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Endogenous retrovirus

Endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) are endogenous viral elements in the genome that closely resemble and can be derived from retroviruses. They are abundant in the genomes of jawed vertebrates, and they comprise up to 5–8% of the human genome (lower estimates of ~1%).

ERVs are a vertically inherited proviral sequence and a subclass of a type of gene called a transposon, which can normally be packaged and moved within the genome to serve a vital role in gene expression and in regulation. ERVs however lack most transposon functions, are typically not infectious and are often defective genomic remnants of the retroviral replication cycle. They are distinguished as germline provirus retroelements due to their integration and reverse-transcription into the nuclear genome of the host cell.

Researchers have suggested that retroviruses evolved from a type of transposon called a retrotransposon, a Class I element; these genes can mutate and instead of moving to another location in the genome they can become exogenous or pathogenic. This means that not all ERVs may have originated as an insertion by a retrovirus but that some may have been the source for the genetic information in the retroviruses they resemble. When integration of viral DNA occurs in the germ-line, it can give rise to an ERV, which can later become fixed in the gene pool of the host population.

Formation
The replication cycle of a retrovirus entails the insertion ("integration") of a DNA copy of the viral genome into the nuclear genome of the host cell. Most retroviruses infect somatic cells, but occasional infection of germline cells (cells that produce eggs and sperm) can also occur. Rarely, retroviral integration may occur in a germline cell that goes on to develop into a viable organism. This organism will carry the inserted retroviral genome as an integral part of its own genome—an "endogenous" retrovirus (ERV) that may be inherited by its offspring as a novel allele. Many ERVs have persisted in the genome of their hosts for millions of years. However, most of these have acquired inactivating mutations during host DNA replication and are no longer capable of producing the virus. ERVs can also be partially excised from the genome by a process known as recombinational deletion, in which recombination between the identical sequences that flank newly integrated retroviruses results in deletion of the internal, protein-coding regions of the viral genome.

The general retrovirus genome consists of three genes vital for the invasion, replication, escape, and spreading of its viral genome. These three genes are gag (encodes for structural proteins for the viral core), pol (encodes for reverse transcriptase, integrase, and protease), and env (encodes for coat proteins for the virus's exterior). These viral proteins are encoded as polyproteins. In order to carry out their life cycle, the retrovirus relies heavily on the host cell's machinery. Protease degrades peptide bonds of the viral polyproteins, making the separate proteins functional. Reverse transcriptase functions to synthesize viral DNA from the viral RNA in the host cell's cytoplasm before it enters the nucleus. Integrase guides the integration of viral DNA into the host genome.

Over time, the genome of ERVs not only acquire point mutations, but also shuffle and recombine with other ERVs. ERVs with a decayed sequence for the env become more likely to propagate.

Role in genomic evolution

Endogenous retroviruses can play an active role in shaping genomes. Most studies in this area have focused on the genomes of humans and higher primates, but other vertebrates, such as mice and sheep, have also been studied in depth. The long terminal repeat (LTR) sequences that flank ERV genomes frequently act as alternate promoters and enhancers, often contributing to the transcriptome by producing tissue-specific variants. In addition, the retroviral proteins themselves have been co-opted to serve novel host functions, particularly in reproduction and development. Recombination between homologous retroviral sequences has also contributed to gene shuffling and the generation of genetic variation. Furthermore, in the instance of potentially antagonistic effects of retroviral sequences, repressor genes have co-evolved to combat them.

About 90% of endogenous retroviruses are solo LTRs, lacking all open reading frames (ORFs). Solo LTRs and LTRs associated with complete retroviral sequences have been shown to act as transcriptional elements on host genes. Their range of action is mainly by insertion into the 5' UTRs of protein coding genes; however, they have been known to act upon genes up to 70–100 kb away. The majority of these elements are inserted in the sense direction to their corresponding genes, but there has been evidence of LTRs acting in the antisense direction and as a bidirectional promoter for neighboring genes. In a few cases, the LTR functions as the major promoter for the gene.

For example, in humans AMY1C has a complete ERV sequence in its promoter region; the associated LTR confers salivary specific expression of the digestive enzyme amylase. Also, the primary promoter for bile acid-CoA:amino acid N-acyltransferase (BAAT), which codes for an enzyme that is integral in bile metabolism, is of LTR origin.

The insertion of a solo ERV-9 LTR may have produced a functional open reading frame, causing the rebirth of the human immunity related GTPase gene (IRGM). ERV insertions have also been shown to generate alternative splice sites either by direct integration into the gene, as with the human leptin hormone receptor, or driven by the expression of an upstream LTR, as with the phospholipase A-2 like protein.

Most of the time, however, the LTR functions as one of many alternate promoters, often conferring tissue-specific expression related to reproduction and development. In fact, 64% of known LTR-promoted transcription variants are expressed in reproductive tissues. For example, the gene CYP19 codes for aromatase P450, an important enzyme for estrogen synthesis, that is normally expressed in the brain and reproductive organs of most mammals. However, in primates, an LTR-promoted transcriptional variant confers expression to the placenta and is responsible for controlling estrogen levels during pregnancy. Furthermore, the neuronal apoptosis inhibitory protein (NAIP), normally widespread, has an LTR of the HERV-P family acting as a promoter that confers expression to the testis and prostate. Other proteins, such as nitric oxide synthase 3 (NOS3), interleukin-2 receptor B (IL2RB), and another mediator of estrogen synthesis, HSD17B1, are also alternatively regulated by LTRs that confer placental expression, but their specific functions are not yet known. The high degree of reproductive expression is thought to be an after effect of the method by which they were endogenized; however, this also may be due to a lack of DNA methylation in germ-line tissues.

The best-characterized instance of placental protein expression comes not from an alternatively promoted host gene but from a complete co-option of a retroviral protein. Retroviral fusogenic env proteins, which play a role in the entry of the virion into the host cell, have had an important impact on the development of the mammalian placenta. In mammals, intact env proteins called syncytins are responsible for the formation and function of syncytiotrophoblasts. These multinucleated cells are mainly responsible for maintaining nutrient exchange and separating the fetus from the mother's immune system. It has been suggested that the selection and fixation of these proteins for this function have played a critical role in the evolution of viviparity.

In addition, the insertion of ERVs and their respective LTRs have the potential to induce chromosomal rearrangement due to recombination between viral sequences at inter-chromosomal loci. These rearrangements have been shown to induce gene duplications and deletions that largely contribute to genome plasticity and dramatically change the dynamic of gene function. Furthermore, retroelements in general are largely prevalent in rapidly evolving, mammal-specific gene families whose function is largely related to the response to stress and external stimuli. In particular, both human class I and class II MHC genes have a high density of HERV elements as compared to other multi-locus-gene families. It has been shown that HERVs have contributed to the formation of extensively duplicated duplicon blocks that make up the HLA class 1 family of genes. More specifically, HERVs primarily occupy regions within and between the break points between these blocks, suggesting that considerable duplication and deletions events, typically associated with unequal crossover, facilitated their formation. The generation of these blocks, inherited as immunohaplotypes, act as a protective polymorphism against a wide range of antigens that may have imbued humans with an advantage over other primates.

The characteristic of placentas being very evolutionary distinct organs between different species has been suggested to result from the co-option of ERV enhancers. Regulatory mutations, instead of mutations in genes that encode for hormones and growth factors, support the known evolution of placental morphology, especially since the majority of hormone and growth factor genes are expressed in response to pregnancy, not during placental development. Researchers studied the regulatory landscape of placental development between the rat and mouse, two closely related species. This was done by mapping all regulatory elements of the rat trophoblast stem cells (TSCs) and comparing them to their orthologs in mouse TSCs. TSCs were observed because they reflect the initial cells that develop in the fetal placenta. Regardless of their tangible similarities, enhancer and repressed regions were mostly species-specific. However, most promoter sequences were conserved between mouse and rat. In conclusion to their study, researchers proposed that ERVs influenced species-specific placental evolution through mediation of placental growth, immunosuppression, and cell fusion.

Another example of ERV exploiting cellular mechanisms is p53, a tumor suppressor gene (TSG). DNA damage and cellular stress induces the p53 pathway, which results in cell apoptosis. Using chromatin immunoprecipitation with sequencing, thirty-percent of all p53-binding sites were located within copies of a few primate-specific ERV families. A study suggested that this benefits retroviruses because p53's mechanism provides a rapid induction of transcription, which leads to the exit of viral RNA from the host cell.

Finally, the insertion of ERVs or ERV elements into genic regions of host DNA, or overexpression of their transcriptional variants, has a much higher potential to produce deleterious effects than positive ones. Their appearance into the genome has created a coevolutionary dynamic that proliferated the duplication and expansion of repressor genes. The most clear-cut example of this involves the rapid duplication and proliferation of tandem zinc-finger genes in mammal genomes. Zinc-finger genes, particularly those that include a KRAB domain, exist in high copy number in vertebrate genomes, and their range of functions are limited to transcriptional roles. It has been shown in mammals, however, that the diversification of these genes was due to multiple duplication and fixation events in response to new retroviral sequences or their endogenous copies to repress their transcription.

Role in disease
The majority of ERVs that occur in vertebrate genomes are ancient, inactivated by mutation, and have reached genetic fixation in their host species. For these reasons, they are extremely unlikely to have negative effects on their hosts except under unusual circumstances. Nevertheless, it is clear from studies in birds and non-human mammal species including mice, cats and koalas, that younger (i.e., more recently integrated) ERVs can be associated with disease. The number of active ERVs in the genome of mammals is negatively related to their body size, suggesting a contribution to Peto's paradox through cancer pathogenesis. This has led researchers to propose a role for ERVs in several forms of human cancer and autoimmune disease, although conclusive evidence is lacking.

Neurological disorders
In humans, ERVs have been proposed to be involved in multiple sclerosis (MS). A specific association between MS and the ERVWE1, or "syncytin", gene, which is derived from an ERV insertion, has been reported, along with the presence of an "MS-associated retrovirus" (MSRV), in patients with the disease. Human ERVs (HERVs) have also been implicated in ALS and addiction.

