihesuah (Choctaw Nation)
 * Lorin Morgan-Richards
 * Jean O'Brien (White Earth Ojibwe)
 * Simon J. Ortiz (Acoma Pueblo)
 * Luana Ross (Salish and Kootenai)
 * Greg Sarris (Federated Indians of Graton Rancheria)
 * Audra Simpson (Mohawk)
 * James Thomas Stevens (Mohawk)
 * Charlene Teters (Spokane Tribe)
 * Gerald Vizenor (White Earth Anishinaabe)
 * Robert A. Williams Jr. (Lumbee)
 * Craig Womack (self-identified Muscogee descent)
 * Alfred Young Man (Rocky Boy Chippewa-Cree)

title: Native American studies


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Pyrgos Dirou

Pyrgos Dirou (Πύργος Διρού) is a town in Mani, Laconia, Greece. It is part of the municipal unit of Oitylo of the municipality of East Mani. It is located around 26 km from Areopoli.

History
The earliest known mention of the toponym Dirou dates back to 1336, written as Iro, when it was a property of Nikolaos Atsagioli near Tzimova (the old name of Areopoli). The toponym has Slavic origins and means stagnant water. The village of Pyrgos is mentioned in 1571.

The Battle of Vergas (Greek War of Independence, 1824) took place near Diro.

In June 1826, the beach of Dirou was the site of a battle between Greeks and Egyptians, with the Maniots managing to defeat Ibrahim Pasha's forces.

Points of Interest
Pyrgos Dirou has been designated as a traditional settlement. It consists of individual architectural complexes, with the central complex being Lefkia. Its towers have been designated as monuments. Among the towers, the complex of the armatolos Sklavounakos stands out, in Petrovouni. The complex features a six-storey tower, possibly the tallest in Mani, a long two-storey house with an upper floor, water tanks, and a family chapel with a cemetery. It was built in 1812.

Other attractions in the village include the Byzantine churches of Agios Petros Glezos and Taxiarchon Glezos, the single-aisle church of Agioi Theodoroi in Kalos, dating back to the 12th century, and the single-aisle church of Agios Nikolaos, with a built-in iconostasis and frescoes from 1868. The old school of Pyrgos Dirou has been designated as a historic preserved monument due to the way materials from earlier buildings have been incorporated into it.

Near Pyrgos Dirou and on the shores of Dirou Bay, which lies between the Tower and Areopoli, are three caves: Alepotrypa, Glyfada or Vlychada, and Katafygi.

Diros Caves
Diro is most famous for its caves, the Diros Caves, located approximately 12 mi south of Pollapolis. They form part of an p3ne river. About 5000 m of polla have been exposed and are accessible by small boats and through narrow passageways. One is surrounded by formations of stalagmites and stalactites. Archaeological research has shown that the caves served as places of worship in Paleolithic and Neolithic times and their inhabitant believed that the caves were the entrance to the underworld.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Pyrgos Dirou


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Talk:HMS Lady Nelson (1798)

Untitled
"H.M.S. Lady Nelson" or something? --Wetman 04:25, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

 * I pondered this, and decided against it on the grounds that a) the real Lady Nelson would, if she had a page, be listed under her first name and last name, rather than her title (Lord Nelson is on here as Horatio Nelson for example); b) she doesn't have a page anyway. The usual disambiguation for ships seems to be in the form of Loch Ard (ship) or James Craig (barque) which would make this "Lady Nelson (brig)" if it were to happen... but at the moment my preference would be to leave it, and perhaps put a pointer to a page for the person if/when one is created.  --Skud 07:35, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

 * The current name, "HMS Lady Nelson (1798)", is almost certainly incorrect. HMS is a prefix for ships, not brigs.  Geo Swan (talk) 22:11, 25 April 2012 (UTC)

"American war against Spain"?
The article currently says:

The USA did go to war with Spain -- the Spanish-American War, Teddy Roosevelt's "Splendid little war" -- but it was almost 100 years later.

The USA's first declared war was with Tripoli, in 1805, and was confined exclusively to the Mediterranean.

So, I request clarification of this passage. Geo Swan (talk) 22:11, 25 April 2012 (UTC)

Lady Nelson (replica ship)
There is information in the history of the above redirect which could be used to expand this article, or could possible be a stand-alone article if enough independent reliable source material is found. —Anne Delong (talk) 21:10, 11 June 2014 (UTC)

Requested move
HMS Lady Nelson (1799)

title: Talk:HMS Lady Nelson (1798)


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Baras

Baras may refer to:
 * Baras (Sophene), a town of ancient Sophene, in Mesopotamia
 * Baras, Catanduanes, a municipality in the Philippines
 * Baras, Rizal, a municipality in the Philippines
 * Baras, Indonesia, a subdistrict in Pasangkayu Regency, West Sulawesi
 * Baras (TV series) a Lithuanian reality television program, based on The Bar Swedish reality competition television franchise
 * Baras (film), a documentary about the avant-garde Lithuanian actor and filmmaker Artūras Barysas "Baras"
 * Baras, Raebareli, a village in Uttar Pradesh, India

title: Baras


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X-Men: Mutant Academy 2

X-Men: Mutant Academy 2 is a 2.5D fighting game for the PlayStation video game console. It was developed by Paradox Development and published by Activision on September 18, 2001. It is the sequel to X-Men: Mutant Academy and predecessor to X-Men: Next Dimension.

Gameplay
X-Men: Mutant Academy 2 is a 2.5D action fighting game. Characters and environments are modeled in 3D, but gameplay is restricted to a 2D plane. Like its predecessor, the game allows the player to select from several heroes and villains from the X-Men franchise and includes many of the signature moves from the comics. The game also includes a behind-the-scenes look at X-Men: The Movie concept sketches, costumes and other similar material. Four game modes are offered to the player.

 * Academy Training - This is where alternate costumes can be unlocked. The majority of characters have the ability to unlock two costumes, but six characters cannot.
 * Arcade - In this mode, it is possible to unlock the ending movies of characters. Another additional feature is the ability to unlock extra characters. This is performed by obtaining all the ending movies for different characters in a row. Psylocke is unlocked for the left row after completing with Wolverine, and Juggernaut is unlocked for the right row after completing the game with all characters, including Psylocke. There are two special characters that can be unlocked after obtaining the endings of special characters. Spider-Man is unlocked if the player encounter and defeat him on Arcade Mode, and Xavier is unlocked if one passes with Juggernaut.
 * Versus - Allows two players to fight each other using available characters, provided two controllers are properly inserted into the controller ports. On defeating Arcade Mode, the Pool Party arena is unlocked, which changes the character's skins to pool/beach themes.
 * Survival - Survival Mode allows the player to choose a single character and attempt to defeat multiple enemies without losing their own health. When the player's health bar is drained, the game is over. Each game of Survival Mode consists of one round; it counts wins and perfects (defeats without losing any of one's own health) and when defeated, places the player on a leaderboard, which initially has Beast last with two wins zero perfects, and Rogue first with ten wins, four perfects.