In 2004 it was reported that antibodies to HERVs were found in greater frequency in the sera of people with schizophrenia. Additionally, the cerebrospinal fluid of people with recent onset schizophrenia contained levels of a retroviral marker, reverse transcriptase, four times higher than control subjects. Researchers continue to look at a possible link between HERVs and schizophrenia, with the additional possibility of a triggering infection inducing schizophrenia.

Immunity
ERVs have been found to be associated to disease not only through disease-causing relations, but also through immunity. The frequency of ERVs in long terminal repeats (LTRs) likely correlates to viral adaptations to take advantage of immunity signaling pathways that promote viral transcription and replication. A study done in 2016 investigated the benefit of ancient viral DNA integrated into a host through gene regulation networks induced by interferons, a branch of innate immunity. These cytokines are first to respond to viral infection and are also important in immunosurveillance for malignant cells. ERVs are predicted to act as cis-regulatory elements, but much of the adaptive consequences of this for certain physiological functions is still unknown. There is data that supports the general role of ERVs in the regulation of human interferon response, specifically to interferon-gamma (IFNG). For example, interferon-stimulated genes were found to be greatly enriched with ERVs bound by signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) and/or Interferon regulatory factor (IRF1) in CD14+ macrophages.

HERVs also play various roles shaping the human innate immunity response, with some sequences activating the system and others suppressing it. They may also protect from exogenous retroviral infections: the virus-like transcripts can activate pattern recognition receptors, and the proteins can interfere with active retroviruses. A gag protein from HERV-K(HML2) is shown to mix with HIV Gag, impairing HIV capsid formation as a result.

Gene regulation
Another idea proposed was that ERVs from the same family played a role in recruiting multiple genes into the same network of regulation. It was found that MER41 elements provided addition redundant regulatory enhancement to the genes located near STAT1 binding sites.

Porcine endogenous retrovirus
For humans, porcine endogenous retroviruses (PERVs) pose a concern when using porcine tissues and organs in xenotransplantion, the transplanting of living cells, tissues, and organs from an organism of one species to an organism of different species. Although pigs are generally the most suitable donors to treat human organ diseases due to practical, financial, safety, and ethical reasons, PERVs previously could not be removed from pigs, due to their viral ability to integrate into the host genome and to be passed into offspring, until the year 2017, when one lab, using CRISPR-Cas9, removed all 62 retroviruses from the pig genome. The consequences of cross-species transmission remain unexplored and have dangerous potential.

Researchers have indicated that infection of human tissues by PERVs is very possible, especially in immunosuppressed individuals. An immunosuppressed condition could potentially permit a more rapid and tenacious replication of viral DNA, and would later have less difficulty adapting to human-to-human transmission. Although known infectious pathogens present in the donor organ/tissue can be eliminated by breeding pathogen-free herds, unknown retroviruses can be present in the donor. These retroviruses are often latent and asymptomatic in the donor, but can become active in the recipient. Some examples of endogenous viruses that can infect and multiply in human cells are from baboons (BaEV), cats (RD114), and mice.

There are three different classes of PERVs, PERV-A, PERV-B, and PERV-C. PERV-A and PERV-B are polytropic and can infect human cells in vitro, while PERV-C is ecotropic and does not replicate on human cells. The major differences between the classes is in the receptor binding domain of the env protein and the long terminal repeats (LTRs) that influence the replication of each class. PERV-A and PERV-B display LTRs that have repeats in the U3 region. However, PERV-A and PERV-C show repeatless LTRs. Researchers found that PERVs in culture actively adapted to the repeat structure of their LTR in order to match the best replication performance a host cell could perform. At the end of their study, researchers concluded that repeatless PERV LTR evolved from the repeat-harboring LTR. This was likely to have occurred from insertional mutation and was proven through use of data on LTR and env/Env. It is thought that the generation of repeatless LTRs could be reflective of an adaptation process of the virus, changing from an exogenous to an endogenous lifestyle.

A clinical trial study performed in 1999 sampled 160 patients who were treated with different living pig tissues and observed no evidence of a persistent PERV infection in 97% of the patients for whom a sufficient amount of DNA was available to PCR for amplification of PERV sequences. This study stated that retrospective studies are limited to find the true incidence of infection or associated clinical symptoms, however. It suggested using closely monitored prospective trials, which would provide a more complete and detailed evaluation of the possible cross-species PERV transmission and a comparison of the PERV.

Human endogenous retroviruses
Human endogenous retroviruses (HERV) comprise a significant part of the human genome, with approximately 98,000 ERV elements and fragments making up 5–8%. According to a study published in 2005, no HERVs capable of replication had been identified; all appeared to be defective, containing major deletions or nonsense mutations (not true for HERV-K). This is because most HERVs are merely traces of original viruses, having first integrated millions of years ago. An analysis of HERV integrations is ongoing as part of the 100,000 Genomes Project.

A 2023 study found HERV can become awakened from dormant states and contribute to aging which could be blocked by neutralizing antibodies.

Human endogenous retroviruses were originally discovered when human genomic libraries were screened under low-stringency conditions using either probes from animal retroviruses or by using oligonucleotides with similarity to virus sequences.

Classification
HERVs are classified based on their homologies to animal retroviruses. Families belonging to Class I are similar in sequence to mammalian Gammaretroviruses (type C) and Epsilonretroviruses (Type E). Families belonging to Class II show homology to mammalian Betaretroviruses (Type B) and Deltaretroviruses (Type D). Families belonging to Class III are similar to foamy viruses. For all classes, if homologies appear well conserved in the gag, pol, and env gene, they are grouped into a superfamily. There are more Class I families known to exist. The families themselves are named in a less uniform manner, with a mixture of naming based on an exogenous retrovirus, the priming tRNA (HERV-W, HERV-K), or some neighboring gene (HERV-ADP), clone number (HERV-S71), or some amino acid motif (HERV-FRD). A proposed nomenclature aims to clean up the sometimes paraphyletic standards.

Origin
Sometime during human evolution, exogenous progenitors of HERV inserted themselves into germ line cells and then replicated along with the host's genes using and exploiting the host's cellular mechanisms. Because of their distinct genomic structure, HERVs were subjected to many rounds of amplification and transposition, which lead to a more widespread distribution of retroviral DNA.

Nevertheless, one family of viruses has been active since the divergence of humans and chimpanzees. This family, termed HERV-K (HML2), makes up less than 1% of HERV elements but is one of the most studied. There are indications it has even been active in the past few hundred thousand years, e.g., some human individuals carry more copies of HML2 than others. Traditionally, age estimates of HERVs are performed by comparing the 5' and 3' LTR of a HERV; however, this method is only relevant for full-length HERVs. A recent method, called cross-sectional dating, uses variations within a single LTR to estimate the ages of HERV insertions. This method is more precise in estimating HERV ages and can be used for any HERV insertions. Cross-sectional dating has been used to suggest that two members of HERV-K (HML2), HERV-K106 and HERV-K116, were active in the last 800,000 years and that HERV-K106 may have infected modern humans 150,000 years ago. However, the absence of known infectious members of the HERV-K (HML2) family, and the lack of elements with a full coding potential within the published human genome sequence, suggests to some that the family is less likely to be active at present. In 2006 and 2007, researchers working independently in France and the US recreated functional versions of HERV-K (HML2).

Expression of HERV proteins
The expression of HERV-K, a biologically active family of HERV, produces proteins found in placenta. Furthermore, the expression of the envelope genes of HERV-W (ERVW-1 ) and HERV-FRD (ERVFRD-1 ) produces syncytins which are important for the generation of the syncytiotrophoblast cell layer during placentogenesis by inducing cell-cell fusion. The HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC) approves gene symbols for transcribed human ERVs.

Functional impact
MER41.AIM2 is an HERV that regulates the transcription of AIM2 (Absent in Melanoma 2) which encodes for a sensor of foreign cytosolic DNA. This acts as a binding site for AIM2, meaning that it is necessary for the transcription of AIM2. Researchers had shown this by deleting MER41.AIM2 in HeLa cells using CRISPR/Cas9, leading to an undetectable transcript level of AIM2 in modified HeLa cells. The control cells, which still contained the MER41.AIM2 ERV, were observed with normal amounts of AIM2 transcript. In terms of immunity, researchers concluded that MER41.AIM2 is necessary for an inflammatory response to infection.

Activation by exogenous viruses
Considerable evidence indicate that HERVs can be reactivated by viral infections, such as:

1) retroviruses – human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1), human T-lymphotropic virus 1 (HTLV-1);

2) RNA viruses – influenza A virus, hepatitis C virus (HCV), severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARSCoV-2);

3) DNA viruses – herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), human cytomegalovirus (CMV), Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV)

Several studies have shown that EBV is able to transactivate the expression of the normally inactive HERV-K18 Env protein, e.g., interacting with resting B cells via CD21 receptor. Further studies revealed that the mechanism of transactivation depends on the expression of the major EBV late gene transactivator, EBNA-2. In-depth analysis completed the picture identifying the EBV latent membrane protein LMP-2A as a strong candidate for the HERV-K18 transactivation. HERV-K18 has also been reported to have superantigen activity (i.e. polyclonal T and B cell activation regardless of the specificity of their antigen receptor).

It has also been shown that in vitro binding of the EBV gp350 protein caused activation of MSRVenv and syncytin-1 in B-cells, monocytes, macrophages and in astrocytes - cells that are involved in pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis. Monocytes, especially after their differentiation into macrophages, appeared to be the most responsive to EBVgp350, expressing even higher levels of HERV-Wenv than B cells. This finding is concordant with another study, which demonstrated that during infectious mononucleosis EBV promoted the strongest activation of HERV-W/MSRV expression in monocytes compared to other blood cell types.

Immune response to HERVs
Despite having been integrated into genomes of vertebrates for millions of years, ERVs represent an intermediate stage between exogenous viruses and the host genome; it is suggested that immunological tolerance to HERV-derived proteins and peptides is imperfect due to the epigenetic silencing of HERV in the thymus and bone marrow, which prevents deletion of all HERV-specific T and B cells. As evidence of this, immunization of non-human primates with ERV-derived antigens mounted robust polyfunctional cytotoxic T cell response as well as high antibody titers. According to phylogenetic studies, among 30 HERV families existing in the human genome, HERV-K (HML-2) elements which integrated most recently are the most intact and biologically active forms. HERV-K env and HERV-H env, considered to be a new class of tumor-associated antigens, have been found to promote strong cytotoxic T-cell responses in patients with various types of cancers.

On a level of the innate immune sensing of nucleic acids, single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) and double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) derived from endogenous retroviruses are recognized by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs).

SsRNAs can be sensed by Toll-like receptors TLR-7 and TLR-8, resulting in secretion of IFN-α by stimulated dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages, which was observed for ssRNAs derived from HIV-1.

DsRNAs might be one of the most immunogenic nucleic acid pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), since they are not found in cells in a normal state. HERV-derived dsRNA can be recognized by TLR-3, RIG-I and MDA5; RIG-I and MDA5 are known to induce a type I IFN response.

When retrotranscribed into DNA, retroviruses can be sensed by cyclic GMP-AMP synthase-stimulator of interferon genes (cGAS-STING) pathway, leading to the activation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kB) and IFN regulatory factor 3 (IRF3), which in turn trigger a type I IFN response. DsDNA could also be sensed by DNA-dependent activator of IFN-regulatory factors (DAI); DNA:RNA hybrids could be recognized by TLR-9

The recognition of nucleic acids through PRRs provides a very efficient strategy to fight against viral infections, at the same time imposing the host to a risk due to the possibility of recognizing self-nucleic acids and promotion of autoimmunity. Not surprisingly, HERVs have been found to be associated with different autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), rheumathoid arthritis (RA), Sjögren syndrome (SS).

On a protein level, a direct interaction between TLRs and certain HERV proteins has been shown. For example, the surface unit of HERV-W Env (also known as Multiple sclerosis-associated retroviral element (MSRV) env) was found to bind to TLR4 and CD14, stimulating the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines including IL-1β, IL-6, and TNFα. HERV-W Env can trigger a maturation process in human dendritic cells, endowing them with the capacity to support a Th1-like type of Th cell differentiation.

Immunological studies have shown some evidence for T cell immune responses against HERVs in HIV-infected individuals. The hypothesis that HIV induces HERV expression in HIV-infected cells led to the proposal that a vaccine targeting HERV antigens could specifically eliminate HIV-infected cells. The potential advantage of this novel approach is that, by using HERV antigens as surrogate markers of HIV-infected cells, it could circumvent the difficulty inherent in directly targeting notoriously diverse and fast-mutating HIV antigens.

Whole genome sequencing
Example: A porcine ERV (PERV) Chinese-born minipig isolate, PERV-A-BM, was sequenced completely and along with different breeds and cell lines in order to understand its genetic variation and evolution. The observed number of nucleotide substitutions and among the different genome sequences helped researchers determine an estimate age that PERV-A-BM was integrated into its host genome, which was found to be of an evolutionary age earlier than the European-born pigs isolates.

Chromatin immunoprecipitation with sequencing (ChIP-seq)
This technique is used to find histone marks indicative of promoters and enhancers, which are binding sites for DNA proteins, and repressed regions and trimethylation. DNA methylation has been shown to be vital to maintain silencing of ERVs in mouse somatic cells, while histone marks are vital for the same purpose in embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and early embryogenesis.

Constructing phylogenies
Because most HERVs have no function, are selectively neutral, and are very abundant in primate genomes, they easily serve as phylogenetic markers for linkage analysis. They can be exploited by comparing the integration site polymorphisms or the evolving, proviral, nucleotide sequences of orthologs. To estimate when integration occurred, researchers used distances from each phylogenetic tree to find the rate of molecular evolution at each particular locus. It is also useful that ERVs are rich in many species genomes (i.e. plants, insects, mollusks, fish, rodents, domestic pets, and livestock) because its application can be used to answer a variety of phylogenetic questions.

Designating the age of provirus and the time points of species separation events
This is accomplished by comparing the different HERV from different evolutionary periods. For example, this study was done for different hominoids, which ranged from humans to apes and to monkeys. This is difficult to do with PERV because of the large diversity present.

Epigenetic variability
Researchers could analyze individual epigenomes and transcriptomes to study the reactivation of dormant transposable elements through epigenetic release and their potential associations with human disease and exploring the specifics of gene regulatory networks.

Immunological problems of xenotransplantation
Little is known about an effective way to overcoming hyperacute rejection (HAR), which follows the activation of complement initiated by xenoreactive antibodies recognizing galactosyl-alpha1-3galatosyl (alpha-Gal) antigens on the donor epithelium.

Risk factors of HERVs in gene therapy
Because retroviruses are able to recombine with each other and with other endogenous DNA sequences, it would be beneficial for gene therapy to explore the potential risks HERVs can cause, if any. Also, this ability of HERVs to recombine can be manipulated for site-directed integration by including HERV sequences in retroviral vectors.

HERV gene expression
Researchers believe that RNA and proteins encoded for by HERV genes should continue to be explored for putative function in cell physiology and in pathological conditions. This would make sense to examine in order to more deeply define the biological significance of the proteins synthesized.

title: Endogenous retrovirus


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User talk:Paris Lovett~enwiki

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Bad Buchau

Bad Buchau (formerly Buchau; Swabian: Buacha) is a small town in the district of Biberach, Baden-Württemberg, Germany with about 4,000 inhabitants. It is situated near Lake Federsee, which is separated from the town by a wide reed belt.

Bad Buchau incorporates the nine villages of Allmannsweiler, Dürnau, Kanzach, Betzenweiler, Moosburg, Alleshausen, Seekirch, Tiefenbach, and Oggelshausen, as well as the outlying farm settlements of Ottobeurer Hof, Bruckhof, and Henauhof. Also part of Bad Buchau is the formerly independent district of Kappel.

The official language is German, with day-to-day conversations by the majority of its inhabitants in the Swabian dialect.

From the 13th century to the mediatisation of 1803, Buchau had the particularity of being the seat of both an Imperial Abbey and a Free Imperial City, independent of each other. In terms of area, it was one of the smallest such self-ruling cities and its island situation eliminated the necessity to erect city walls and towers. Buchau, however, lost its insular benefits after the water level of Lake Federsee had been lowered on two occasions.

History

 * AD 770 – Buchau Abbey was founded in by the Frankish Count Warin and his wife Adelindis von Buchau, from whom the present "Adelindisfest" takes its name. The church still serves as the parish church.
 * 819 and 857 – Grants for the Abbey are received from the Frankish Kings Louis the Pious and Louis the German respectively.
 * 902 – The three sons of countess Adelindis, Gerhard, Beringer and Reginolf, are killed when attempting to abduct their sister, the Abbess Adelindis, from Buchau's Abbey in order to get her married. Countess Adelindis joins the Abbey in order to atone for her sons' deed and is to this day admired as a great Benefactrix and Saint of the people. She rests together with her slain sons in the crypt of the collegiate church.
 * 1014 or 1022 – A mint and market is mentioned by the Abbey. Buchau appears for the first time as a "Freie Reichsstadt" (Free imperial city).
 * 1417 – The Abbey is declared a secular convent and accepts daughters of the Swabian nobility.
 * 1577 – The Free Imperial City hosts a Jewish Community, which quickly gains prominence under the protection of the city.
 * 1650 – A Jewish cemetery is constructed.
 * 1730 and 1837 – Erection of a synagogue for the growing Jewish community.
 * 1774–1776 – The style of the collegiate church is transformed from Gothic to French classicism.
 * 1787 and 1808 – Lake Federsee's level is lowered, yet hopes to gain farm land in this manner are dashed, though roads can now be constructed.
 * 1802/1803 – Both the Imperial Abbey and the Free Imperial City lose their independence during the course of the German mediatisation. They become the property of the Prince of Thurn and Taxis by decree of the Regensburg parliament "Reichstag von Regensburg".
 * 1806 – Buchau becomes a township of the kingdom of Württemberg.
 * 1807 – The Jewish community acquires the right to acquire goods.
 * 1828 – The Jewish community acquires their civil liberties.
 * 1847 – Hermann Einstein, father of Albert Einstein, is born.
 * 1896–1917 – The narrow-gauge railway Schussenried – Buchau – Riedlingen is being built as a feeder line to and from the main railroad line.
 * 1911 – The boardwalk is installed, which leads to Lake Federsee by intersecting a wide reed belt. Buchau and the Lake Federsee area are quickly becoming well known through archaeological digs in the moor. Noteworthy is the unearthing of the Waterfortress Buchau "Wasserburg Buchau", a settlement from the late Bronze Age (1100-800 BC). Establishment of the Wildlife Preserve Federsee, which today presents the largest turf moor wildlife preserve in Baden-Wuerttemberg.
 * 1935 – Saulgau-Earthquake damages 200 buildings and collapses the pediment of St. Peter and Paul church in Kappel
 * 1938 – During the Kristallnacht Pogrom, the synagogue is set on fire, the mayor ordered the fire department to extinguish the burning synagogue. The next night, however, the arson was repeated. The synagogue's stone blocks were sold and used for road construction.
 * 1941–45 – The Jewish people of Buchau, who had made up a substantial part of the population, were deported to Nazi extermination camps. Only 4 returned after the Second World War.
 * 1949 – Opening of the civic spa.
 * 1963 – Buchau receives the title of "Bad" ("Spa") and is henceforth known as Bad Buchau
 * 1968 – The new Federseemuseum opened, with extraordinary exhibits relating to the Stone Age and Bronze Age. The area is rich in archaeological artifacts from this era.
 * 1969 – The narrow-gauge railroad line is ultimately retired.
 * 1963–1998 – Expansion of Bad Buchau's Spa with a thermal spring and large spa gardens.

Mayors

 * 1948–1978: Hans Knittel
 * 1979–2003: Harald Müller
 * 1 February 2003 – present: Peter Diesch

World Heritage Site
The prehistoric settlement at Siedlung Forschner is part of the Prehistoric Pile dwellings around the Alps a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Other
The most prominent company is Franz Kessler GmbH, based in Bad Buchau's light industrial area of Kappel.

Notable residents

 * Karoline Kaulla (1739–1809), court Jew, working at the Württemberg court
 * Hermann Einstein (1847–1902), entrepreneur and father of Albert Einstein
 * Hans Kayser (1891–1964), composer and music theorist

title: Bad Buchau


text:
Peace B. Remixes

Peace B. Remixes is BoA's first Japanese remix album.