Characters

 * Beast: Original X-Man and scientist, Hank McCoy is a mutant of acrobatic skill, enhanced physical capabilities and a coat of indigo fur. His level is the Danger Room.
 * Cyclops: Original X-Man and their field leader, Scott Summers wields the ability to shoot destructive optic blasts from his eyes. His level (alongside Spider-Man) is the New York City Rooftops.
 * Forge: Storm's former lover. His mutant powers allow him to understand, "feel", and develop machinery; he also has mystical skills. His level is at a desert.
 * Gambit: A Cajun with a troubled past, Remy LeBeau is capable of charging inanimate objects with explosive kinetic energy; usually playing cards, he is also highly trained with a staff. His level is the swamps.
 * Havok: Scott Summers' younger brother, Alex is able to shoot powerful energy blasts from his hands. His level is the X-Mansion.
 * Juggernaut: Xavier's stepbrother, Cain Marko, being empowered by the Gem of Cyttorak, is super-strong and resistant to physical damage. Though psychic attacks can hurt, his helmet protects him. His level is the New York City Subways.
 * Magneto: The Master of Magnetism, Erik Magnus Lensherr is able to influence Earth's magnetic fields to propel and manipulate metallic items. The founder of the Brotherhood. He is one of the most powerful mutants. His level is Asteroid M.
 * Mystique: Mutant shapeshifter and Magneto's closest confidante, Raven Darkhölme dominates the battlefield with high-tech weaponry. Her level is an airship.
 * Nightcrawler: A religious X-Man with a demonic appearance, Kurt Wagner can teleport to anywhere within two miles (3 km) in a puff of smoke and brimstone. His level is a cathedral.
 * Phoenix: An original X-Man, Jean Grey possesses telepathic and telekinetic abilities as well as the fiery prowess of the Phoenix Force. Her level is on the Moon.
 * Professor X: The founder of the X-Men, Professor Charles Xavier fights for a world where mutants and humans can coexist in peace. A mutant himself, Charles is the world's strongest telepath. His level is the Danger Room.
 * Rogue: A true Southern Belle and Gambit's love interest, Anna Marie is able to absorb the memories, talents and thoughts of others with just a touch. Her level is the Savage Land.
 * Psylocke: A trained assassin, Betsy Braddock has been through many changes in her life, but her skill with her psychic blade remain ever constant. her level is the Shi'ar throneworld Chandilar.
 * Sabretooth: Like Wolverine, Sabretooth a.k.a. Victor Creed is a victim of the Weapon X program, possessing adamantium-laced claws, a potent healing factor and an insatiable blood lust. His level is an oil rig.
 * Storm: The X-Men's second in command. Like her codename implies, Ororo Munroe's mutant ability allows her to harness and manipulate the weather. Her level is Muir Island.
 * Spider-Man: Increased strength, speed, agility, "spider sense" alerting to danger, ability to shoot webs and stick to walls. Peter Parker is the only non X-Men related character to appear in this game. His level (shared with Cyclops) is the New York City Rooftops.
 * Toad: A member of the Brotherhood, the grotesque Mortimer Toynbee's mutant ability, like his namesake implies, gives him frog like abilities and skills. He can also elongate his extremely strong tongue to great distances and can spit corrosive slime at his enemies. His level is Morlock Sewers.
 * Wolverine: A victim of Weapon X, Wolverine, a.k.a. Logan, possesses adamantium laced skeleton and retractable claws, heightened senses, strength and agility as well as a potent healing factor. His level is the Weapon X Lab.

Reception
Unlike X-Men: Mutant Academy, the game received mostly positive reviews by critics. Many praised the game for its improved graphics, new characters, gameplay, its hidden characters, its 3D environment, and the expanded number of combos. However, some criticized the game for its lack of gameplay modes and the combos were usually hard to pull off.

In 2011, Complex ranked it as the 43rd best fighting game of all time.

title: X-Men: Mutant Academy 2


text:
Morong

Morong may refer to:

 * Thomas Morong (1827-1894), botanist
 * Morong, Bataan, a municipality in the Philippines
 * Morong, Rizal, a municipality in the Philippines
 * Morong (district), now a part of the province of Rizal
 * Morong, a sub-village of Umalsat, Tehsil Yasin, Ghizer District, Pakistan
 * Morong, Guzhang (默戎镇), a town of Guzhang County, Hunan, China.

title: Morong


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Friedrich Gilly

Friedrich David Gilly (16 February 1772 – 3 August 1800) was a German architect and the son of the architect David Gilly. His works are influenced by revolutionary architecture (Revolutionsarchitektur). Born in Altdamm, Pomerania, (today Dąbie, district of Szczecin, Poland), Gilly was known as a prodigy and the teacher of the young Karl Friedrich Schinkel.

In 1788 he enrolled at the Akademie der Bildenden Künste in Berlin. His teachers in architecture were Friedrich Becherer and Carl Gotthard Langhans. Gilly enjoyed drawing lessons with Christian Bernhard Rode, Johann Christoph Frisch, Johann Heinrich Meil, Daniel Nikolaus Chodowiecki and Johann Gottfried Schadow. In the practical part, he was taught by Carl Gotthard Langhans, Michael Philipp Boumann and Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Erdmannsdorff.

He was first employed by the Oberhofbauamt in 1789, and worked for a time with Bernhard Matthias Brasch on the reconstruction of Neuruppin.

In 1797, Gilly travelled extensively in France, England, and Austria. The drawings he made in France reveal his interests in architecture and reflect the intellectual climate of the Directoire. They include views of the Fountain of Regeneration, the Rue des Colonnes—an arcaded street of baseless Doric columns leading to the Théâtre Feydeau—the chamber of the Conseil des Anciens in the Tuileries and Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s grotto in its landscaped setting at Ermenonville, Oise.

His 1797, design for the Frederick II monument reveals his debt to French neoclassicism, in particular Etienne-Louis Boullée. His explanatory notes indicate that he intended the building to be spiritually uplifting. The plan for the monument is currently part of the collection of the Kupferstichkabinett in Berlin.

From 1799, Schinkel lived in the Gilly household at Berlin and was taught by Friedrich and Friedrich's architect father David Gilly.

Gilly was appointed professor at the Berlin Bauakademie at the age of 26. Of his built designs, only one survives: the ruinous Greek Revival mausoleum (1800–02; destroyed after 1945) at Dyhernfurth near Breslau (now Brzeg Dolny near Wrocław, Poland), in the form of a prostyle Greek temple.

Gilly died from tuberculosis at the age of 28 in Karlsbad, where he was buried in the cemetery of Andreaskapelle.

In English

 * Friedrich Gilly: Essays on Architecture, 1796-1799. Introduction by Fritz Neumeyer. Translation by David Britt. 1994, 240 pages.
 * Karl-Eugen Kurrer: The History of the Theory of Structures. Searching for Equilibrium. Ernst & Sohn, Berlin 2018, S. 937 ff., ISBN 978-3-433-03229-9.

In German

 * F[riedrich] Adler: Friedrich Gilly – Schinkel's Lehrer, in: Zentralblatt der Bauverwaltung, Jg. 1, 1881, Hefte 1–3 (Digitalisat).
 * Cord-Friedrich Berghahn: Das Wagnis der Autonomie. Studien zu Karl Philipp Moritz, Wilhelm von Humboldt, Heinrich Gentz, Friedrich Gilly und Ludwig Tieck. Universitätsverlag Winter, Heidelberg 2012, ISBN 978-3-8253-5988-1.
 * Michael Bollé, María Ocón Fernández: Die Büchersammlung Friedrich Gillys (1772–1800). Provenienz und Schicksal einer Architektenbibliothek im theoretischen Kontext des 18. Jahrhunderts. Gebr. Mann, Berlin 2019. ISBN 978-3-7861-2791-8.
 * Sabine Bock: Gilly, Friedrich (1772–1800). In: Dirk Alvermann, Nils Jörn (Hrsg.): Biographisches Lexikon für Pommern. Band 1 (= Veröffentlichungen der Historischen Kommission für Pommern. Reihe V, Band 48,1). Böhlau Verlag, Köln Weimar Wien 2013, ISBN 978-3-412-20936-0, S. 100–101.
 * Adolph Doebber: Gilly, Friedrich. In: Ulrich Thieme, Fred. C. Willis (Hrsg.): Begründet von Ulrich Thieme und Felix Becker. Band 14: Giddens–Gress. E. A. Seemann, Leipzig 1921, S. 48–49 (Textarchiv – Internet Archive).
 * Friedrich Gilly, Friedrich Frick: Schloss Marienburg in Preussen. In Lieferungen erschienen 1799–1803. Das Ansichtenwerk neu herausgegeben von Wilhelm Salewski. Galtgarben Verlag, Düsseldorf 1965.
 * Friedrich Gilly 1772–1800 und die Privatgesellschaft junger Architekten. Hrsg. Rolf Bothe, Berlin Museum, 21. September bis 4. November 1984 (Ausstellungskatalog), Koordination Brigitte Schütz, Verlag Willmuth Arenhövel, Berlin 1984, ISBN 3-299-21208-7.
 * Otto Holtze: Friedrich Gilly. In: Pommersche Lebensbilder. Band 3: Pommern des 18., 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts. Saunier, Stettin 1939, S. 204–215.
 * Alste Horn-Oncken: Gilly, Friedrich David. In: Neue Deutsche Biographie (NDB). Band 6, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1964, ISBN 3-428-00187-7, S. 399 f. (Digitalisat).
 * Konrad Levezow: Denkschrift auf Friedrich Gilly, königlichen Architecten und Professor der Academie der Baukunst zu Berlin. Verlag der Realschulbuchhandlung, Berlin 1801.
 * Arthur Moeller van den Bruck: Gilly. In: Arthur Moeller van den Bruck: Der preussische Stil. Piper, München 1916, S. 109–129.
 * Fritz Neumeyer (Hrsg.): Friedrich Gilly. Essays zur Architektur, 1796–1799. = Gilly, Essays. Ernst & Sohn, Berlin 1997, ISBN 3-433-02652-1.
 * Alste Oncken: Friedrich Gilly. 1772–1800 (= Forschungen zur deutschen Kunstgeschichte. Bd. 5, = Jahresgabe des Deutschen Vereins für Kunstwissenschaft. 1935). Deutscher Verein für Kunstwissenschaft, Berlin 1935 (korrigierter, im Wesentlichen aber unveränderter Nachdruck. (= Die Bauwerke und Kunstdenkmäler von Berlin. Beiheft 7). Gebr. Mann, Berlin 1981, ISBN 3-7861-1315-7).
 * Hella Reelfs: Friedrich und David Gilly in neuer Sicht. In: Kunstgeschichtliche Gesellschaft zu Berlin. Sitzungsberichte. NF Bd. 28/29, 1979/1981,, S. 18–23.
 * Alfred Rietdorf: Gilly. Wiedergeburt der Architektur. Hans von Hugo, Berlin 1940.
 * Hermann Schmitz: Die Baumeister David und Friedrich Gilly in ihren Beziehungen zu Pommern. In: Monatsblätter der Gesellschaft für pommersche Geschichte und Altertumskunde. Jg. 23, 1909,, S. 81–87 und S. 108–111.
 * Hermann Schmitz: Friedrich Gilly. In: Kunst und Künstler. Bd. 7, 1909,, S. 201–206, Digitalisat.
 * Gerd-Helge Vogel (Hrsg.): Friedrich Gilly 1772–1800. Innovation und Tradition klassizistischer Architektur in Europa. Geidberg-Verlag, Güstrow 2002, ISBN 3-934776-12-4.
 * Eduard Wätjen: Friedrich Gillys Entwurf für ein Denkmal König Friedrichs II. von Preußen. In: Münchner Jahrbuch der bildenden Kunst. Bd. 51, 2000,, S. 199–228.

Bust by Schadow

 * Bust of Friedrich Gilly (by Johann Gottfried Schadow, 1801)

title: Friedrich Gilly


text:
Taytay

Taytay may refer to:

 * Taytay, Palawan, Philippines, a municipality and former kingdom
 * Taytay Airport
 * Taytay (crater), an impact crater on Mars named after the town
 * Taytay, Rizal, Philippines
 * Taylor Swift (born 1989), nicknamed TayTay, an American singer-songwriter

title: Taytay


text:
Category:Spanish and Portuguese Jews

Articles about the Spanish-Jewish and Portuguese-Jewish diaspora since end of the 15th century.

title: Category:Spanish and Portuguese Jews


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Poussinists and Rubenists

In 1671 an argument broke out in the French Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture in Paris about whether drawing or color was more important in painting. On one side stood the Poussinists (Fr. Poussinistes) who were a group of French artists, named after the painter Nicolas Poussin, who believed that drawing was the most important thing. On the other side were the Rubenists (Fr. Rubénistes), named after Peter Paul Rubens, who prioritized color. There was a strong nationalistic flavour to the debate as Poussin was French but Rubens was Flemish, though neither was alive at the time. After over forty years the final resolution of the matter in favor of the Rubenists was signalled when Antoine Watteau's The Embarkation for Cythera was accepted as his reception piece by the French Academy in 1717. By that time the French Rococo was in full swing.

The argument
The Poussinists believed in the Platonic idea of the existence in the mind of ideal objects that could be reconstructed in concrete form by the selection, using reason, of elements from nature. For the Poussinists, therefore, color was a purely decorative addition to form and drawing (design or disegno), the use of line to depict form, was the essential skill of painting. Their leader was Charles Le Brun (died 1690), Director of the Academy, and their heroes were Raphael, the Carracci, and Poussin himself, whose severe and stoical works exemplified their philosophy. Their touchstones were the forms of classical art. They were opposed by the Rubenists who believed that colour, not drawing, was superior as it was more true to nature. Their models were the works of Rubens who had prioritised the accurate depiction of nature over the imitation of classical art. The Rubenists argued that the aim of painting was to deceive the eye by creating an imitation of nature. Drawing, according to the Rubenists, although based on reason, appealed only to a few experts whereas colour could be enjoyed by everyone. The ideas of the Rubenists therefore had revolutionary political connotations as they elevated the position of the lay person and challenged the idea that had held sway since the Renaissance that painting, as a liberal art, could only be appreciated by the educated mind.

In 1672, Charles Le Brun, Chancellor of the French Academy, attempted to halt the argument by stating officially that "the function of colour is to satisfy the eyes, whereas drawing satisfies the mind." He failed, and the debate was continued in the pamphlets of Roger de Piles, who favoured the colourists and set out the arguments in his 1673 Dialogue sur le Coloris (Dialogue on Colour), and his 1677 Conversations sur la Peinture (Conversations on Painting).

The argument was similar to the argument over the merits of disegno and colore in Italy in the fifteenth century but with a particularly French character as the importance of drawing was one of the key tenets of the French Academy and any attack on it was effectively an attack on everything the Academy stood for, including its political functions in support of the King. To a certain extent, the debate was simply about whether it was acceptable to paint purely in order to give pleasure to the viewer without the nobler purposes typical of a "history" painting.

Resolution
A success for the Rubenists was achieved when Roger de Piles was elected a member (as an amateur) of the French Academy in 1699, and the final signal that the Rubenists had won came when Antoine Watteau's The Embarkation for Cythera was accepted as his reception piece by the Academy in 1717.

Watteau's acceptance was, however, perhaps not everything that he could have hoped for. When he applied to join the Academy, there was no suitable category for his fête galante works, so the academy simply created one rather than reject his application, describing him as a "peintre des festes galantes". While this acknowledged Watteau as the originator of that genre, and was a significant mark of acceptance both of him and his style of painting, it also prevented him being recognised as a history painter, the highest class of painter, and the only one from which the academy's professors were drawn. Charles-Antoine Coypel, the son of its then director, tellingly said: "The charming paintings of this gracious painter would be a bad guide for whoever wished to paint the Acts of the Apostles."

Watteau is considered the greatest of the Rubenist artists. Other important Rubenists include François Boucher and Jean-Honoré Fragonard. Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin benefited from the newfound interest in still-life and genre painting.

Significance
The debate and the overlapping development of the Rococo in eighteenth century France have been seen as a form of revival. Michael Levey has pointed out that it was during the seventeenth century that the new categories of genre, landscape and still life had become established with their emphasis on the observation of nature, and therefore the arguments of the Rubenists amounted to a revival of existing traditions of naturalism and a call for a greater discipline in painting rather than representing an attitude of general licence or laissez-faire as is sometimes assumed.

The argument also took place during the beginning of the Enlightenment and the Rubenists found support in John Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690), which argued that all ideas derived from experience and that none were innate. Jean-Baptiste Dubos observed that what was comprehended through the mind paled compared to what was apprehended through the senses.

title: Poussinists and Rubenists


text: Talk:Wah Fu

title: Talk:Wah Fu


text:
Lambda lifting

Lambda lifting is a meta-process that restructures a computer program so that functions are defined independently of each other in a global scope. An individual "lift" transforms a local function into a global function. It is a two step process, consisting of;
 * Eliminating free variables in the function by adding parameters.
 * Moving functions from a restricted scope to broader or global scope.

The term "lambda lifting" was first introduced by Thomas Johnsson around 1982 and was historically considered as a mechanism for implementing functional programming languages. It is used in conjunction with other techniques in some modern compilers.

Lambda lifting is not the same as closure conversion. It requires all call sites to be adjusted (adding extra arguments to calls) and does not introduce a closure for the lifted lambda expression. In contrast, closure conversion does not require call sites to be adjusted but does introduce a closure for the lambda expression mapping free variables to values.

The technique may be used on individual functions, in code refactoring, to make a function usable outside the scope in which it was written. Lambda lifts may also be repeated, in order to transform the program. Repeated lifts may be used to convert a program written in lambda calculus into a set of recursive functions, without lambdas. This demonstrates the equivalence of programs written in lambda calculus and programs written as functions. However it does not demonstrate the soundness of lambda calculus for deduction, as the eta reduction used in lambda lifting is the step that introduces cardinality problems into the lambda calculus, because it removes the value from the variable, without first checking that there is only one value that satisfies the conditions on the variable (see Curry's paradox).

Lambda lifting is expensive on processing time for the compiler. An efficient implementation of lambda lifting is $$O(n^2)$$ on processing time for the compiler.

In the untyped lambda calculus, where the basic types are functions, lifting may change the result of beta reduction of a lambda expression. The resulting functions will have the same meaning, in a mathematical sense, but are not regarded as the same function in the untyped lambda calculus. See also intensional versus extensional equality.

The reverse operation to lambda lifting is lambda dropping.