Track listing

 * 1) "Listen to My Heart" (Akira's Un Momento Remix)
 * 2) "Amazing Kiss" (Thunderpuss Japanese Club Mix)
 * 3) "Every Heart" —ﾐﾝﾅﾉｷﾓﾁ— (Groove That Soul Mix)
 * 4) "Power" (Masters of Funk Remix)
 * 5) "ID; Peace B" (Shinichi Osawa Remix)
 * 6) "Share Your Heart" (With Me) [Dub7s Lovers Rock Remix]
 * 7) "Don't Start Now" (Two Main Guys Mix)
 * 8) "Kimochi wa Tsutawaru (気持ちはつたわる)" (L12 Remix featuring Rude Boy Face)
 * 9) "Amazing Kiss" (Tiny Voice, Production Remix)
 * 10) "Listen to My Heart" (Hex Hector Main Japanese Club Mix)

title: Peace B. Remixes


text:
Long Sutton, Somerset

Long Sutton is a village and civil parish in Somerset, England, situated 4 mi south of Somerton in the South Somerset district. The village has a population of 833.

The village of Long Sutton has a village green with a lime tree at each corner and a chestnut tree in the centre. The Devonshire Arms Hotel is at one end of the green and at the other are the school and Holy Trinity church, dating from 1493. The village is made up of two hamlets, Knole at one end and Upton at the other.

The Reading to Taunton line railway runs under the bridge at Upton and at one time certain trains stopped at Long Sutton and Pitney Halt, as it was called until its closure in the early 1960s. The bridge over the River Yeo is medieval in origin, but was probably reshaped in the 18th century.

History
There is evidence of Roman occupation throughout the parish. It was recorded in the Domesday Book as Sutone. The parish of Long Sutton was part of the hundred of Somerton.

The manor was given by King Alfred to his Athelney Abbey and was held by the abbey until the dissolution of the monasteries in 1539. In 1600 it was bought by Sir John Spencer, who was previously the Lord Mayor of London. It was later part of the estates of the Duke of Devonshire, who dispersed it in 1919.

Until the 20th century agriculture remained the main industry. The population has remained between 800 and 1,000 from about 1800.

Governance
The parish council has responsibility for local issues, including setting an annual precept (local rate) to cover the council's operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny. The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the local police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security, and traffic. The parish council's role also includes initiating projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities, as well as consulting with the district council on the maintenance, repair, and improvement of highways, drainage, footpaths, public transport, and street cleaning. Conservation matters (including trees and listed buildings) and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council.

The village falls within the Non-metropolitan district of South Somerset, which was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, having previously been part of Langport Rural District. The district council is responsible for local planning and building control, local roads, council housing, environmental health, markets and fairs, refuse collection and recycling, cemeteries and crematoria, leisure services, parks, and tourism.

Somerset County Council is responsible for running the largest and most expensive local services such as education, social services, libraries, main roads, public transport, policing and fire services, trading standards, waste disposal and strategic planning.

The village is in Turn Hill electoral ward. Long Sutton may be the most populous area of the ward but it stretches west to Aller. The total population of this ward taken at the 2011 census was 2,830.

It is also part of the Somerton and Frome county constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It elects one Member of Parliament (MP) by the first past the post system of election.

Landmarks
Opposite the Quaker Meeting House, known as Quakers' Corner, are two cottages, one thatched. In one of these cottages it is said that Mrs Palmer of Huntley & Palmers fame made her first biscuits and cakes to help provide for her family. Some of the gravestones mark the resting place of the Palmer family in the grounds of the Friends' Meeting House.

The Manor House, on the green, probably dates from the late 15th century. Court House on Langport road is from a similar period.

Knole has a waterwheel dating from 1879, having been moved from a site higher upstream where it was first recorded in 1479–80. The wheel is 15 ft in diameter and 5 ft in width and was cast by ‘The Somerset Wheel & Wagon Co, Engineers & Millwrights, Martock’.

Holy Trinity church
Holy Trinity church dates from 1493. An earlier church would have stood on this site from the 9th century or earlier. The current church was built of local lias stone cut and squared, with hamstone dressings. It has stone slate roofs between stepped coped gabled with finials to the chancel and north porch. Internally, the chancel has a ceiled wagon-roof, with moulded ribs and plaster panels. The tower exhibits the tracery typical of Somerset towers. The under-tower space has a lierne vault, and a 15th-century octagonal font with quatrefoil panels. The building has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade I listed building. The tower has a ring of six bells, the tenor weighing 136 st.

The coloured timber pulpit, with a fly approach stair, dates from 1455 to 1458 and is older than the church itself. It has 20th-century wood figures in the statue niches. It bears the initials identified as those of Abbot John Petherton of Athelney and vicar William Singleton.

The wood screen is also ornately carved and dates from the late 15th century. Memorials in the church include a tablet to Elizabeth Banbury, died 1716, with Corinthian columns and entablature, side and bottom swags, as well as a number of 16th- and 17th-century Keinton stone slabs in the floor.

Quaker Meeting House
The parish was a centre of Quaker worship from 1662, and there was a licensed meeting-house by 1669. The present Quaker Meeting House was built in Queen Anne style and finished in 1717, with a bequest from William Steele. It is still used for worship by the Quakers. It was closed briefly in 1793 and 1798, but prospered after the closure of the Somerton meeting house in 1828. There is a mounting block outside the building, which worshippers used to mount and dismount their horses. Worshippers came from as far away as Street, nearly seven miles away.

Culture
Punkie Night originated many years ago and was started by farm labourers to light their way home after work. An alternative explanation of the term is that it is derived from pumpkin or punk, meaning tinder. It is now the "children's night" and held on the nearest night to Halloween. The children carry their "punkies" made from either mangolds, turnips, or marrows, which are hollowed out and faces or animals carved on them. They are lit with a candle inside similar to the modern Halloween custom.

Notable residents

 * George Palmer, founder of Huntley and Palmers biscuits, was born in the village.
 * 2004 Children's Champion Award winner Doreen Roberts MBE foster mother to over 300 children.
 * Antony Jay CVO Writer, broadcast, director and actor. Famous for co-authorship of political television comedy Yes Minister and Yes Prime Minister.

title: Long Sutton, Somerset


text:
Talk:Tsushima Island

Demographics and culture
・The population of the islands is about 41,000, consisting mainly of ethnic Japanese, with minority Filipino and Korean populations. There is also a small Christian community, consisting mainly of ethnic Koreans and Filipinos.Other signs of Korean influence include the Korean method of castle construction on Kaneda Castle.

There is such a description. However, I live in North Kyushu, but do not know these facts. Start a Korean and Filipino population and current nationality, the actual situation of religion, the source of information about these information which are in Tsushima. Because it is a too careless description, I delete it.

・Professor Cho Kyeung-dal of Chiba University suggests that the local culture has intermingled Japanese and Korean traditions over time, due in part to Tsushima's proximity to Korea. For example, Korean songs such as "Arirang" (or "Ariran") and "Chingu" are popular on Tsushima Island. This has led to the creation of unique festivals not found elsewhere in Japan, such as the Arirang Festival (established in 1964) and the Chingu Music Festival in August. The local dialect, Tsushima-ben, contains several words with origins in the Korean language, most notably from the Gyeongsang dialect. Many signs on the islands are written in Korean for the benefit of tourists.

This is only a hypothesis of only one scholar. It is not obtained a great number of people's consent. Because this opinion is not known at all.These studies are still unripe things. On this account you should not describe it.

Due and undue weight
In the Wikipedia context, controversy is sometimes highlighted -- see Neutral point of view. In the future, it may make sense to create Tsushima Island dispute. This article could accommodate new additions and outline the dispute's chronology. Will this mitigate a small problem, or will it make things worse? This practical step was mentioned favorably in a reliable source -- see Hunt, Pete. "China and Japan's Wikipedia War," Foreign Policy (US). February 5, 2013; excerpt, "excessively detailed sections that soon took up the bulk of the article. One editor wisely created a new 'Senkaku Islands dispute' page in October 2010 to accommodate new additions and outline the dispute's chronology." --Ansei (talk) 18:20, 2 April 2013 (UTC)

 * FWIW, I'd be fine with the creation of a separate "disputes" page. -- Eiríkr Útlendi │ Tala við mig 19:44, 2 April 2013 (UTC)
 * Is the controversy here as significant and widely supported as the Senkaku Islands controversy? Or, a different way of putting it is, is there so much more information that it could not comfortably fit here? Right now, we've got only 3 fairly short paragraphs, so it seems to fit well on this page. Qwyrxian (talk) 23:18, 2 April 2013 (UTC)
 * @Qwyrxian -- Your analysis overlooks that this POV issue is not validated by any government.
 * As background: Eirikr's edit here caught my attention. It caused me to take a closer look at Tsushima Island.  I understand why the revert was reasonable; however, the edit summary of the reverted diff was also persuasive reasonable.
 * Please review the first paragraph of WP:NPOV. It explains, "the views of tiny minorities should not be included at all, except perhaps in a 'see also" to an article about those specific views." This next step follows the pattern at Japan-Korea disputes
 * Liancourt Rocks dispute
 * Tsushima Island dispute
 * Sea of Japan naming dispute
 * A closer look at the cited sources will show that this is not ROK policy. In an article which is primarily about the island, undue weight is given to disputes. --Ansei (talk) 01:53, 3 April 2013 (UTC)
 * Ah, I see; you're arguing that by including it here, it's giving undue weight to the small minority of Koreans that "claim" the islands. In that case, if we did move it to another article, we probably shouldn't call it a "dispute", but rather something like Korean claims to Tsushima Island. Because, as you say, there is something compelling about the edit summary, in that neither Japan nor Korea actually, as a whole, dispute the ownership.
 * But wait. I just looked at the article, and I realized that the section itself is actually mislabeled. Only the first paragraph actually talks about an ownership dispute; the latter two just seem to be generic anti-Korean racism. That is, the Japanese nationalist groups weren't talking about ownership of the island, they were saying they wanted all of the Koreans to get out, period. So maybe what we really need to do is to change that section title to something like "Incidents"; then each of these is actually being given somewhat due weight--they're things that happened on the Island that got press. Qwyrxian (talk) 02:11, 3 April 2013 (UTC)
 * "Dispute" appears to have become conventional or generic Wikipedia usage. For example, see its usage in articles like Japan-Korea disputes, etc. --Ansei (talk) 12:46, 3 April 2013 (UTC)