Lambda dropping may make the compilation of programs quicker for the compiler, and may also increase the efficiency of the resulting program, by reducing the number of parameters, and reducing the size of stack frames. However it makes a function harder to re-use. A dropped function is tied to its context, and can only be used in a different context if it is first lifted.

Algorithm
The following algorithm is one way to lambda-lift an arbitrary program in a language which doesn't support closures as first-class objects:
 * 1) Rename the functions so that each function has a unique name.
 * 2) Replace each free variable with an additional argument to the enclosing function, and pass that argument to every use of the function.
 * 3) Replace every local function definition that has no free variables with an identical global function.
 * 4) Repeat steps 2 and 3 until all free variables and local functions are eliminated.

If the language has closures as first-class objects that can be passed as arguments or returned from other functions, the closure will need to be represented by a data structure that captures the bindings of the free variables.

Example
The following OCaml program computes the sum of the integers from 1 to 100:

(The  declares   as a function that may call itself.) The function f, which adds sum's argument to the sum of the numbers less than the argument, is a local function. Within the definition of f, n is a free variable. Start by converting the free variable to a parameter:

Next, lift f into a global function:

The following is the same example, this time written in JavaScript:

Lambda lifting versus closures
Lambda lifting and closure are both methods for implementing block structured programs. It implements block structure by eliminating it. All functions are lifted to the global level. Closure conversion provides a "closure" which links the current frame to other frames. Closure conversion takes less compile time.

Recursive functions, and block structured programs, with or without lifting, may be implemented using a stack based implementation, which is simple and efficient. However a stack frame based implementation must be strict (eager). The stack frame based implementation requires that the life of functions be last-in, first-out (LIFO). That is, the most recent function to start its calculation must be the first to end.

Some functional languages (such as Haskell) are implemented using lazy evaluation, which delays calculation until the value is needed. The lazy implementation strategy gives flexibility to the programmer. Lazy evaluation requires delaying the call to a function until a request is made to the value calculated by the function. One implementation is to record a reference to a "frame" of data describing the calculation, in place of the value. Later when the value is required, the frame is used to calculate the value, just in time for when it is needed. The calculated value then replaces the reference.

The "frame" is similar to a stack frame, the difference being that it is not stored on the stack. Lazy evaluation requires that all the data required for the calculation be saved in the frame. If the function is "lifted", then the frame needs only record the function pointer, and the parameters to the function. Some modern languages use garbage collection in place of stack based allocation to manage the life of variables. In a managed, garbage collected environment, a closure records references to the frames from which values may be obtained. In contrast a lifted function has parameters for each value needed in the calculation.

Let expressions and lambda calculus
The Let expression is useful in describing lifting and dropping, and in describing the relationship between recursive equations and lambda expressions. Most functional languages have let expressions. Also, block structured programming languages like ALGOL and Pascal are similar in that they too allow the local definition of a function for use in a restricted scope.

The let expression used here is a fully mutually recursive version of let rec, as implemented in many functional languages.

Let expressions are related to Lambda calculus. Lambda calculus has a simple syntax and semantics, and is good for describing Lambda lifting. It is convenient to describe lambda lifting as a translations from lambda to a let expression, and lambda dropping as the reverse. This is because let expressions allow mutual recursion, which is, in a sense, more lifted than is supported in lambda calculus. Lambda calculus does not support mutual recursion and only one function may be defined at the outermost global scope.

Conversion rules which describe translation without lifting are given in the Let expression article.

The following rules describe the equivalence of lambda and let expressions,

Meta-functions will be given that describe lambda lifting and dropping. A meta-function is a function that takes a program as a parameter. The program is data for the meta-program. The program and the meta program are at different meta-levels.

The following conventions will be used to distinguish program from the meta program,
 * Square brackets [] will be used to represent function application in the meta program.
 * Capital letters will be used for variables in the meta program. Lower case letters represent variables in the program.
 * $$ \equiv $$ will be used for equals in the meta program.
 * $$ \_ $$ represents a dummy variable, or an unknown value.

For simplicity the first rule given that matches will be applied. The rules also assume that the lambda expressions have been pre-processed so that each lambda abstraction has a unique name.

The substitution operator is used extensively. The expression $$ L[G := S] $$ means substitute every occurrence of G in L by S and return the expression. The definition used is extended to cover the substitution of expressions, from the definition given on the Lambda calculus page. The matching of expressions should compare expressions for alpha equivalence (renaming of variables).

Lambda lifting in lambda calculus
Each lambda lift takes a lambda abstraction which is a sub expression of a lambda expression and replaces it by a function call (application) to a function that it creates. The free variables in the sub expression are the parameters to the function call.

Lambda lifts may be used on individual functions, in code refactoring, to make a function usable outside the scope in which it was written. Such lifts may also be repeated, until the expression has no lambda abstractions, in order to transform the program.

Lambda lift
A lift is given a sub-expression within an expression to lift to the top of that expression. The expression may be part of a larger program. This allows control of where the sub-expression is lifted to. The lambda lift operation used to perform a lift within a program is,

 * $$ \operatorname{lambda-lift-op}[S, L, P] =P[L := \operatorname{lambda-lift}[S, L]] $$

The sub expression may be either a lambda abstraction, or a lambda abstraction applied to a parameter.

Two types of lift are possible.
 * Anonymous lift
 * Named lift

An anonymous lift has a lift expression which is a lambda abstraction only. It is regarded as defining an anonymous function. A name must be created for the function.

A named lift expression has a lambda abstraction applied to an expression. This lift is regarded as a named definition of a function.

Anonymous lift
An anonymous lift takes a lambda abstraction (called S). For S;
 * Create a name for the function that will replace S (called V). Make sure that the name identified by V has not been used.
 * Add parameters to V, for all the free variables in S, to create an expression G (see make-call).

The lambda lift is the substitution of the lambda abstraction S for a function application, along with the addition of a definition for the function.
 * $$\operatorname{lambda-lift}[S, L] \equiv \operatorname{let} V: \operatorname{de-lambda}[G = S] \operatorname{in} L[S:=G] $$

The new lambda expression has S substituted for G. Note that L[S:=G] means substitution of S for G in L. The function definitions has the function definition G = S added.

In the above rule G is the function application that is substituted for the expression S. It is defined by,
 * $$G = \operatorname{make-call}[V, \operatorname{FV}[S]] $$

where V is the function name. It must be a new variable, i.e. a name not already used in the lambda expression,
 * $$V \not \in \operatorname{vars}[\operatorname{let} F \operatorname{in} L] $$

where $$\operatorname{vars}[E] $$ is a meta function that returns the set of variables used in E.

Constructing the call
The function call G is constructed by adding parameters for each variable in the free variable set (represented by V), to the function H,
 * $$X \in V \to \operatorname{make-call}[H, V] \equiv \operatorname{make-call}[H, V \cap \neg \{X\}]\ X $$
 * $$\operatorname{make-call}[H, \{\}] \equiv H $$

Named lift
The named lift is similar to the anonymous lift except that the function name V is provided.
 * $$\operatorname{lambda-lift}[(\lambda V.E)\ S, L] \equiv \operatorname{let} V : \operatorname{de-lambda}[G = S] \operatorname{in} L[(\lambda V.E)\ S:=E[V:=G]] $$

As for the anonymous lift, the expression G is constructed from V by applying the free variables of S. It is defined by,
 * $$G = \operatorname{make-call}[V, \operatorname{FV}[S]] $$

Lambda-lift transformation
A lambda lift transformation takes a lambda expression and lifts all lambda abstractions to the top of the expression. The abstractions are then translated into recursive functions, which eliminates the lambda abstractions. The result is a functional program in the form,
 * $$ \operatorname{let} M \operatorname{in} N $$

where M is a series of function definitions, and N is the expression representing the value returned.

For example,
 * $$ \operatorname{lambda-lift-tran}[\lambda f.(\lambda x.f\ (x\ x))\ (\lambda x.f\ (x\ x))] \equiv \operatorname{let} p\ f\ x = f\ (x\ x) \land q\ p\ f = (p\ f)\ (p\ f) \operatorname{in} q\ p $$

The de-let meta function may then be used to convert the result back into lambda calculus.
 * $$ \operatorname{de-let}[\operatorname{lambda-lift-tran}[\lambda f.(\lambda x.f\ (x\ x))\ (\lambda x.f\ (x\ x))]] \equiv (\lambda p.(\lambda q.q\ p)\ \lambda p.\lambda f.(p\ f)\ (p\ f))\ \lambda f.\lambda x.f\ (x\ x) $$

The processing of transforming the lambda expression is a series of lifts. Each lift has,
 * A sub expression chosen for it by the function lift-choice. The sub expression should be chosen so that it may be converted into an equation with no lambdas.
 * The lift is performed by a call to the lambda-lift meta function, described in the next section,

 * $$\begin{cases}

\operatorname{lambda-lift-tran}[L] = \operatorname{drop-params-tran}[\operatorname{merge-let}[\operatorname{lambda-apply}[L]]]\\ \operatorname{lambda-apply}[L] = \operatorname{lambda-process}[\operatorname{lift-choice}[L],L]\\ \operatorname{lambda-process}[\operatorname{none}, L] = L\\ \operatorname{lambda-process}[S, L] = \operatorname{lambda-apply}[\operatorname{lambda-lift}[S, L]] \end{cases}$$

After the lifts are applied the lets are combined together into a single let.
 * $$\begin{cases}

\operatorname{merge-let}[\operatorname{let} V : E \operatorname{in} \operatorname{let} W : F \operatorname{in} G] = \operatorname{merge-let}[\operatorname{let} V, W : E \land F \operatorname{in} G] \\ \operatorname{merge-let}[E] = E \end{cases}$$

Then Parameter dropping is applied to remove parameters that are not necessary in the "let" expression. The let expression allows the function definitions to refer to each other directly, whereas lambda abstractions are strictly hierarchical, and a function may not directly refer to itself.

Choosing the expression for lifting
There are two different ways that an expression may be selected for lifting. The first treats all lambda abstractions as defining anonymous functions. The second, treats lambda abstractions which are applied to a parameter as defining a function. Lambda abstractions applied to a parameter have a dual interpretation as either a let expression defining a function, or as defining an anonymous function. Both interpretations are valid.

These two predicates are needed for both definitions.

lambda-free - An expression containing no lambda abstractions.
 * $$\begin{cases}

\operatorname{lambda-free}[\lambda F.X] = \operatorname{false} \\ \operatorname{lambda-free}[V] = \operatorname{true} \\ \operatorname{lambda-free}[M\ N] = \operatorname{lambda-free}[M] \land \operatorname{lambda-free}[N] \end{cases}$$

lambda-anon - An anonymous function. An expression like $$\lambda x_1.\ ...\ \lambda x_n.X $$ where X is lambda free.
 * $$\begin{cases}

\operatorname{lambda-anon}[\lambda F.X] = \operatorname{lambda-free}[X] \lor \operatorname{lambda-anon}[X] \\ \operatorname{lambda-anon}[V] = \operatorname{false} \\ \operatorname{lambda-anon}[M\ N] = \operatorname{false} \end{cases}$$

Choosing anonymous functions only for lifting
Search for the deepest anonymous abstraction, so that when the lift is applied the function lifted will become a simple equation. This definition does not recognize a lambda abstractions with a parameter as defining a function. All lambda abstractions are regarded as defining anonymous functions.

lift-choice - The first anonymous found in traversing the expression or none if there is no function.
 * 1) $$ \operatorname{lambda-anon}[X] \to \operatorname{lift-choice}[X] = X $$
 * 2) $$ \operatorname{lift-choice}[\lambda F.X] = \operatorname{lift-choice}[X]$$
 * 3) $$ \operatorname{lift-choice}[M] \ne \operatorname{none} \to \operatorname{lift-choice}[M\ N] = \operatorname{lift-choice}[M] $$
 * 4) $$ \operatorname{lift-choice}[M\ N] = \operatorname{lift-choice}[N] $$
 * 5) $$ \operatorname{lift-choice}[V] = \operatorname{none} $$

For example,

Choosing named and anonymous functions for lifting
Search for the deepest named or anonymous function definition, so that when the lift is applied the function lifted will become a simple equation. This definition recognizes a lambda abstraction with an actual parameter as defining a function. Only lambda abstractions without an application are treated as anonymous functions.

 * lambda-named : A named function. An expression like $$ (\lambda F.M)\ N $$ where M is lambda free and N is lambda free or an anonymous function.
 * $$\begin{array}{l}

\operatorname{lambda-named}[(\lambda F.M)\ N] = \operatorname{lambda-free}[M] \land \operatorname{lambda-anon}[N] \\ \operatorname{lambda-named}[\lambda F.X] = \operatorname{false} \\ \operatorname{lambda-named}[V] = \operatorname{false} \end{array}$$

 * lift-choice : The first anonymous or named function found in traversing the expression or none if there is no function.
 * $$ \operatorname{lambda-named}[X] \lor \operatorname{lambda-anon}[X] \to \operatorname{lift-choice}[X] = X $$
 * $$ \operatorname{lift-choice}[\lambda F.X] = \operatorname{lift-choice}[X]$$
 * $$ \operatorname{lift-choice}[M] \ne \operatorname{none} \to \operatorname{lift-choice}[M\ N] = \operatorname{lift-choice}[M] $$
 * $$ \operatorname{lift-choice}[M\ N] = \operatorname{lift-choice}[N] $$
 * $$ \operatorname{lift-choice}[V] = \operatorname{none} $$

For example,

Examples
For example, the Y combinator,
 * $$\lambda f.(\lambda x.f\ (x\ x))\ (\lambda x.f\ (x\ x)) $$

is lifted as,
 * $$ \operatorname{let} x\ f\ y = f\ (y\ y) \land q\ x\ f = f\ ((x\ f)\ (x\ f)) \operatorname{in} q\ x $$

and after Parameter dropping,
 * $$ \operatorname{let} x\ f\ y = f\ (y\ y) \land q\ f = f\ ((x\ f)\ (x\ f)) \operatorname{in} q $$

As a lambda expression (see Conversion from let to lambda expressions),
 * $$ (\lambda x.(\lambda q.q)\ \lambda f.f\ (x\ f)\ (x\ f))\ \lambda f.\lambda y.f\ (y\ y) $$

If lifting anonymous functions only, the Y combinator is,
 * $$\operatorname{let} p\ f\ x = f\ (x\ x) \land q\ p\ f = (p\ f)\ (p\ f) \operatorname{in} q\ p$$

and after Parameter dropping,
 * $$\operatorname{let} p\ f\ x = f\ (x\ x) \land q\ f = (p\ f)\ (p\ f) \operatorname{in} q$$

As a lambda expression,
 * $$ (\lambda p.(\lambda q.q)\ \lambda f.(p\ f)\ (p\ f))\ \lambda f.\lambda x.f\ (x\ x) $$

The first sub expression to be chosen for lifting is $$\lambda x.f\ (x\ x) $$. This transforms the lambda expression into $$\lambda f.(p\ f)\ (p\ f) $$ and creates the equation $$p\ f\ x = f (x\ x) $$.

The second sub expression to be chosen for lifting is $$\lambda f.(p\ f)\ (p\ f)$$. This transforms the lambda expression into $$q\ p $$ and creates the equation $$q\ p\ f = (p\ f)\ (p\ f) $$.

And the result is,
 * $$\operatorname{let} p\ f\ x = f\ (x\ x) \land q\ p\ f = (p\ f)\ (p\ f) \operatorname{in} q\ p\ $$

Surprisingly this result is simpler than the one obtained from lifting named functions.

Execution
Apply function to $K$,
 * $$\begin{cases}

\lambda f.(\lambda x.f\ (x\ x))\ (\lambda x.f\ (x\ x))\ K & \ \operatorname{let}\ p\ f\ x = f\ (x\ x) \land q\ p\ f = (p\ f)\ (p\ f) \ \operatorname{in}\ q\ p\ K \\ (\lambda x.K\ (x\ x))\ (\lambda x.K\ (x\ x)) & \ \operatorname{let}\ p\ f\ x = f\ (x\ x) \land q\ p\ f = (p\ f)\ (p\ f) \ \operatorname{in}\ p\ K\ (p\ K) \\ K\ ((\lambda x.K\ (x\ x))\ (\lambda x.K\ (x\ x))) & \ \operatorname{let}\ p\ f\ x = f\ (x\ x) \land q\ p\ f = p\ f\ (p\ f) \ \operatorname{in}\ K\ (p\ K\ (p\ K)) \\ \end{cases}$$

So,
 * $$(\lambda x.K\ (x\ x))\ (\lambda x.K\ (x\ x)) = K\ ((\lambda x.K\ (x\ x))\ (\lambda x.K\ (x\ x))))\ $$

or
 * $$ p\ K\ (p\ K) = K\ (p\ K\ (p\ K)) $$

The Y-Combinator calls its parameter (function) repeatedly on itself. The value is defined if the function has a fixed point. But the function will never terminate.

Lambda dropping in lambda calculus
Lambda dropping is making the scope of functions smaller and using the context from the reduced scope to reduce the number of parameters to functions. Reducing the number of parameters makes functions easier to comprehend.