Territorial claims and disputes
The following 3 paragraphs were removed from the article. In each, there are questions which need to be discussed.
 * 1) In March 2005, the Masan, South Korea, municipal assembly designated June 19 as "Daemado Day," (Daemado is the Korean pronunciation of the Chinese characters of Tsushima (對馬島)) and claimed the island as South Korean territory, stating that the island had been annexed by the Korean Joseon Dynasty on that date in 1419. In 2008, 50 members of the parliament in South Korea proposed making another demand for Tsushima. A public opinion poll in Korea showed that 50.6% of the general populace agreed with the proposal.
 * 2) A Japanese conservative group called the Japan Conference (日本会議, Nippon Kaigi), which is tight with the Association of Shinto Shrines and Korea-based Unification Church's International Federation for Victory over Communism, has protested the purchase of land on Tsushima by Koreans, especially a fishing lodge operated by Koreans adjacent to the local Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force base. Eriko Yamatani, a member of the House of Councillors from the Liberal Democratic Party, has called for special legislation to restrict land sales to foreigners on the island and to implement measures to boost the local economy without having to depend heavily on South Korean tourists.  Koreans own about 0.007 percent of the land on Tsushima.
 * 3) On several occasions in 2009, far-right-wing Japanese nationalists (calling themselves Zaitokukai) verbally attacked Korean visitors to Tsushima Island. Upon arrival at the port and on the streets of the island, the Koreans were greeted by the nationalists with chants of "go home" and "kimchis" or "Chosen-jin" ("Chosen" is the Japanese word for Korean peninsula).

Arguably, the the municipal holiday and the opinion poll in paragraph 1 are not notable in themselves -- see WP:Notability. Also, the "incidents" described in paragraphs 2 and 3 are not notable.

Does this kind of information belong in Tsushima Island or in Tsushima Island dispute? --Ansei (talk) 16:59, 3 April 2013 (UTC)
 * Well, notability isn't really the right word (that just refers to whether or not a subject is important enough for a stand-alone article), but I understand your point. I would personally say the first should (and is) covered in the dispute article. The second seems to be a fleeting news story, not worthy of inclusion (WP:UNDUE). The third one seems like it is worth inclusion, because it seems to describe a pattern/long-term problem...but then I actually looked at the source. Nothing in that source is about Tsushima. It actually talks about anti-North Korean sentiment, and the specific events that it gives occurred in Tokyo. Thus, we can't include that info at all w/o a reliable source. Qwyrxian (talk) 22:50, 3 April 2013 (UTC)

Merger proposal
I do not see any benefit in having Tsushima Island and Tsushima, Nagasaki as two separate articles. There is no clear division of material between the two, and quite a lot is duplicated or overlapping. 86.179.115.158 (talk) 21:51, 3 August 2013 (UTC)
 * The merge tag was in place for almost a year with no discussion. I've removed it, as the articles have grown independently of one another, with less overlap as time goes on. PaintedCarpet (talk) 19:52, 16 July 2014 (UTC)

Ordinance
I couldn't find Tsushima anywhere in here. So, please stop the edit warring. Thanks. --Idh0854 (talk) 11:44, 10 February 2015 (UTC)
 * Are you kidding? It says nothing about a naming dispute at all. It just says that Tsushima is called "Daemado" in Korea. Please provide a reliable source that support "there is an actual naming dispute".―― Phoenix7777 (talk) 11:57, 10 February 2015 (UTC)
 * It only says Korea which calls the islands Daemado. So this isn't about a naming dispute. Thanks. --Idh0854 (talk) 10:16, 11 February 2015 (UTC)
 * I thought you admitted that the source does not say about a naming dispute. What do you mean "It only says Korea which calls the islands Daemado. So this isn't about a naming dispute." Does this statement say "the source says there is a naming dispute"? If you cannot explain properly in English, please do not edit English Wikipedia.
 * Also, The source does not support "The Changwon City in South Korea promoting the appellation Daemado." As I said above, from the source, what we can say is that Tsushima is called "Daemado" in South Korea.
 * That said, how about adding an infobox like this instead of the long sentence?

―― Phoenix7777 (talk) 03:17, 15 February 2015 (UTC)

 * What do you mean "If you cannot explain properly in English, please do not edit English Wikipedia"? Maybe you want to use my own words to attack me. I think you (and me) need to try a WP:GOODFAITH about little different opinion.
 * This edit is my alternative. How do you think about this? Thanks. --Idh0854 (talk) 08:24, 15 February 2015 (UTC)

Feedback
This is an assignment for my linguistic class to find an article and give a feedback. I found that this article says people in Changwon city in Korea call this island 'Daemado' but most people in Korea call this island as 'Daemado'. An article referenced in this article seems too old. It is from Junganilbo in 2002, over 10 years. Other than these, most of them looks neutral and reliable. --Irue3 (talk) 00:26, 1 November 2016 (UTC)

Tsushima have belonged to Korea in history.
Tsushima have belonged to Korea in history. 2001:4430:41B7:8C31:2AF3:3A75:5A0:B4C6 (talk) 19:36, 31 January 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tsushima Island


text:
Wikipedia talk:Articles for deletion/Yanzhi

this issue is perfectly normal and does contain truth.


text:
Wikipedia talk:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers/Archive 22

Non-base ten numbers
We currently do not have a guideline on how to write numbers that are not decimal (base 10), but hexadecimal (16), octal (8) or binary (2), to name the most frequent different bases. Do we need one? If so, which style?

I am using 0x 00 for hexdecimal code points in general, but have also seen most of x 00, h 00 or 00 h, $ 00 , # 00 , HEX 00 or hex 00 and 00 16 or 16 00 in Wikipedia. (Luckily not in articles I edited so far.) Subscript indices are certainly the most flexible solution, but also the most cumbersome to write, second is HEX, DEC, OCT, BIN (upper, lower or caps case) and h, d, o, b, which do not pose a problem when copied to plain text.

I usually use uppercase letters A–F (10–15) for the additional hexadecimal digits and would also use these with other bases larger than ten, if I needed to, although duodecimal (base 12) also commonly uses X (10) and # (11). Christoph Päper 8 July 2005 03:27 (UTC)

 * When I expanded the base (mathematics) article a while back, I used the 1238 style because I needed that flexibility, and because it was the only non-computer way I knew. A style for that wouldn't be a bad idea - what do you think it should be?  (Maybe different contexts call for different notations?)  Neonumbers 8 July 2005 10:29 (UTC)

 * prefixing is "C notation". It is fairly widely used in programming languages that are (or were originally) built on C, like Perl, Python, and Java, and is often adopted in more general texts. I've used it myself in prose, but also made sure to add a note explaining the convention. Other times I just put something like "2C (hex)". Subscripts seem to be the preferred format in mathematical formulas, from what I remember reading, and I've seen them in prose, but when they appear in prose or in tables (like character code charts), it's terribly distracting, especially if it is used more than once. Someone recently tried to use a subscripted "HEX" on a bunch of code value ranges in one article I watch, and it looked horrible. Even if the subscripts were made extra small, I don't think they should be recommended in prose, ever. — mjb 8 July 2005 19:14 (UTC)

 * What I had in mind was, in articles about programming etc., use C notation, and in all other articles, use that subscript notation that you (mjb) advise against; but in articles that use lots of only one type of number, just say so at the beginning of the article and let that be the only notice for that article. Same goes for sections and tables.  Neonumbers 9 July 2005 12:17 (UTC)

 * I agree. In articles in which the numbers are binary-related, use the C prefixes (0x, 0b, uhh...  what is the prefix for octal?)  For general descriptions of numbers, in which the base could just as easily be 12 or 37, use subscript notation of some type. - Omegatron 18:55, July 11, 2005 (UTC)

 * For octal it's just "0", which might be confusing. – Smyth\talk 10:58, 12 July 2005 (UTC)

Possible addition to MoS on this topic:
 * ''For numbers not in base ten,
 * ''in computer-related articles, use the C programming language prefixes, that is, 0x for hexadecimal, 0 for octal and 0b for binary
 * ''in all other articles, use subscript notation, for example 1379, 2416, 2X9#12

Please check that the C prefixes I wrote are correct. Any changes? Neonumbers 01:46, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

 * I like it. 0 for octal is pretty confusing/ambiguous, though.  It's only used in a few articles, I'm sure, so maybe a note should be made on each page where it's used? - Omegatron 04:00, July 14, 2005 (UTC)
 * After thinking about it, I'm in favor of prefixed, lowercase ‘b’, ‘o’, ‘d’, ‘h’, where that suffices. They are short, easy to type and their meaning can be guessed easily. Otherwise, which should be rare, use decimal subscripts. Use uppercase letters A–Z for d10–35, if necessary, i.e. A–F in hexadecimal. Christoph Päper 04:26, 17 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Well, whatever's convention... Neonumbers 01:20, 18 July 2005 (UTC)

 * ''For numbers in bases other than base ten,
 * ''in computer-related articles, use the C programming language prefixes, that is, 0x for hexadecimal, 0 for octal and 0b for binary. It may be a good idea to include a note at the top of the page about these prefixes.
 * ''in all other articles, use subscript notation, for example 1379, 2416, 2X9#12, A87D16 (use <sub> and </sub>)
 * ''For bases eleven and higher, use whatever symbols are convention for that base. Where applicable, use uppercase rather than lowercase letters, thus 0x5AB3 not 0x5ab3.
 * I haven't changed the part about computer-related prefixes, could someone in that field please advise of convention.
 * If there are no objections on or before 25 July 2005 UTC, I will add the above text to the Manual of Style. Neonumbers 11:17, 19 July 2005 (UTC)


text:
Brigham's Ice Cream

Brigham's Ice Cream is a brand of ice cream and formerly a restaurant franchise. Brigham's is sold in quart containers throughout New England, and was served at franchised restaurants located in Massachusetts until 2013. It was founded in Newton Highlands, Massachusetts. Since the purchase by HP Hood, its offices are located at Kimball Lane, Lynnfield, Massachusetts. The company maintains a strong regional identity, using regional terms such as "wicked" (extremely) and "frappe" (milkshake with ice cream), and makes reference to events with special significance to New Englanders, such as the Big Dig and the 2004 World Series. At one time, there were 100 Brigham's restaurant locations; the last was in Arlington, Massachusetts, and changed its name in August 2015. The ice cream is currently owned and manufactured by Hood.