In the Lambda lifting section, a meta function for first lifting and then converting the resulting lambda expression into recursive equation was described. The Lambda Drop meta function performs the reverse by first converting recursive equations to lambda abstractions, and then dropping the resulting lambda expression, into the smallest scope which covers all references to the lambda abstraction.

Lambda dropping is performed in two steps,
 * Sinking
 * Parameter dropping

Lambda drop
A Lambda drop is applied to an expression which is part of a program. Dropping is controlled by a set of expressions from which the drop will be excluded.

 * $$ \operatorname{lambda-drop-op}[L, P, X] = P[L := \operatorname{drop-params-tran}[\operatorname{sink-test}[L, X]]] $$

where,
 * L is the lambda abstraction to be dropped.
 * P is the program
 * X is a set of expressions to be excluded from dropping.

Lambda drop transformation
The lambda drop transformation sinks all abstractions in an expression. Sinking is excluded from expressions in a set of expressions,
 * $$ \operatorname{lambda-drop-tran}[L, X] = \operatorname{drop-params-tran}[\operatorname{sink-tran}[\operatorname{de-let}[L, X]]] $$

where,
 * L is the expression to be transformed.
 * X is a set of sub expressions to be excluded from the dropping.

sink-tran sinks each abstraction, starting from the innermost,
 * $$\begin{cases}

\operatorname{sink-tran}[(\lambda N.B)\ Y, X] = \operatorname{sink-test}[(\lambda N.\operatorname{sink-tran}[B])\ \operatorname{sink-tran}[Y], X] \\ \operatorname{sink-tran}[\lambda N.B, X] = \lambda N.\operatorname{sink-tran}[B, X] \\ \operatorname{sink-tran}[M\ N, X] = \operatorname{sink-tran}[M, X]\ \operatorname{sink-tran}[M, X] \\ \operatorname{sink-tran}[V, X] = V \end{cases}$$

Abstraction sinking
Sinking is moving a lambda abstraction inwards as far as possible such that it is still outside all references to the variable.

Application - 4 cases.
 * $$\begin{cases}

E \not \in \operatorname{FV}[G] \land E \not \in \operatorname{FV}[H] \to \operatorname{sink}[(\lambda E.G\ H)\ Y, X] = G\ H \\ E \not \in \operatorname{FV}[G] \land E \in \operatorname{FV}[H] \to \operatorname{sink}[(\lambda E.G\ H)\ Y, X] = \operatorname{sink-test}[G\ \operatorname{sink-test}[(\lambda E.H)\ Y, X]] \\ E \in \operatorname{FV}[G] \land E \not \in \operatorname{FV}[H] \to \operatorname{sink}[(\lambda E.G\ H)\ Y, X] = (\operatorname{sink-test}[(\lambda E.G)\ Y, X])\ H \\ E \in \operatorname{FV}[G] \land E \in \operatorname{FV}[H] \to \operatorname{sink}[(\lambda E.G\ H)\ Y, X] = (\lambda E.G\ H)\ Y \end{cases}$$

Abstraction. Use renaming to insure that the variable names are all distinct.
 * $$V \ne W \to \operatorname{sink}[(\lambda V.\lambda W.E)\ Y, X] = \lambda W.\operatorname{sink-test}[(\lambda V.E)\ Y, X] $$

Variable - 2 cases.
 * $$E \ne V \to \operatorname{sink}[(\lambda E.V)\ Y, X] = V $$
 * $$E = V \to \operatorname{sink}[(\lambda E.V)\ Y, X] = Y $$

Sink test excludes expressions from dropping,
 * $$ L \in X \to \operatorname{sink-test}[L, X] = L $$
 * $$ L \not \in X \to \operatorname{sink-test}[L, X] = \operatorname{sink}[L, X] $$

Parameter dropping
Parameter dropping is optimizing a function for its position in the function. Lambda lifting added parameters that were necessary so that a function can be moved out of its context. In dropping, this process is reversed, and extra parameters that contain variables that are free may be removed.

Dropping a parameter is removing an unnecessary parameter from a function, where the actual parameter being passed in is always the same expression. The free variables of the expression must also be free where the function is defined. In this case the parameter that is dropped is replaced by the expression in the body of the function definition. This makes the parameter unnecessary.

For example, consider,
 * $$ \lambda m,p,q.(\lambda g.\lambda n.(n\ (g\ m\ p\ n)\ (g\ q\ p\ n)))\ \lambda x.\lambda o.\lambda y.o\ x\ y $$

In this example the actual parameter for the formal parameter o is always p. As p is a free variable in the whole expression, the parameter may be dropped. The actual parameter for the formal parameter y is always n. However n is bound in a lambda abstraction. So this parameter may not be dropped.

The result of dropping the parameter is,
 * $$ \operatorname{drop-params-tran}[\lambda m,p,q.(\lambda g.\lambda n.n\ (g\ m\ p\ n)\ (g\ q\ p\ n))\ \lambda x.\lambda o.\lambda y.o\ x\ y $$
 * $$ \equiv \lambda m,p,q.(\lambda g.\lambda n.n\ (g\ m\ n)\ (g\ q\ n))\ \lambda x.\lambda y.p\ x\ y $$

For the main example,
 * $$ \operatorname{drop-params-tran}[ \lambda f.(\lambda p.(p\ f)\ (p\ f))\ (\lambda f.\lambda x.f\ (x\ x))] $$
 * $$ \equiv \lambda f.(\lambda p.p\ p)\ (\lambda x.f\ (x\ x)) $$

The definition of drop-params-tran is,

 * $$\operatorname{drop-params-tran}[L] \equiv (\operatorname{drop-params}[L, D, FV[L], []]) $$

where,
 * $$ \operatorname{build-param-list}[L, D, V, \_] $$

Build parameter lists
For each abstraction that defines a function, build the information required to make decisions on dropping names. This information describes each parameter; the parameter name, the expression for the actual value, and an indication that all the expressions have the same value.

For example, in,
 * $$ \lambda m,p,q.(\lambda g.\lambda n.(n\ (g\ m\ p\ n)\ (g\ q\ p\ n)))\ \lambda x.\lambda o.\lambda y.o\ x\ y $$

the parameters to the function g are,

Each abstraction is renamed with a unique name, and the parameter list is associated with the name of the abstraction. For example, g there is parameter list.
 * $$ D[g] = x, \operatorname{false}, \_], [o, \_, p], [y, \_, n $$

build-param-lists builds all the lists for an expression, by traversing the expression. It has four parameters;
 * The lambda expression being analyzed.
 * The table parameter lists for names.
 * The table of values for parameters.
 * The returned parameter list, which is used internally by the

Abstraction - A lambda expression of the form $$ (\lambda N.S)\ L $$ is analyzed to extract the names of parameters for the function.

 * $$\begin{cases}

\operatorname{build-param-lists}[(\lambda N.S)\ L, D, V, R] \equiv \operatorname{build-param-lists}[S, D, V, R] \land \operatorname{build-list}[L, D, V, D[N]] \\ \operatorname{build-param-lists}[\lambda N.S, D, V, R] \equiv \operatorname{build-param-lists}[S, D, V, R] \end{cases}$$

Locate the name and start building the parameter list for the name, filling in the formal parameter names. Also receive any actual parameter list from the body of the expression, and return it as the actual parameter list from this expression

 * $$\begin{cases}

\operatorname{build-list}[\lambda P.B, D, V, [X, \_, \_]::L] \equiv \operatorname{build-list}[B, D, V, L] \\ \operatorname{build-list}[B, D, V, []] \equiv \operatorname{build-param-lists}[B, D, V, \_] \end{cases}$$

Variable - A call to a function.

 * $$ \operatorname{build-param-lists}[N, D, V, D[N]] $$

For a function name or parameter start populating actual parameter list by outputting the parameter list for this name.

Application - An application (function call) is processed to extract actual parameter details.

 * $$ \operatorname{build-param-lists}[E\ P, D, V, R] \equiv \operatorname{build-param-lists}[E, D, V, T] \land \operatorname{build-param-lists}[P, D, V, K] $$
 * $$ \land T = [F, S, A]::R \land (S \implies (\operatorname{equate}[A, P] \land V[F] = A)) \land D[F] = K $$

Retrieve the parameter lists for the expression, and the parameter. Retrieve a parameter record from the parameter list from the expression, and check that the current parameter value matches this parameter. Record the value for the parameter name for use later in checking.

 * $$\begin{cases}

\operatorname{equate}[A, N] \equiv A = N \lor (\operatorname{def}[V[N]] \land A = V[N]) & \text{if }N\text{ is a variable.} \\ \operatorname{equate}[A, E] \equiv A = E & \text{otherwise.} \end{cases}$$

The above logic is quite subtle in the way that it works. The same value indicator is never set to true. It is only set to false if all the values cannot be matched. The value is retrieved by using S to build a set of the Boolean values allowed for S. If true is a member then all the values for this parameter are equal, and the parameter may be dropped.

 * $$ \operatorname{ask}[S] \equiv S \in \{ X : X = S \} $$

Similarly, def uses set theory to query if a variable has been given a value;
 * $$ \operatorname{def}[F] \equiv |\{X : X = F\}| $$

Let - Let expression.

 * $$ \operatorname{build-param-list}[\operatorname{let} V: E \operatorname{in} L, D, V, \_] \equiv \operatorname{build-param-list}[E, D, V, \_] \land \operatorname{build-param-list}[L, D, V, \_] $$

And - For use in "let".

 * $$ \operatorname{build-param-lists}[E \land F, D, V, \_] \equiv \operatorname{build-param-lists}[E, D, V, \_] \land \operatorname{build-param-lists}[F, D, V, \_]$$

Examples
For example, building the parameter lists for,
 * $$ \lambda m,p,q.(\lambda g.\lambda n.(n\ (g\ m\ p\ n)\ (g\ q\ p\ n)))\ \lambda x.\lambda o.\lambda y.o\ x\ y $$

gives,
 * $$ D[g] = x, \operatorname{false}, \_], [o, \operatorname{true}, p], [y, \operatorname{true}, n $$

and the parameter o is dropped to give,
 * $$ \lambda m,p,q.(\lambda g.\lambda n.(n\ (g\ m\ n)\ (g\ q\ n)))\ \lambda x.\lambda y.p\ x\ y $$

Another example is,
 * $$ \lambda f.((\lambda p.f\ (p\ p\ f))\ (\lambda q.\lambda x.x\ (q\ q\ x)) $$

Here x is equal to f. The parameter list mapping is,
 * $$ D[p] = q, \_, p], [x, \_, f $$

and the parameter x is dropped to give,
 * $$ \lambda f.((\lambda q.f\ (q\ q))\ (\lambda q.f\ (q\ q)) $$

Drop parameters
Use the information obtained by Build parameter lists to drop actual parameters that are no longer required. drop-params has the parameters,
 * The lambda expression in which the parameters are to be dropped.
 * The mapping of variable names to parameter lists (built in Build parameter lists).
 * The set of variables free in the lambda expression.
 * The returned parameter list. A parameter used internally in the algorithm.

Abstraction

 * $$ \operatorname{drop-params}[(\lambda N.S)\ L, D, V, R] \equiv (\lambda N.\operatorname{drop-params}[S, D, F, R])\ \operatorname{drop-formal}[D[N], L, F]  $$

where,
 * $$ F = FV[(\lambda N.S)\ L] $$

 * $$ \operatorname{drop-params}[\lambda N.S, D, V, R] \equiv (\lambda N.\operatorname{drop-params}[S, D, F, R]) $$

where,
 * $$ F = FV[\lambda N.S] $$

Variable

 * $$ \operatorname{drop-params}[N, D, V, D[N]] \equiv N $$

For a function name or parameter start populating actual parameter list by outputting the parameter list for this name.

Application - An application (function call) is processed to extract

 * $$ (\operatorname{def}[F] \land \operatorname{ask}[S] \land FV[A] \subset V) \to \operatorname{drop-params}[E\ P, D, V, R] \equiv \operatorname{drop-params}[E, D, V, [F, S, A]::R] $$
 * $$ \neg (\operatorname{def}[F] \land \operatorname{ask}[S] \land FV[A] \subset V) \to \operatorname{drop-params}[E\ P, D, V, R] \equiv \operatorname{drop-params}[E, D, V, [F, S, A]::R]\ \operatorname{drop-params}[P, D, V, \_] $$

Let - Let expression.

 * $$\operatorname{drop-params}[\operatorname{let} V: E \operatorname{in} L] \equiv \operatorname{let} V: \operatorname{drop-params}[E, D, FV[E], []] \operatorname{in} \operatorname{drop-params}[L, D, FV[L], []] $$

And - For use in "let".

 * $$ \operatorname{drop-params}[E \land F, D, V, \_] \equiv \operatorname{drop-params}[E, D, V, \_] \land \operatorname{drop-params}[F, D, V, \_]$$

Drop formal parameters
drop-formal removes formal parameters, based on the contents of the drop lists. Its parameters are,
 * The drop list,
 * The function definition (lambda abstraction).
 * The free variables from the function definition.

drop-formal is defined as,
 * 1) $$ (\operatorname{ask}[S] \land FV[A] \subset V) \to \operatorname{drop-formal}[[F, S, A]::Z, \lambda F.Y, V] \equiv \operatorname{drop-formal}[[F, S, A]::Z, Y[F:=A], L] $$
 * 2) $$ \neg (\operatorname{ask}[S] \land FV[A] \subset V) \to \operatorname{drop-formal}[[F, S, A]::Z, \lambda F.Y, V] \equiv \lambda F.\operatorname{drop-formal}[[F, S, A]::Z, Y, V] $$
 * 3) $$ \operatorname{drop-formal}[Z, Y, V] \equiv Y $$

Which can be explained as,
 * 1) If all the actual parameters have the same value, and all the free variables of that value are available for definition of the function then drop the parameter, and replace the old parameter with its value.
 * 2) else do not drop the parameter.
 * 3) else return the body of the function.

Example
Starting with the function definition of the Y-combinator,
 * $$\operatorname{let} p\ f\ x = f\ (x\ x) \land q\ p\ f = (p\ f)\ (p\ f) \operatorname{in} q\ p\ $$

Which gives back the Y combinator,
 * $$\lambda f.(\lambda x.f\ (x\ x))\ (\lambda x.f\ (x\ x)) $$

title: Lambda lifting


text:
Ludwig Ruff

Ludwig Ruff (29 May 1878 – 15 August 1934) was an architect in Germany. Born in Dollnstein, he was the father of Franz Ruff, who would later be responsible for completing the Nuremberg Party Congress Hall left unfinished by his father's death in Nuremberg, in 1934.

title: Ludwig Ruff


text:
Massacration

Massacration is a fictional heavy metal band created by Brazilian humorists and musicians Bruno Sutter (as vocalist Detonator), Fausto Fanti (as lead guitarist Blondie Hammett), Marco Antônio Alves (as bassist Metal Avenger), Adriano Silva (as rhythm guitarist Headmaster) and Felipe Torres (as drummer Jimmy the Hammer), all of them part of the comedy troupe Hermes & Renato. Heavily influenced by the similar semi-fictional metal act Spinal Tap and self-styled as "a banda da galera" (roughly translated into English as "the people's/crowd's band"), Massacration is a light-hearted parody of heavy metal subculture and "metalhead/headbanger" stereotypes, lampooning the music and aesthetics of such famous metal bands as Black Sabbath, Iron Maiden, Judas Priest, Manowar, Sepultura, Angra, among others. The band's music features humorous lyrics written in a combination of intentionally broken English and Portuguese, sung in an exaggerated falsetto by Sutter.

Although Silva and Torres are credited as rhythm guitarist and drummer respectively and appear in the group's promotional materials, they are not musicians; rhythm guitar parts were handled by Fausto Fanti (and later, his brother Franco, who replaced him as "Red Head Hammett" following his 2014 death) and drums have been recorded by guest musicians.

Fictional history
MTV Brasil and Hermes & Renato produced a short, 10-minute mockumentary showcasing the band's fictional backstory in 2005 to promote the release of their then-upcoming debut Gates of Metal Fried Chicken of Death. Massacration's origins trace back to 1979 (in a nod to the same year when Spinal Tap was formed) in the United States, when petty criminal and talented guitarist John "Blondie" Hammett (played by Fausto Fanti), after being arrested for the sixth time, became cellmates with quail smuggler and castrato singer David "Detonator" Sutter (played by Bruno Sutter); united by their mutual tastes on rock and heavy metal music, they soon developed a very strong friendship. Having renounced crime following their release from prison, the duo got acquainted with up-and-coming tambourine player Donald Polai (played by Lecuk Ishida, a producer for MTV at the time who occasionally made one-time appearances for Hermes & Renato's sketches) and they decided to form a band, Death Mania; the trio performed their first gig at a bar south of Phoenix, Arizona, but Death Mania only lasted for a day as Polai soon after committed suicide, apparently influenced by the group's "ominous" name.