History
Brigham's was founded in 1914 by Edward L. Brigham in Newton Highlands, Massachusetts. In 1914, Brigham opened a shop selling ice cream and candy which he made in the back of the store. Originally, ice cream was sold for five cents and sundaes for 20 cents. Brigham's ice cream became so popular that the local police were called upon to control weekend crowds. In 1929, Brigham's merged with Symmes' Durand Company, establishing the basis of today's Brigham's with the opening of three additional stores and an ice cream manufacturing plant. Throughout the 1930s and 1940s business flourished and 20 new stores opened.

In 1961, Brigham's was acquired by Star Market. Forty new stores opened, offering sandwiches and ice cream in a new colonial-style setting. Brigham's was acquired by Jewel Companies in 1964 when Jewel acquired Star. In 1968, Brigham's acquired Buttrick's, a small chain of colonial-style restaurants based in Arlington, Massachusetts. This location became the Brigham's new home office until its sale to HP Hood, at which time this location was closed. At its height, Brigham's had 100 restaurants in the New England area. In 1982, Jewel Companies sold Brigham's to privately held owners. Brigham's started selling quarts of its ice cream at retail in 1983 and is  sold in every major supermarket in New England.

Brigham's bought Élan Frozen Yogurt in 1993, to expand and improve the menu towards the ever-growing frozen-dessert industry. The purchase enabled Brigham's to enter the New York region as well as additional demographic markets. In 2003, Brigham's launched its first novelty, the Brigham's Ice Cream Bar.

On June 27, 2008, in a secured creditor transaction led by the company's senior debt holder, Cambridge Savings Bank, Brigham's was split into two companies and sold to HP Hood LLC and Luke Cooper of Deal Metrics, LLC. Hood acquired the Brigham's brand name and all products, proprietary, flavors and recipes. In a separate deal, Brigham's agreed to sell its 28 retail outlets and restaurants to Baltimore-based Deal Metrics LLC, through its holding company, New England Food Service, LLC. The manufacturing of Brigham's Ice Cream for sale in supermarkets was sold to Hood. At that time there were about 21 locations.

Brigham's restaurants did not survive the merger and in 2009, the company filed for bankruptcy and eventually closed all company-owned restaurants. Franchised locations continued to operate until 2013, when the four remaining franchise locations (Arlington Heights, Hingham, North Andover, and Quincy) were forced to drop the brand from their store names. The Arlington Heights location became Diggums in August 2015 (closed in December 2016), the Hingham location became Patti's Place (since closed), Quincy became The Ice Cream Parlour, and the North Andover location is now called Fari's Diner.

Hood, identified as BIC Acquisitions, LLC, continues to market Brigham's ice cream in stores and owns the trademarks and official website.

title: Brigham's Ice Cream


text:
User:Masran Silvaris

Masran Silvaris is a native and resident of north-east Scotland. He is a fluent speaker of English, with a good understanding of Scots (although writing in that language is difficult).

Articles I have a noted interest in

 * Hameward, a geography-based game created to improve geographical knowledge and confound non-players.
 * St Margaret's Hope, a village in Orkney. I need to upload a picture of the 'horse' costumes, so that people can understand what they are precisely.

Articles I have created

 * The first two Neon Genesis Evangelion original soundtracks
 * Neon Genesis Evangelion
 * Neon Genesis Evangelion II
 * Aberdeen University Students' Association

Articles I watch

 * Portlethen

title: User:Masran Silvaris


text:
Lopen

Lopen is a village and civil parish in the South Somerset district of Somerset, England, situated 8 mi west of Yeovil. The village has a population of 260 people.

History
The name of the village means Lufa's pen or fold.

A Roman mosaic, probably from a Roman villa, was found in the village in 2001. The Lopen Roman Mosaic was discovered by George Caton who was operating a mechanical digger and noticed small cubes of coloured stone, which turned out to be part of the floor of an eight-roomed Roman Villa and is the largest Roman Mosaic so far discovered in Britain. Photogrammetry by English Heritage was followed by excavation  led by the Somerset County Council archaeologist exposed and documented the mosaic in three weeks. It was then covered with sand and soil to preserve it. The work was recognised with the award of the Tarmac Finders Award (for non professionals) at the British Archaeological Awards in 2002. The stones used for the mosaic are Blue Lias from the surrounding hills. The fragments which were discovered in the surrounding soil were used to create a new mosaic, featuring a cantharus, using methods which would have been available in Roman times. It is now displayed in All Saints Church.

Lopen is listed in the Domesday Book, with three manors, one of which was held by the Knights Templar. These were bought by the Poulett's of Hinton St George in 1560s. The parish of Lopen was part of the South Petherton Hundred.

In the 18th century the parish was noted for flax growing and for the production of linen sailcloth and twine. These industries continuing until the end of World War II. A mill had first been recorded in the parish around 1285. The mill was a water/grist mill until the mid 18th, then becoming jointly used as a grain mill and for linen production.

Governance
The parish council has responsibility for local issues, including setting an annual precept (local rate) to cover the council's operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny. The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the local police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security, and traffic. The parish council's role also includes initiating projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities, as well as consulting with the district council on the maintenance, repair, and improvement of highways, drainage, footpaths, public transport, and street cleaning. Conservation matters (including trees and listed buildings) and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council.

The village falls within the Non-metropolitan district of South Somerset, which was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, having previously been part of Chard Rural District. The district council is responsible for local planning and building control, local roads, council housing, environmental health, markets and fairs, refuse collection and recycling, cemeteries and crematoria, leisure services, parks, and tourism.

Somerset County Council is responsible for running the largest and most expensive local services such as education, social services, libraries, main roads, public transport, policing and fire services, trading standards, waste disposal and strategic planning.

Lopen is part of the Yeovil county constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. However, in the Boundary Commission proposal of 2011 it would become part of a new constituency provisionally called Glastonbury and Wincanton. It elects one Member of Parliament (MP) by the first past the post system of election.

Geography
The parish of Lopen is bounded to the north by the A303 Trunk Road and to the south by Lopen Brook with the road from South Petherton to Merriott, Crewkerne and the south coast running through the middle. Between Lopenhead and Lopen the road crosses the ancient Roman Fosse Way, which at this point is just a minor country lane.

The main retail outlets in the parish are the pub and an organic food shop at Lopen Head, but although they are in the parish they are not really in the village itself which is located half a mile to the south. The road from Lopenhead to Lopen descends steeply through a deep and twisty cutting with no pedestrian pavement. However these outlets can be safely reached on foot by way of a footpath from the church.

Religious sites
The Anglican parish Church of All Saints has 12th- or 13th-century origins, but was largely rebuilt in the 14th and 15th centuries with the north transept being added in 1833. As Lopen chapel it was granted to Bruton Priory in 1209 becoming dependent on South Petherton church, later passing to Bristol Cathedral and obtaining burial rights in 1574.

Culture
Punkie Night is celebrated in the village of Hinton St George each October.

title: Lopen


text:
List of rowing venues

This list of rowing venues contains the rowing sites, that allow for international rowing regattas (2,000 m), as described by FISA. Most of these sites have hosted an Olympic or world championship regatta.

Olympic venues

 * 🇬🇷 (1896) Athens, Greece - Port of Piraeus, Piraeus (bad weather cancelled racing)
 * 🇫🇷 (1900) Paris, France - River Seine (4 lanes)
 * 🇺🇸 (1904) St. Louis, Missouri, United States - Creve Coeur Lake (overgrown – short)
 * 🇬🇧 (1908) London, England, United Kingdom - Henley-on-Thames (2 lanes)
 * 🇸🇪 (1912) Stockholm, Sweden - Djurgårdsbrunnsviken
 * 🇧🇪 (1920) Brussels, Antwerp - Belgium Brussels-Antwerp Canal (2 lanes)
 * 🇫🇷 (1924) Paris, France - River Seine (4 lanes)
 * 🇳🇱 (1928) Amsterdam, Netherlands - Sloten Canal, Sloten (2 lanes)
 * 🇺🇸 (1932) Los Angeles, California, United States - Long Beach Marine Stadium, Long Beach, California
 * 🇩🇪 (1936) Berlin, Germany - Langer See, Grünau (6 lane FISA)
 * 🇬🇧 (1948) London, England, United Kingdom - Henley-on-Thames (3 lanes)
 * 🇫🇮 (1952) Helsinki, Finland - Seurasaarenselkä Bay, Meilahti
 * 🇦🇺 (1956) Melbourne, Australia - Lake Wendouree, Ballarat (dry – drought)
 * 🇮🇹 (1960) Rome, Italy - Lake Albano (origin of the Albano buoy system)
 * 🇯🇵 (1964) Tokyo, Japan - Toda Rowing Course, Toda, Saitama (6 lane FISA)
 * 🇲🇽 (1968) Mexico City, Mexico - Lake Xochimilco (6 lane FISA)
 * (1972) Munich, West Germany - Regattastrecke Oberschleißheim (6 lane FISA)
 * 🇨🇦 (1976) Montreal, Quebec, Canada - Montreal Rowing Basin  (6 lane FISA)
 * (1980) Moscow, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union - Krylatskoye Rowing Canal, Krylatskoye (8 lane FISA)
 * 🇺🇸 (1984) Los Angeles, California, United States - Lake Casitas
 * 🇰🇷 (1988) Seoul, South Korea - Misari Regatta (8 lane FISA)
 * 🇪🇸 (1992) Barcelona, Spain - L'estany de Banyoles, Banyoles,  (8 lane FISA)
 * 🇺🇸 (1996) Atlanta, Georgia, United States - Lake Lanier, Gainesville, Georgia
 * 🇦🇺 (2000) Sydney, Australia - Sydney International Regatta Centre (8 lane FISA)
 * 🇬🇷 (2004) Athens Greece - Schinias Olympic Rowing and Canoeing Centre, Marathon (8 lane FISA)
 * 🇨🇳 (2008) Beijing, China - Shunyi Olympic Rowing-Canoeing Park, Shunyi District (8 lane FISA)
 * 🇬🇧 (2012) London, England, United Kingdom - Dorney Lake, Eton (8 lane FISA)
 * 🇧🇷 (2016) Rio de Janeiro, Brazil - Lagoa Rodrigo de Freitas, Lagoa
 * 🇯🇵 (2020) Tokyo, Japan - Sea Forest Waterway, Tokyo Bay
 * 🇫🇷 (2024) Paris, France - Vaires-Sur-Marne Nautical Stadium, Vaires-sur-Marne
 * 🇺🇸 (2028) Los Angeles, California, United States - Lake Perris, Perris
 * 🇦🇺 (2032) Brisbane, Australia - TBD

European venues

 * 🇷🇸 Ada Ciganlija Belgrade, Serbia
 * 🇩🇪 Allermöhe, Hamburg, Germany
 * 🇩🇰 Bagsvaerd Copenhagen, Denmark
 * 🇩🇪 Baldeneysee, Essen, Germany
 * 🇩🇪 Beetzsee, Brandenburg, Germany
 * 🇳🇱 Bosbaan, Amsterdam, Netherlands
 * 🇧🇾 Brest, Belarus
 * 🇫🇷 Lac du Causse, Brive-la-Gaillarde France
 * 🇪🇸 Canal Olímpic de Catalunya, Castelldefels, Catalonia, Spain
 * 🇮🇹 Centro Sportivo Remiero della Marina Militare, Sabaudia, Italy
 * 🇩🇪 Elfrather See, Krefeld, Germany
 * 🇩🇪 Fühlingen, Cologne, Germany
 * 🇫🇷 Gravelines, France
 * 🇧🇪 Hazewinkel (Bloso Sports Center), Belgium
 * 🇬🇧 Holme Pierrepont National Watersports Centre, Nottingham, England
 * 🇮🇹 Idroscalo, Milan, Italy
 * 🇬🇷 Ioannina, Greece
 * 🇫🇮 Kaukajärvi, Tampere, Finland
 * 🇦🇹 Klagenfurt, Austria
 * 🇵🇱 Kruszwica, Poland
 * 🇫🇷 Lac d'Aiguebelette, Aiguebelette, France
 * 🇸🇮 Lake Bled, Bled, Slovenia
 * 🇭🇷 Lake Jarun, Zagreb, Croatia
 * 🇪🇸 La Cartuja, Guadalquivir, Seville, Spain
 * 🇵🇱 Lake Malta, Poznań, Poland
 * 🇬🇧 London Regatta Centre, London, England
 * 🇧🇾 Minsk, Belarus
 * 🇵🇹 Montemor-o-Velho, Portugal
 * 🇦🇹 Ottensheim, Austria
 * 🇮🇹 Piediluco, Italy
 * 🇧🇬 Plovdiv, Bulgaria
 * 🇨🇿 Račice, Roudnice, Czech Republic
 * 🇬🇧 Redgrave Pinsent Rowing Lake, Caversham, England
 * 🇨🇭 Rotsee, Lucerne, Switzerland
 * 🇬🇧 Strathclyde Country Park, Motherwell, Scotland
 * 🇭🇺 Szegedi Olimpiai Központ, Szeged, Hungary
 * 🇱🇹 Trakai, Lithuania
 * 🇫🇷 Vaires-sur-Marne, France
 * 🇮🇹 Varese, Italy
 * 🇦🇹 Vienna, Austria
 * 🇩🇪 Wedau, Duisburg, Germany
 * 🇳🇱 Willem-Alexander Baan, Rotterdam, Netherlands

North American venues

 * 🇺🇸 Nathan Benderson Park, Sarasota, United States (Class C, Wind, Heat)
 * 🇺🇸 Eagle Creek Park, Indianapolis, United States
 * 🇺🇸 Oklahoma River, Oklahoma City, United States (Class C, Wind, Heat)
 * 🇺🇸 Mercer Lake, West Windsor, New Jersey United States
 * 🇨🇦 Royal Canadian Henley Rowing Course, St. Catharines, Canada (8 lane FISA Class A)

Asian venues

 * 🇮🇩 Jakabaring Lake, Palembang, Indonesia
 * 🇮🇩 Manggar Reservoir, Balikpapan, Indonesia
 * 🇯🇵 Nagaragawa International Regatta Course, Gifu Prefecture, Japan
 * 🇺🇿 Samarkand Rowing Canal, Samarkand, Uzbekistan
 * 🇭🇰 Sha Tin Rowing Centre, Sha Tin, Hong Kong
 * 🇨🇳 Shanghai Water Sports Centre, Dianshan Lake, Shanghai, China
 * 🇮🇩 Situ Cipule, Karawang Regency, Indonesia
 * 🇮🇱 Yarkon River, Tel Aviv, Israel
 * 🇮🇩 Youtefa Bay, Jayapura, Indonesia

Oceania venues

 * 🇦🇺 Champion Lakes, Perth Western Australia, Australia
 * 🇦🇺 Lake Barrington Tasmania, Australia
 * 🇳🇿 Lake Karapiro, Hamilton, New Zealand

South American venues

 * 🇦🇷 Laguna de los Padres, Mar del Plata, Argentina
 * 🇧🇷 Lago Paranoá, Brasília, Brazil
 * 🇨🇱 Laguna Grande, San Pedro de la Paz, Chile

title: List of rowing venues


text:
Maurice K. Goddard State Park

Maurice K. Goddard State Park is a 2856 acre Pennsylvania state park in Deer Creek, Mill Creek, New Vernon and Sandy Lake Townships, Mercer County, Pennsylvania in the United States. It features wildlife, waterways and public recreational facilities. Lake Wilhelm shares its shorelines with Maurice K. Goddard State Park and State Game Land No. 270. The dam, constructed in 1971, creates a 1860 acre lake providing a resource for people and wildlife. Many species of fish and amphibians make Lake Wilhelm their home. A variety of outdoor activities are available in and around the park vicinity. Special events and programs are held throughout the summer months. Maurice K. Goddard State Park is just off exit 130 of Interstate 79 on Pennsylvania Route 358.

The park is 1 of 5 Pennsylvania State Parks that are in the path of totality for the 2024 solar eclipse, with 59 seconds of totality.

History
Sandy Creek, the stream that was dammed to create Lake Wilhelm, was noted in reports made by George Washington during his 1753 trip to Fort LeBoeuf during the French and Indian War. Sandy Creek had a recurring history of flooding. This led to a study by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The study began in 1939. Plans were delayed by the start of World War II but the citizens of Mercer County could see the benefit of building a flood control dam on Sandy Creek. The state, county, township and municipal authorities of the surrounding area worked together to push forward the idea of building the dam and recreational facilities in Mercer County. The land was acquired in the late 1960s. Construction on the dam began soon after and was completed in 1971. Maurice K. Goddard State Park was opened to the public in 1972.

Maurice K. Goddard State park is named for Maurice K. Goddard. Goddard was a graduate of the University of Maine and the University of California at Berkeley. After reaching the rank of Lieutenant Colonel during World War II, Goddard came to Pennsylvania, where he took a job at Mont Alto Forestry School and later at Penn State Main Campus before he was appointed Secretary of the Pennsylvania Bureau of Forests and Waters, a forerunner of the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Upon taking his position with the state, Goddard set about completing his goal of having a state park within 25 mi of every resident of Pennsylvania. When Goddard retired in 1979, after 24 years working for the state parks, he had helped to add 45 state parks and over 130000 acre of state park land to the Pennsylvania State Park system.

Bird watching
The variety of habitats at Maurice K. Goddard State Park attracts a variety of birds. Bald eagles and osprey can be seen flying over Lake Wilhelm as they scan the waters for fish. The old fields and forests are home to woodcocks, nighthawks, snipes, and a variety of warblers. Migrating waterfowl like the loon, common teal, goldeneye, merganser, and bufflehead stop by Lake Wilhelm in the spring and fall. Woodpeckers including the pileated woodpecker live in the woods of the park. Bluebirds and purple martins make their homes in the old fields and meadows of Maurice K. Goddard State Park.

Lake Wilhelm
Lake Wilhelm is a warm water fishery, it lies partly within Maurice K. Goddard State Park and partly within the adjoining game lands. The common game fish found in the lake are largemouth and smallmouth bass, perch, crappie, bluegill, catfish, walleye, northern pike and muskellunge. All fishermen are expected to follow the rules and regulations of the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission. Five natural gas wells have been drilled around Lake Wilhelm as of May 2009, with up to 15 more to follow. The state does not own the mineral rights under much of the park, but did work with the driller to minimize the impact of the wells on recreational uses of the park.

The portions of Lake Wilhelm that are within Maurice K. Goddard State Park are open to watercraft up to 20 hp. There is a 241 space marina and a 48 space dry land mooring area that is open from May 1 to October 31. The marina has an ample parking lot for cars and trucks with trailers. There are four boat launches, a marina building and a fueling station. Rowboats, peddle boats, canoes and kayaks are available to rent. Only non-powered boats are permitted in the portions of the lake that are within the state game land boundaries. All vessels must have a current registration from any state or a launch permit from the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission.

Hunting
There are over 1155 acre that open to hunting at Maurice K. Goddard State Park. Hunters are expected to follow the rules and regulations of the Pennsylvania Game Commission. The common game species are waterfowl and white-tailed deer. The hunting of groundhogs is prohibited. Hunters may gain access to the nearby state game lands by entering through the park.

Winter activities
Maurice K. Goddard State Park is open during the winter months for ice fishing, ice boating, ice skating, sledding and tobogganing, cross-country skiing and snowmobiling.

Friends Of Goddard
The Friends of Goddard State Park (FRoG) partner with the park to help conserve the natural environment of the areas within and around Goddard State Park by educating and introducing people to the world of nature and the facilities available to them. The Friends group also organizes two big events for the park: the Pioneer Frolic and Music at the Marina. The Pioneer Frolic takes place the last weekend in June and includes reenactors, food vendors, live music, and other entertainment. Music at the Marina showcases local bands and independent musicians with the addition of food vendors, a car cruise, and fireworks. Both events feature a donation-based book sale and have free admission.