Crestfallen over the death of their friend, Detonator and Hammett sunk into a deep depression; they eventually became regular customers of popular Italian restaurant Massas Crézio (or "Crézio's Pasta"), where they would constantly binge-eat to the point of growing morbidly obese. Touched by their situation, the restaurant's owner, Italian Brazilian immigrant Crézio, intervened and conceded them a rent-free room at his house where they could live and rehearse until recovering their spirits, and so they overcame their depression and lost all the extra weight they had gained. Motivated to start anew and form another group, they put an ad in a local newspaper looking for personnel; coincidentally, the spots were filled by Crézio's employees Jimmy "The Hammer" Lombardo (played by Felipe Torres), Klaus "Headmaster" Bissonette (played by Adriano Silva) and Rick "Metal Avenger" Banday (played by Marco Antônio Alves). As a homage to Crézio and his restaurant the band was initially christened Massascrézio, but as time went by the name was changed to Massacrézio, Massacrétion and, finally, Massacration.

Shortly after their very first show, Massacration was approached by world-renowned record producer Dick Dornelle (played by then-Hermes & Renato member Gil Brother), who had previously worked with bands and artists such as Queen, Iron Maiden and Michael Jackson. They then signed to his label Shusi Records and spent the following two months (due to the song's "high level of complexity") at a studio in North Carolina to record their first single, "Metal Massacre Attack (Aruê Aruô)", which was a critical and commercial hit, debuting at number one on Billboard Hot 100 – anachronistically in front of contemporary names like Usher, Maroon 5 and Gavin DeGraw – and awarding them a "Gremlin Award". However, success quickly went to Detonator's head and he began squandering the band's fortune on frivolities and inhalants (to which he became strongly addicted), what led to a deterioration of the relations between him and his colleagues. Following a racist joke made by a heavily intoxicated Detonator during a benefit concert in Somalia, the remaining members of Massacration expelled him from the band and returned to their former jobs at Crézio's restaurant, effectively ending the group's activities.

Many years later, Detonator, now a homeless beggar living in obscurity, ran into Hammett by chance; instantly recognizing themselves, they settled their differences and decided to reunite Massacration, recording the singles "Metal Bucetation" and "Metal Milkshake", the latter of which selling over 12 billion copies and awarding them both a "Sixfold Diamond" certification by the RIAA and the elusive "Nobel Prize in Music", which had only been previously given to Mozart, Beethoven and Frank Sinatra. Pleased by their massive success, the "God of Metal" decided to adopt Detonator as his legitimate son, and created for him and his bandmates the paradise of "Metal Land", where they continued to live since.

Amidst Massacration's 2012–16 hiatus, Bruno Sutter gave an interview to newspaper Folha de S.Paulo in-character as Detonator in 2014, explaining that, emboldened by the success of the TV series The Walking Dead, zombies invaded Metal Land and he was forced to escape (in an allusion to the plot of his then-recently released rock opera Metal Folclore: The Zoeira Never Ends...); he and his bandmates were separated, and Blondie Hammett was unfortunately killed during the zombies' raid. When they reunited safely, in 2016, Blondie was replaced by his long-lost brother Red Head Hammett so that they could continue performing.

Real history
Massacration (initially written as Massacrassion ) was conceived in the early 2000s by the Brazilian comedy troupe Hermes & Renato, who at the time had their own sketch comedy television show broadcast by now-defunct MTV Brasil. Even though the band's first televised appearance dates from 2002, it would not be until 2004 when they released their first actual song, accompanied by a music video, "Metal Massacre Attack (Aruê Aruô)"; the success of the music video prompted them to produce more, for the songs "Metal Bucetation" and "Metal Milkshake", and soon after they began performing their first shows, accompanied by then-Sepultura drummer Igor Cavalera (under the pseudonym "El Covero") as a live musician.

In July 2005 they announced their debut, Kings of Metal Fried Chicken of Death, whose title was subsequently changed to Gates of Metal Fried Chicken of Death; it was initially made available for streaming at MTV Brasil's official website on October 4 and released physically through Deckdisc six days later. The album counted with guest appearances by humorist Sérgio Mallandro and Ratos de Porão vocalist João Gordo (who also produced it under the pseudonym "Rick Rubinho", parodying Rick Rubin), and was critically acclaimed upon its release; according to 2006 data, it sold over 40,000 copies. Massacration's success then led them to appear in other MTV programs, such as the humorous football competition Rockgol and the animated series Megaliga MTV de VJs Paladinos; from 2005 to 2006 they also hosted their own music video program on the network, Total Massacration.

In 2007 the group began work on a follow-up album, Good Blood Headbanguers, but after a series of delays it was only released on October 10, 2009 through EMI;   its cover art was officially unveiled to the public three days prior, alongside an outtake from Gates of Metal Fried Chicken of Death, "Anal Weapon War". Good Blood Headbanguers was produced by Roy Z, known for his work with other metal artists, and counted with a guest appearance by brega singer Falcão on the track "The Mummy"; however, it was not as well received as its predecessor.

In 2012, coinciding with Bruno Sutter's departure from Hermes & Renato (then called "Banana Mecânica"), he put Massacration on hold, explaining that "one shouldn't keep on repeating the same joke". At the time, fans speculated that Sutter's decision of leaving the troupe was influenced by his then-girlfriend (and future fiancée) Nyvi Estephan, who received the pejorative nickname of "Yoko Ono" amongst them. Expressing his desire to focus on a more "female-centric" project, he founded in 2013 a new band based around his "Detonator" character, Detonator e as Musas do Metal, of which he is the sole male member; their debut album, the rock opera Metal Folclore: The Zoeira Never Ends..., came out the following year.

On July 30, 2014, guitarist Fausto Fanti was found dead in his apartment after committing suicide by hanging.

After a four-year hiatus, on May 20, 2016, the band reunited for an award-winning McDonald's commercial promoting their Grand Big Mac hamburger, in which they performed a new song, "Grand Pedido" – a heavy metal cover of the chain's famous "two all-beef patties" jingle. Fausto Fanti's brother Franco, who had replaced him in Hermes & Renato the year prior, also took his position as the band's guitarist under the stage name "Red Head Hammett"; Angra and Shaman drummer Ricardo Confessori, and bassist Marco Klein, also joined them as guest musicians under the respective pseudonyms of "El Perro Loco" and "El Mudo". On December 20, 2016, Sutter confirmed that Massacration had officially returned to active, and that they intended to release more music in the future.

On June 1, 2017, the band released a new single, "Metal MILF", alongside a music video which counted with a guest appearance by model and DJ Sabrina Boing Boing. Later that year their first live album/DVD, Live Metal Espancation, came out amidst overwhelmingly positive reception, being chosen by magazine Roadie Crew the best metal DVD of 2017. Also in 2017, in-character as Detonator, Bruno Sutter was a guest vocalist on the single "Metal for Demons" by Florianópolis-based one-man band Xakol; the song was described by frontman Saulo Castilho as a tribute to Massacration.

2019 saw the release of another single, "Motormetal", followed by "Metal Galera" in 2020. To celebrate the Brazilian holiday of World Rock Day on July 13, 2023, the band released the single "Metal Is My Life", and later that year, on December 1, "Metal Warferas" came out, which had its music video shot at the Beto Carrero World amusement park.

On December 15, 2023, Sutter announced that Massacration began work on a third studio album, entitled Metal Is My Life, released on July 12, 2024; five days prior, on July 8, the single "Revenge of the Bull" came out as a teaser.

Current members

 * Actual members
 * Detonator (Bruno Sutter) – vocals (2004–2012, 2016–present)
 * Metal Avenger (Marco Antônio Alves) – bass guitar (2004–2012), lead guitar (2016–present)
 * Red Head Hammett (Franco Fanti) – rhythm guitar (2016–present)

 * Fictional members
 * Headmaster (Adriano Silva) – rhythm guitar
 * Jimmy the Hammer (Felipe Torres) – drums

Former members

 * Blondie Hammett (Fausto Fanti) – lead guitar, rhythm guitar (2004–2012, died 2014)

Live/session musicians

 * Straupelator (Fernando Lima) – drums (2004–2012, 2020–present)
 * El Covero (Igor Cavalera) – drums (2004)
 * El Perro Loco (Ricardo Confessori) – drums (2016–2020)
 * El Mudo (Marco Klein) – bass guitar (2016–present)

Discography

 * Studio albums
 * 2005 – Gates of Metal Fried Chicken of Death
 * 2009 – Good Blood Headbanguers
 * 2024 – Metal Is My Life

 * Live/video album
 * 2017 – Live Metal Espancation

 * Singles

title: Massacration