Friends of Goddard State Park also known as "FroG" is a sub-chapter of the Pennsylvania Parks and Forest Foundation and a non-profit 501(3)c organization.

Nearby state parks
The following state parks are within 30 mi of Maurice K. Goddard State Park:
 * Jennings Environmental Education Center (Butler County)
 * Oil Creek State Park (Venango County)
 * Pymatuning State Park (Pennsylvania) (Crawford County)
 * Pymatuning State Park (Ohio) (Ashtabula County)

title: Maurice K. Goddard State Park


text:
Lovington, Somerset

Lovington is a village and civil parish in Somerset, England, situated 3 mi south west of Castle Cary, between the River Brue and River Cary, in the South Somerset district. The parish, which includes the hamlet of Wheathill, has a population of 141.

History
The name of the village comes from Old English meaning Lufa's settlement.

There was a mill on the River Brue in the village at the time of the Domesday Book, when it was held by Serlo de Burci, however it is not certain whether this is the same site as the current Lovington Mill which was built around 1800.

The parish of Lovington was part of the hundred of Catsash, while Wheathill was part of the Whitley Hundred.

The village school was built in the early 19th century, and was helped later in the century, with donations and equipment, by the local priest and hymn writer Godfrey Thring.

Governance
The parish council has responsibility for local issues, including setting an annual precept (local rate) to cover the council's operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny. The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the local police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security, and traffic. The parish council's role also includes initiating projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities, as well as consulting with the district council on the maintenance, repair, and improvement of highways, drainage, footpaths, public transport, and street cleaning. Conservation matters (including trees and listed buildings) and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council.

The village falls within the Non-metropolitan district of South Somerset, which was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, having previously been part of Wincanton Rural District. The district council is responsible for local planning and building control, local roads, council housing, environmental health, markets and fairs, refuse collection and recycling, cemeteries and crematoria, leisure services, parks, and tourism.

Somerset County Council is responsible for running the largest and most expensive local services such as education, social services, libraries, main roads, public transport, policing and fire services, trading standards, waste disposal and strategic planning.

It is also part of the Somerton and Frome county constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It elects one Member of Parliament (MP) by the first past the post system of election.

Religious sites
The Anglican parish Church of St Thomas of Canterbury has 13th-century origins and was restored and enlarged in 1861. It has been designated as a Grade II* listed building. The Church of St John Baptist was converted into a private house in the 1970s.

In the 1780s Thomas Charles held the curacy of Lovington along with several other local parishes.

title: Lovington, Somerset


text:
Running the gauntlet

To run the gauntlet means to take part in a form of corporal punishment in which the party judged guilty is forced to run between two rows of soldiers, who strike out and attack them with sticks or other weapons.

Metaphorically, this expression is also used to convey a public trial that one must overcome

Etymology and spelling
The word gauntlet originates from Swedish gatlopp, from gata 'lane' and lopp 'course, running'. It was borrowed into English in the 17th century, probably from English and Swedish soldiers fighting in the Protestant armies during the Thirty Years' War. The punishment itself was rarely used in the Swedish Army during the reign of the monarch Gustav III in the 1770s and was abolished in the Swedish Army in 1851.

The word in English was originally spelled gantelope or gantlope, but soon its pronunciation was influenced by the unrelated word gauntlet, meaning an armored glove, derived from the gantelet. The spelling changed with the pronunciation. Both senses of gauntlet had the variant spelling gantlet. For the punishment, the spelling gantlet is preferred in American English usage guides by Bryan Garner and Robert Hartwell Fiske and is listed as a variant spelling of gauntlet by American dictionaries. British dictionaries label gantlet as American.

Usage and severity

A naval version of the gauntlet was historically used in the Royal Navy as a punishment for minor offences such as leaving the crew berths in an unsanitary state, or failing to return on time from leave. The condemned was ordered to make a prescribed number of circuits around the ship's deck, while his shipmates struck him with improvised versions of the cat o' nine tails. Runs of the gauntlet could also be preceded by a dozen lashes from the boatswain's cat o' nine tails, so that any subsequent blows from the crew would aggravate the lacerations on his back. The effectiveness of the punishment would somewhat depend on the popularity of the sailor being punished, and the seriousness of the offence. In 1760, Francis Lanyon, a seaman aboard the guardship HMS Royal George (1756), was sentenced to three runs of the gauntlet, for failing to return from leave. The crew clearly disagreed with the punishment, as the ship's lieutenant later recorded that Lanyon received no substantive injury from the process. The naval punishment of running the gauntlet was abolished by Admiralty Order in 1806.

In the early records of the Dutch colonial settlement of New Amsterdam appears a detailed description of running the "Gantlope/Gantloppe" as a punishment for the "Court Martial of Melchior Claes" (a soldier). It states "... The Court Marshall doe adjudge that hee shall run the Gantlope once the length of the fort, where according to the Custome of that punishment the souldyers shall have switches delivered to them with which they shall strike him as he passes through them stript to the wast, and at the fort gate the Marshall is to receive him and there to kick him out of the Garrison as a cashiered person where hee is no more to returne ..."

Native American usage
Several Native American tribes of the Eastern Woodlands cultural area forced prisoners to run the gauntlet (see Captives in American Indian Wars). The Jesuit Isaac Jogues was subject to this treatment while a prisoner of the Iroquois in 1641. He described the ordeal in a letter that appears in the book The Jesuit Martyrs of North America: "Before arriving (at the Iroquois Village) we met the young men of the country, in a line armed with sticks...", and he and his fellow Frenchmen were made to walk slowly past them "for the sake of giving time to anyone who struck us."

In 1755, Charles Stuart was taken prisoner by Lenape warriors during the Great Cove massacre, and upon arriving at the village of Kittanning, was forced to run the gauntlet. He provides a description of the practice:

Many years before he became a hero of the American Revolution at the Battle of Bennington, John Stark was captured by natives and forced to run a gauntlet. Knowing what was about to happen Stark stunned them by grabbing the weapon away from the first person about to strike him and proceeded to attack the warrior with it. The warriors and the chief were so surprised by this that they stopped the gauntlet and adopted him into their tribe. He was later ransomed along with Amos Eastman for $163 and returned home.

Fitness trail in communist Poland
During the days of the Polish People’s Republic, the communist authorities forced political dissidents, criminals, protestors, and prisoners through a gauntlet-like process, which they called the ścieżka zdrowia (literally 'health path', but idiomatically used to mean early fitness trails).

In KOR, A History of the Worker's Defense Committee in Poland, 1976–1981, Jan Józef Lipski documents the experience of one such criminal during the June 1976 protests:

"On the first day I walked the "path of health" on the way from a truck to the police van, about 50 metres. They ordered me to walk slowly so that each one could hit me. They beat me with fists, clubs, boots. At the very end, I fell down. I couldn't get up again under the hail of clubs... A "path of health" from the van to the second floor... When they took us to get haircuts – another "path of health" some 40 metres long, from the door of the room all the way to the car... Yet another 10 metres in the corridor leading to the table... Then, a "path of health" (10 metres) to cell number nine... to the court in a prison truck; of course another "path of health"... then again a "path" from prison to prison. I survived another "path of health" in the morning when they took me to Kielce."

Military custom
Similar practices are used in other initiations and rites of passage, as on pollywogs (those passing the equator for the first time includes a paddling version)

In one Tailhook Association convention for Navy and Marine Corps pilots, female participants were allegedly forced to run the gauntlet in a hotel hallway as male participants fondled them.

Sports
In certain team sports, such as lacrosse and ice hockey, the gauntlet is a common name for a type of drill whereby players are blocked or checked by the entire team in sequence.

In Brazilian jiu-jitsu, when a student is promoted to their next coloured belt, they are sometimes required to run between two rows of their fellow students, who strike them with their own belts.

title: Running the gauntlet


text:
Maperton

Maperton is a village and civil parish in Somerset, England, situated 3 mi south west of Wincanton in the South Somerset district. The village has a population of 140. However, this small number includes Elliscombe House care home which alone has an average of 40 residents.

History
The name of the village means maple settlement and is pronounced Mayperton. This pronunciation is particularly used by newer residents but many older residents use the alternative pronunciation "map-er-ton". In the Domesday Book of 1086 the manor is recorded as held by Turstin FitzRolf. The manor was held by Francis Hastings of North Cadbury around 1600.

The parish was part of the hundred of Catsash.

Earthworks show the site of a village, with a village pond, and ridge and furrow agriculture from the Middle Ages south of Wyke Champflower.

Maperton House was built in the 19th century, but incorporates some 18th-century fragments from a previous manor house which stood on the same site. (Not to be confused with Mapperton House, seat of the Earls of Sandwich, near Beaminster in Dorset.)

Governance
Maperton is grouped with Holton and North Cheriton as the North Vale Group Parish. The parish council has responsibility for local issues, including setting an annual precept (local rate) to cover the council's operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny. The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the local police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security, and traffic. The parish council's role also includes initiating projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities, as well as consulting with the district council on the maintenance, repair, and improvement of highways, drainage, footpaths, public transport, and street cleaning. Conservation matters (including trees and listed buildings) and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council.

The village falls within the Blackmore Vale ward Non-metropolitan district of South Somerset, which was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, having previously been part of Wincanton Rural District. The district council is responsible for local planning and building control, local roads, council housing, environmental health, markets and fairs, refuse collection and recycling, cemeteries and crematoria, leisure services, parks, and tourism.

Somerset County Council is responsible for running the largest and most expensive local services such as education, social services, libraries, main roads, public transport, policing and fire services, trading standards, waste disposal and strategic planning.

It is also part of the Somerton and Frome county constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It elects one Member of Parliament (MP) by the first past the post system of election.

Religious sites
The Anglican parish Church of St Peter and St Paul has a tower dating from the late 15th century, with the remainder of the church being rebuilt in 1869 by Henry Hall. It has been designated as a Grade II listed building. It was a favourite venue for clandestine weddings in the early 18th century.

Due to deterioration of the red clay tile roof, the church has been placed on the Heritage at Risk Register.

title: Maperton